Theoretical Positions1

Theoretical Positions of:

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and William James

Melinda Johnson, Monique Penn, Shawna Wolford, Rosemarie Johnson

PSY/310

October 31, 2011

Ann Becher-Ingwalson

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Theoretical Positions

The brilliant and diverse minds of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and William

James have influenced centuries of psychological studies with their contrasting theoretical

positions and discoveries. These early founders and influential thinkers joined together at

different times and worked together to formulate concepts of understanding but later separated

intensely over conceptual disputes. Despite the separation they all were significant contributors

to the modern science of psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)

Sigmund Freud was born on May 6th, 1856 in what is known today as Czech Republic.

When he was four he moved to Vienna and would remain there until 1938. He then moved to

London, England where he died in September 1939. Freud studied Greek, Latin, history,

mathematics and the natural sciences in college prep school from 1886-1873. In 1873 Freud

enrolled in medical school and it would take him seven years to complete his degree. Freud was

24 when he received his degree and would become a pivotal force in the development of

psychology and psychoanalysis. (Freud, 1911&1959)

The men that were Freud’s counterparts and fellow theorists are, Carl Jung, William

James, and Alfred Adler. Although there theories started out under the tutelage of Freud they

would later develop their own theories. Sigmund Freud viewed the entire human psyche from a

sexual perspective. He theorized that the human mind had three basic components and these

individual parts often conflicted, shaping personality and if not treated, caused neurosis. He also

believed there were two basic conflicting drives in a person, the life drive and the death drive.

(Freud, 1911 & 1959)

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Freud's often-controversial psychoanalysis was an attempt to explain the human

personality, and he theorized that the human psyche was a composite of the id, ego, and

superego and the conflict between these components shaped personality (Goodwin, 2008).

Jung theorized that individuation was a necessary process for an individual to become

whole by the integration of the conscious with the unconscious. Credit is given to Jung for his

fundamental role in shaping the early years of psychoanalysis, as he was intimately associated

with Freud (Goodwin, 2008).

William James recognized that mental processes and personality traits are subject to the

evolutionary process as are our physical bodies and this evolutionary process must be considered

in the study of the human psyche. James thought consciousness existed as a function not as a

separate and distinct entity, and it was self-contained, continually changing, and constantly

flowing or moving as in a stream of consciousness. (Nielson & Day, 1999)

Carl Jung (1875 – 1961)

Carl Jung was born in Kesswil, Switzerland, the son of a minister. According to

Jung, he portrayed himself as a solitude and introverted individual that enjoyed alone time with

his thoughts. When Jung was twelve he had an accident at school and he lost consciousness, after

this his parents believed the incident brought upon his epilepsy. Jung’s interest in academics

grew stronger because his father believed he was not capable of supporting himself because of

his epilepsy and this lack of motivation from his father led to the zealous role Jung played in

psychology. (Bowdon, 2007)

Jung became a professor in psychiatry at the University of Zurich, in 1905 and

established a thriving private practice thereafter. In 1906, Jung sent a copy of his writing

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‘Studies in Word Association’ to Sigmund Freud. The beginning of a friendship was formed

between the two and they shared a lot of time together. Jung’s view of the unconscious mind was

based off Freud’s view but Jung developed his own ideas that diverged from the views of Freud.

Jung separated from psychodynamic supposition and focused more on his Analytical psychology

theory. According to Jung, the human psyche subsists of three components: the ego (the

conscious mind), the personal unconscious and collective unconscious (Bowdon, 2007).

Jung considers the collective unconsciousness are ideas individuals believe are strange at

first but soon possess the same ideas and use as familiar concepts. The collective unconscious

was expressed through “archetypes,” mind images that influence individual beliefs and response.

Jung named seven archetypes and complexes: the anima, the mother, the shadow, the child, the

wise men, the spirits of folk tales, and the con artist in myths. (Bowdon, 2007)

However perspectives of other theorist focus on different approaches of human

psychological functioning. Sigmund Freud believed in the psychodynamic approach to

psychology. Psychodynamic emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Freud believes three elements occupy the human mind: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud’s

theoretical perspectives focus on dream interpretation, sex, childhood experiences, and

aggression. He believes the four subjects were the underlying factors in mental processes.

(Bowdon, 2007)

William James (1842- 1910) is known for his theory of “pragmatism.” According to

pragmatism, the truth of an idea can never be proven. James believes individuals focus on the

usefulness of an idea. James focuses on the entirety of an experience not portions or part of the

experience. James- Lange theory of emotion suggests certain events triggers a physiological

reaction. According to this theory, emotions are caused by personal interpretations of

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physiological responses. Both James and Carl Lange proposed the theory of emotion. (Bowdon,

2007)

Alfred Adler (1870- 1937) is known for Individual psychology and the concept of the

inferiority concept. Adler believes individuals have a sense of inferiority. Adler suggests

inferiority is a struggle from childhood and many citizens try to achieve inferiority by asserting

his or her superiority over others. The term ‘striving for superiority’ is suggested as the drive

behind human behavior, thoughts, and emotions. (Bowdon, 2007)

Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937)

Alfred Adler was the founder and driving force behind the birth of individual

psychology. Adler looked at human development as a whole and how individual lives interact

and relate in relation to society and the family unit. An Austrian physician and psychologist,

Alfred Adler was born in the suburbs of Vienna. At the age of five he developed pneumonia and

almost died and this incident influenced his decision to become a doctor. (Adler, 2008)

Adler’s concept of human connectedness was his definition of mental health. This

connectedness included a desire to further oneself as well as contribute to the betterment of

society. This optimistic view of human nature and awareness contributed to Adler’s popularity

and his acceptance was enhanced by the sensible perception of his “inferiority complex”

concept. (Adler, 2008)

Adler’s view had a foundation in Freud’s analytic views. They studied together for many

years in Vienna. Adler did not agree with Freud’s view that sex dominated the instinct and was

the root of neurosis. Adler challenged the concept of the libido being driven by the ego and

ended his work relationship with Freud and developed his own school of thought “individual

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psychology”. It was during this time Adler wrote “The Neurotic Constitution” (1912) and

founded the Society of Individual Psychology. (Adler, 2008)

Adler’s theory suggests that every person has a sense of inferiority and from childhood

work toward overcoming this inferiority by asserting superiority over others. Adler referred to

this as “striving for superiority” and believed that this drive is the motivating force behind

human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Adler’s theories have played an essential role in a

number of areas, including therapy and child development. Today, his ideas and concepts are

often referred to as Adlerian Psychology. (Goodwin, 2008)

William James (1842 – 1910)

William James was known for being the America’s first psychologist. His book “The

Principles of Psychology” was the beginning of the scientific processes used in psychology in

America. James’ ideas were formed from the thought that studying mental processes in life

began with introspection James believed that the nature and causes of human psychological

functioning were based on pragmatism where the issue or problem was more important than the

theories behind them. James’s theory on emotion is known as James-Lange theory of emotion

because much of what he theorized came from Dutch physiologist Carl Lange. His theory was

based on the idea that bodily changes follow the perception of something happening and that

these bodily changes are the actual emotion (Goodwin, 2008).

After James completed his book “The Principles of Psychology”, he began to take an

interest in philosophy and this interest was a part of what he focused on in his last years, he also

began to look into spiritualism. The belief that consciousness survived death and that an

individual could then contact someone from the dead with mediums was something that James

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felt him as well as other psychologists could benefit from. This fascination with spiritualism

was something that most of his colleagues did not agree with but William James still believed in

its validity as a tool to understand the unconscious mind. (Goodwin. 2008)

Conclusion

The late 19th and 20th centuries brought about many new theoretical contributions to

psychology. The major contributors like Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and William

James have shaped modern psychology as we know it. The philosophical, as well as

psychological ideas of these men have impacted how the science of behavior is studied today.

Although some of their views may be particularly different, without each of their individual and

diverse views concerning psychology, much of what is understood in modern psychology today

would be lost because the science of psychology has roots in the theoretical positions of these

four men and remain the forefront of psychology.

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References

Adler, A. (2008). Britannica Biographies. Retrieved October 20, 2011, from MasterFILE

Premier Database

Adler, A., & Fleisher, L. (1988) The child’s inner life and a sense of community. Individual

Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research and Practice Vol. 44(4)

Bowden, T. B. (2007) 50 Psychology Classics (6th ed.) Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey

Publishing

Freud, S. (1959) Psychoanalytical notes upon an auto- biographical account. In E. Jones (Ed.),

Sigmund Freud: Collected papers Vol. 3). New York: Basic Books. (Original work

published 1911)

Goodwin, C. J. (2008) A History of Modern Psychology (3rd ed.) Hoboken, N J: Wiley

Nielsen, M. & Day, R. H. (1999) William James and the evolution of consciousness. Journal of

Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 19(1), 90-113. doi 10.1037/h0091189