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The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary Studies

The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary Studies offers a lucidintroduction and overview of one of the most important strands in recentliterary theory and cultural studies. The volume aims to introduce readers tokey concepts, methods, theories, thematic concerns, and contemporary debatesin the field. Drawing on a wide range of disciplines, contributors explain theimpact of history, sociology, and philosophy on the study of postcolonial lit-eratures and cultures. Topics examined include everything from anticolonialnationalism and decolonization to globalization, migration flows, and the“brain drain” which constitute the past and present of “the postcolonialcondition.” The volume also pays attention to the sociological and ideolog-ical conditions surrounding the emergence of postcolonial literary studies asan academic field in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Companion turnsan authoritative, engaged, and discriminating lens on postcolonial literarystudies.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-53418-5 - The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary StudiesEdited by Neil LazarusFrontmatterMore information

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THE CAMBRIDGE

COMPANION TO

POSTCOLONIALLITERARY STUDIES

EDITED BY

NEIL LAZARUS






University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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First published 2004, 2011Second Edition 2012

Reprinted 2013

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataTh e Cambridge companion to postcolonial literary studies / [edited by] Neil Lazarus.

p. cm. – (Cambridge companions to literature)Includes bibliographical references and index.

isbn 0 521 82694 2 (hardback) – isbn 0 521 53418 6 (paperback)1. Postcolonialism in literature. 2. Decolonization in literature. 3. Postcolonialism.

4. Criticism – History – 20th century. I. Lazarus, Neil, 1953– II. Series.pn56.c63c36 2004

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For Edward Said (1935–2003), who taught all of us











CONTENTS

List of contributors page ixIndicative chronology xii

1 Introducing postcolonial studies 1neil lazarus

Part 1 Social and Historical Context

2 The global dispensation since 1945 19neil lazarus

3 Anticolonialism, national liberation, and postcolonialnation formation 41tamara sivanandan

4 The institutionalization of postcolonial studies 66benita parry

Part 2 The Shape of the Field

5 Postcolonial literature and the Western literary canon 83john marx

6 Poststructuralism and postcolonial discourse 97simon gikandi

7 From development to globalization: postcolonial studies andglobalization theory 120timothy brennan

vii






contents

8 Reading subaltern history 139priyamvada gopal

9 Temporality and postcolonial critique 162keya ganguly

Part 3 Sites of Engagement

10 Nationalism and postcolonial studies 183laura chrisman

11 Feminism in/and postcolonialism 199deepika bahri

12 Latin American postcolonial studies and globaldecolonization 221fernando coronil

13 Migrancy, hybridity, and postcolonial literary studies 241andrew smith

References 262Index 292

viii






CONTRIBUTORS

deepika bahri is Associate Professor of English at Emory University.She has published Native Intelligence: Aesthetics, Politics, and PostcolonialLiterature (2003), numerous essays in journals and collections, and co-editedRealms of Rhetoric (2003) and Between the Lines: South Asians and Post-coloniality (1996).

timothy brennan is Professor of Cultural Studies and ComparativeLiterature, and English, at the University of Minnesota, and the Directorof the Humanities Institute there. He has published widely on postcolonialstudies, social and cultural theory, comparative literature, and the problem ofintellectuals. He is the author of At Home in the World: CosmopolitanismNow (1997), Salman Rushdie and the Third World: Myths of the Nation(1989), and has edited and introduced Alejo Carpentier’s Music in Cuba(2001). He has just completed a book titled Cultures of Belief.

laura chrisman has published in the fields of postcolonial culturaltheory, black Atlantic cultural studies, South African literature, and Britishimperial literature and ideology. She is the author of Postcolonial Contra-ventions: Cultural Readings of Race, Empire and Transnationalism (2003)andRereading the Imperial Romance: British Imperialism and South AfricanResistance in Haggard, Schreiner and Plaatje (2000).

fernando coronil teaches in the Departments of History and Anthro-pology, and directs the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Program, atthe University of Michigan. He is the author of The Magical State: Nation,Money, and Modernity in Venezuela (1997), and has published widely insuch journals as Public Culture and Cultural Anthropology. His researchinterests include historical anthropology, capitalism, state formation, gen-der, and popular culture in Latin America.

ix






list of contributors

keya ganguly is Associate Professor in the Department of Cultural Stud-ies and Comparative Literature at the University of Minnesota. She is theauthor of States of Exception: EverydayLife andPostcolonial Identity (2001)and a senior editor ofCultural Critique. Her interests are in the social philos-ophy of the Frankfurt School, postcolonial studies, film theory, cultural stud-ies, and the intellectual history of modernism/modernity. She has publishedessays on critical theory, Indian cinema, popular culture, and the politics ofethnography, and is currently writing a book on the films of Satyajit Ray.

simon gikandi is Robert Hayden Professor of English Language andLiterature at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He is author and editorof numerous works on postcolonial theory and the postcolonial literatures ofAfrica, the Caribbean, and the black Atlantic, includingWriting in Limbo:Modernism and Caribbean Literature (1992); Maps of Englishness: Writ-ing Identity in the Culture of Colonialism (1997); and Ngugi wa Thiong’o(2001). He is the editor of the Routledge Encyclopedia of African Litera-ture (2002), and co-editor (with Abiola Irele) of the Cambridge History ofAfrican and Caribbean Literature (2004).

priyamvada gopal is a University Lecturer at the Faculty of English,Cambridge University, and a Fellow of Churchill College. Her book onthe Indian Progressive Writers’ Association, Literary Radicalism in India:Gender, Nation and the Transition to Independence, will be published in2004.

neil lazarus is Professor of English and Comparative Literary Studies atthe University of Warwick. He has published widely on postcolonial studies,social and cultural theory, and is the author of Resistance in PostcolonialAfrican Fiction (1990) and Nationalism and Cultural Practice in the Post-colonial World (1999), and co-editor, with Crystal Bartolovich, ofMarxism,Modernity and Postcolonial Studies (2001).

john marx is completing a bookmanuscript entitled “Modernist English”and beginning another called “Skepticism and the Arts of Global Adminis-tration.” His work has appeared in Modernism/Modernity, Diaspora, andNovel. He teaches modernist and contemporary literature and culture at theUniversity of Richmond.

benita parry is currently Honorary Professor in the Department ofEnglish and Comparative Literary Studies at the University of Warwick.She is the author of Delusions and Discoveries: Studies on India in the

x






list of contributors

British Imagination, 1880–1930 (1972, republished 1998) and Conrad andImperialism: Ideological Boundaries and Visionary Frontiers (1983). Acollection of essays, Postcolonial Studies: AMaterialist Critique, will be pub-lished in 2004.

tamara sivanandan is Principal Lecturer in the Sociology and Crimi-nology group, School of Health and Social Sciences, atMiddlesex University.Her research interests are in race and representation, education, black Britishand Third-World politics and culture. She has written on postcolonial liter-atures and on issues of race in education.

andrew smith is currently the Sociological Review Fellow at the Univer-sity of Keele, and was previously an honorary research fellow of the Depart-ment of Sociology, University of Glasgow. His doctoral research focused onmigration and the Nigerian expatriate community in Scotland, and he haspublished articles dealing with postcolonial theory and with popular culturein West Africa.

xi






INDICATIVE CHRONOLOGY

Compiling a chronology for a volume such as this is a fraught undertaking.The more inclusive and comprehensive one tries to be, the greater becomesthe risk that the whole exercise will end up a baggy monster, shapeless andundiscriminating. Criteria for inclusion and exclusion are always relativelydifficult to justify and must, obviously, remain open to challenge. In drawingup the list that follows, I did not wantmerely to re-present in tabular form thematerial presented in the various chapters that make up this volume. Rather,my intentionwas to construct a list that gestures towards themultiplicity andhuge diversity, both of the literary works actually or potentially implicatedby the term “postcolonial literary studies,” and of the social and politicalevents that provide the overarching contexts for these works. As a field ofacademic specialization, postcolonial studies has tended (as several of thechapters in this volume suggest) to be overly schematic, restricted – not tosay attenuated – in its coverage, range of reference, and field of vision. Whatfollows is intended, therefore, in a rather utopian sense, as the outline of whatscholars in the field might – or ought to – consider within their purview.This chronology takes 1898 as its cut-off date. It would have been pos-

sible to begin earlier, of course – in 1870, say, or 1776, depending on whatone chose to emphasize; perhaps even much earlier, in 1492. To have doneso would have enabled one to reference some of the key historical eventsrelating to colonial conquest and resistance to it, to slavery, maroonage, andemancipation, and to the emergence of creole republicanism, anticolonialrevolution, and decolonization in the “New World” of the Americas. How-ever, while an expanded chronology of this kind would obviously have beenmore encyclopedic in its scope, and perhaps more fully representative of thework done in the field of postcolonial studies, it would also have been muchbulkier, more unwieldy, and, arguably, less reader-friendly than the one thatfollows. Moreover, 1898 does at least make a plausible cut-off date, inas-much as it is often taken to mark the emergence of the United States as animperialist power onto the world stage, and therefore to look forward to

xii






indicative chronology

the developments of the second half of the twentieth century – developmentsthat would leave the United States, by the end of that century, as the world’sonly hegemon and superpower.With respect to the historical events itemized, I have obviously referenced

those that might be said to be world-historical in their significance, as wellas those whose significance has resonated far beyond their specific locationin time and place. Uncontroversial examples of the first category wouldinclude the American destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in 1898,the Japanese sacking of Nanking (1937), the nuclear strikes on Hiroshimaand Nagasaki (1945), the partition of India (1947), the Chinese and Cubanrevolutions, the Vietnamese victory over the French at Dien Bien Phu in1954, the ethno-genocide in Rwanda in the mid-1990s, and the events of11 September 2001. Similarly uncontroversial examples of the second cate-gory would include the massacre at Jallianwallagh Bagh in Amritsar (1919),Abd al-Krim’s armed resistance to colonial domination in Morocco (1921–26), the massacre of Palestinian villagers by Zionist extremists at Dair Yasin(1948), the events at Sharpeville and Soweto in South Africa (1960 and1976, respectively), the American-assisted ouster and assassination of electedPresident Salvador Allende in Chile (1973), the Indonesian invasion andoccupation of East Timor (1975), and the military crackdown on studentdemonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing (1989).In addition to events of these kinds, however, I have also chosen to include

references to events that might not themselves be world-historical, but thatare nevertheless epochal or otherwise decisive for those involved in them. Itseems particularly important to register events of this kind inasmuch as cri-tiques of Eurocentrism and of elitist or top-down historiography have beenamong the foundational gestures of postcolonial studies from the outset.So while it might be conceded that such events as the uprising against theFrench in Madagascar (1898–1904), the 1926 riots in Java and Sumatra,and the 1964 overthrow of Cheddi Jagan’s government in Guyana did notin themselves change the map of the world, they were nevertheless deeplyconsequential for those impacted by them, and they remain deeply conse-quential for contemporary researchers in postcolonial studies. Indeed, even ifsuch events are deemed relatively inconsequential when considered on theirown, their accumulative significance, as individual events in a sequence ofevents of a similar kind, is salutary. Thus if, between Madagascar in 1898and the East Indies in 1926, one inserts such events as the Ashanti Rebellionof 1900 in the Gold Coast, the 1904 uprisings by the Nama and Herero peo-ples in South West Africa and the Acehnese in Sumatra, the Maji Maji revoltof 1905–7 in Tanganyika, the Bambatha Rebellion of 1906 in South Africa,insurrections inCuba (1906) andNicaragua (1909), the onset of theMexican

xiii







revolution in 1910, and the overthrow of the empire and the establishmentof a republic in China (1911), one comes very quickly to an understandingof how ubiquitous and how continuous has been the resistance to colonialrule and imperialist domination.By the same token, let us think of the ouster of Cheddi Jagan in 1964 not

on its own but alongside such other more or less contemporaneous eventsas the following: the military coup in Thailand (1959) that served to usherin Sarit Thanarat’s dictatorship; the crisis in the Congo (1960) occasionedby the overthrow and then subsequently the murder of Patrice Lumumba;the toppling of the US-sponsored dictatorship of Syngman Rhee in the April19 revolution of 1960, followed, all too soon, by General Park Chung-hee’smilitary coup and the restoration of dictatorship in South Korea; the US-sponsored Bay of Pigs episode (1961); the massive clamp-down on leftistsin Peru (1963); the escalation of the US military campaign against Vietnamthroughout the mid-1960s; the US-backed military coup against a left-winggovernment in Brazil (1964); the Western-assisted military coups of Bokassain the Central African Republic,Mobutu in the Congo, Suharto in Indonesia,and Boumedienne in Algeria (all 1965); the intervention of US troops in theDominican Republic and the installation there of a puppet regime (1965); theassassination of Mozambican liberation struggle leader Eduardo Mondlane(1965); and the ousting of Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana in a military coup(1966). To consider these events together is to understand that if it has, self-evidently, been hideously difficult to construct democracy in the postcolonialworld, one of the primary reasons for this has been the continuous and activesubversion of democracy and the “will of the people” by imperialist intrigueand military might, deriving invariably (in the post-1945 world) from theUnited States.The Chronology includes dates for the acquisition of political indepen-

dence in numerous former colonial territories, from Syria and Lebanon in1945, the Philippines in 1946, and India in 1947 to Namibia in 1990 andEritrea in 1993. It does not, however, detail the formation of the myriadparties, organizations, fronts, and alliances that fought for independence inall these territories. The one exception to this is the Indonesian CommunistParty (PKI), formed in 1920, which warrants special mention both because itgrew to become the largest such party outside the Soviet Union, and becauseit was so brutally crushed, with the physical liquidation of hundreds of thou-sands of its members, by the police and military of Suharto’s “New Order”regime in 1965–66.Also not included in the Chronology are details relating to the “white”

Anglophone settler colonies of Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. Therehas been some debate in postcolonial studies over the status of these societies

xiv







as erstwhile colonies and therefore contemporary “post-colonies.” Withoutgoing into this debate, however, it seems to me that little would be gainedby treating twentieth-century developments in Canada, New Zealand, Aus-tralia, and, for that matter, the United States in analogy with developmentsin such societies as Cuba, East Timor, Mali, Malaysia, and Mexico.The left-hand column in the Chronology is devoted to “Political/Historical

Events,” in terms of the criteria specified above. The right-hand column isthen devoted to writings of various kinds. These writings can be categorizedunder the following rubrics:a) instances of colonial discourse (fictional or non-fictional) – examples

include Joseph Conrad’sHeart of Darkness and Albert Sarraut’s The Eco-nomic Development of the French Colonies;

b) writings byWestern authors that have proved valuable to the general causeof anticolonialism or anti-imperialism – examples include E. D. Morel’sThe Congo Slave State and Lenin’s Imperialism: The Highest Stage ofCapitalism;

c) important political writings by representatives of “colonial” peoples –examples include M. N. Roy’s India in Transition and Sun Yat-sen’s TheThree Principles of the People;

d) works of literature by colonial and postcolonial writers – examplesinclude Rabindranath Tagore’sHome and theWorld andNizar Qabbani’sOn Entering the Sea;

e) important critical and/or scholarly writings by colonial and postcolonialauthors: examples include Jose Enrique Rodo’s Ariel and Eric Williams’sCapitalism and Slavery;

f) key texts in the academic field of postcolonial studies: examples includeEdwardW. Said’sCulture and Imperialism and Declan Kiberd’s InventingIreland: The Literature of the Modern Nation.

I have used the following abbreviations to signal the status of the writingscited:A autobiographyCD colonial discourseD dramaF fictionNF non-fictionP poetryKT key text in postcolonial studiesIn most cases, writers are cited only once – to signal their entry into promi-nence or else their most significant work. Thus the Ghanaian writer AyiKwei Armah is listed under 1968, the date of publication of his first, andstill his best-known, novel, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. In some

xv







limited cases, however, writers are cited more than once, to signal their writ-ing of a second (or even third) especially significant work. Thus GabrielGarcıa Marquez is listed under 1967 (the date of publication of One Hun-dred Years of Solitude) but also 1985 (the date of publication of Love inthe Time of Cholera, which many consider to be an even greater work);and the same is true of Nadine Gordimer, Ngugi wa Thiong’o, and SalmanRushdie, among others. Still other writers receive double (or multiple) cita-tions because their work has been important in different contexts: thus WoleSoyinka appears as the author of the drama The Road in 1965, the vol-ume of poetry, Idanre in 1967, the critical volumeMyth, Literature and theAfrican World in 1976, and of course as the recipient of the Nobel Prize forLiterature in 1986.In almost every case, I have listed the work cited under an English title,

even where (as in the case of Yi Kwang-su’s 1917 novel, Heartlessness, orHafiz Ibrahim’s 1937Diwan, for example) no translation exists as yet.Wheretranslations into English exist, I have used the available title, but indexed tothe date of original publication of the work in question: Edouard Glissant’sLa lezardewas translated into English under the title of The Ripening only in1985, for instance, but it appears in the Chronology asThe Ripening (1958) –the date of original publication of La lezarde.Finally, it needs to be said that the list of works of creative literature

provided here is not intended to serve as a “postcolonial canon” in anysense. Rather it is meant to testify to the vast range and sheer diversity of theliterary works that might be said to fall within the compass of “postcolonialstudies” as a field of academic specialization.

Neil Lazarus

xvi






Chronology

Date

Political/historicalevents

Literaryandotherwritings

1898

Spanish–American

War:destruction

ofSpanishfleetinManila

Bay

announcesem

ergenceof

USas

imperialistpower;invictory,US

acquiresPhilippines,C

uba,Puerto

Rico,andGuamfrom

Spain;US

immediatelymovesto

putdowninsurrection

(189

6–19

02)inthe

Philippines

Sudan:Battleof

Omdurm

an,M

ahdistforcesdefeated

byBritish

Madagascar:revoltagainstFrench

colonialpower(–

1904)

1899

SouthAfrica:outbreak

ofAnglo-BoerWar

(–19

02)

Joseph

Conrad,HeartofDarkness(F;C

D)

Rudyard

Kipling,TheWhiteMan’sBurden(N

F;CD)

1900

China:B

oxerRebellion,anti-W

estern

uprising;forciblyputdown

ForakerActrendersPuerto

Ricoacolony

oftheUS

GoldCoast:A

shantirebellion

FirstPan-African

Conference,London

Solomon

T.Plaatje(South

Africa),BoerWarDiary

(NF)

JoseEnrique

Rodo,Ariel(N

F)

1901

Rudyard

Kipling,Kim

(F;C

D)

1902

Cuba:PlattAmendm

ent;USappropriatespartof

Guantanam

oBay;

imposesquasi-protectoratestatus

onCuba

J.A.H

obson,Imperialism(N

F)

1903

USoccupiesPanama,forcingitsseparation

from

Colom

bia

E.D

.Morel,TheCongoSlaveState(N

F)

1904

Russo-JapaneseWar,ends(1

905)

withdefeatof

Russians

Nam

ibia:uprisingof

HereroandNam

aagainstGerman

rule

EastIndies:revoltby

AcehneseinSumatra;forciblyputdown

Joseph

Conrad,Nostromo(F;C

D)

1905

India:launch

ofswadeshi(“of

ourow

ncountry”)movem

ent(–

1908),

inprotestatBritish

decision

topartitionBengal

Tanganyika:M

ajiM

ajirevolt(–

1907)

(cont.)






Date



1906

SouthAfrica:Bam

bathaRebellion(Zuluuprising),begins

asprotest

againstpolltax

UStroops

occupy

Cuba(–

1909)

1907

Britaingrantsdominionstatus

toitsself-governing

(white)colonies

1908

Ch’oe

Nam

-son

(Korea),“F

romtheSeato

aYouth”(P)

RabindranathTagore(India),Homeandthe

World(F)

1909

India:Morley–Minto

reform

sUStroops

occupy

Nicaragua

(–19

25)

MohandasK.G

andhi(India),HindSwaraj(N

F)

1910

Korea:annexationby

Japan;colonialruleto

1945

Mexico:revolution

begins

withconstitutionalandguerrilla

challenges

tothedictatorshipof

PorfirioDıaz

1911

China:R

evolutionends

imperialregime,establishesprovisional

republic

Mexico:Dıazregimefalls;liberalreform

erFranciscoMaderoassumes

presidency

IliyaAbu

Madi(Lebanon),TheMemorialofthe

Past(P)

J.E.C

asely-Hayford

(GoldCoast),Ethiopia

Unbound

(F)

Muham

mad

Iqbal(India),“Com

plaint”(P)

1912

Cuba:uprising

ledby

IndependentMovem

entof

Peopleof

Color,

forciblyputdownwithassistance

ofUS

1913

SouthAfrica:NativeLandAct

Mexico:Maderodeposed,then

murdered;Pancho

Villaresumes

guerrilla

campaign

RabindranathTagorewinsNobelPrizeforLiterature

1914

Outbreakof

FirstWorldWar

GabrielaMistral(Chile),SonnetsofDeath

(P)






1915

Ceylon:Sinhalaanti-M

uslim

riots;colonialgovernmentdeclares

martiallaw

UStroops

occupy

Haitito

preventacession

topresidency

ofRosalvo

Bobo;occupation

lastsuntil1

934

NikolaiBukharin,ImperialismandWorldEconomy

(NF)

Mariano

Azuela(M

exico),TheUnderdogs

(F)

1916

Ireland:EasterRising

1917

BolshevikRevolution,firsteruptsinSt.Petersburg

Balfour

Declaration,promisesa“nationalhom

e”forJewsinPalestine

andprotection

ofciviland

religious

rightsof

non-Jewsintheterritory

V.I.L

enin,Imperialism:TheHighestStageof

Capitalism(N

F)RabindranathTagore(India),Nationalism(N

F)YiK

wang-su

(Korea),Heartlessness(F)

1918

Arm

istice

treatysigned,bringsFirstWorldWar

toan

end

Declaration

oftheIrishRepublic

LuHsun(China),“A

Madman’sDiary”(F)

1919

Leagueof

Nations

createdatPeaceConference,Versailles

German

coloniesinAfricatransferredto

Britain,F

rance,andBelgium

asMandates

China:M

ayFo

urth

Movem

ent–demands

radicalm

odernization,

opposesimperialism

India:Montagu–C

helmsfordreform

s(permitting

limited

self-governm

ent);R

owlattAct(givescolonialpolicewidespread

powersto

investigateandcrushopposition);Gandhicallsfor

all-Indiamassprotestmovem

ent;massacreof

civilians

atJallianwallahBaghinAmritsar

Establishm

entof

theThird

International(Com

intern)

Outbreakof

Anglo-Irish

War

(–19

21)

Mexico:rebelleaderEmilianoZapatakilledby

governmenttroops

Korea:uprisingagainstJapanesecolonialism

LiT

a-chao

(China),“A

New

Era”(N

F)Chu

Yo-han(Korea),Fireworks

(P)

Third

British–A

fghanWar

FirstPalestinianNationalC

ongressrejectsBalfour

Declaration,calls

forArabindependence

(cont.)






Date



1920

BritaingainsmandatecontroloverIraq,T

rans-Jordan,Palestine;

anti-British

revoltinIraq

Governm

entof

IrelandAct

India:GandhilaunchesNon-Cooperation

movem

ent

Mozam

bique:colonialruleinMozam

biquesystem

atized:population

subjectedto

forced

labor

Indonesia:Com

munistParty(PKI)isform

ed;becom

eslargestsuch

partyintheworldoutsideof

socialiststatebloc

beforeitis

obliterated

bySuhartoinbrutalcampaign(1

965–

66)

1921

Ireland:outbreak

ofcivilw

ar(–

1923)

Morocco:arm

edresistance

toFrench

andSpanishdomination,ledby

Abd

al-Krim(–

1926)

China:Sun

Yat-sen

electedpresident;civilw

arbreaks

outbetweenhis

regimeandwarlordsinthenorth

1922

Declaration

oftheIrishFree

State

FrederickLugard,TheDualMandateinBritish

TropicalAfrica(N

F;CD)

M.N

.Roy

(India),IndiainTransition(N

F)ReneMaran

(Martinique),Batouala(F)

1923

Ceylon:generalstrike,militant

fusion

ofnationalistandclass-based

demands

Mexico:Pancho

Villamurdered

AlbertSarraut,TheEconomicDevelopmentofthe

FrenchColonies(N

F;CD)

Zhu

Ziqing(China),“D

estruction”(P)

1924

China:Sun

Yat-sen

dies;leadershipof

Kuomintang

(NationalPeople’s

Party)assumed

bytheanti-com

munistChiangKai-shek

India:communalistviolence

betweenHindusandMuslim

s;Gandhi

begins

hungerstrike

as“a

penanceandaprayer”

E.M

.Forster,APassagetoIndia(F;C

D)

PabloNeruda(Chile),TwentyLovePoemsanda

SongofDespair(P)

JoseEustasioRivera(Colom

bia),TheVortex(F)

1925

China

/HongKong:massive

strike,boycottof

foreigngoods

(–19

26)

Syria:Druze

revolt(–

1927)

SunYat-sen

(China),TheThreePrinciplesofthe

People(N

F)Kim

So-wol(Korea),Azaleas

(P)






1926

Indonesia:riotsinJava

andSumatra,forciblyputdownby

Dutch

China:C

hiangmovesto

establishhegemonyoverpartsof

thecountry

stillundercontrolofwarlords;capturesWuhan

(192

6)andShanghai

(192

7);inShanghai,orchestratesmassacreof

labororganizers,

communists,and

otheractivists;subsequent

communist-leduprisings

inNanch’ang

andHunan

arecrushed

Nicaragua:rebellionagainstauthoritarianregimeof

AdolfoDıaz;US

intervention,successfully

resisted

byforcesunderAugustino

Cesar

Sandino

HoChiMinh(Vietnam

),ColonizationonTrial(N

F)Ricardo

Guiraldes(Argentina),DonSegundo

Sombra(F)

MartınLuisGuzman

(Mexico),TheEagleandthe

Serpent(F)

Thomas

Mofolo(South

Africa),Chaka

(F)

1927

InternationalC

onferenceAgainstIm

perialismandColonial

Oppression,Brussels

Bolivia:m

assive

revoltof

indigenous

peopleagainstgovernment

AndreGide,VoyagetotheCongo

(NF;

CD)

Cho

Myong-hui(Korea),TheNaktonggangRiver(F)

Taha

Husain(Egypt),TheDays(vol.i

i,19

39)(A)

JoseVasconcelos,TheCosmicRace(N

F)

1928

China:captureof

Beijingby

Chiang’sforces;hebecomesnational

president

Mariode

Andrade

(Brazil),Macunaıma(F)

JoseCarlosMariategui,SevenEssaystowardsan

InterpretationofPeruvianReality(N

F)

1929

Nigeria:A

ba“w

omen’sriots”

India:MeerutConspiracyCaseagainst31

laborleaders

Palestine:riotssparkedby

founding

oftheJewishAgency;several

hundredkilled,manyby

British

soldiers

GenevaConventionsigned,regulatingtreatm

entof

prisonersof

war

Rom

uloGallegos(Venezuela),DonaBarbara

(F)

Wen

I-to

(China),DeadWater(P)

1930

India:GandhilaunchesCivilDisobedienceMovem

ent

Vietnam

:peasant

uprising,coincideswithform

ationof

Com

munist

Party

Brazil:military

coup

Mao

Tse-tung(China),“A

SingleSparkCan

Starta

PrairieFire”(N

F)Launchof

Negritude

movem

entinParisby

FrancophoneintellectualsincludingLeopoldSedar

Senghor,AimeCesaire,and

LeonDam

asNicolasGuillen(Cuba),SonMotifs(P)

Solomon

T.Plaatje(South

Africa),Mhudi(F)

(cont.)






Date



1931

British

Com

monwealthof

Nations

created

Japaneseinvade

Manchuria

1932

Thailand:absolutemonarchyoverthrowninbloodless

civilian–military

coup

ElSalvador:insurrection

ledby

FarabundoMartıcrushed;supported

byUS,dictator

MaximilianoHernandez

overseespogrom

inwhich

30,0

00arekilled

EvelynWaugh,BlackMischief(F;C

D)

GregorioLopez

yFu

entes(M

exico),TheLand(F)

Ahm

adShauqi(Egypt),Diwan

1933

Nicaragua:take-overof

powerby

AnastasioSomozaGarcıa,supported

byUS;Sandinomurdered

MulkRajAnand

(India),Untouchable(F)

Tewfiq

al-H

akim

(Egypt),ThePeopleoftheCave(D)

ClaudeMcK

ay(Jam

aica),BananaBottom(F)

Mao

Tun(China),Midnight(F)

Gilberto

Freyre,TheMasterandtheSlaves(N

F)

1934

China:“LongMarch”begins,asMao

Tse-tungandhissupporterstrek

toremoteYenan

toescape

liquidation

byKMTforces

GeorgeOrw

ell,BurmeseDays(F;C

D)

Hsiao

Hung(China),TheFieldofLifeandDeath

(F)

JorgeIcaza(Ecuador),Huasipungo(F)

AlfredMendes(Trinidad),PitchLake(F)

Shen

Ts’ung-wen

(China),BorderTown(F)

HuShih,TheChineseRenaissance

(NF)

1935

Mussolini’s

forcesinvade

andoccupy

Ethiopia

Passageof

Governm

entof

IndiaAct

Waveof

strikesinCentralAfrican

copper-belt

China:JapaneseforcesseizeBeijing,setup

puppetregimeinnorth

JorgeLuisBorges(Argentina),AUniversalHistoryof

Infamy(F)

1936

SpanishCivilWar

erupts

Paraguay:m

ilitary

coup;fascistregimeinstalled

Palestine:Arabrevolt(–

1939),protesting

British

ruleand

dispossessions

caused

byZionistsettlement;brutallycrushedby

British,w

ithmorethan

1,00

0Palestiniandeaths

Meo

Tse-tung(China),ProblemsofStrategyin

China’sRevolutionaryWar

(NF)

JayaprakashNarayan

(India),WhySocialism?(N

F)JawarharlalNehru

(India),AnAutobiography

ManikBandopadhyay(India),TheHistoryof

Puppets(F)

C.L

.R.Jam

es(Trinidad),MintyAlley(F)

Lao

She(China),CamelHsiang-tzu(F)

Prem

chand(India),TheGiftofaCow

(F)






1937

China:Shanghaifallsto

Japanese;N

anking

sacked,m

orethan

100,

000

killed;Mao

issues“N

ationalSalvation

Program”calling

forunited

frontagainstJapanese;formstemporary

military

alliancewith

Chiang’sKMT

Jamaica:riotsagainstBritish

rule(–

1938)

Trinidad:nationalistriots

Karen

Blixen

(Denmark),OutofAfrica(N

F;CD)

HafizIbrahim(Egypt),Diwan

R.K

.Narayan

(India),TheBachelorofArts(F)

Siburapha(Thailand),BehindthePainting

(F)

1938

JomoKenyatta(Kenya),FacingMountKenya

(NF)

CiroAlegrıa(Peru),TheHungryDogs(F)

MarıaLuisa

Bom

bal(Chile),TheHouseofMist(F)

D.O

.Fagunwa(N

igeria),TheForestofaThousand

Daemons(F)

SadeqHedayat(Iran),TheBlindOwl(F)

Graciliano

Ram

os(Brazil),BarrenLives(F)

RajaRao

(India),Kanthapura(F)

GeorgeAntonius,TheArabAwakening(N

F)C.L

.R.Jam

es,TheBlackJacobins

(NF)

1939

German

invasion

ofPoland;outbreakof

Second

WorldWar

JoyceCary,MisterJohnson(F;C

D)

AimeCesaire(M

artinique),“Notebookof

aReturn

totheNativeLand”

(P,revised

1947,1

956)

Juan

CarlosOnetti(Uruguay),ThePit(F)

Tuan-m

uHung-liang

(China),TheSteppeofthe

KhorchinBanner(F)

1940

Fallof

France

toNaziforces

Vietnam

:revoltsinsouthern

MekongDelta

TarashankarBandyopadhyay

(India),“T

heWitch”(F)

Ts’ao

Yu(China),PekingMan

(D)

CesarVallejo(Peru),Spain,TakeThisCupfromMe(P)

Fernando

Ortiz,CubanCounterpoint:Tobaccoand

Sugar(N

F)

(cont.)






Date



1941

Ethiopia:AlliescaptureAddisAbaba

from

Italians,enablingHaile

Selassieto

return

afterfive-year

absence

Japanesetroops

captureCam

bodia,Vietnam

,Thailand;inresponse,

HoChiMinhlaunchesVietMinhindependence

movem

ent

H.I.E

.Dhlom

o(South

Africa),ValleyofaThousand

Hills(P)

Edgar

Mittelholzer(Guyana),CorentyneThunder(F)

IbrahimTu

qan(Palestine),Diwan

Japanbombs

USfleetinPearlH

arbor,precipitatingUSinto

War;

Japaneseinvade

andoccupy

HongKong,Malaya

1942

India:GandhilaunchesQuitIndiaMovem

ent

JapaneseforcescaptureSingapore,Java,B

urma,andthePhilippines;

attack

Solomon

IslandsandNew

Guinea

AlbertCam

us,TheOutsider(F;C

D)

JorgeAmado(Brazil),TheViolentLand(F)

1943

India:armed

struggleunderleadershipof

Subhas

Chandra

Bose

launched

againstBritish

forcesinnorth-east;devastating

faminein

Bengal(–1

944)

kills

almost4millionpeople

IshaqMusaal-H

usaini(Palestine),AChicken’s

Memoirs(F)

1944

Vietnam

:major

faminekills

2millionpeople

US:Bretton

Woods

conference;foundationof

InternationalM

onetary

Fund

(IMF)

andWorldBank

Guatemala:regimeof

GeneralCastaneda

overthrownin“O

ctober

Revolution”

Palestine:Zionistforcesbeginguerrilla

warfareagainstBritish;tactics

includeterror

andassassinations

JoseMarıaArguedas(Peru),Everyone’sBlood

(F)

IsmatChughtai(India),TheQuiltandOtherStories

JacquesRoumain(H

aiti),MastersoftheDew

(F)

EricWilliams,CapitalismandSlavery(N

F)

1945

War

ends

inEurope

USdropsnuclearbombs

onHiroshimaandNagasakiinJapan,leading

toJapanesesurrender

Algeria:F

renchrepression

ofnationalists;m

ajor

uprising

follows;

thousandskilled

RevolutioninVietnam

brings

HoChiMinh’sVietMinhto

power;

French

forcesattempt

torecapturecolonialpower;w

arensues

(–19

54)

GabrielaMistralwinsNobelPrizeforLiterature

GopinathMohanty(India),Paraja(F)






Indonesia:“R

evolutionof

1945”inwhich

Republic

isdeclared;fierce

fightingas

Dutch

attempt

toreinstallcolonialpow

er(–

1949);civil

war

inJava

(–19

48)inwhich

manyleftistsaremurdered

Philippinesliberated

from

Japaneseoccupation

Syria,Lebanon

gainindependence

FifthPan-African

CongressheldinManchester,England,proclaims

“right

ofallcolonialpeoplesto

controltheirow

ndestiny”

1946

UnitedNations

convenesforthefirsttime

Thailand:m

ilitary

overthrowsnationalistleaderPridiPhanomyong

Indochina:fierceresistance

toFrench

attempt

toreinstallcolonialrule

afterSecond

WorldWar

(–19

54)

Argentina:G

eneralJuan

Peronassumespresidency

Philippinesgainsindependence

Palestine:militant

right-wingZionistguerrillasblow

upBritish

Arm

yheadquartersinJerusalem;A

rabanti-Zionistprotestscontinue

TruongChinh

(Vietnam

),TheAugustRevolution(N

F)JawaharlalN

ehru

(India),TheDiscoveryofIndia(N

F)PeterAbraham

s(South

Africa),MineBoy

(F)

MiguelA

ngelAsturias(Guatemala),Mr.President

(F)

1947

Indiagainsindependence;birth

ofPakistan

followingpartitionof

sub-continent;hundreds

ofthousandsdieininter-communal

violence;8.5millionrefugeescrossborderinboth

directions

Burma:UAungSan,hero

ofindependence

movem

ent,assassinated

Palestine:UNannouncesplan

forpartition,granting

bulkof

land

tominorityJewishpopulation

Korea:U

SestablishesSyngman

Rheeas

leaderof

governmentinSouth;

pursuesauthoritarianpolicies,targetsthemassrevolutionary

movem

entthathaddevelopedafterliberationfrom

Japanese

occupation

in19

45

JawaharlalN

ehru

delivers“T

rystwithDestiny”

speech

BabaniB

hattacharya(India),SoManyHungers!(F)

Ch’ienChung-shu

(China),FortressBesieged(F)

BiragoDiop(Senegal),TalesofAmadouKoumba

(F)

SuryakantTripathi“Nirala”

(India),TheEarthly

Knowledge(P)

PaChin(China),ColdNights(F)

BadrShakiral-Sayyab(Iraq),WitheredFingers(P)

1948

Burma,SriL

anka

(Ceylon)

gainindependence;insurrectionary

challengeto

fledglingBurmesestatefrom

leftparties

SouthAfrica:AfrikanerNationalistPartycomesto

power,implem

ents

policyofapartheid

GrahamGreene,TheHeartoftheMatter(F;C

D)

AlanPaton(South

Africa),Cry,theBelovedCountry

(F;C

D)

G.V

.Desani(India),AllAboutH.Hatterr(F) (cont.)






Date



Indo-Pakistanwar

overdisputed

stateof

Kashm

irIndia:Gandhiassassinated

Palestine:fightingbetweenPalestinians

andZionistsescalatesinto

civil

war;m

assacreof

PalestinianvillagersatDairYasinby

Zionistultras;

Palestinians

driven

outof

theirhomesandofftheirland;independent

Jewishstatedeclared;declaration

immediatelyrecognized

byUS;by

year’send,numberof

Palestinianrefugeesestimated

at1million

Malaya:massive,com

munist-inspired

insurgency,guerrillawar

against

British

colonialrule(–

1953);eventuallydefeated

Philippines:H

ukrebellion

–peasantstruggleagainstlanded

oligarchy–

begins;eventually

crushed(1

954)

Cam

bodiagainsindependence

UNadoptsDeclaration

ofHum

anRights

SaadatHasan

Manto

(Pakistan),“To

baTekSingh”

(F)

Ernesto

Sabato

(Argentina),TheTunnel(F)

LeopoldSedarSenghor,ed.Anthologiedelanouvelle

poesienegreetmalgachedelanguefrancaise(P)

Jean-PaulSartre,“B

lack

Orpheus”(N

F)

1949

China:victory

ofcommunistforcesunderMao

Tse-tung;People’s

Republic

proclaimed;C

hiangKai-shek’snationaliststake

refuge

inTaiwan

Indonesiagainsindependence

underSukarno

Laosgainsindependence

MiguelA

ngelAsturias(Guatemala),MenofMaize

(F)

AlejoCarpentier(Cuba),TheKingdom

ofThis

World(F)

KhalilMutran(Lebanon),Diwan

V.S.R

eid(Jam

aica),NewDay

(F)

Ma’rufal-Rusafi

(Iraq),Diwan

TingLing(China),TheSangkanRiver(F)

1950

Outbreakof

US–Koreanwar

(–19

53);casualtieswilltop

1million

Tibet:C

hina

invades,assumescontrol

Jordan

annexesWestBank,absorbing60

0,00

0Palestinians

DorisLessing,TheGrassisSinging(F;C

D)

PabloNeruda(Chile),Cantogeneral(P)

OctavioPaz,LabyrinthofSolitude(N

F)

1951

Egypt:guerrillawar

againstBritish

forcesinSuez

CanalZone

Libya

gainsindependence

Iran

nationalizesitsoilindustry

Nirad

C.C

haudhuri(India),TheAutobiographyof

anUnknownIndian






1952

SouthAfrica:African

NationalC

ongresslaunchesDefiance

Cam

paign

Kenya:Stateof

Emergencydeclared

asanti-colonialinsurrection

(“Mau

Mau”)

intensifies

Vietnam

:Francelaunchesmassive

offensiveagainstVietMinhforces

Ralph

deBoissiere(Trinidad),CrownJewel(F)

AndreeChedid(Egypt),From

SleepUnbound

(F)

Mochtar

Lubis(Indonesia),ARoadwithNoEnd

(F)

Amos

Tutuola(N

igeria),ThePalm-WineDrinkard(F)

FrantzFanon,BlackSkin,WhiteMasks

(NF)

1953

Cuba:FidelC

astroleadsabortive

assaulton

Moncada

Barracksin

Santiago

deCuba;manyof

themilitantsarekilled;others,including

Castro,arecaptured

Iran:C

IA-backedcoup

deposesnationalistleader,M

ossadegh

British

Guiana:uprising,led

byPeople’sProgressiveParty,

againstcolonialism;put

downby

military

force;constitution

suspended

FidelC

astro(Cuba),“History

willabsolveme”

(NF)

AlejoCarpentier(Cuba),TheLostSteps(F)

GeorgeLam

ming(Barbados),IntheCastleofMy

Skin(F)

Cam

araLaye(Guinea),TheAfricanChild(F)

RogerMais(Jam

aica),TheHillsWereAllJoyful

Together(F)

1954

Vietnam

esearmyledby

HoChiMinhdefeatsFrench

colonialforces

atDienBienPhu;France

suesforpeace;theVietMinhtake

Hanoi

Egypt:G

amalAbdelNassertakespower

Algeria:w

arof

independence

begins

(–19

62)

Guatemala:USorchestratesoverthrowof

nationalistgovernmentof

Jacobo

Arbenz

Samira‘Azzam

(Palestine),LittleThings(F)

MartinCarter(Guyana),PoemsofResistance

DrissChraıbi(M

orocco),TheSimplePast(F)

Kam

alaMarkandaya(India),NectarinaSieve(F)

Nicanor

Parra(Chile),PoemsandAntipoems

Abd

al-Rahman

Sharqawi(Egypt),TheEarth

(F)

1955

Bandung

Conferenceof

independentAsian

andAfrican

states;

declarationupholdsprinciplesof

nationalsovereignty,human

rights,

andequalityam

ongnationsandstates

SouthAfrica:FreedomCharteradoptedatCongressof

thePeople

Vietnam

:outbreakof

civilw

arinSouth;Ngo

DinhDiemdeclares

SouthVietnam

arepublic

AimeCesaire(M

artinique),Discourseon

Colonialism(N

F)UNu(Burma),AnAsianSpeaks

(NF)

AmritaPritam

(India),Messages(P)

Juan

Rulfo

(Mexico),PedroParamo(F)

SaadiY

oussef(Iraq),SongsNotforOthers(P)

WangMeng(China),TheYoungNewcomer(F) (cont.)






Date



1956

Egypt:N

assernationalizesSuez

Canal;E

gypt

invadedby

Israel,w

ith

British

andFrench

support;withdrawalof

theseforcesnegotiated

Sudangainsindependence;arm

edresistance

continuesinthesouth

(–19

72)

Morocco,T

unisiagainindependence

Cuba:Castroinitiatesrevolution

whenhe

returnsto

Cubawithsm

all

armed

force

Yem

en:anti-British

strikesinAden;clashesbetweenBritish

andYem

eni

troops

(–19

57)

SovietUnion:at20th

Congressof

theCom

munistPartyof

theSoviet

Union,N

ikitaKhruschev

denouncesStalin’scrimes;initiates

de-Stalinization

Hungary:anti-Stalinistuprising

crushedby

Soviettroops

China:M

aointroduces“H

undred

Flow

ers”

campaign(“Letahundred

flowersbloom,letahundredschoolsof

thoughtcontend”)

Firstinternationalconferenceof

blackwritersand

artists(Paris)

GeorgePadm

ore(Trinidad),PanAfricanismor

Communism?(N

F)CarlosBulosan

(Philippines),Americaisinthe

Heart(A)

Mongo

Beti(Cam

eroon),ThePoorChristof

Bomba

(F)

Chang

Ai-ling(China),NakedEarth

(F)

DavidDiop(Senegal),HammerBlows(P)

FaizAhm

edFaiz(Pakistan),PrisonThoughts(P)

Joao

GuimaraesRosa(Brazil),TheDeviltoPayin

theBacklands

(F)

NaguibMahfouz

(Egypt),CairoTrilogy

(–19

57)(F)

FerdinandOyono

(Cam

eroon),Houseboy(F)

SamuelSelvon(Trinidad),TheLonelyLondoners(F)

Kushw

antSingh(India),TraintoPakistan

(F)

1957

Ghana

gainsindependence;alsopeninsular

Malaya(becom

esMalaysia

in19

63withincorporationof

Sarawak,Sabah

andSingapore)

Indonesia:Sukarnodeclaresmartiallaw;revoked

1963

Algeria:B

attleof

Algiers

Kwam

eNkrum

ah(Ghana),Ghana:Autobiography

OctavioPaz(M

exico),Sunstone(P)

AlbertM

emmi,TheColonizerandtheColonized

(NF)

1958

Pakistan:m

ilitary

coup

brings

Moham

med

AyubKhanto

power

Guineagainsindependence

Cam

eroun:ReubenUmNyobe,U

PCleader,killed

All-African

People’sConference,Accra

ChinuaAchebe(N

igeria),ThingsFallApart(F)

Edouard

Glissant

(Martinique),TheRipening(F)

N.V

.M.G

onzalez(Philippines),BreadofSalt(F)

LuduUHla(Burma),TheCagedOnes(F)






SriL

anka:riotserupt,as

Sinhalachauvinistsattack

Tamils;hundreds

killed;stateof

emergencyeventuallydeclared

Venezuela:dictatorMarcosPerezJimenez

ousted

incoup

China:M

aolaunches“G

reatLeapFo

rward”,program

meof

rapid

industrializationandcollectivization,markedalso

bydenigrationof

intellectuals

1959

Cuba:overthrowof

Batistaregime;FidelC

astroassumespower

China:devastating

famine(–

1961),kills

asmanyas

40million

Zam

bia:Kenneth

Kaundaimprisoned,U

nitedIndependence

Party

banned;leads

civildisobediencecampaignwhenreleased

Thailand:SaritThanaratseizespowerthroughcoup;installs

dictatorship,continued

byhissuccessors(–

1973)

Tibet:rebellioncrushedby

Chineseforces;D

alaiLam

afleesinto

exile

Laos:PathetLao

communistrebelslaunch

major

offensiveagainststate

QurratulainHyder(India),RiverofFire(F)

Es’kiaMphahlele(South

Africa),DownSecond

Avenue(A)

1960

HaroldMacmillan’s“w

inds

ofchange”speech

SouthAfrica:Sharpeville

massacre,as

policeopen

fireon

unarmed

gathering–67

killed;ANCandPan-African

Congressbanned

Benin,B

urkino

Faso,C

entralAfrican

Republic,C

had,Congo,G

abon,

IvoryCoast,M

adagascar,Mali,Mauritania,Niger,N

igeria,Senegal,

Somalia,T

ogogainindependence

Congo:attem

pted

secessionof

Katanga

province;m

artiallawdeclared

bynewpresidentPatriceLum

umba;m

ilitary

seizespower,supported

byUSandBelgium

;Lum

umba

arrested

SouthKorea:A

pril

19studentrevolution

topplesregimeof

Syngman

Rhee;democracy

short-lived,asGeneralPark

Chung-hee

takes

powerinmilitary

coup

Wilson

Harris(Guyana),PalaceofthePeacock(F)

HwangSun-won

(South

Korea),TreesonaCliff(F)

OusmaneSembene

(Senegal),God’sBitsofWood(F)

GeorgeLam

ming,ThePleasuresofExile(N

F)

(cont.)






Date



1961

US-sponsoredBay

ofPigs

invasion

ofCubathwarted

Cam

eroon,Sierra

Leone,T

anzaniagainindependence

Congo:L

umum

bamurderedwhileincustody

Angola:armed

strugglebegins

SouthAfrica:AlbertLuthuli,Presidentof

ANC,awardedNobel

PeacePrize

FirstConferenceof

Non-AlignedCountries,B

elgrade

NnamdiAzikiwe(N

igeria),Zik:SelectedSpeeches

(NF)

FrantzFanon(M

artinique),TheWretchedofthe

Earth

(NF)

VoNguyenGiap(Vietnam

),People’sWarPeople’s

Army(N

F)Ernesto

“Che”Guevara

(Argentina/Cuba),Guerrilla

Warfare(N

F)Adonis(Syria),SongsofMihyartheDamascene

(P)

Cyprian

Ekw

ensi(N

igeria),JaguaNana(F)

AttiaHosain(India),SunlightonaBroken

Column(F)

CheikhHam

idou

Kane(Senegal),Ambiguous

Adventure(F)

V.S.N

aipaul(Trinidad),AHouseforMr.Biswas

(F)

1962

Algeria,B

urundi,Jam

aica,R

wanda,T

rinidadandTo

bago,U

ganda

gainindependence

Borderwar

betweenIndiaandChina

Cuban

missilecrisis:U

SPresidentKennedy

authorizesblockade

ofCubainbidto

preventdeploymentof

Sovietnuclearweapons

MehdiBen

Barka

(Algeria),“R

esolving

the

Ambiguitiesof

NationalSovereignty”(N

F)Kenneth

Kaunda(Zam

bia),ZambiaShallBeFree

(A)

PatriceLum

umba

(Congo),CongoMyCountry

(NF)

AlbertL

uthuli(South

Africa),LetMyPeopleGo(N

F)CarlosFu

entes(M

exico),TheDeathofArtemio

Cruz(F)

F.SionilJose(Philippines),ThePretenders(F)

AlexLaGum

a(South

Africa),AWalkinthe

Night

(F)

CarlosMartınezMoreno(Uruguay),TheWall(F)

MarioVargasLlosa

(Peru),TheTimeoftheHero(F)






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TheCambridgeCompaniontoPostcolonialLiteraryStudiesassets.cambridge.org/97805215/34185/frontmatter/...TheCambridgeCompaniontoPostcolonialLiteraryStudies TheCambridgeCompaniontoPostcolonialLiteraryStudiesoffers