A VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING LANGUAGE TONE

TONE (POSITIVE)Happinessamiable* cheery contented* ecstatic elevated*elevated* enthusiastic exuberant* joyful jubilant*sprightly*

Pleasurecheerful enraptured* peaceful playful pleasantsatisfied amused appreciative whimsical*

Friendliness, Courtesyaccommodating* approving caressing comforting compassionateconfiding cordial* courteous forgiving gracious*helpful indulgent* kindly obliging* pityingpolite sociable solicitous* soothing sympathetictender tolerant trusting

Animationardent* breathless brisk crisp eagerexcited earnest* ecstatic energetic exalted*feverish* hasty hearty hopeful inspiredlively passionate rapturous* vigorous* impassioned*

Romanceaffectionate amorous* erotic* fanciful* ideal*lustful sensual* tender

Tranquilitycalm hopeful meditative* optimistic serenerelaxed soothing spiritual dreamy

TONE (NEUTRAL)

Generalauthoritative* baffled* ceremonial clinical* detached*disbelieving factual formal informative learnedmatter-of-fact nostalgic* objective* questioning reminiscent*restrained* sentimental* shocked urgent

Rational/Logicaladmonitory* argumentative candid* coaxing criticalcurious deliberate didactic* doubting explanatoryfrank* incredulous* indignant* innocent insinuating*instructive oracular* pensive* persuasive pleadingpreoccupied* puzzled sincere studied* thoughtfuluncertain unequivocal* probing*

Self-Controlsolemn* serious serene simple mildgentle temperate* imperturbable* nonchalant* coolwary* cautious prudent*

Apathyblasé* bored colorless defeated dispassionate*dry* dull feeble* helpless hopelessindifferent* inert* languid* monotonous* resigned*sluggish* stoical* sophisticated* vacant*

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TONE (HUMOR/IRONY/SARCASM)amused bantering* bitter caustic* comicalcondescending* contemptuous* cynical* disdainful* droll*facetious* flippant* giddy* humorous insolent*ironic* irreverent* joking malicious* mock-heroic*mocking mock-serious* patronizing* pompous* quizzical*ribald* ridiculing sarcastic sardonic* satiric*scornful* sharp silly taunting teasingwhimsical* wry* belittling haughty* insultingplayful hilarious uproarious

TONE(NEGATIVE)

Generalaccusing aggravated* agitated* angry arrogantartificial audacious* belligerent* bitter brash*childish choleric* coarse* cold condemnatorycondescending contradictory critical desperate disappointeddisgruntled* disgusted disinterested passive furiousharsh hateful hurtful indignant* inflammatory*insulting irritated manipulative* obnoxious* quarrelsome shameful superficial surly* testy*threatening uninterested

Sadnessdespairing despondent* foreboding* gloomy bleakmelancholy* maudlin* regretful tragic

Painannoyed biter bored crushed disappointeddisgusted dismal* fretful* irritable miserablemournful pathetic plaintive* querulous* soresorrowful sour sulky sullen” troubleduneasy* vexed* worried

Unfriendlinessaccusing belittling boorish* cutting derisive*disparaging* impudent* pitiless reproving* scoldingsevere spiteful suspicious unsociable reproachful*

Angerbelligerent* furious livid* wrathful* savageindignant* enraged

Passionfierce frantic* greedy voracious* hystericalinsane impetuous* impulsive* jealous nervousreckless wild

Arrogance/Self-Importanceboastful bold condescending contemptuous pretentious*pompous* supercilious* pedantic* didactic* bombastic*self-righteous* assured confident defiant dignifieddomineering egotistical imperious* impressive smug*knowing lofty peremptory* profound* proudresolute* sententious* stiff saucy*

Sorrow/Fear/Worryaggravated anxious apologetic* apprehensive* concernedconfused depressed disturbed embarrassing fearfulgrave* hollow* morose* nervous numbominous* paranoid* pessimistic poignant* remorseful*serious staid* enigmatic*

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Submission/Timidityaghast* alarmed ashamed astonished astoundedawed contrite* self-deprecatory* docile* fawning*groveling* ingratiating* meek* modest* obedient]obsequious* resigned respectful reverent* servile*shy submissive* surprised sycophantic* terrifiedtimid tremulous* unpretentious* willing

ADJECTIVES FOR USE IN RHETORICAL DISCUSSIONDESCRIBING THE SPEAKERcultured intellectual erudite* well-read sagacious*sensible rational philosophic* analytical imaginativeperceptive visionary* prophetic* optimistic broad-minded*idealistic* spiritual orthodox* unorthodox* sympatheticsophisticated* original whimsical* humorous conservative*liberal* progressive* radical* reactionary* unprejudicedrealistic* romantic* shallow superficial bigotedopinionated* intolerant hypocritical* fanatical* provincial*narrow-minded* sentimental skeptical* cynical*

DESCRIBING STYLE/CONTENTlucid* graphic* intelligible* explicit* preciseexact concise* succinct* condensed* pithy*piquant* aphoristic* syllogistic* allusive* metaphoricalpoetic prosaic* plain simple homespun*pure vigorous* forceful eloquent* sonorous*fluent glib* natural restrained* smoothpolished* classical artistic bombastic* extravagantrhetorical* turgid* pompous* grandiose* obscure*vague diffuse* verbose* pedantic* ponderous*ungraceful harsh abrupt* labored* awkwardunpolished crude* vulgar* formal artificialutilitarian* humanistic* pragmatic* naturalistic* impressionistic*subjective* melodramatic* fanciful* authentic* plausible*credible* recondite* controversial mystical* improbable*absurd trivial commonplace heretical*

DESCRIBING DICTIONhigh or formal low or informal neutral precise exactconcrete abstract* plain simple homespunesoteric* learned cultured literal* figurative*connotative* symbolic picturesque* sensuous* literaryprovincial* colloquial* slang* idiomatic* neologistic*inexact euphemistic* trite* obscure* pedantic*bombastic* grotesque vulgar* jargon* emotionalobtuse* moralistic* ordinary scholarly insipid*proper pretentious* old-fashioned

DESCRIBING SYNTAX loose sentence periodic* balanced* interrupted simple*compound* complex* compound-complex* declarative* interrogative*imperative* exclamatory* telegraphic* antithetic* inverted*euphonic* rhythmical epigrammatic* emphatic incoherentrambling tortuous jerky cacophonic* monotonousspare austere* unadorned* jumbled chaoticobfuscating* journalistic* terse* laconic* mellifluous*musical lilting* lyrical* elegant solidDESCRIBING ORGANIZATION/STRUCTURE/POINT OF VIEWspatial* chronological flashback flash forward* in media res*step-by-step objective* subjective* nostalgic* reminiscentcontemplative* reflective* clinical* impersonal* dramatic*

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omniscient* limited*

DESCRIBING IMAGERY (Substitute these precise adjectives for less precise ones such as vivid, colorful, and powerful.)bucolic* pastoral* gustatory* olfactory* tactile*kinetic* kinesthetic* sensual* sacred sexualauditory* religious animal war/military chaoticDESCRIBING PERSONA (Great substitutions for pretty and ugly!)Physical Qualitiesmanly virile* robust* hardy* sturdystrapping* stalwart* muscular brawny* lovelyfair comely* handsome dainty delicategraceful elegant shapely attractive winsome*ravishing* dapper* immaculate adroit* dexterous*adept* skillful agile* nimble* activelively spirited* vivacious* weak feeble*sickly frail decrepit* emaciated* cadaverous*effeminate* unwomanly hideous homely* course*unkempt* slovenly* awkward clumsy ungainly*graceless bizarre* grotesque incongruous* ghastlyrepellent* repugnant* repulsive odious* invidious*loathsome*

Mental Qualities (Great substitutions for smart and stupid! Which comments would you like to see on your papers?)educated erudite* scholarly wise astute*intellectual precocious* capable competent giftedapt* rational reasonable sensible shrewd*prudent* observant clever ingenious* inventivesubtle* cunning* crafty* wily* unintelligentunschooled* unlettered* ignorant illiterate* inane*irrational puerile* foolish fatuous* vacuous*simple thick-skulled* idiotic imbecilic* witless*deranged* demented* articulate* eloquent*

Moral Qualities (Great substitutions for good and bad!)idealistic* innocent virtuous* faultless righteous*guileless* upright* exemplary chaste* pureundefiled* temperate* abstentious* austere* ascetic*puritanical* truthful honorable trustworthy straightforward*decent respectable wicked corrupt* degenerate*notorious* vicious incorrigible* dissembling* infamous*immoral* unprincipled* reprobate* depraved* indecent*ribald* vulgar* intemperate* sensual* dissolute*deceitful dishonest unscrupulous* dishonorable* base*vile* foul* recalcitrant* philandering* opportunistic*

Spiritual Qualities (More great substitutions for good and bad!)religious reverent pious* devout* faithfulregenerate* holy saintly angelic skeptical*agnostic* atheistic* irreligious* impious* irreverent*profane* sacrilegious* materialistic carnal* godlessdiabolic* fiendlike* blasphemous* unregenerate* altruistic*charitableSocial Qualities (Terrific substitutions for nice and mean!)civil* amicable* contentious* unpolished* sullen*tactful* courteous cooperative genial* affable*hospitable* gracious* amiable* cordial* congenial*convivial* jovial* jolly urbane* suave*anti-social* acrimonious* quarrelsome antagonistic* misanthropic*discourteous impudent* impolite insolent* ill-bredill-mannered unrefined rustic* provincial* boorish*brusque* churlish* fawning* obsequious* sniveling*grumpy fractious* crusty* peevish* petulant*waspish* taciturn* reticent* gregarious* garrulous*

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NOUNS FOR USE IN RHETORICAL DISCUSSION

ANALYZING STRUCTURE/ORGANIZATION/POINT OF VIEWforeshadowing epiphany* analogy* extended metaphor* shiftsparallel structure comparison/contrast transition sequence definitionjuxtaposition* anecdote* frame story* arrangement classificationcategorization placement person (first, second, third)*perspective (chronological, geographic, emotional, political)*

ANALYZING SYNTAXrepetition parallelism anaphora* asyndeton* polysyndeton*subject* predicate* object* direct object* indirect object*phrase* clause* infinitive* participle* gerund*modifier* dependent clause* independent clause* subordinate clause* preposition*conjunction* interjection* deliberate fragment* appositive* emphatic appositive*

semicolon* colon* rhetorical question* noun*comma pronoun* proper noun* common noun* collective noun*abstract noun* concrete noun* dialogue* apostrophe* chiasmus*parenthetical expression footnote capitalization for effect inversion* antecedent*hyphen* dash* active voice* passive voice* tensecatalogue* compound nouns/adjectives

IDENTIFYING GENRE/PURPOSEnovel novella* autobiography* memoir* biographyletter sermon speech treatise* abstract*précis* synopsis critique* personal narrative journeytravelogue essay* diatribe* polemic* commentary*farce* conceit* editorial* tirade* reviewassessment eulogy* elegy* parody* allegory*apology soliloquy* monologue* portrayal archetype*fable* argument verse

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TRANSITION WORDS

Time Place Idea Extending elaboration by comparing

Extending elaboration by contrasting

Extending elaboration by emphasizing/clarifying

Extending elaboration by adding another example

after, afterward,at first, as before, finally, immediately, later, next, now, previously, soon, then

above, ahead, among, beyond, down, elsewhere, farther, here, in front of, in the background, near, nearby, next to, there

first, second, third,similarly, as, in the same way, for instance, likewise, however

as, at the same time, by comparison, equally, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

although, and yet, as, as though, at the same time, but, in contrast, conversely, even so, unlike, even though, however, in spite of, instead of, neither, nevertheless, on the one hand, on the other hand, provided that, though, unfortunately, whereas, yet

especially, for instance, in fact, indeed, that is, in other words

moreover,most important, now, so , additionally, again, also, especially, in addition, in fact, last, again, also, besides, equally important, furthermore, similarly, in contrast

Transition list from Crafting Expository Argument by Michael Degen

THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT

VERBSattack charge claim propose defendchallenge qualify counter repudiate* allege*validate confirm affirm* argue assumeanswer agree/disagree verify resolve concede*grant* generalize specify debate disputeassert

NOUNSwarrant validity plausibility* practicality proposalsolution resolution bias credibility accountabilityvested interest conflict of interests enthymeme* pathos* ethos*logos* counterargument premise* syllogism* deduction*induction* fallacy* ad hominem exigence* speakeraudience purpose message precedent* testimonial*rebuttal* antithesis* non sequitur* circular reasoning* bandwagon*refutation slippery slope* anecdote* advocacy* rhetoric*invective* proponent* assertion adherent * red herring*qualifier* begging the question* justification cause/effect

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Verbs to Use in Analyzing Aim/Purpose/IntentionIn writing about an author’s purpose or intent or in analyzing any aspect of an author’s work, avoid using such weak verbs as “said,” “show,” “state,” and “demonstrate.” Practice using a variety of precise verbs that give a clearer picture of your understanding of an author’s purpose, style, and message.

accuse correlate flatter presentadd corroborate flaunt proclaimaddress create forbid produceadmonish defend foreshadow promoteadvise define formulate proposeaffect defy guide protestaffirm demand harass questionallude deny hint reaffirmamplify describe honor referapologize detail identify reflectascertain deter illustrate reinforceattack detract imply reiteratebalance develop incite relatebeg diminish indicate relayblame direct infer renderboast disagree inquire representbuild discourage insult resemblecause discover interpret revealcertify dismiss introduce rewardcharacterize display invalidate scareclarify draw involve shockcombine effect justify signifycommunicate emphasize juxtapose simplifycompare enable laud specifycomplain encourage lead stemcomplement enforce legitimize strengthencomplicate enhance link suggestcomprehend entail magnify supportconclude entertain mark tauntcondemn envelop maximize teachconfide epitomize minimize testifyconfuse establish mislead tracecongratulate evaluate notify translateconnect evoke pacify urgeconsider evolve paint validatecontinue excite persuade verifycontradict excuse plead vouchcontrast exemplify point warncontribute explain portend weakenconvince express portray yield

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AP Rhetorical AnalysisINTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC

DefinitionsTwo complementary, related definitions

Art of finding and analyzing all the choices involving language that a writer, speaker, reader, or listener might make in a situation so that the text becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners;

Specific features of texts, written or spoken, that cause them to be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners.

Early HistoryAristotle (384-322 BCE)

Aristotle’s statements on rhetoric were fundamental to all Western rhetoricians who followed him; influence was eclipsed by attention to Ciceronian rhetoric that extended through the Renaissance, and by the dismissal of classical rhetoric in the Enlightenment.

Student of Plato who preferred the practical to the transcendental. Like dialectic, rhetoric is concerned with the probable; unlike dialectic, rhetoric is expository rather than dialogic. Defines rhetoric as the ability to see, in each particular case, the available means of persuasion. Wrote broadly on logic, the natural sciences, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and rhetoric. Believed that rhetoric can help to create community and good will. Concentrated on invention, arrangement, and style as the canons (principles) of rhetoric. Major contributions:

o Modes of proof = appeals (logos, pathos, ethos).o Enthymeme (claim + reason) = psychological device central to rhetoric.o Stress on audience as chief information principle.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) Roman orator, teacher of rhetoric, lawyer, and statesman. Extended the canons of rhetoric to include delivery and memory Worked to mediate the controversy around the canon of style.

o Proponents of florid, high-mannered style (Asiatics)o Proponents of plain, neat, severe style (Atticists)

Believed the perfect orator had to be conversant in many subjects, with a command of a wide range of knowledge. Elevated the study of rhetoric as a liberal arts course. Dominated understanding of classical rhetoric up to the Renaissance and after.

Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors, eds. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

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intentiongenre

persona

audience subject/issue

context

The Rhetorical Situation (6 components)

The rhetorical triangle (Aristotelian Triad) suggests that a person creating or analyzing a text must consider three elements:

The subject and the kinds of evidence used to develop it The audience – their knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and beliefs The persona (character of the rhetor) – in particular, who he or she wants the audience to perceive himself

or herself as, based in part on who he or she presumes the audience to be and in part on the textual evidence or proof the rhetor finds most compelling or persuasive

In addition, rhetorical transactions reflect three vital facts: Rhetorical transactions always take place in context – a convergence of time, place, people, events, and

motivating forces – that influences how the rhetor understands, analyzes, and generates the persona, the appeals, and the subject matter material.

Every rhetorical transaction is designed to achieve an aim, a purpose, or an intention. When rhetors consider what aim they hope to accomplish in a particular context, they select an appropriate

type of text, or genre (letter, speech, essay), to achieve that purpose.

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Covino, William A., and David A. Jolliffe. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, and Boundaries. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 1995.

Roskelly, Hephzibah, and David A. Jolliffe. Everyday Use: Rhetoric at Work in Reading and Writing. New York: Pearson Education, 2005.

FIVE CANONS OF RHETORIC

Canons for Written Prose

1. Proofs (invention) Art of generating effective material that is clear, forceful, and convincing

o Non-artistic proofs (laws, witnesses, contracts, oaths)o Artistic proofs (appeals) (see also p. 14 “Aristotle and the Appeals of Rhetoric”)

Appeal to audience’s reason – text presents and develops ideas through specific examples and/or details so that the audience can see the rationality, the logic, the reasonableness of comprehending and accepting these ideas

Appeal to audience’s desire to trust – text appeals to the audience by showing the writer to be a credible person, someone who is knowledgeable and trustworthy, and who has the individual’s best interests in mind

Appeal to audience’s emotions, interests, sympathy – text appeals to the audience by drawing on their emotions and interests, directly or indirectly, so that they will be sympathetically inclined to accept and buy into his or her central ideas and arguments

2. Structure (arrangement) Selecting, marshalling, and organizing ideas to achieve meaning, purpose, and effect

o Is there some section that clearly lets the reader know what subject the text is about and what the writer’s purpose is? If so, where does this section begin and end? In this section, can you find an answer to the central question that the text has been written in response to, or can you find an indication of the text’s central argument?

o Is there a part that explains any background information that the reader needs to know in order to be able to understand the central question or argument? If so where does this section begin and end?

o Does the writer employ a deductive (general to specific, thesis to evidence) or inductive (specific to general, evidence to thesis) approach to the argument? Why?

o Does the writer provide transitional words or phrases that connect the different parts of the text? Do these words or phrases suggest that the writer is continuing and adding on to the material already presented, showing the material following a certain part is a result of what came earlier, or contrasting what comes later with what appeared earlier?

o Is there some sentence or paragraph that focuses the reader’s attention on some particular issue, aspect, or theme that the text will examine, in contrast to others that it might? Is there a sentence that suggests the course that the remainder of the text will take? What is the effect?

o Is there some section that purposefully sets out material in support of the text’s answer to the central question or its argument? Do you detect any of the following methods of development in this section: relating anecdotes or longer stories, describing scenes and evoking sensory images, defining terms and concepts, dividing the whole into parts, classifying the parts according to some principle, or providing cause-and-effect reasoning?

o Is there a part that examines possible objections to the answer, argument, or supporting material? If so, where does this section begin and end? Is there language that suggests the writer wants to counter/refute the objections? Does some language suggest that the writer wants to concede the objections?

o Is there a sentence or section where the writer specifically answers the “so what” question? Is there a direct charge to readers to think or act in a new way after reading the text, or does the writer imply new ways of thinking and acting? What does the writer do with the words, phrases, and sentences in this section to give the text a sound of finality?

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3. Style (elocution) Art of producing sentences and words that make a favorable impression on the audience Analysis of style contributes to the text’s meaning, purpose, effect, and appeals to the

audience – never consists of a listing of features or techniques Involves schemes, tropes, satire, and tone

Canons for Oral Prose

4. Delivery Art of using one’s voice and body effectively when speaking; actively seeking to see you as a

credible, sympathetic, even impressive person

5. Memory Most residual of the oral culture in which rhetorical theory has its ancient roots

o Orator’s memory needed to be trained

Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors, eds. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.

Covino, William A., and David A. Jolliffe. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, and Boundaries. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. Print.

Roskelly, Hephzibah, and David A. Jolliffe. Everyday Use: Rhetoric at Work in Reading and Writing. New York: Pearson Education, 2009. Print.

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Rhetorical Situation

Exigence

Audience

Purpose

Logos

Ethos PathosAppeals

Organization / Structure / Form

Diction Syntax Imagery Tropes

Surface Features

Presented as a component of The Content of Rhetoric Dr. David A. Jolliffe, Professor of English, Brown Chair of Literacy, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas

Rhetorical Analysis Framework by David Jolliffe

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Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation

Persona (character of the rhetor) – in particular, who he or she wants the audience to perceive himself or herself as, based in part on who he or she presumes the audience to be and in part on the textual evidence or proof the rhetor finds most compelling or persuasive

Intention aim, purpose, and claim (argument)

Genre essay, speech, letter, memoir, etc

Subject issue and the kinds of evidence used to develop it

Audience their knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and beliefs

Context a convergence of time, place, people, events, and motivating forces – that influences how the rhetor understands, analyzes, and generates the persona, the appeals, and the subject matter material.

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Analysis to Synthesis

Rhetorical Situation Statement:

A continuous flow of immigrants to America in the early 1900s instilled fear in some Americans who felt the established order would disintegrate. In an address to Congress on April 9, 1924, Senator Ellison Smith fought to preserve the perceived supremacy of the white race by beseeching policymakers to “shut the door” on immigration.

Aristotle and the Appeals of RhetoricLogos, Ethos, Pathos

Appeals to Reason- (logos)

Logical appeals are the reasons given for supporting a particular argument. Examples of logical appeals include the use of evidence, facts and figures, references to current events, and testimony. Effective logical appeals depend upon the ability of the writer to connect the multiple examples of support to each other in meaningful ways.

Incorporate inductive or deductive reasoning Allude to history, great literature, or mythology Provide reputable testimony Provide evidence, facts Cite authorities Quote research or statistics Theorize cause and effect Argue that something meets a given definition

Example:We gotta get these nets. They’re coated with an insecticide and cost between $4 and $6. You need about $10, all told, to get them shipped and installed. Some nets can cover a family of four. And they last four years. If we can cut the spread of disease, 10 bucks means a kid might get to live. Make it $20 and more kids are saved.

Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing But Nets”Appeals to Audience’s Desire to Trust- (ethos)

Ethical appeals are attempts by the speaker/writer to make connections to the audience by appearing knowledgeable, reasonable, ethical, etc. A writer is able to make an effective argument only when readers have no reason to doubt the writer’s character on a given topic. Writers who fail to acknowledge other points of view, exaggerate, or assume a tone of disrespect have difficulty making ethical appeals to readers.

Make the audience believe the writer is trustworthy Demonstrate the writer carefully conducted research Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable Use first person plural pronouns (“we” and “us”) to establish a relationship with the audience

Example:My Fellow Clergymen:While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent statement calling my present activities unwise and untimely,…since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms.

Taken from Martin Luther King, Jr. -- “Letter from Birmingham Jail” Appeals to Audience’s Emotions- (pathos)

Emotional appeals reach the reader by activating the reader’s emotions. Often writers make emotional appeals by including sensory details, especially imagery. Calling upon the reader’s pleasant memories, nostalgia, anger, or fear are frequent emotional appeals found in argumentative texts. The presence of “charged words” (references to religious doctrine or patriotic ideas) in an argumentative text represents an attempt at an emotional appeal by the writer.

Include language that involves the senses and heightens emotional responses Reference bias or prejudice Include a personal anecdote Appeal to the audience’s physical, psychological, or social needs Create figurative language Experiment with informal language

Example:Put it this way: Let’s say your little Justin’s Kickin’ Kangaroos have a big youth soccer tournament on Saturday. There are 15 kids on the soccer team, 10 teams in the tourney. And there are 20 of these tournaments going on all over town. Suddenly, every one of these kids gets chills and fever, then starts throwing up and then gets short of breath. And in 10 days, they’re all dead of malaria.

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Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing But Nets”STYLE ANALYSIS

In AP Language and Composition, in rhetoric, refer to style or figures of rhetoric, instead of figurative language and figures of speech (those terms refer to fiction and are used in AP Literature).

One of the most time-honored methods of elaborating one’s style is to employ figures of rhetoric in a piece of writing. A critical reader will learn to recognize when a writer is using one or more of the figures, just as a mature writer will learn to incorporate them effectively in a composition. H.L. Mencken, great American satirist and social critic, once noted that “style cannot go beyond the ideas which lie at the heart of it. If they [the ideas] are clear, it [style] too will be clear. If they are held passionately, it will be eloquent.”

An analysis of prose style begins with understanding the roles of grammatical competence and diction, as well as the function of tone; it then moves into an examination of specific figures of speech. Rhetoricians divide the figures into two broad categories: schemes and tropes. A scheme is any artful deviation from the typical arrangement of words in a sentence. A trope is any artful deviation from the typical or expected way a word or idea is expressed.

1. Schemesa. parallelismb. isocolonc. antithesisd. zeugmae. anastrophef. parenthesisg. ellipsish. asyndetoni. polysyndetonj. alliterationk. anaphoral. epistrophem. anadiplosisn. antimetaboleo. chiasmusp. erotemaq. hypophorar. epiplexis

2. Tropesa. metaphorb. analogyc. similed. litotes (understatement)e. ironyf. oxymorong. paradox

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Syntax

Syntax is the combination and arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Coordination, subordination, and placement are syntactical techniques for achieving sentence variety. However, sentence variety should not be used for its own sake but rather to express ideas clearly, clarify the relationships among ideas, and emphasize the most important ideas within each sentence.

Coordination

Often, a writer wants to place equal emphasis on several facts or ideas. One way to do this is to give each its own sentence. For example:

Nancy Lopez selected her club. She lined up her shot. She chipped the ball to within a foot of the pin.

But a long series of short, simple sentences quickly becomes tedious. Many writers combine these three sentences using coordination. The coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal importance:

Nancy Lopez selected her club, lined up her shot, and chipped the ball to within a foot of the pin.

By coordinating three sentences into one, the writer not only makes the same words easier to read, but also shows that Lopez’s three actions are equally important parts of a single process.

Subordination

Subordination, the process of giving one idea less emphasis than another in a sentence, is one of the most important characteristics of an effective sentence and a mature prose style. Writers subordinate ideas by introducing them either with subordinating conjunctions (because, if, as though, while, when, after, in order that) or with relative pronouns (that, which, who, whomever, what). Subordination not only de-emphasizes some ideas, but also highlights others that the writer feels are more important.

Of course, there is nothing about an idea – any idea – that automatically makes it primary or secondary in importance. The writer decides what to emphasize, and he or she may choose to emphasize the less profound or noteworthy of two ideas. Consider the following sentence:

Melissa was reading a detective story the night TWA Flight 800 crashed into Long Island Sound.

Everyone knows that the crash of TWA Flight 800 is a more noteworthy event than Melissa’s reading of the detective story. However, the sentence concerns Melissa, not the plane crash, and so the fact that she was reading is stated in the main clause, while the crash is subordinated in a dependent clause.

Generally, writers place the ideas they consider important in main clauses, and other ideas go into dependent clauses. For example:

When she was thirty years old, she made her first solo flight across the Atlantic.When she made her first solo flight across the Atlantic, she was thirty years old.

The first sentence emphasizes the solo flight; in the second, the emphasis is on age.

Placement and Arrangement

The placement of the most important words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning or end of a sentence is another way a writer can achieve emphasis. The ending is the most emphatic part of a sentence; the beginning is less emphatic; and the middle is the least emphatic of all. The two sentences about the pilot put the main clause at the end, achieving special emphasis. The same thing occurs in a periodic sentence. Here is an example from John Updike:

On the afternoon of the first day of spring, when the gutters were still heaped high with Monday’s snow but the sky itself had been swept clean, we put on our galoshes and walked up the sunny side of Fifth Avenue to Central Park.

By holding the main clause back, Updike keeps his readers in suspense and so puts the most emphasis possible on his main idea.

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A cumulative (loose) sentence, on the other hand, states its main idea at the beginning and then adds details in subsequent phrases and clauses. Rewritten as a loose sentence, Updike’s sentence might read like this:

We put on our galoshes and walked up the sunny side of Fifth Avenue to Central Park on the afternoon of the first day of spring, when the gutters were still heaped high with Monday’s snow but the sky itself had been swept clean.

The main idea still gets plenty of emphasis, since it is contained in a main clause at the beginning of the sentence. Yet a loose sentence resembles the way people talk: it flows naturally and is easy to understand.

A centered sentence states its main idea in the middle of the sentence, achieving the least emphasis possible for the writer’s central point.

On the afternoon of the first day of spring, we put on our galoshes and walked up the sunny side of Fifth Avenue to Central Park, when the gutters were still heaped high with Monday’s snow but the sky itself had been swept clean.

Another way to create emphasis is to use a dramatically short sentence. Especially following a long and involved sentence, a short declarative sentence helps drive a point home. Here are two examples, the first from Edwin Newman and the second from David Wise:

Meaning no disrespect, I suppose there is, if not general rejoicing, at least some sense of relief when the football season ends. It’s a long season.

The executive suite on the thirty-fifth floor of the Columbia Broadcasting System skyscraper in Manhattan is a tasteful blend of dark wood paneling, expensive, abstract paintings, thick carpets, and pleasing odors. It has the quiet look of power.

Experienced writers sometimes use sentence fragments when they want to achieve a special effect or emphasis. Such constructions appear more in informal than in formal writing:

The long journey down the river was especially pleasant. A time of rest and tranquility.

Schemes of Balance

Parallelism – similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases or clauses.

.. for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Protection, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. – The Declaration of Independence

We must now hope that Mr. Moynahan will devote his next decade to those four or five more novels which will banish his vacillations and uncertainties, purge his unneeded influences, and perfect his native gifts for language, landscape, and portraiture. – L. E. Sissman, The New Yorker

It is certain that if you were to behold the whole woman, there is that dignity in her aspect, that composure in her motion, that complacency in her manner, that if her form makes you hope, her merit makes you fear. – Richard Steele, Spectator, No. 113

I am a simple citizen who wants to live in peace and not be taxed out of existence or poisoned out of oxygen or sonically boomed out of my sanity and my home by all the things you do to help me, to defend me, to better provide me speed, electricity, national prestige, and freedom from bugs. – Talk of the Town, The New Yorker

Parallelism is one of the basic principles of grammar and rhetoric. The principle demands that equivalent elements by set forth in coordinate grammatical structures. So nouns must be yoked with nouns, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, adverb clauses with clauses. Violations of parallelism are serious, not only because they impair communication but also because they reflect disorderly thinking.

When the parallel elements are similar not only in structure but also in length (that is, the same number of words, sometimes even the same number of syllables), the syntactical scheme is called isocolon:

He is asked to stand, he wants to sit, and he is expected to lie. – Winston Churchill, on the life of a politician

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The addition of symmetry of length to similarity of structure contributes greatly to the rhythm of sentences; however, you should not strive for isocolon every time you produce parallel structure because such regularity of rhythm would approach the recurrent beat of verse.

Antithesis – juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure.

Though studious, he was popular; though argumentative, he was modest; though inflexible, he was candid; and though metaphysical, yet orthodox. – Samuel Johnson, on the character of Reverend Zacariah Mudge, London Chronicle, May 2, 1769

Those who have been left out, we will try to bring in. Those left behind, we will help to catch up. – Richard M. Nixon, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1969

That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. – Neil Armstrong, as he stepped on the moon, Sunday, July 20, 1969

Essex thought him wanting in zeal as a friend; Elizabeth thought him wanting in duty as subject. – Thomas Babington Macaulay, “Francis Bacon” (1837)

It is the best of times, yet the worst of times: we live in unparalleled prosperity, yet have starvation; modern science can perform miracles to save lives, yet we have war; we balance ourselves delicately on the moon, yet destroy the delicate balance of the earth. Young people search for meaning in life, yet are confused, demoralized, frustrated. – Jesse E. Hobson and Martin E. Robbins, from an article in America, December 27, 1969

Nicely managed, antithesis can produce the effect of aphoristic neatness and can win the author a reputation for wit. Antithesis is obviously related to the topics of dissimilarity and contraries.

Zeugma – more than one item in a sentence is governed by a single word, usually a verb.

Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics sessions benefit a person’s heart and lungs, muscles and nerves, and joints and cartilage. (words)

Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics sessions help a person breathe more effectively, move with more comfort, and avoid injury. (phrases)

Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics is the most efficient exercise class, that body-pump participants show greater gains in stamina than participants in comparable exercise programs, and that body pump is less expensive in terms of equipment and training needed to lead or take classes. (clauses)

Use of zeugma stresses the importance of the controlling verb.

Schemes of Unusual or Inverted Word Order

Anastrophe – inversion of the natural or usual word order.

The emotional isolation, the preoccupation with God and themselves, the struggles for freedom, which seem to have possessed many of my friends at the same age, I know almost nothing of. – C. P. Snow, The Search

Because such deviation surprises expectation, anastrophe can be an effective device for gaining attention. But its chief function is to secure emphasis. It is commonplace that the beginning and end of a clause are the positions of greatest emphasis. Words placed in the beginning and end of a clause draw special attention; when those initial and terminal words are not normally found in those positions, they receive extraordinary emphasis.

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Parenthesis – insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentence.

However far the interpreters alter the text (another notorious example is the Rabbinic and Christian “spiritual” interpretations of the clearly erotic Song of Songs), they must claim to be reading off a sense that is already there. – Susan Sontag, Against Interpretation (1969).

There is even, and it is the achievement of this book, a curious sense of happiness running through its paragraphs. – Norman Mailer, from a book review in Cannibals and Christians (1966).

Any theory of post-historical society – our sense of being “in history” is largely determined by the pressure of political and social conflicts – will have to consider the dilemma of human motivations in the just city. – George Steiner, Language and Silence (1967).

The distinguishing mark of parenthesis is that the interpolated member is “cut off” from the syntax of the rest of the sentence. A parenthesis abruptly – and usually briefly – sends the thought off on a tangent. Although the parenthetical matter is not necessary for the grammatical completeness of the sentence, it does have a pronounced rhetorical effect. For a brief moment, the reader hears the author’s voice, commenting, editorializing, and, for that reason, the sentence gets an emotional charge that it would otherwise not have.

Schemes of Omission

Ellipsis – deliberate omission of a word or of words that are readily implied by the context.

Kant, we may suppose, was more startled, by Hume’s apparent destruction of all basis for philosophical certainty; Reid, by the remoter consequences to morality and theology. – Sir Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876).

So singularly clear was the water that when it was only twenty or thirty feet deep the bottom seemed floating in the air! Yes, where it was even eighty feet deep. Every little pebble was distinct, every speckled trout, every hand’s-breadth of sand. – Mark Twain, Roughing It

Ellipsis is a highly sophisticated and rather tricky structure, which should not be confused with ellipsis points (three spaced periods used to show omission in a quotation). If all understood words are not grammatically compatible, the reader may become confused due to the inability to supply the missing words.

Asyndeton – deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses (or single words or phrases – brachylogia).

… and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. – Abraham Lincoln

… that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. – John F. Kennedy

The principal effect of asyndeton is to produce a hurried rhythm in the sentence. Aristotle observed that asyndeton was especially appropriate for the conclusion of discourse, because there, perhaps more than in other places in the discourse, a writer may want to produce the emotional reaction that can be stirred by, among other means, rhythm.

The opposite scheme is polysyndeton, the deliberate use of conjunctions.

And God said, “Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds: cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds.” And it was so. And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the cattle according to their kinds and everything that creeps upon the ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. – Genesis, 1:24-25

I said, “Who killed him?” and he said, “I don’t know who killed him but he’s dead all right,” and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown down and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat

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where I had her inside Mango Key and she was all right only she was full of water. – Ernest Hemingway, “After the Storm”

Schemes of Repetition

Alliteration – repetition of initial or medial consonants or any vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables, especially stressed syllables.

Progress is not proclamation nor palaver. It is not pretense nor play on prejudice. It is not the perturbation of a people passion-wrought nor a promise proposed. – Warren G. Harding, nominating William Howard Taft in 1912.

In prose, alliteration is often used for emphasis and sometimes used for humorous effect: He was a preposterously pompous proponent of precious pedantry.

Anaphora – repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses.

Persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral in it will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot. – Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

Why should white people be running all the stores in our community? Why should white people be running the banks of our community? Why should the economy of our community be in the hands of the white man? Why? – Malcolm X

Whenever anaphora occurs, the reader can be sure that the author has used it deliberately. Since the repetition of the words helps to establish a marked rhythm in the sequence of clauses, this scheme is usually reserved for those passages where the author wants to produce a strong emotional effect.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses.

To the good American many subjects are sacred: sex is sacred, women are sacred, children are sacred, business is sacred, America is sacred, Mason lodges and college clubs are sacred. – George Santayana, Character and Opinion in the United States

Epistrophe not only sets up a pronounced rhythm but secures a special emphasis, both by repeating the word and by putting the word in the final position in the sentence.

Anadiplosis – repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause, often used to highlight a cause-effect relationship.

Labor and care are rewarded with success, success produces confidence, confidence relaxes industry, and negligence ruins the reputation which diligence had raised. – Samuel Johnson, Rambler No. 21

They point out what is perfectly obvious, yet seldom raised: That if you have a lot of things you cannot move about a lot, that furniture requires dusting, dusters require servants, servants require insurance stamps… It [property] produces men of weight. Men of weight cannot, by definition, move like the lightning from the East unto the West. – E. M. Forster, “My Wood,” Abinger Harvest

Antimetabole – repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order.

It ought to be the first endeavor of a writer to distinguish nature from custom, or that which is established because it is right from that which is right only because it is established. – Samuel Johnson, Rambler #156

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. – John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, 1961

The Negro needs the white man to free him from his fears. The white man needs the Negro to free him from his guilt. – Martin Luther King, Jr., from a speech in 1966

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All of these examples have the air of the “neatly turned phrase” – the kind of phrasing that figures in most memorable aphorisms. Would the sentence from President Kennedy’s Inaugural Address be so often quoted if it had read something like this: “Do not ask what America can do for you. You would be better to ask whether your country stands in need of your services”? Schemes add much to the expression of thought.

Chiasmus – reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses

By day the frolic, and the dance by night. – Samuel Johnson, “The Vanity of Human Wishes”

His time a moment, and a point his space. – Alexander Pope, Essay on Man, Epistle I

Chiasmus is similar to antimetabole in that it too involves a reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses, but it is unlike antimetabole in that it does not involve a repetition of words. Both antimetabole and chiasmus can be used to reinforce antithesis.

Schemes of Questioning

Erotema (rhetorical question) – asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something obliquely.

Wasn’t the cult of James a revealing symbol and symbol of an age and society which wanted to dwell like him in some false world of false art and false culture? – Maxwell Geismar, Henry James and His CultWhat! Gentleman, was I not to foresee, or foreseeing was I not to endeavor to save you from all these multiplied mischiefs and disgraces? Was I an Irishman on that day that I boldly withstood our pride? Or on the day that I hung down my head and wept in shame and silence over the humiliation of Great Britain? I became unpopular in England for the one, and in Ireland for the other. What then? What obligation lay on me to be popular? – Edmund Burke, Speech in the Electors of Bristol

The rhetorical question is a common device in impassioned speeches, but it can be used too much in written prose. It can be an effective persuasive device, subtly influencing the kind of response one wants to get from an audience. The manner in which the question is phrased can determine either a negative or an affirmative response. By inducing the audience to make the desired response, the rhetorical question can often be more effective as a persuasive device than a direct assertion would be.

Hypophora – asking a question and immediately answering it in order to demonstrate authority

Who taught me to curl myself inside a buttercup? Iolanthe! Who taught me to swing upon a cobweb? Iolanthe! Who taught me to dive into a dewdrop – to nestle in a nutshell – to gambol upon gossamer? Iolanthe! – Gilbert and Sullivan, Iolanthe

Devil: “Man measures his strength by his destructiveness. What is his religion? An excuse for hanging me. What is his law? An excuse for hanging you. What is his morality? Gentility!… What is his art? An excuse for gloating over pictures of slaughter.” – George Bernard Shaw, Man and Superman

Epiplexis – asking a question in order to reproach or upbraid, rather than to elicit information

In the name of heaven, Catiline, how long do you propose to exploit our patience? Do you really suppose that your lunatic activities are going to escape our retaliation for evermore? Are there to be no limits to this audacious, uncontrollable swaggering? – Cicero, in his first speech against Catiline.

Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors, eds. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.

Lollin, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 4th edition. New York: Longman, 2003.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. Everything’s an Argument. 3rd edition. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004.

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Building an AP Rhetorical Analysis Essay

Directions: When writing your Rhetorical Analysis Essay for the AP Exam and any timed writes we have in class, please use the following process and format.

Step 1. Attack the prompt. Clearly identify what you are to address in your essay. Glean any pertinent information from the prompt and its introduction.

Step 2. Carefully read and annotate the selection looking only for what would help you write your essay.

REMEMBER LOOK First for appeals, then arrangement/structure. AP Readers state that students are most successful when analyzing appeals and arrangement/structure. Style is last and usually very hard for students to connect successfully to purpose. IF you recognize significant uses of style do write about its use. BUT do tie each use back to the author’s purpose. Remember to pay attention to satire and address its significant use when you recognize it. Remember don’t say “the author uses satire…” instead identify the specific technique “ the author uses sarcasm or invective to ridicule and chastise his son….”

Step 3. Follow this format when writing your essay. This is just a very general plan.

Introduction Paragraph

Rhetorical Situation Statement – Remember this is one to three well-written sentences that clearly identifies the author, his/her intention/purpose, genre, subject, intended audience, and context of the piece/excerpt/essay/visual. (PIGSAC)

Thesis Statement – Clearly identify the rhetorical strategies the author uses to achieve his or her purpose.

Body Paragraphs

Write two – four well-developed and well-written body paragraphs on the author’s use of appeals, arrangement/structure, and style to achieve his or her purpose.

Concluding Paragraph

End with the “so-what.” What is significant about the piece?

Many students ask how much do I need to write to receive a higher score? From my observations students need to write at least two full pages. Aim for between two and three full pages.

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AP ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION

General Characteristics of High-, Middle-, and Low-scoring Timed Responses to Rhetorical Analysis Essays

High-scoring essays (7-9)

The most successful essays show evidence that the writers have read holistically rather than atomistically. These essays generally begin by establishing a strong basis and context for the text, and the thesis in a high-scoring essay does justice to the intent and complexity of the author’s writing, often providing unique insight. Abundant and appropriate references are made to the primary text, with writers going beyond merely citing excerpts to assaying their significance to the thesis being developed. These essays also focus on a wide range of strategies that have been examined in the scholarship on rhetorical theory and practice. In addition, these essays describe how the interactions of writer, reader, text, and context lead to the construction of meaning, purpose, and effect. Syntactic fluency, verbal acuity, and smooth incorporation of source material demonstrate a strong, mature prose style. Finally, these best essays provide conclusions that do not merely summarize but address the “so what?” issue.

Middle-scoring essays (5-6)

These essays generally demonstrate that students are knowledgeable about the text being a piece of prose specifically crafted to convey meaning, purpose, and effect to a particular reader – but they often do not perceive the overall purpose or intent the text presents. Instead, they choose to view the text atomistically, claiming that the first part of the text does X and the second part of the text does Y. Moreover, the writers of essays scoring in the middle range frequently lack the vocabulary needed to write specifically about rhetorical strategies. They often present a strong thesis, but it is generally rather bland and straightforward, sometimes vague in its understanding of the text as a whole. The writers quote source material and comment on it briefly in order to connect it to their thesis, but the links are often either very literal or strained. The conclusions tend to be a bit repetitive and summary-like, often returning to language very similar to the thesis.

Low-scoring essays (4 and below)

These essays often show little evidence that the writers understood the purpose of the text or the rhetorical strategies used to convey meaning. When they do mention rhetorical strategies, they merely describe or define isolated features, failing to explain how these features relate to the overall meaning, purpose, or effect of the text. The writers either have no recognizable thesis or a weak one that tends to become lost in the rush to analyze. The essays generally either make rather slight reference to the text and comment on it only obliquely or paraphrase with little analysis. Occasionally the essays suggest that the writer misunderstands the text; sometimes these essays incorporate large, directly-quoted excerpts from text with little or no commentary or explanation. Generally, these essays lack a working vocabulary of concepts from rhetorical theory and practice that they needed to employ in such an analysis.

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How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Purpose and Meaning

Directions: The following are templates can be used to facilitate writing your rhetorical analysis essays in the beginning. In general, a connection of device to meaning should be 3-5 sentences long. The templates below are a starting place; you will eventually learn to vary them to suit your purposes. Use these when you find yourself struggling to get started. At some point you need to go above and beyond these basic templates to write with your own unique style and voice. A connection must articulate the meaning a device suggests and HOW this suggestion is achieved.

REMEMBER!!! Students are MOST successful on the rhetorical analysis essays when they discuss the author’s use of appeals and his/her arrangement/structure. Style is the hardest for most students to connect to the author’s purpose.

APPEALS

When analyzing and writing about how an author uses the appeals to achieve his/her purpose use the following guidelines and examples to write successfully. DO NOT write “the author uses logos to….” OR “the author uses pathos to…” OR “the author uses ethos to…” AP EXAM READERS HATE THIS!!!

Appeals to Audience’s Emotion (pathos) Identify specifically the emotion the author hopes to evoke in the audience Example:

o “As with most social reformer’s, Kelley’s first purpose is to shock the audience into response. She rages against an injustice, and Kelley instills her rage into her audience by using cold statistics as fuel for the fires of rage she hopes to build in her audience. Her goal is to arouse the audience to indignation by simply laying bare the horrors of her cause. She appeals to audience’s sympathy by using facts and descriptions of what child laborers are doing at the moment as they, the audience, sit listening to her speech….”

Note that the student writer:o identifies the author’s purposeo identifies the specific emotion that the author hopes to elicit from his audienceo provides textual references (direct or indirect are appropriate and effective)o connects those references SPECIFICALLY back to author’s purposeo THE STUDENT DOES NOT SAY…”the author uses pathos to achieve his purpose or to appeal to the

audience’s emotion

Appeals to Audience’s Reason (logos) Identify how the text presents and develops ideas through specific examples and/or details so that the audience

can see the rationality, the logic, the reasonableness of comprehending and accepting these ideas Example:

o “To show that David Martin Long’s execution should be carried out as soon as possible, Miller offers a reasoned argument based on two premises: that he wants death and that he deserves it. Miller cites Long’s statement from the day he was arrested, noting that Long himself hoped “they’d hurry up and get this over with.” She emphasizes that this desire has not changed, by quoting Long’s correspondent from 1989, 1991, and 1992. In this way, Miller makes Long’s argument seem reasoned and thoughtful, not simply a temporary gesture of desperation.”

Note that the student writer:o identifies the author’s purposeo provides textual references (direct or indirect are appropriate and effective)o connects those references SPECIFICALLY back to author’s purpose o THE STUDENT DOES NOT SAY…”the author uses logos to achieve his purpose or to appeal to the

audience’s logic

Appeals to Audience’s Desire to trust (ethos) Identify how the text appeals to the audience by drawing on their emotions and interests, directly or indirectly, so

that they will be sympathetically inclined to accept and buy into his or her central ideas and arguments. Ethical 24

appeals are attempts by the speaker/writer to make connections to the audience by appearing knowledgeable, reasonable, ethical, etc. A writer is able to make an effective argument only when readers have no reason to doubt the writer’s character on a given topic.

Note that the student writer:o identifies the author’s purposeo provides textual references (direct or indirect are appropriate and effective)o connects those references SPECIFICALLY back to author’s purposeo THE STUDENT DOES NOT SAY…”the author uses ethos to achieve his purpose or to appeal to the

audience’s sense of ethicso Instead write, “The author establishes his credibility with his audience by…..”

ARRANGEMENT/STRUCTURE Identify how the text is organized. Ask yourself the following questions and find the following elements within the

text:o Does the author identify and/or employ (Where and why?):

Subject Background Thesis Purpose Central Argument or Central Question Deductive or Inductive Reasoning Transitional Words or Phrases Significant Sentences or Paragraphs Evidence in Support of his/her purpose/position ( Does the author provide particular reasons

early or later and WHY?) Possible Objections (Dealt with early or later and WHY?) Answers the SO WHAT Question

Example: However, Miller does not stop there. She gives a grisly description of the murders themselves, followed by

Long’s calculated behavior in the aftermath of simply washing “the hatchet, [sticking] it in the kitchen sink, and [heading] out of town in Donna’s brown station wagon.” Miller’s juxtaposition of reasoned deliberation with the bloody narrative allows Miller to show that Long, in refusing to appeal, is reacting justly to his own sociopathy. Not only is it right that he die; it is also right that he does not object to his death.

In the midst of this reasoned argument, Miller expresses frustration at the bureaucratic inefficiency that is at odds with her logic. She portrays the system as being practically incompatible with her brand of pragmatism. For instance, in spite of Long’s plea, Judge Baraka was forced to appoint one of Long’s attorneys to start the appeals process since “Texas law requires that a death-penalty verdict be automatically appealed.” Miller also mentions Danny Burn, a Fort Worth lawyer in association with the Texas Resource Center, one of the “do-good…organizations whose sole feverish purpose is to get people off Death Row….No matter how airtight the cases.” Burn filed on Long’s behalf, although he never met Long in person. Miller presents these facts to underscore her notion of the death-row bureaucracy as being inaccessible, and by extension, incomprehensible.

STYLE

Diction Identify the grammatical unit (phrase, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) and provide the context in which it appears in

the text. Consider connotation as well as denotation. Do NOT write: The writer uses diction. That’s the equivalent of writing : The writer uses words.

Connect the diction to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

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The phrase* ____________________________ used to describe/identify__________________________________ conveys _______________________ since / because / in that ___________________________________________ ______________. This is significant because _______________________________________________________________________________.

* or the noun, verb, adjective, adverb Example (first half only):

The phrase, “a thin beard of ivy,” used to describe Jay Gatsby’s mansion conveys both intrigue and inexperience. Since the ivy is “thin,” Fitzgerald suggests a wealth without lineage, newly formed and barely veiled; yet, the ivy as a “beard” suggests a worldly desire to conceal. This is significant because through the description of his mansion, Gatsby is portrayed as both ingénue and chameleon, alerting the reader to the protagonist’s dual and perhaps contradictory nature.

Syntax Identify the syntactical choice the author has made and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Do NOT

write: The writer uses syntax. That’s the equivalent of writing: The author uses sentences and paragraphs. Since syntax refers to the order and structure of words, phrases, etc, it always exists – even if you do not find it noteworthy.

Connect the syntax to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The ________________________________ function(s) to ________________________________________________________________________________________________________. This structure supports the author’s purpose to _________________________________________________________.Example:

Gatsby’s interrupted sentences dramatize his nervousness and hesitation as he discusses his upcoming meeting with Daisy at Nick’s bungalow. Stuttering, “Why, I thought – why, look here, old sport, you don’t make very much money, do you,” Gatsby reveals his true vulnerability and weakness showing a stark contrast to the “greatness” that has been established in the early chapters of the novel. Fitzgerald continues to reveal chinks in Gatsby’s armor as the novel progresses preparing the reader for protagonist’s ultimate fall.

Helpful hint:Some other examples of purposeful syntactical choices an author might make: parallelism, anaphora, rhetorical question, appositives, polysyndeton, asyndeton, prepositional phrases, etc. According to Jeff Sommers and Max Morenberg, authors of The Writer’s Options, appositives define, summarize, and clarify. Prepositional phrases may elaborate and clarify by indicating how, where, when, why.

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Imagery (word pictures appealing to one of the 5 senses – if you can’t identify which one, it isn’t a valid example of imagery) Identify the image and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Connect the image to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention

to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:The image of ______________________________ depicts a (picture, sense, state, etc.) of __________ _____________________________ because the reader (sees, envisions, realizes) that ______________ ___________________________________________________________________________________. This is significant because ______________________________________________________________.

Example:

The image of an “argument . . . pull[ing]” Nick back to the party “as if with ropes” conveys his helpless struggle to get away from the gathering in Tom and Myrtle’s apartment at the same time that it dramatizes his fascination with the inebriated and adulterous events that are occurring. The reader can see that much as ropes confine, restrain, and render one helpless, Nick, due perhaps to a lack of experience or a flawed moral code, remains discomfited yet seems unable to confront or reject the lies and pretenses of the party guests. This is significant because the reader must question Nick’s declaration that he is tolerant and honest.

Figurative Language: Metaphor or Simile Identify the metaphor or simile and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Connect the metaphor or simile to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight.

Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The subject of (x) _____________________ is compared to (y) ____________________. This is fitting because (x) _______________________ and (y) ______________________ share these characteristics: (a) ____________________________________ and (b) ______________________________________. This is significant because ______________________________________________________________._

Example:

In his “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. compares the condition of poverty to a “lonely island.” This is a fitting comparison because poverty and a lonely island share these characteristics: (a)isolation and alienation from the “vast ocean of material prosperity” which surrounds them and (b) both are small, singled out, vulnerable, and surrounded by something they don’t possess. This comparison causes the audience to consider the tangible social barriers created by an invisible financial limitation to feel sympathy for the isolated poor.

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Figurative Language: Personification (a figure of speech in which animals, abstract ideas, or inanimate things are referred to as if they were human)

Identify the animal, abstract idea, or inanimate thing and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Identify the human characteristic that is ascribed to it.

Connect the effect of the personification to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

In _______________________________, ___________________is personified as possessing the human

characteristic(s) of ___________________________________________ . The author employs

personification in order to___________________________________________________________.

Example:

"Today, we begin a new chapter in the history of Louisiana. I've said throughout the campaign that there are two entities that have the most to fear from us winning this election. One is corruption and the other is incompetence. If you happen to see either of them, let them know the party is over."

-- Bobby Jindal, Louisiana Governor-Elect victory Speech (as posted on americanrhetoric.com)

In Bobby Jindal’s victory speech, the abstract ideas of corruption and incompetence are personified as possessing human form and consciousness. The governor-elect suggests that members of his audience might encounter or “see” them and should inform them that their good times (“party”) are over. Jindal employs personification in order to assure his audience that he will not tolerate corruption or incompetence in his administration.

Figurative Language: Exaggeration (Remember use the term “exaggeration’ and NOT “hyperbole” [AP Lit]) (deliberate exaggeration used to heighten effect or create humor – remember that this is a figure of speech not meant to be interpreted literally – e.g., I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.)

Identify what is being exaggerated and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Identify Connect the effect of the exaggeration to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original

insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The speaker uses the deliberate exaggeration of _________________________________ to express

_________________________________________________________________________________.

Example:

From Robert Frost’s poem, “After Apple-Picking”

For I have had too muchOf apple-picking: I am overtiredOf the great harvest I myself desired.There were ten thousand fruit to touch,Cherish in hand, lift sown, and not let fall.

The speaker uses the deliberate exaggeration of “ten thousand” to express his extreme weariness of both body and spirit. [Example taken from A Contemporary Guide to Literary Terms by Edwin J. Barton and Glenda A. Hudson (Houghton Mifflin, 2004)]

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Detail Identify the detail and provide the context in which it appears in the text. Describe the function of the inclusion of that detail in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight.

Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:

The detail of _____________________________________________ conveys _____________________

___________________. The author wants the reader to see ____________________________________.

Example:

The detail of the string of polo ponies Tom Buchanan brought east with him from Chicago conveys his vast wealth and hedonism. Fitzgerald wants the reader to see Tom as spoiled and self-indulgent.

Allusion Identify the allusion (indirect reference by an author to another text, historical occurrence, or to myths and legends) and

provide the context in which it appears in the text. Describe the function of the allusion in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original insight. Pay attention

to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.

Model:The author or speaker alludes to ________________________________________ in order to ______________________________________________. Through this reference, the reader connects ___________________________ to _________________ and can more fully understands the author’s purpose to _________________________________________.

Example:“For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn.”Barack Obama

Obama’s allusions to Concord, Gettysburg, Normandy, and Khe Sahn offer examples of struggles that Americans have faced in the past which parallel the unique struggles Americans believe they are currently facing with our economy, environment, and world conflict. Even though the references are meant to show these struggles, the president’s desired effect is to provide hope and resolve to the listener since these battles resulted in victories for America. Citizens are reminded that they can be victorious in our modern struggles.

Satire

Satire: A Critical Rhetorical Technique

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Satire, like any other form of the double-edged sword of criticism, may surely cut, but it may also have a therapeutic effect. It certainly can abuse, insult, or even ridicule, but it can, with just as much certainty, wash and cleanse. Satire inevitably causes discomfort because it is so harsh in its portrayal and evaluation of man; its criticism is direct, intolerant, and most often, unsympathetic. It does not treat man or woman and his or her mistakes or follies with beneficent understanding, since the satirist’s major justification for his savage art lies in his belief in its necessity in a world constantly threatened by vulgarity, vice, pride, folly, and other assorted evils created and perpetuated by man himself.

In one way, satire is a literary genre that blends a critical attitude toward society with humor, holding up human vices and follies to ridicule with the intent to inspire reform. As the audience, we laugh at our own weaknesses and delinquencies, pointed out bluntly by the satirist, which helps free us from guilt and make way for improvement. Satire that ridicules the depravity of others is intended to cause us to seek a remedy or redress.

Satire can also be considered a technique that blends a censorious attitude with humor and wit for the purpose of improving human institutions or humanity. It is best approached in terms of point of view rather than subject or form. It is often the tone of the text that determines whether or not the work may be correctly labeled as satire.

Satirists attempt through laughter and gentle prodding not so much to tear down as to inspire remodeling; however, it is important to note that the satirist feels a genuine sense of outraged injustice or righteous indignation. His criticism has a feeling of moral mission or purpose, and he attempts to evoke correction by exposing the evils he sees by making them appear ridiculous and by inspiring attitudes of amusement, contempt, scorn, and indignation toward the subject. To accomplish this purpose the satirist recognizes the valuable device of humor. No one likes to be criticized, and no one is more aware of this fact than the satirist himself. He uses humor on the one hand to soften his criticism so that it will be more readily accepted, and on the other to prevent any desire to imitate the foibles being lampooned.

In either case, the satirist must have an audience that shares with him a commitment to certain intellectual and moral standards that validate his attacks on aberration. The greatest satire has been written in periods when the satirist could be of his society and yet apart, could exercise a double vision.

History and Classifications

The word satire comes from the Latin satur, meaning well-fed and satura, a dish of mixed ingredients. The earliest satirists were the Greeks. In his play The Frogs, Aristophanes upbraided his contemporaries for their moral and intellectual sloth and civic disunities. If the Greeks, with such men as Archilochus and Aristophanes, experimented with literary satire, it was in Rome that the art was perfected at the hands of Horace and Juvenal, whose works directly influenced the development of satire in the western world.

Formal satire may be divided into two major categories, each named for its distinguished practitioner. The easiest way to differentiate between the two is through an examination of tone.

• Horatian satire is characterized by a cheerful, urbane, tongue-in-cheek tone. The writer of Horatian satire attempts to make readers smile through sympathetic humor at the foibles committed by the individuals under attack. He does not anger his readers nor make them feel moral indignation; he aims to correct by employing broadly sympathetic laughter.

• Juvenal, who lived in the first century A.C.E. denounced Roman society, the rich and powerful, and the discomforts and dangers of city life; therefore, Juvenalian satire is bitter, angry criticism filled with personal invective and moral indignation. It points with contempt and indignation to the corruption of human beings and institutions and strives to produce in the reader both contempt and moral indignation for those vices and corruptions committed by man. Jonathan Swift’s essay “A Modest Proposal” is a classical example of formal, Juvenalian satire.

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Other methods of classifying satire might be to divide it according to whether is formal and direct or informal and indirect. That which is formal and direct occurs when satiric voice speaks in first person, such as in Swift’s “A Modest Proposal.” Informal and indirect satire occurs when the characters themselves reveal their folly and ridiculousness through their own actions, words, and thoughts. The best examples of this classification are found in drama. Shaw, Molière, Ben Jonson, and Noel Coward, to name the more famous, have fully exercised their satiric wit upon the stage.

Genres and Mediums For centuries after its origin, satire was reserved for drama and long poems such as Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Alexander Pope's Rape of the Lock; however, Dryden, Swift, Pope, Addison, and Steele used both formal and informal essays for satiric purposes. In modern times, The New Yorker is an excellent source for satire. The films How to Love the Bomb and Dr. Strangelove make telling satiric comments on war. Cat Ballou and Blazing Saddles satirize clichéd Hollywood westerns. Magazines such as Mad and comic strips such as “Pogo” and “B.C” are all suitable instruments for commenting upon human foibles and affairs. And, of course, the sitcom Seinfeld provides a wealth of opportunities to study the technique of satire.

Satire is at home in any genre and adaptable to any medium, and it may be found in poetry, drama, short stories, novels, newspaper editorials, cartoons, art, films, and conversation. Therefore, satire may best be described as a manner of expression and, in fact, may frequently be an incidental element in many works of art and is most frequently combined with irony.

Targets for Satire Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) believed that with a blend of humor and criticism, a satirist inspires correction; he spares the name because a name points to an individual rather than to general patterns of human behavior. Swift believed that satire should attack only those aspects of society that are correctable. However, many satirists aim at the individual and may not restrict themselves to moral or social issues.

Satire then may be aimed at almost any target: individuals (Dryden’s “Absalom and Achitophel”); any special sort of person (Shakespeare’s portrayal of certain aspects of Falstaff’s character in Henry IV); a social class (Chaucer’s treatment of the friars in The Canterbury Tales); an institution (Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest); the U.S. Army and Air Force (Heller’s Catch-22); a prevailing philosophy (Voltaire’s Candide); social manners (Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest); modern progress (Huxley’s Brave New World and Orwell’s Animal Farm); or even the whole race of mankind (Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels).

On occasion, satire can cause social change when used to make a political or social point (although simply revealing absurdities to the public, as opposed to the quality of the satire, may be the actual cause of any consequences). For instance, the comic strip Doonesbury satirized a Florida county that had a racist law that minorities had to have a passcard in the area; the law was soon repealed with an act nicknamed the Doonesbury Act.

Rhetorical Techniques Ridicule, irony, exaggeration, and several other techniques are almost always present. The satirist may insert serious statements of value or desired behavior, but most often relies on an implicit moral code, understood by his audience (ethos). The satirist’s goal is to point out the hypocrisy of his target in the hope that either the target or the audience will return to a real following of the code. Thus, satire is inescapably moral even when no explicit values are promoted in the work, for the satirist works within the framework of a widely spread value system. Many of the techniques of satire are devices of comparison, to show the similarity of contrast between two things (antithesis): a list of incongruous items, oxymoron, metaphors.

The satirist has at his disposal an immense variety of literary and rhetorical devices: beast fables, dramatic incidents, fictional experiences, imaginary voyages, character sketches, anecdotes, proverbs,

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homilies, invective, sarcasm, burlesque, irony, mockery, raillery, parody, exaggeration, understatement, wit – anything to make the object of attack abhorrent or ridiculous. Amid all this confusing variety, however, there is pressure toward order – specifically, from the arraignment of vice and appeal to virtue.

One creative response the satirist makes to social and legal pressures is to try by rhetorical means to approach his target indirectly; that is, a prohibition of direct attack fosters the maneuvers of indirection that will make the attack palatable: irony, burlesque, and parody. It is a nice complication that the devices that render satire acceptable to society at the same time sharpen its point.

Satire is an element not only frequently overlooked but also misunderstood; yet, it often provides the insight and understanding necessary to unlock the true purpose and meaning behind a work.

Burlesque, a common form of satire performed physically, is a distortion of a form or genre in which the style of presentation is not suited, often the opposite, of the subject matter. A serious subject may be treated frivolously or a frivolous one seriously. The sublime is made absurd; normal emotions are presented as extreme sentimentality and vice versa.

Parody as opposed to burlesque, is the distortion of a particular work or author for comic effect or ridicule. The parody may closely follow but either exaggerate or underplay the emotions and actions of the original work. Both literary fiction and performance satire are the most common forms of parody.

Irony is usually accompanied by a grim sense of humor, a detachment and cool expression on the part of the writer when emotions, in reality, may be heated. Irony can be achieved with hyperbole - extravagant exaggeration or by using understatement. In drama, irony involves knowledge held by the audience but hidden from the relevant characters. Performers may use words that seem to pertain to their situation and mean one thing to them but have a different meaning to the audience who has a more complete understanding of the scene.

Ridicule is the objective of satire. Presenting the subject or characters as absurd, preposterous or laughable is the essence of satire.

Sarcasm is a caustic and bitter expression of disapproval masquerading as praise and is usually harsher and more direct than irony. Example: Let me introduce you to a bar of soap, apparently a thing whose acquaintance you have not yet made.

Invective is an outburst of censure involving an insult or abuse. Example: You are possibly the stupidest individual that has yet walked upright on the face of the earth.

Innuendo is an indirect suggestion or insinuation and bears a closer relationship to irony. Example: Might I persuade you to stop breathing in my airspace?

Affectation is an absurd form of hypocrisy. Characters take on or display attitudes or behaviors not natural or not genuinely felt. Example: Dearest sweet child, you simply must desist that intolerable bellowing.

Exaggeration literally means to heap up. Specifically in satire it means to overstate or enlarge beyond bounds of the truth. Hyperbole is the literary term for using exaggeration to make a point by overstatement. Example: She's as tough as a junkyard dog. (cliché) More original: She sprinkles arsenic on her cornflakes at breakfast and eats it with a side of nails.

Understatement is the ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. Example: "It's just a flesh wound." (Black Knight, after having both of his arms cut off, in Monty Python and the Holy Grail)

Caricature - the subject's distinctive features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce a comic or grotesque effect.

Reversal - When the satirist uses/describes the opposite of what he actually wants to happen in order to make a point…Example: When Colbert discusses the Mexican “invasion” of Hollywood,

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he truly means that he does not mind the “immigration” but comments on the irrational fear conservatives have of Hollywood and immigrants.

Mock Heroic - Imitation, exaggeration and distortion of literary epic style. Example: The garbage man, tall and strong, lifted his glittering can of rubbish as if it were a feather, and with the strength of Thor, hurled it into the dumpster.”

Wit - Satirists use wit to make readers laugh at their own faults. They hope that readers will recognize their weaknesses and correct them. Wit often combines incongruous ideas in a humorous and unexpected way. Example: Glass, china, and reputation are easily cracked and never well mended. – Benjamin Franklin

Analyzing SatireA basic organizational plan for analyzing satire follows a four-part process:

Identify the individual, institution, or society that is the target. Identify and explain the failing/foible under attack. Explain how the rhetorical strategies are used to ridicule or condemn. Explain the desired change.

Satire is an element not only frequently overlooked but also misunderstood; yet, it often provides the insight and understanding necessary to unlock the true purpose and meaning behind a work.

Griffin, Dustin. Satire: A Critical Introduction. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1995. Paulson, Ronald. The Fictions of Satire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967. Paulson, Ronald. Satire: Modern Essays in Criticism. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971. Worcester, David. The Art of Satire. New York: Norton, 1969.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Satire Techniques Template

When __________ uses ______________________ in ___________________________________ , (author) (rhetorical strategy) (Quote)

he exaggerates/ridicules/parodies/ the______________________________________. This makes the (human failing / foible)

reader examine or think differently that perhaps one should __________________________________. (desired change)

AP Argument

The Rhetoric of Argumentation

Structure of Arguments

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Stephen Toulmin (The Uses of Argument, 1958), a British philosopher, is credited for developing a practical tool for shaping argument in the real world.

Claim – statement or assertion the writer hopes to prove; must be controversial or debatable.o Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet.o NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.o Trinity University needs more parking spaces for motorcycle parking.

Data and Reasons – evidence that backs up the claimo Personal experience : At least three times a week for two terms, a student had been unable to

find a parking space for his bike.o Anecdotes : Several of the student’s best friends told similar stories; one had even sold her

bike as a result.o Facts : The ration of car to bike parking spaces was 200 to 1, whereas the ratio of cars to

bikes registered on campus was 25 to 1.o Authorities : The campus police chief had indicated in an interview with the college newspaper

that she believed a problem existed for students trying to park motorcycles. Warrant – logical and persuasive connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting

it; general principle that enables the writer to justify the move from a reason to a specific claim; the assumption the claim seem plausible; a shared value or principle with the audience.

o Sound example: Claim/Reason: The Electoral College should be abolished because it gives small

states undue influence. Warrant: No individual state(s) should have undue influence on presidential elections

o Unsound example: Claim/Reason: The legal age for drinking should be lowered since I’ve been drinking

since age fourteen without problems. Warrant: What works for me should work for everyone else.

Evidence – data to support your warrant (backing) and your claim (grounds) Qualifiers – words and phrases that place limits on claims (few, in some cases, under these

conditions, possibly, routinely, etc.)o Unqualified claims

People who don’t go to college earn less than those who do. Welfare programs should be cut.

o Qualified claims In most cases, people who don’t go to college earn less than those who do. Ineffective federal welfare programs should be identified, modified, and, if necessary,

eliminated. Conditions of rebuttal – acknowledge of objections/alternative viewpoints

o Refutation – denial of the truth or accuracy of somethingo Concession – admitting of a point; acknowledgement

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. Everything’s an Argument. 4th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. 139-171. Print.

Transaction of Arguments

Enthymeme Pattern of rhetorical reasoning in a text Cousin = syllogism, the most important tool used in deductive reasoning, but not very interesting

rhetorically.o Major premise – irrefutable generalization about the world.o Minor premise – statement that falls under the general category

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o Conclusion – statement that logically follows from the major and minor premises. Classic example

All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Modern example All U.S. citizens who are single, under 65 years old, and earn more than

$7,200 must file a federal income tax return. Casey Smith is a single U.S. citizen under 65 who earned $7,300 last year. Therefore, Casey Smith must file a federal income tax return.

Enthymeme = highly rhetorical. Differs from syllogisms in 2 ways.

o Starting point = an assumption, a statement or proposition that the writer presumes the audience accepts and that the writer can build an argument upon.

o Because the writer presumes that the audience believes and accepts the assumption that holds the major-premise slot, that part of the argument frequently is not stated directly and explicitly.

Example All those who are equally responsible by law for their actions should

receive equal rights under the law (may not be universally accepted – not as fact-based as major premise in a syllogism).

Sojourner Truth has been called upon to take responsibility for her actions. Therefore, Sojourner Truth should receive the same rights as men do

under the law.

Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors, eds. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.

Covino, William A., and David A. Jolliffe. Rhetoric: Concepts, Definitions, and Boundaries. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. Everything’s an Argument. 4th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007. Print.

Roskelly, Hephzibah, and David A. Jolliffe. Everyday Use: Rhetoric at Work in Reading and Writing. New York: Pearson Education, 2005. Print.

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Argument Timed Essays: PossibleTasks

Take a position on an issue Defend, challenge, qualify a position Propose a solution or compromise Identify most compelling or persuasive Evaluate effectiveness Evaluate validity Evaluate pros/cons of an issue

Argument Terminology

defend support, agreechallenge

refute or oppose or disagree

qualify To what extent is the assertion true or untrue? To what extent do you agree or disagree? Okay, but…

Argument prompts ask you to support your position in one of the following ways:

With evidence that is specific With evidence derived from your observation, experience, or reading By drawing on your own knowledge and experience By using your own critical understanding of . . . By using appropriate evidence or support Using relevant evidence from modern public discourse can impress the AP Readers

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Use the Graff template below to respond to a passage of some length.Graff Template

The general argument made by _________________________________ in his/her work ______________________ (Author’s name) (Title)

______________________________ is that _________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

More specifically, he/she argues that _______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

He/she writes*_________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this passage, _______________________ is suggesting that __________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In conclusion, ________________________’s belief is that ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In my view, __________________________ is wrong/right because ______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

For example, __________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________. Although ________________________ might respond or counter

that _________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

I maintain that _________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

*Here you may use paraphrase, summary, or direct quotation. If a direct quotation is used, it may not exceed 6 words in length. (The above Graff Template adapted from Gerald Graff, Clueless in Academe.)

Argument Templates

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Choose one of the prompts on the previous page and complete the templates below as an exercise in “developing a position.” The templates are drawn from “They Say/I Say” The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing by Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein (Norton, 2006 – ISBN 10: o-393-92409-2 pbk.). I have adapted the first two templates to focus on “evidence from your reading, observation, and/or experience.” The Test Development Committee uses those words in the prompt so often because they believe that you can relate in some way (that is, “through your reading, observation, and/or experience”) to the topic of the prompt. These templates can also be used in response to defend, challenge, or qualify prompts.

TEMPLATES FOR DEFENDING

I agree that ________________________because I have read in _________________that _______________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

I agree that ______________________________________________________________________________,

a point that needs emphasizing since I have observed that so many people seem to believe _______________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

I agree that _______________________________________________________________________________

because my experience with _________________________________________________________________

confirms it.

TEMPLATES FOR CHALLENGING

I disagree with the notion that ________________________________________________________________

because recent studies that I have read show ___________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________.

X’s claim that _________________ rests upon the questionable assumption that _______________________.

X is mistaken because he/she overlooks ___________________________.

By focusing on _______________, X overlooks the deeper problem of _______________________________.

I disagree with the notion that ________________________________________________________________

I disagree with the notion that ________________________________________________________________

because too often I have observed ____________________________________________________________.

I disagree with the notion that ________________________________________________________________

because my experience with _________________________________________________________________

shows me that ____________________________________________________________________________.

TEMPLATES FOR QUALIFYING

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Although I grant that _______________________________________________________________________,

I still maintain that _________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________.

Proponents of ____________________________________________________________________________

are right to argue that ______________________________________________________________________.

but they exaggerate when they claim that ______________________________________________________.

Though I concede that ________________________, I still insist that ________________________________.

On the one had I agree that__________________________________________________________________.

But on the other hand, I still insist that _________________________________________________________.

TEMPLATES FOR ADDRESSING THE OPPOSING SIDE

Here many ________ would object that _______________________________________________________.

But ________ would certainly take issue with the argument that ____________________________________.

________ of course, may want to dispute my claim that __________________________________________.

Nevertheless, but _______ and __________ will probably argue that ________________________________.

TEMPLATES FOR CONCLUDING (GETTING TO THE SO WHAT?)

X matters / is important because _____________________________________________________________.

Although X may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over _______________________.

Ultimately, what is at stake here is ___________________________________________________________.

_______________ have important consequences for the broader domain of __________________________.

Although X may seem of concern to only a small group of _________________, it should concern anyone who cares about _____________________________________________________________.

TEMPLATES FOR ARTICULATING YOUR ARGUMENT APPROPRIATELY

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Introducing the Argument:

In discussions of ________________________________________________________________, one controversial issue has been ________________________________________________________________.

Establishing the Importance of the Issue:

The question of _______________________________________________________________ matters because ________________________________________________________________________________.

Ultimately, what is at stake here is ____________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________.

Making Concessions:

While it is true that ________________________________________________________________________,

it does not necessarily follow that _____________________________________________________________.

Anticipating and Refuting Counterargument:

Although some may say that ________________________________________________________________,

I would answer that ________________________________________________________________________.

Concluding Your Argument:

In making a case for _______________________________________________________________________,

I am (or am not) suggesting that _________________________________________________________________.

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Directions: When writing your Argument Essay for the AP Exam and any timed writes we have in class, please use the following process and format.

Step 1. Attack the prompt. Clearly identify what you are to address in your essay. Glean any pertinent information from the prompt and its introduction.

Step 2. Carefully read and annotate the selection/quote/ task. Be sure you understand key vocabulary given. If they ask you to evaluate and MANY prompts do, be sure that you EVALUATE! If the prompt asks you to examine the extent to which something holds true today, be sure that you offer relevant evidence from modern public discourse. Remember all our class practice with prompts and do your very best to meet all requirements set forth for you in the prompt.

Step 3. Follow this format when writing your essay. This is just a very general plan.

Introduction Paragraph

Address the following questions:Provide a clear explanation of the writer’s assertion, contextualizing the issue for readers and explain why the issue is important enough to consider. The reader’s have carefully selected an issue that they believe most high school students can address effectively.

What is the issue at hand? Address the complexity of the issue. What is the writer’s claim/assertion related to the issue? What evidence does the writer offer in support of the claim/assertion?

Body Paragraphs Provide evidence that supports your assertions and opinions Offering evidence from modern public discourse can set you apart Be sure your evidence is LOGICAL and CONVINCING ADDRESS the OPPOSING VIEWS - Be sure that you address and discuss those that might

not agree with your position or ideas

Concluding Paragraph

Don’t merely summarize! End with the “so-what.” What is significant about the issue? How should we continue

forward in regards to the issue? How will the issue continue to influence readers’ lives?

Many students ask how much do I need to write to receive a higher score? From my observations students need to write at least two full pages. Aim for between two and three full pages.

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AP ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION

General Characteristics of High-, Middle-, and Low-scoring Timed Responses to Argument Essay

High-scoring essays (7-9)

These essays generally begin by contextualizing the issue at hand for readers, explaining to them briefly why educated, informed citizens ought to read on. Generally, the thesis in a high-scoring essay does justice to the complexity of the issue being considered while foregrounding the writer’s position. Evidence and explanations used are full, appropriate, and convincing; the argument as a whole is especially coherent and well developed, demonstrating sophistication, thoroughness, and acuity. Finally, these best essays provide conclusions that do not merely summarize but address the “so what?” issue: How should educated, informed citizens continue to think about the issue at hand? How will it continue to influence readers’ lives?

Middle-scoring essays (5-6)

These essays generally provide a relatively brief contextualizing statement that helps readers understand why they should engage the issue at hand. They often present an adequate thesis, but it is generally rather bald and straightforward and does not do much to accommodate the complexity of the issue. Evidence and explanations used are appropriate and sufficient; the argument as a whole is developed and coherent. The conclusions tend to be a bit repetitive, often returning to language very similar to the thesis.

Low-scoring essays (4 and below)

These essays seem to indicate that the writer is overwhelmed by the task. The writers either have no recognizable thesis or a weak one that tends to become lost in their rush to provide evidence or an opinion. Evidence or explanations used is generally inappropriate, insufficient, or less convincing; the argument itself is inadequately developed and has lapses in coherence. Occasionally, the essays suggest that the writer misunderstands the prompt or the purpose; sometimes these essays exhibit mere self-expression rather than the characteristics of an argument.

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ANALYZING VISUAL ARGUMENTS – SCANS

Use the SCANS chart as a template for note-taking when presented with a visual. Remember that the genre of the visual may determine which questions are relevant to your observation.

SubjectIdentify the subject of the visual: determine as much as possible from the information provided what the context, date, and subject matter are

Contents

Identify: major components, such as characters, visual details, colors, symbols verbal clues, such as titles, tag lines, date, author, dialogue the positions/actions of any characters, especially relative to one another or

to their surroundings traits of the characters or objects significant images, including repeated or patterned imagery composition lines (parallel, crossing)

Attitudes

Notice position and size of details: exaggerations, focal points, or emphases of other kinds

Notice details that create positive or negative reactions to characters or objects portrayed in the visual

Does the author indicate alternative viewpoints? Does the place and environment create mood? What are the reactions of other characters to the central character(s)? Is there any irony in the way characters or situations are portrayed? How do

you know it’s ironic?

Narrative

Does there appear to be any conflict? What are the attitudes of the characters to the conflict? How does that conflict seem to be progressing?

Does something refer to an event or person in literature or history? What do you know about this literary or historical person or situation?

What do the actions of the characters or their relative positions say about them and their relationships?

Symbolism

Do some of the concrete items represent abstract ideas? What colors are used and what do these colors symbolize? Are there contrasts of lightness and darkness, of color, of shape, of size? How do composition lines break up or align parts of the image?

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the various details, what can you say is the artist’s purpose in creating this piece?

What is the artist’s attitude or feeling about the subject portrayed in the image?

based on material from Eva Arce, Barbara Murphy, Frames of Mind (DiYanni and Hoy), and It’s No Laughing Matter – Analyzing Political Cartoons

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