http://whol.st/oreyFresh

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

While TheWoodland Homestead is aboutmy 25-acre freehold intheAdirondacksofnorthernNewYork,it isalsosomethingmore:it’s a collection of ideas, techniques, and experiments in self-sufficiencythathavecomefromotherstryingtocarveoutabetter,more rooted life in this admittedly inhospitable region. AmongthosetowhomI’mmostindebtedaremyclosestneighbors:Ralph,Mike,Elaine,Tom,Rose,Dan,Sara,andJoe.I’malsogratefultothelocal Amish community in Burke, New York, which hasenthusiastically shared its traditional way of life and routinelymakes a point of demonstrating the virtues of horsepower overmachinepower.I’dalsoliketothankmystudentsandcolleaguesatPaulSmith’sCollegeforexcusingmewhenIarrivedlatetoclassonhorseback and for continuing to act excited when I bring themarmloads of stump-grown squash from my forest garden. Twoformerstudents,BillyandMarin,deservespecial thanks for theirfeedback on this book; they will no doubt both be fabulouswoodlandhomesteaderssomeday.I’dalsoliketothankAlesia,Joy,and Tatiana for encouraging me to pursue this book in parallelwith my dissertation work at Antioch University New England.Throughout the book you’ll also find a number of profiles ofinnovative homesteaders; thanks to all of them for sharing theirexpertise.

Writing a book is an exercise in both faith and endurance. I’dliketothankwriter,homesteader,andfriendJennaWoginrichfortellingme, “Of course youneed towrite a book.” That’s faith. I’dalsoliketothankmyeditor,CarleenMadigan,forhersolidvision,goodwit, and sage advice. Finally, I’d like to thank allmy family

andfriendswhotoleratedmewhileIworkedonthisbook.Youareallsaints.

Tomyparents,BillandPatty,whogavememyfirstaxeatagefive,andmyfirstchainsawateleven.

Whowouldhaveknown?

Contents

Foreword

Preface

1.SeeingtheForestThroughtheTrees:HowtoUnlockYourWoodlot’sPotential

TakingStock

EvaluatingYourOptions

YourWoodlandEye

2.ToolsandTechniques:EssentialsfortheHomesteadWoodlot

TheAxe

FromRustytoTrusty:RestoringanOldAxe

FellingandChopping

ThePeavey

TheBowSaw

TheChainsaw

SplittingFirewood

SkiddingLogs

ThePortableSawmill

3.AnimalsintheForest:FromStumpstoGreenerPastures

Silvopasture

TheClosed-LoopSilvopastureSequence

PorkPowerforStumpsandSoil

TakingStockofLivestock

MultispeciesGrazing

4.TheCoppiceForest:Fauna,Fodder,Fuel,andFurniture

ABriefHistoryofCoppiceForestry

EstablishingaCoppiceWoodlot

CreativeWoodlotTending

CoppicewithStandards

FaunainYourForest

CoppicingforFodder

CoppicingforCharcoal

ForestFurniture

5.WoodlandStructures:FromLivingFencetoLivingBarn

FencingPsychology

AShortHistoryofLivingFences

LivingFencesfortheHomestead

InosculationHedges

TheLivingFencepost

FormerlyLivingFenceposts

BuildingwithStumps

Shelterbelts

TheLivingBarn

6.GivingTrees:Fruit,Honey,andSyrup

TheHomesteadOrchard

DecidingWhattoGrow

TheMultipurposeForestMicro-Orchard

TheArtofPlanting

ResurrectingtheWoodlandOrchard

BeesintheWoodlandHomestead

CellarandCider:EnjoyingtheHarvest

TheHomesteadSugarbush

7.FarmingtheForestFloor:Nuts,Berries,Mushrooms,andMore

Hügelkultur:AWhole-TreeCompostingSystem

CultivatingForestEdibles

Edibles,Medicinals,andMiscellany

Baskets,Burls,andBirchBark

ATypicalWoodlandHomesteadCalendar

Resources

Index

OtherStoreyBooksYouWillEnjoy

Copyright

ShareYourExperience!

Foreword

If you’ve ever beenout “cruisinga timber stand”with a forester,chances are you’ve encountered a wedge prism: a small beveledpiece of glass that the forester holds at arm’s length and looksthroughtodeterminewhichtreesaretobetalliedandwhichonesare “out.” (Brett gives you the homesteader’s version of thisexpensivedevice,madeoutofapenny,withinthefirsttenpagesofthis book. So by the time you buy the book, you’ve already savedmoney!)

Well-versed in suchprofessionalprescriptiveassessmentsof aforested parcel, Brett McLeod nonetheless opts to trade in thewedge prism for a viewing glass that is kaleidoscopic in nature.

WhenyoustartreadingTheWoodlandHomestead,Brettwillhaveyou looking inmultipledirectionsallatonce: forward,backward,up, down, winter, summer. Yourwoodlot will become an endlessand evolving source of projects andproducts. You’ll learnhow tothinkaboutyourwoodlandnotonlyasanecosystembutalsoasan“ecologyofpossibilities.”

Homesteaders like myself have too often thought of thehomestead as a requisite clearing in the woods. In fact, aretrospectiveofWesternandparticularlyAmericanhistorybeginsto look like a history of clearings, paving theway (quite literallynow) for civilization. Iwould argue thatweneedmore gems like

TheWoodlandHomestead toremindusof thepathwaysbacktoamore deeply cultured future, one that understands the forces ofnatureasalliesandnotperpetualantagonists,onethatappreciatestheshadowsasmuchasthesunlight.

Crafting one’s place in this world is a nearly a lost art, andBrett’ssageadviceonhowtobringanaxebacktolifeisasmuchametaphoricalstatementasitisapracticalguide.Tobringbackthe

axeistorekindlethewarmsatisfactionofwell-honedskills(evenifyouarepersonallyabitrusty)—tooptonoccasionforrestorationinlieuofsimplybuyingintoamanufacturedexistence.

Coppicing, living barns, silvopasture, the forest as larder andpharmacy...it’sallhere.Whatfollowsarepagesuponpagesofthewisdomofamaster—someonewhohassetouttomasternottheforest but rather the skills needed to live as part of a thrivingecosystemthatproducesfarmorevaluethan“stumpage.”Indeed,we live in an age of stumps, but this book challenges the notionthat a forest’s value is best measured when the trees are allhorizontal.

Youmaynot be able to judge a book by its cover, but you candarnwellmeasureanauthorbyhis orherhome. The first time Ientered Brett’s home deep in the Adirondacks, I walked into anartisan’shomagetothe landscapeandthetraditionssurroundinghim.Brett’shomeisasmuchofthewoodsasitisinthewoods.Mayyou be as inspired by his book as I am by his homestead, hiswisdom,andhiswit.

—PHILIPACKERMAN-LEISTauthorofUpTunketRoad:TheEducationofaModernHomesteaderandRebuildingthe

Foodshed:HowtoCreateLocal,Sustainable,andSecureFoodSystems

PrefaceWhy anyone chooses to homestead remains a mystery to many,especiallymymother.Whywould aperson choose to giveup thecomforts of modern living and consciously return to a point intime when life was tougher, grittier, and less forgiving? I’vewrestledwiththisquestionmyself;itseemsevenmorevalidwhenyou’rechasinghogsdownthehighwayorbuildingalogcabinwithanaxebecausethat’swhatGranddaddid.However, longaftertheblistershave turned tocallusesand theneighborshavebeenpaidoffwith eggs for the hogs rooting up their yards, I’m leftwith asimpleconclusion:it’sjustabetterwaytolive.

This conclusion isn’t entirelymyown. I’vehad thepleasureofintegrating homesteading and my particular flavor of it —

woodlandhomesteading—intomyworkasaprofessorofforestryand natural resources at Paul Smith’s College, and as a doctoralstudentatAntiochUniversityNewEngland.Thelessonsthatcomeoutof thisbookrepresentnot justmyowntrialsand tribulationsbutalsoideasfromoveradozenwoodlandhomesteaderswhohavechosentolive,work,andplayinplacesthatmostwouldwriteoffas“toowild”or“notfarmable.”Theresultisacollectionofideasandtechniquesfromthemostinnovativeandresourcefulfolksyou’veevermet—peoplewhoseeanimpenetrableclumpoftreesaslow-cost animal housing, or a high-graded stand of timber as acommunity woodshed. This ability to develop perspective, seeopportunity where others do not, and then offer ingenious andinnovativesolutionsisthemarkofawoodlandhomesteader.

Realizingyourdreamofawoodlandhomestead is toughwork,requiring both sweat and patience. The productivity of yourwoodlandcanbehighlyvariableandwillbedependentonclimate,soils, and how the land was used by previous owners.What this

bookoffers isanew lens for takingstockofyourwoodland,withthe goal of unlocking its untapped potential. This perspectiveminimizes commercial production of forest products and insteadfocusesonmaximizingutilityforyou,thewoodlandhomesteader.Bycombiningnewperspectiveswitholdideas,we’relikelytorevealhomesteading’smostfundamentallesson,eloquentlysummarizedby Wendell Berry: “When going back makes sense, you’re goingahead.”

C H A P T E R 1

SeeingtheForest

ThroughtheTrees

HowtoUnlockYourWoodlot’sPotential

Manyhomesteadersdevotethemselvestocarefullymakingplans for their garden, hoop house, or chicken coop, buttheyoverlookthehomesteadwoodlot.Justbeyondtheedgeof your lawn is a hidden gem, disguised as thick bramblesand gnarled trees. If properly managed, these patches ofwoodland—whetheraquarteracreorahundredacres—offeryoutheopportunitytocultivatebothadditionalgroundandamoresustainable,self-relianthomestead.

JustWhatCanThe

WoodlandHomesteadOffer?

C O N S I D E R T H I S

Inasingleyear,ona1-acrehomesteadforest,youcandothefollowing:

GROWAFACECORDOFFIREWOOD,usinglong-lostforestrymethodsthatdatebacktomedievalEurope.

HARVESTFIVEBUSHELSoffruitfromyourhomesteadorchard.

MAKETWOGALLONSofmaplesyrup.

SAVEMORETHAN$200bygrowingyourownfenceposts.

GROW$100ofwildmushrooms.

SAVEMORETHAN$300onfeedforyoursmalllivestockbyusingnaturalforage.

GROWENOUGHWILLOWSWHIPStoweaveabasketforyourbountifulharvest.

TAKINGSTOCK

Thefirststepinrealizingthedreamofturningyourwoodlotintoawoodlandhomesteadistotakestockofboththepotentialofyourlandandyourgoalsforit.Aspartofthisprocess,it’simportanttoconduct a basic inventory. This inventory will tell you if yourambitions are in line with the potential of your land. If, forexample, your goal is to produce firewood through coppicesprouting(describedin )andyourinventoryrevealsthatyour woodlot is entirely white pine (a species that isn’t ideal forfirewoodanddoesn’tcoppice),you’llneedtoeitherreevaluateyourgoalsorcometotermswiththetimeandenergyneededtoconvertyour forest to a coppice system.On the otherhand, an inventorymay reveal opportunities thatyounever considered. Imagine, forexample,discoveringa long-lostorchardorawildgrapevineyardjustbeggingforalittlehelp.

A basic woodlot inventory should consider parcel size,topography,siteaccess,speciescomposition,andforeststructure.

chapter4

It’sworthmentioningthatwhiletheterms“woodlot,”“woodland,”and “forest” will be used throughout the book, we’re obviouslytalkingabout amuchwider rangeof goods than just commercialwoodproducts.

MEASURINGTHEWOODLOT

Woodlotsizeistheobviousstartingpoint,becauseitwillallowyouto evaluate your wants and needs in the context of the land’scapacity.If,forexample,youknowyouneedfivecordsofwoodtoheatyourhomeforthewinter,butyourwoodlotisonlyaquarterof an acre, you’ll quickly realize that you won’t be able tosustainably fulfill all your firewood needs. (See for tips onestimatingfirewoodproductionpotential.)

Sohowdoyouestimatethesizeofyourland?Ifyourwoodlotisroughly square or rectangular, simplymeasure andmultiply thewidthbylengthtogetthetotalsquarefootage.Toconverttoaperacrebasis,divideby43,560,thetotalnumberofsquarefeet inanacre. If the landyou’remeasuringeither isvery largeor includesdifficult terrain, itmaymakemore sense to estimate the lengthand width by pacing rather than by using a tape measure ormeasuring wheel. Most people have a pace (two steps) thatmeasures between 4 feet and 5 feet, though it’s useful tocalculate your own pace for more accurate measurements (see

).For irregularly shaped land parcels, consider using aerial

photographs, which are available online, along with conversiontoolsfordeterminingtheexactsizeofyourlotbydigitallytracingtheperimeterofyourpropertywiththeclickofamouse.Walkingtheboundarytomeasureaparcelalsogivesyouanopportunitytoevaluatethetopography,orlayoftheland.You’llwanttonotethe

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Pacing101

location of areas that could be problematic, including swamps,cliffs,orevenpoisonivypatches.Alsonoteareasthatmightoffergreater efficiency in laying out your wooded homestead. Thesemay include south-facing slopes (ideal for early-season growing),existingtrails,andnaturalsprings.

WHATKINDOFWOODLANDDOYOUHAVE?

Whenforesterstalkabout“speciescomposition,” theyareusuallyreferring to both the number of tree species present and therelativeabundance,orpercentage,ofeachspecies.Havingagoodgauge of species composition, size, and age of these trees (foreststructure) is considered essential to managing your woodlot,regardlessofyourgoals.

Forestersuseavarietyofstatisticaltoolstoinventorywoodlots,but in this section we’ll describe just one of the simplesttechniques: fixed-radius plot sampling. The goal of all forestsamplingistoaccuratelyinventorythewoodlotwithouthavingtocountormeasureeverytree.Onceyouhaveanaccurateinventory,you’ll be able to develop realistic andmanageable goals for yourhomestead.

PACING101

Ifyou’renotsureofyourownpace,youcaneasilycalibrateityourself.Here’show:

Measureaknowndistanceusingatapemeasure.Longerisbetter(200feetisgood),andwillyieldmoreaccurateresults.

Startoutwithyourrightfootasthefirststep,andcounteverytimeyourleftfoothitstheground.Thisdoublesteprepresentsonepace.

Tocalculateyourpacelength,dividethecourselengthbythenumberofpaces.Inmycase,the200-footcoursetook40paces,givingmea5-footpace(seebelow).

It may be useful to calibrate your pace on different terrain.Your pace will shorten going uphill and lengthen goingdownhill.

Fixed-RadiusPlotSampling

Tobegin fixed-radiusplot sampling,you’llneeda 50-foot flexibletapemeasureandanotebooktorecordyourfieldnotes.Whilethisprocedurecanbedonealone,you’llfinditmuchfaster(andmoreenjoyable) if you’re able to find a friend to help. Using circularplotsinsteadofsquaresorothershapesispreferableforacoupleofreasons: circles are faster to lay out than other shapes becausetrees can be inventoried using a sweepingmotion,much like thearmsofaclock.Thisensuresanefficientandaccurate inventory,freeof“missed”trees.

DeterminetheSizeandNumberofPlotsNeeded

DeterminetheSizeandNumberofPlotsNeededObviously, smaller plots are faster and easier to inventory thanlarger ones, but you’ll also need more of them to construct anaccurate sample. An accurate inventory for most woodlandhomesteadscanbederivedfroma10percentsample.Toillustratethis, let’sconsider thefollowingexample. Imagineyouhavea10-acrewoodlot. Ifwe stick to a 10percent sample, thatmeans thatwe’ll need to inventory a total of 1 acre. Of course, we wouldn’twantto just inventory,say, the1acreclosesttothebarn,becausethat wouldn’t necessarily be representative of the other 9 acres.Instead, let’s make 10 plots, each of an acre, and distributethemrandomlythroughoutthewoodlot.Usingbasicgeometry,wedeterminetheradiusofa -acreplottobe37.2feet.

DeterminethePlotLocationsAcommonerrorinforestsamplingisplacingtheplotsinlocationsthatareconvenientasopposedtotrulyrandom.Thisoftenresultsin a forest sample that underestimates what is actually there,becauseof thesampler’spropensity tonaturallygravitate towardmore open areas. Conversely, seeking out big trees can lead tooverestimating.

If the woodlot is fairly uniform in composition, one commonsampling technique is to lay out a transect line (apredeterminedbearing for sampling) through the woodlot, and place the plotcenters equidistant along a line. If the woodlot is large enough,multiple sample stripsmay be created; justmake sure that yoursampleplotsdon’toverlap.Similarly,makesurethatyourfirstandlastplotsalongthelinefallentirelywithintheforest,andnotonaroadorfieldedgethatwouldmakeyoursampleartificiallylow.

PlanYourInventoryandGoals

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PlanYourInventoryandGoalsWhattypesofproductsyou’d like toharvest fromyourwoodlandwilldeterminethekindofdatayouneedtocollect.Forexample,ifyou want to harvest trees to saw into lumber, estimating thenumberoflogsineachtreewillbeimportant.Ontheotherhand,ifpromoting animal forage or shade for livestock is your goal, logvolumes are likely irrelevant. In any event, you should collectinformationon the tree species,diameteratbreastheight ( ),and relative condition of the trees (living/dead/diseased). Thisinformation is easily arranged in columns in a notebook; just besuretokeeptrackofwhichtreesarelocatedinwhichplots.

BeginYourInventoryBeingable to identify the trees inyourwoodlot is the firstkey tobeginning your inventory and, ultimately,managing it. If you’reunsureofthespecies,youcanconsultyourlocalnaturalresourceagencyorCooperativeExtensionoffice.Forsuggestedfieldguides,see .Onceyouhaveidentifiedyourplotcenters(Iliketotie colored flagging to a wood stake), take a compass bearing tomarkyourbeginningpoint.Tobeconsistent,Iusuallystartwithatrue north bearing. Working from the plot center to the outsideedge (37.2 feet forourexample), systematically recordeach tree’sspecies,diameter(>1inchDBH),andcondition.Youcanalsocutaropeorstringtolength,whichwillmaintaintheproperradiusandsaveyoufromrepeatedlyrollingandunrollingyourtapemeasure.

Untilyougetthehangoftakingthediameteroftreesatbreastheight, youmay want to use a stick cut to 4 feet as a way toensureaccuratemeasurement.Measuringthediameterofthetreecanbedonewithavarietyofforestrytools(aBuiltmorestick,treecalipers, or diameter tape), but you can also use the samemeasuring tape that you used to find the plot radius and simplywrap the tape around the tree at breast height to find the

DBH

Resources

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circumference.Convertingfromcircumferencetodiameterisjustamatterofdividingthecircumferencebypi(3.14).Thechartoffersanexampleofhowyoumightorganizeyourfieldnotes.

TallyYourResultsOnceyou’vesampledyourforest,it’stimetoconvertthedataintousableresults.Inourexamplewesampled10plots,each acre.Thismeansthatweinventoried10percentofourwoodlot,or1acretotal.Thisisaconvenientsamplingstrategybecauseitmeansyousimplyaddall the trees together togetyourresultsonaperacretotal. Being able to describe the forest on a per-acre basis isimportantbecauseitallowsyoutounderstandwhethertheforestis overstocked (too many trees), understocked (too few trees), orsomewhere in between, based on your management goals.Calculating the average diameter by species and the relativeabundance(percentofeachspecies)isalsousefulforestablishingmanagementobjectivesforyourwoodlot.

UseYourDatatoMakeDecisionsTheresultsofyourinventorywilltellyouwhetheryourobjectivesmatchwhatyourforestisabletoprovide.Alogicalstartingpointisto look at species composition; in other words, what trees aregrowing on your land and how abundant they are. The simplestbreakdown is a split between coniferous (cone-bearing) anddeciduous (leaf-bearing) species. Ingeneral, conifersarebetteratgrowingclosetogether,meaningthatyoucanhavemoretreesperacre without the forest being overstocked or crowded. Theconifer/deciduous split is also useful for understanding sitequality,withdeciduoustreesgenerallypreferringless-acidicsoils.

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Examining what species are present tells you not only what’spossible in terms of present output but also what the futurepotential of the forest is.A forestwitha lot of sugarmaple treessuggestspotentialasa futuresugarbush.Adenselypackedforestof tall red pine trees, on the other hand, is destined to bereincarnatedasalogcabin.

INVENTORYFIELDNOTES

*Theabbreviation“spp.”referstothefactthatawildapplemaybefromanyofnumberofdifferentspecieswithinthegenus.

HOWBIGAREYOURTREES?

Species and number of trees per acre only tell part of yourwoodland’sstory.Thesizeofthetreesisalsoimportant.Imagineadenseforestwith,say,100giantold-growthoaktreesperacre.Nowimaginea1-acrefieldwith100oakseedlings.Both“forests”have100treesperacre,buttheyarequitedifferent.

CalculatetheBasalArea

Forestersuse theconceptofbasalarea todescribe theamountofforestoccupiedbytrees.Onewaytovisualizetheconceptofbasalareaistoimagineafreshlycutforestfullofbreast-heightstumps.Ifyouweretotallythetotalareaof1acreofthisforestcoveredinstumps(expressedinsquarefeet),thatwouldbethebasalareaperacre. This is a useful metric of stocking because it takes intoconsideration the size of each tree,not simply itsmerepresence.The basal area of each tree can be calculated from the diametersyou recorded for each tree in your field book by squaring thediameter, then multiplying that number by 0.00545415. As anexample, consider the 15-inch DBHwhite pine in our tally sheet.Thearearepresentedbythatonetreeiscalculatedasfollows:

(15×15)(0.00545415)=1.23squarefeet

However, if all thismath is taking the funout ofmanagingyourwoodlot,considerusingthepointsamplingmethod,whichoffersaquick-and-dirtywaytodeterminebasalarea. (See

) This is considered bymany to be themostessentialforestmeasurementtool.Bestofall,itonlyrequiresapennyandastring.

PointSamplingwith a Penny and a String

ABOVE: Basalareacanbethoughtofasthetotalarea(usuallywithinanacreofland)occupiedbystems4 feetabovethe

ground.Calculatingthebasalareaofyourwoodlotwillhelpyouunderstandwhetherit’sover-orunderstocked.

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EVALUATINGYOUROPTIONS

Ifyou’vemadeitthisfar,youshouldbecongratulatedonsurvivingWoodlot Math 101. Now that you’ve completed a full forestinventory, or at least a basal area count, you’re able to beginobjectivelyanalyzingthewoodlotandevaluatingyouroptionsasalandowner.

As previously mentioned, the number of trees per acre is oflimitedvaluesinceitsaysnothingofthetrees’size(thoughitdoestellusaboutthefuturepotentialoftheforest,asdiscussedinthefollowingsection).Basalarea,incontrast,canbeextremelyusefulfor making management decisions related to stocking, or theamountofwood inyourwoodlot.As in a garden, if there are toomany plants competing, nothing will thrive. Conversely, if therearetoofewplants,growingspaceisn’tmaximized.

Generally,coniferforestswillhaveahigherbasalareabecausetheir conical shape requires less growing space. The sprawlingcrowns of deciduous trees takemore space, thereby reducing theoptimalbasal-areatarget.Asageneralrule,you’llwanttoshootfor120to220squarefeetofbasalareaperacreforconiferstands,and80 to 150 square feetofbasalareaperacre forhardwood stands.Rememberthatthesearejustguidelines,though,andaresubjecttochange based on specific forest conditions and your goals as alandowner.

To further illustrate this point, imagine you have a 10-acrewoodlotthatyouwantedtomanageforfirewood,maplesap/syrup,animal fodder,and fruitproduction.Let’sassume that this forestconsists primarily of amix of sugarmaple,American beech, andquaking aspen, along with a few wild apple trees. Using theinformation collected during the inventory, we find that the

woodlothas210 square feetofbasal areaperacreand thatmorethan50percentofthetreesaresugarmaples,ranginginsizefrom2inchesto15inchesDBH.Thisalonetellsusseveralthings.

First, at 210 square feet of basal area per acre, this hardwoodforestisseverelyoverstocked,meaningthatthetreesarecrowded,especially if we’re looking to produce maple sap, which isdependentonhaving large, sprawlingcrowns (thinkmore like50square feet of basal area per acre). The high proportion of sugarmaple trees is encouraging, but depending on their sizedistribution,atleastsomeofthesugarmapletreeswilllikelyneedtoberemoved.Thepresenceofbeechmaybeeitherablessingorahindrance.Ontheonehand,ifthetreesarehealthyandproducingnuts,youhaveapotentialgoldmine.Ontheotherhand,ifthetreessufferfrombeech-barkdisease,whichisacommonmaladyintheNortheast, removingthemforfirewoodandthen implementingacoppicefirewoodharvestingsystemmightmakemoresense.Asforthe apple trees, it will be important to release and prune them,since shaded fruit treeswillhave lower fruit yields than those infullsun.

This simple example is meant to illustrate how you mightapproach your woodlot in a way that’s logical and considersmultiple factors simultaneously. However, there’s plenty that aninventory won’t reveal about the landscape that can only beunderstoodbydevelopinga“woodlandeye.”

YOURWOODLANDEYE

Beyondthescienceofcreatinganinventoryforyourwoodlotistheartofdevelopingawoodlandeye.Askillfulwoodlandeyeisableto

readthelandscapelikeahistorybook,teasingapartpastusesandrecognizingpotentialopportunities.

Geographywilldictateyourstartingpointforreadingtheland.IgrewupinNewEngland,whereaneighboringfarmertaughtmetheartofreadingstonewallsas iftheywereinscribedwithdatesandatimelineoftheiruses.LaterImovedtoAlaska,wherefellowlumberjackstaughtmetoagestumpsonthebasisofnotonlytheirdecaybutalsotheaxemarks,includingthescarfofthenotchandthemysterious “pockets” that were chopped into the side of thetrunk to support a “springboard” in lieu of level ground. I nowhomestead in the Adirondack Mountains of northern New York,where the landscape offers its own set of clues about the past aspart of an enduring yet humble history. Hand-dug and dry-laidfoundations point to a time when subsistence homesteadingprevailed over production agriculture. This is also indicated bymodest pastures, small orchards, and family-size root cellars. Totheseearlyhomesteaders,managingtheir landforfuel,food,andanimal fodder was essential to becoming more self-reliant. Inmanycasesamixoftraditionalknowledge,folklore,andtrialanderror helped homesteaders read the land and create the mostproductivewoodlandhomesteadpossible.

Whilewemaynothavethebenefitoffarmerorforesterlineage,wecanstilldevelopawoodlandeye.Let’sstartatgroundlevelandworkourwaythroughthewoodlot.

POINTSAMPLING

WithaPennyandaString

Instead of using fixed-radius plot sampling, some forestersuseamethodknownaspointsampling(orvariable-radiusplotsampling),whichsamples treesbasedonsize rather thanonhow frequently they are found in the woodlot. This isparticularlyuseful if you’remanaging for timberor firewoodorlookingtogrowasugarbush.

Youcanlayoutyourpointsamplethesamewayyou’dlayoutafixed-radiusplot,alongatransectlinewithpredeterminedplotcenters. However, instead of having a fixed plot area, yourplotswillbevariableandbasedonthesizeofthetreesinthewoodlot. Handy for us, a penny is just the right width forrepresenting 10 square feet of basal area when heldapproximately 25 inches from your eye. To get that distancejustright,tapea25-inchstringtothesideofthepenny,holdingthe string by your eye with one hand, and the pennyoutstretched with the other. Starting at a known bearing(again I recommend true north), look down the string at thepenny and line it up with the tree closest to you at breastheight.Doesthepennyextendbeyondthewidthofthetrunk?Ifso,it’s“out”andwon’tbecounted.If, incontrast,youcanseethetrunkoneithersideofthepenny,thetreewillbecounted,measured,andrecordedas“in.”Ifthereareanumberoftreesfor which the penny lines up perfectly with the width, you’llwanttocounteveryothertreeas“in.”Onceyou’vecountedallthe “in” trees, simply multiply by 10 to get the number ofsquarefeetofbasalareaperacre.Thisnumberwillserveasausefulguideasyoubeginmanagingyourwoodlot.

Manypeopleaskhowthismethodcouldworksincetreesthatarefartherawayfromtheplotcenterwillappearsmallerandwillthereforelikelybecountedas“out,”whileasimilarlysized

treelocatedclosertotheplotcenterwouldbecountedas“in.”Themagicofthesevariable-radiusplotsisthatthereisafixedrelationshipratio involvingthe lengthoftheangle’ssidesandthedistancebetweenthetwosidesatanypoint.Usingapennyjusthappenstocreatethisperfectangletoallowforaccuratesamplingwithout theneed fora fixedradius.Anotherway tothinkaboutthisisthatthepennygaugeisabletogeometricallyreconcileandadjustforcloseorfartreesbyvirtueofananglethat decreases the odds of being “in” as distance from thecenterpointincreases.

ABOVE: Thetreeontheleftwouldbeconsidered“in”;thetreeontherightwouldbeconsidered“out”andwouldn’t

betallied.

DBH

What’sItAllAbout?

Earlywoodsmen established diameter at breast height (DBH)as a standard measurement for tree diameters. DBH ismeasured 4 feet above the ground. If you find yourselfmeasuringonahillside,makesureyoutakethemeasurementontheuphillside.Whymeasuresohigh?Thereareacoupleofreasons.First ispracticality:4 feet isacomfortableheightfor working, since each tree is measured with either adiametertapeor,insomecases,asetofcalipers.Thesecondreasonisthatmosttreeshaveflaredorflutedbuttsthattaperdrasticallyinthefirstfewfeet;ifweweretomeasureclosertotheground,we’dlikelyoverestimatethetree’svolume.Finally,theheightofthemeasurementmeansthatinventoryworkcanbe completed year-round, even if the ground is covered insnow.Justmakesuretouseasharpstickoroldskipoleasastafftoensureyou’rereallymeasuringtheheightfromgroundlevel.

SOILTYPESANDTREECOMMUNITIES

Truly understanding the potential of your woodlot requires anunderground history lesson that that helps explain what growswhere,andwhy.Sometimeduringthelastglaciation,whichbegan

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about40,000yearsagoandendedabout 11,000yearsago, an icesheetseveralkilometersthickcoveredmostofthenorthernUnitedStates and Canada. As the ice melted and receded north, whatremainedwere landforms dominated by glacial till and outwash.Glacial till consists of poorly sortedmaterials (silt, sand, pebbles,cobbles,andboulders)thatweredepositeddirectlybeneathandatthefrontoftheicesheet,oralongthesidesofvalleyglaciers.Muchof the landscape was covered with a mantle of till after the iceretreated; till-dominated landforms included rolling, hummockymoraines and teardrop-shaped drumlins. Outwash is relativelywell-sorted sand and gravel that was deposited by fast-movingglacialmeltwatersthatformednearthefrontoftheretreatingice.Outwash deposits are common on broad valley floors or as sand-and-gravel terraces on valley walls where meltwater streamsenteredglaciallakes.

TESTINGYOURSOIL

Whileindicatorspeciesandthephysicalpropertiesassociatedwith soils offer a good starting point for evaluating thegrowingpotentialofyourwoodlot,basicsoiltestsofferawayto assess and quantify the chemical properties of your soil,which is important to ensure that your desired plants aregettingthenutrientstheyneedtobepartofahealthywoodlotcommunity. The most basic soil test evaluates pH, or thealkalinity/acidity of soil. In the context of woodlandhomesteading, thiswillbeyourmost importantpieceofdata.Additionaldataregardingnutrientlevelscouldbehelpfulifyouwished to introduce new plants to the site that may have

different nutritional requirements. Below are four soil testoptions,frombasictosophisticated.

HomemadepHTest

You can determine whether your soil is alkaline (sweet) oracidic(sour)usingacoupleofingredientsinyourfridge.Beginbycollectingapproximately cupofthesoilyou’dliketotest.Besuretodigdowndeepenoughsothatyou’recollectingtheactualsoilandnotthesurfaceduff.Withyoursoilsampleinaglassjar,add cupofvinegarandwatch.Ifthesoilbeginstobubble, or make a fizzing sound, it’s alkaline. If there’s noreaction, take a fresh cup of soil in a new container andadd cupdistilledwater,followedby cupbakingsoda.Ifitbubblesor fizzes,youhavehighlyacidicsoil.Amendingsoilonasmallscale(aroundasinglefruittreeorberrybush,forexample)canbedonebyaddingwoodashor lime if it’ssour,or pine needles if it’s too sweet. (See , forguidelines.)

ApHTestKit

Yoursecondoption is topurchaseapH test kit at your localgardencenterorhardwarestore.Themostcommonkitsarelitmuspaper tests (thinkhighschoolchemistryclass). Litmuspaper tests are inexpensive and offer reasonably accurateresults.Aswiththefirsttest,you’llhavetomixdistilledwaterwiththesoiltoobtainanaccuratereading.

ApHSoilProbe

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Resources

ApHSoilProbe

Another option is to use a battery-operated pH soil probe,whichgivesinstantreadings,allowingyoutoeasilytestthepHon different parts of your property. Soil probes capable ofmeasuringsoilmoisture,temperature,andothervariablesarealso available but are often cost prohibitive for the frugalwoodlandhomesteader.

CooperativeExtensionService

YourfourthoptionistotakeadvantageofyourlocaluniversityExtension service. In most states, the Cooperative ExtensionServicewillconductacombinedpH,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumtest foranominal fee (or for free insomeplaces).Youwillneedtoprovideyourowncleancontainerforyourdryand clearly labeled soil sample. Soil labs are often overrunwith requests for soil analysis in the spring, so considersubmitting your sample in late summer or fall,well after therush.

From an agricultural standpoint, soils that have formed onoutwashdeposits tend to benutrient poor, since sand and gravelhaveverylowwaterretentionandcation-exchangecapacities(theability to chemically retain nutrients). However, the absence oflargerstonesinoutwashsoilstemptedmanysettlerstotrytofarmthese lands. Some crops, such as potatoes and other rootvegetables,areabletogrowonoutwash,whileothercropsneedthehighernutrientcapacityassociatedwithglacialtill.Thepassageoftimehasconvertedtheseoldfieldstoforests,withthecurrentsuite

oftreesofferingimportantcluesaboutthesoilbelow.Asageneralrule, conifer species are more tolerant of both harsher climaticconditionsandnutrient-pooroutwashsoilsoracidicbedrock,whilemost deciduous species prefer fertile glacial till. The

chart offers a summary of severalcommonwoodlotspecies,alongwiththeirpotentialusesbasedonsoilquality.

As you develop your woodland eye, you will notice not onlyindividual species of trees but also entire communities. Forestersoftenrefertothesecommunitiesbynamingthetwoorthreemostcommon species. In the northern hardwood forest, a commoncommunity indicative of good soil fertility would be sugarmaple/yellowbirch/Americanbeech; in thePacificNorthwest,anexample of a common forest community is Sitka spruce/yellowcedar. Also, don’t discount groundcover species as revealingimportantcluesaboutthesoil.Nettles,forexample,despitebeingpainfullyannoying,aregenerallyanindicatorofrich,fertilesoils,asarefloweringspringephemerals.

STONESANDTHESTORIESTHEYTELL

Asimportantasthesoilbelowarethestonesonthewoodlotfloor.Roughly rounded cobbles and boulders are more common onglacial till–dominated sites; these stones have been smoothed bythegrindingactionoftonsof iceadvancingacrossthe landscape,pulverizingandtumblingbedrockquarriedfromthesurface.Youmight also see rock types unlike those present in local rockoutcrops; this isagood indicatorofmaterialbrought toyour sitefrom a distance by ice. Angular or jagged stones on the surfacemightalso indicatea relatively thincoverof tillandsoil, and theproximityofbedrock.

DominantForest Species & Their Uses

Outwash-dominatedsitestendtobeflatbecausethesedimentsweredepositedbyrunningwater.Typically,theseareasaredevoidoflargestonesonthesurface;thisisbecausethesortingprocessofmeltwater streamswould have deposited coarse sand to softball-size stones, rounded bywater. Jagged stones indicate rich glacialtill.Theabundanceofmultipleshapesandsizesoftillstonesacrossthe Northeast, unfortunately for early homesteaders, meanthaving to move millions of them each spring. However, asbackbreaking as moving them was, the stones provided animportantmaterial.Insomeplaces,woodwasbecomingrarebythemid-19thcentury,butstoneswerealwaysplentiful.

ReadingStoneWalls

Knowing a few things about the construction of stone walls canoffer important clues if your property includes these agrarianrelics. First, what does the wall look like? Is it haphazardlyconstructed?Ifso, it’spossiblethatthewallwasn’tevenintendedtobeawall;instead,itwaslikelyarockdumpforafieldthatwaspicked of stones and cultivated each season. Second, howbig arethestones?Wallscomposedprimarilyoflargerstonesdenoteareasthat were likely used as pastures or hay fields; small stones(smallerthanasoftball)wouldhaveonlybeenpickedinafieldthatwascultivated.Finally,isthegroundhigherononesideofthewallthantheother?Ifso,it’slikelythatthesidewherethegroundlevelis higherwas plowed,with each successive year’s furrow stackeduponthelast.

Beyond historical interest, these relics offer important cluesintotheland’shistoryandpotentialproductivity.OnmyownlandI’veusedthesecluestodeterminewhichareaswillbereclaimedaspastures, which will be silvopastures (a hybrid system thatcombinesgrazing landwithwidely spaced crop trees), andwhich

arebestleftasworkingforests.Notsurprisingly,thehomesteaderswho settled the land before me had a good sense of the land’sproductivity.I’vesinceconductedsoilteststhroughoutthewoodlotandpasture,andfoundthattheiruses(judginglargelybythecluesleftbehindfromthestonewalls thatsurroundthem)representedthe optimal matching of site fertility and use. This historicalknowledge, etched in the land, should not be ignored by themodernwoodlandhomesteader.

FORESTSUCCESSION:IT’SATOUGHNEIGHBORHOOD

Because forests evolve over eons, it’s easy to forgive the casualobserver for assuming that forests are more or less static. Inreality, forests are a dynamic, ever-changing community wherecompetition and adaptiondeterminewhat dies andwhat thrives.During the establishment stage, trees compete with one anotherforgrowingspaceandsunlight.Intermsoftheirlightneeds,treesmay be classified as either shade tolerant or shade intolerant.Shade-tolerant species tend to be slow growing and havephotosyntheticmechanismsthatallowthemtosurviveunder lowlight conditions, particularly during the seedling and saplingsstage.Shade-intolerantspeciesarevigorousandinsearchofdirectsunlight.

TheSuccessionProcess

Inmost forests, both shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant speciesare present, though not necessarily at the same time. To betterunderstandthis,let’stakealookathowforestsuccessionactuallyplaysout.

Grass to shrub. The existence of grasses and forbs (floweringplantsthatarenotgrasses) indicatesfrequentdisturbance,whichpreventsfurthersuccession.Thisdisturbancecouldtaketheformofafarmermowingafieldornaturesparkingawildfire.Ineithercase, the establishment of woody plants is prevented, allowinggrassestodominate.However,alackofdisturbance,evenforjustacoupleofyears, isenoughtimetoallowwoodyshrubsandshade-intoleranttreestoestablish.

Sapling to pole. This is the stagemarked by intense competition.Grasses and shrubs are shaded out by shade-intolerant saplingsthat achieve rapid growth. Shade-tolerant species begin toestablishintheunderstory.

Young forest. This kind of forest is marked by increasedcompetition for growing space. The weaker (and usually shorter)shade-intolerant trees begin to die. Shade-tolerant species takeadvantageofthegapscreatedthroughmortality.

Mature forest. Competition-based mortality continues; only thestrong survive. Both shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant treesshare themaincanopy. Inmixedconifer stands,distinct layeringamong shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant species may occur,wherebymoreshade-tolerantindividualsestablishunderalayerofless-tolerantspecies.

Climax forest. Shade-tolerant species dominate the site and areable to reproduce in the understory. Shade-intolerant species areunabletoreproduce.

DOMINANTFORESTSPECIES&THEIRUSES

Whilethischartisintendedtobeaguide,realizethatwhichspeciesarepresentisalsoafunctionofforestsuccession,inadditiontorelativefertility.

AWESOMEAGS

&UglyUGS

Fromtimetotimeyou’llhearforestersrefertotreesasbeingacceptable growing stock (AGS) or unacceptable growingstock(UGS).Foraforesterconcernedwithtimberproduction,AGS are generally those trees capable of producing qualitylogs. UGS are usually culled based on their form (crooked,forked, or twisted) or because of some sort of natural ormechanical damage (insects, disease, fungi, cracks, orwounds). However, you may discover that what would be adefect inatimbermarketmaybeanasset inyourutilitarian-focusedwoodlot.Forexample,adecayingelmtreemaybeUGSto a forester but AGS to a hungry homesteader looking toharvest wild oyster mushrooms. Or, in the case of creatingshade for livestock, a large, multiforked crown with a shorttrunk that casts a wide swath of shade (typical UGScharacteristics)islikelytobepreferabletoataller,narrowercrown,typicallyassociatedwithAGSinthetimbermarket.

SignsofSuccessionintheHomesteadWoodlot

Now that you have a basic understanding of forest structure,composition, and succession, let’s consider several successionalindicatorsyou’re likely to find inyourownwoodlot.You’llnoticethatsomeofthesesuccessionaleventsarenatural,whereasothersarearesultofpastland-usepractices.

Wolforpasturetrees.Asyouwalkyourwoodlot,doyounoticeatree or two that are significantly larger than the rest? Do thebranchesforkandsprawl inalldirections?Dothosetreeshappento be in or at the edge of what was once a pasture? These trees,called“wolf”or“pasture”trees,weremostlikelyleftasshadeandshelter trees for livestock. The sprawling crownsmean that thesetrees had plenty of growing space and were able to stretchunencumbered,bothupandout.Theirdominantpositionandlackof competition indicate that these trees are able to thrive,producing copious seed crops. This in turn sets the stage forsuccession. If thepasture tree is shade intolerantor intermediateintolerance,suchasawhitepine, theseedsdispersedbyanimalsand wind will allow for colonization of open pasture, thusbeginningtheprocessofforestsuccession. If thepasturetree isamoreshade-tolerantspecies,suchasasugarmaple,theseedcropismorelikelytoestablishintheshadebelowtheparentpasturetree.

Wild apples. As a forester, I receive several calls each year fromfolks lookingtoestablishasmallhomesteadorchard.Mostpeoplejustassumethatsincetheyhaven’tseenanyapplesintheirforest,they don’t have apple trees. And these landowners could beforgiven for thinking this. More than any other tree, apple treeschange formwhen left to nature’s devices. Often, therewill be aseriesoflow,deadbranchesthatmaketheappletreeappearmorelike a shrub than a tree. These branches are an indicator ofbrowsing,eitherbylivestock(iftheareawasoncepastured)orbywildbrowserssuchas rabbitsanddeer.Thesecondreasonpeopleoftenmiss wild apple trees in their woodlot is that there are noappleflowersorfruitstobefound.Appletreesaregenerallyshadeintolerant and shift from fruit-producing (reproduction)mode tosurvivalmode once they are shaded. Fortunately,wild apples are

highlyresilientandwillrespondwelliftheyareslowly“released”through the removal of the overstory and careful pruning.Reclaiming ancient wild apples trees is much faster thanestablishinganeworchard;itcanalsohelpkeepheirloomvarietiesaliveandgrowing.

THESUCCESSIONPROCESS

Forest succession — from grass to climax forest — is thestory of continual competition in response to changingconditions such as light,moisture, and growing space.Whilethegeneralecologicalprocessispredictable,forestpests,fire,and other natural disasters can set the forest back to anearliersuccessionalstageatanypoint.

Levelgroundandmounds.Asyouwalkthroughyourwoodlot,notethetopographyoftheforestfloor.Isitsmooth,ordoesitlookmorelikemogulsonaskislope? If it’srelativelysmooth, it’s likelythatthewoodlotwasonceafieldorpreviouslyclear-cut.Incontrast,abumpy, rolling forest floor is a telltale sign of a previoussuccessionalevent.Often,thesebumpyforestfloorsoccupywettersites, or sites with thin soils close to bedrock. While trees needplenty of water, too much water can drown the roots, therebyencouraging the tree to develop roots close to the surface of thesoil.Thetrade-off,ofcourse,isthatthetreeisnotaswellanchored.Asaresult,thesetreesarelikelytoblowdown,flippingtherootball90 degrees. Once one tree falls, a gap is created that allowsneighboringtreestofall,justlikedominos.Asthesetreesbegintodecompose, twodistinctmicroenvironmentsarecreated.Thefirstisa shallowwetpitonceoccupiedby therootball; thesecond isahigher, drier mound that, for many species, is an ideal site tocolonize, thanks to ample sunlight and freshly flipped humusmixedwithmineralsoil.Ofcourse,beinghighanddryonamoundcomeswithitsownchallenges,namely,theneedtoestablishfirmrootsbelow!Anchoringrequirementsaremetbygrowingstiltrootsthat extend over the side of the rootball. Once mature, these“stiltedlegs”aresoughtbymanywoodlandhomesteadersasstoolsortablebases.

Basal scars. As you walk through your woodlot, take time toexaminenotonlythecrownsandtrunksbutalsothebasesof thetrees. Do the bases happen to have triangle-shaped markings?Thesemarksareactuallyoldwoundsmostlikelycausedbyloggingor in some cases wildfires. To determine the cause, note the

locationofthebasalscars.Aretheyfacingoneanother,oraretheyrandomly distributed throughout thewoodlot? Basal scars facingoneanotherareanindicationofdamagecausedwhendraggingorskidding logs along a trail. This damage is likely to be moredramatic on corner trees that are used as bumpers. Basal scarsresulting from fire are likely to occur randomly throughout thewoodlot and are generally larger and deeper on the uphill side,whereemberssmolderinapocketbetweenthebaseofthetreeandupward-sloping ground. Regardless of cause, the health of thesetrees is likely to be compromised through their wounds, whichserveasanopendoor to forestpestsanddisease.Trees thatweredamaged through loggingwere often those left behindwithpoorform or poor health; for the woodland homesteader, removingthese trees isanopportunity to improveforesthealthandfill thewoodshedatthesametime.

Branchwhorls.Ifyourwoodlotcontainspinespecies,youhaveanimportant clue regarding site productivity. The vertical sectionbetweeneachwhorl,orringofbranches,representsasingleyear’sgrowth.Onyoungtrees,thismeansthatyoucansimplycountthewhorls to determine the tree’s age. On productive sites withadequatesunlight,annualverticalgrowthcanbemeasuredinfeet,not inches. On older trees, determining the age based on branchwhorls is made more difficult because most pines are “self-pruning.”Thismeans thatas thecanopygrowsandcloses in, thelower,shadedbranchesdieandeventuallyfalloff.Oncethebranchisgone,thetreeclosesupthewoundbygrowingcallustissue.Asatreeagesandthebarkbecomesrougherandmoreirregular,itcanbe difficult to determine the location of previous branchwhorls.Thenewwoodgrowthovertheformerbranchsiteisknownasclearwoodandisprizedbywoodworkersforitsstraightgrain.

SIGNSOFSUCCESSION

A: Wolf tree. The wild, sprawling branch pattern is anindicationthatthistreeonceoccupiedapasture.

B:Wildappletrees.Don’tdiscounttreeswithoutfruitorwithsmallfruit;slowlyreleasingthemtomorelightwillencouragefruitproduction.

C:Abumpyforestfloor.Amoundanddepressionside-by-sideindicateswindthrow(atreethatwasuprooted).

D: Basal scars. These can be an indication of mechanicaldamagefromloggingorfire.

E:Branchwhorls.Thespacebetweeneachwhorlonaconiferindicatesasingleyear’sgrowth.

CASESTUDIES

FromWoodstoGoods

Thedevelopmentof yourwoodlandeyenotonlywill allowyoutounderstandwhatpasteventledtocurrentconditionsbut also will give you the tools to understand how foreststructure can be altered to meet a wide range of goals,producingawiderangeofgoods.Thefollowingcasestudiescontrast two woodland homesteads, one small, one large.Along with the homesteader’s goals and objectives, we’llexaminethegoodsoroutcomesachievedoneachproperty.

TheArnoldHomestead

SmallWoodlot,BigResults

BethandTomArnold live inaMadison,Wisconsin,suburbonjust under 1 acre. The Arnolds’ property is mostly wooded,with a small backyard that Beth currently uses as a kitchengarden. The Arnolds’ primary goals are to produce more oftheirownfruitandvegetables,tokeepafewlayinghens,andto perhaps make maple syrup. In addition to these primarygoals, Beth would like to harvest shiitake mushrooms; sheloves themand is tiredofpayingpremiumprices for thematthesupermarket.Tomisanavidwoodworkerandwouldliketogrowhisownmaterialsforprojects.Afterconductingabasic

inventory, the Arnolds were able to develop an action planbasedontheirgoals.

Goals

ProduceMoreFruits&Vegetables

AvailableResources&Techniques:Asunnyfencelineisidealfor planting dwarf fruit trees, which produce high yields insmallspaces.

Outcome:Ittookfiveyearsforthedwarfappletreestobeginbearingfruit.TheArnoldsaverageapproximately5bushelsoffruitannuallyfromtheirthreetrees.

Available Resources & Techniques: An inventory of theArnolds’ small woodlot indicates a large number of red oaktrees in the 4"–8" pole class, ideal for shiitake mushroomcultivation.

Outcome:Inadditiontoinoculating48"poles,theArnoldsalsoinoculated the remaining stumps, producing 30 pounds ofmushrooms, which they were able to dehydrate for year-rounduse.

Available Resources & Techniques: Shade from the forest,house, and fencelinemean that the Arnoldswill benefit fromplantingshade-tolerantfruitsandvegetables.

Outcome: In a wet corner of the woodlot, fern-heightcompetition was eliminated to encourage the growth of

fiddleheadferns.TheArnoldsharvest6poundsoffiddleheadsannually, which they blanch and freeze. Rhubarb wastransplantedtotheforestedge,producing20poundsofstalksannuallyfromfourplants.Sixhighbushblueberryplantswereplanted in theunderstoryof thewoodlot,producing2gallonsofberriesannually.

ProduceMapleSyrup

Available Resources& Techniques:While dominated by redoak, thepropertycontains12sugarmaple trees,allover theminimumtappingdiameterof10"DBH

Outcome:TheArnoldsaveraged10gallonsofsappertree,orabout1quartofsyruppertree,resultinginatotalproductionof3gallons,enoughfortheentireneighborhood.

KeepLayingHens

AvailableResources&Techniques:Aportablechickencoopis ideal for the Arnolds. In summer the coop can be movedaround the lawn, fertilizing at the same time. In winter thechickens will benefit frommoving the coop into the woodlot,which acts as a natural windbreak and also fertilizes andscarifiestheforestfloor.

Outcome:Sixhensaveragedfiveeggsperdayinsummer;twoinwinter. Feedwas reduced by 25% in summer, as chickenswereabletoforageforplantsandinsects.

ProduceWoodworkingMaterials

Available Resources & Techniques: The forest inventoryrevealed thepresenceofblack-knotdiseaseonseveralblackcherrytrees.Thisrendersthetreesuselessaslumber,buttheburls formed by the disease are fine for carving. Tom willreleaseandpruneseveralyoungwhitepinetreesasafuturefurniturecrop.Theknot-freewoodisvaluableforavarietyofwoodworkingprojects.

Outcome: Tom turned the burls into functional, beautifulbowls.Theremainingtrunkofthetreewassawnintolive-edgeboards or flitches that can be turned into cutting boards orfurniture-grade lumber. Releasing the young pines fromcompetition will double their growth rate. Pruning ensuresclear,defect-freewoodinthefuture.

TheTuckerHomestead

ADreamtoBlendFarm&Forest

The Tucker family of northern Virginia purchased anabandoned 40-acre homestead that was once largelypasturelandbutoverthelasthalfcenturyhadbeenreclaimedasforest.TheTuckersconsideredcuttingthetreesandhiringanexcavatortoremovethestumpsandreclaimthepastures.However,thisoptionwaslessthanappealingbecauseitwouldnotonlyhavebeencostprohibitivebutalsowouldhavemeantgiving up all the benefits the young forest provided, rangingfrom privacy to recreation and wildlife habitat. Instead, the

Tuckerslookedtodevelopahomesteadthatblendstheirfarmand forest ambitions.Concerns related to both health andsustainabilitydrovetheTuckerstoratehomemeatproductionasoneof theirprimarygoals.TheTuckerswouldalso like tominimize infrastructure costs and inputs associated withanimal husbandry, and to produce 100% of their own heatusing firewood from theproperty, but theyarenot sure thatthe land can meet their wood needs in perpetuity. Whilehardwoods dominate the property, nearly 20% of the landcontainspasturepinethathasbeenattackedbythewhitepineweevil. Finally, the Tuckers would like to rehabilitate an oldappleorchardforciderproduction.

Goals

LivestockProduction(Meat)

AvailableResources&Techniques:Reducebasalareato20squarefeet/acre,leavingcroptreesinsilvopastures;usepigsin portable pig tractor to excavate stumps; and use feedseedingtechniquestoestablishpasture.

Outcome: The Tuckers created silvopastures by keeping thebest trees as crop trees for forage, shade, and eventuallylumber. The UGS were removed for firewood. For moreinformation,see .

LivestockProduction(Dairy)

Available Resources & Techniques: Select large-crownedcrop trees to provide shade for dairy animals, and use

AwesomeAGS

portablefencestoallowcowsandgoatstogleandropsintheorchardarea.

Outcome:Largesugarmaple treeswereretainednotonly tocreate shade but also to preserve the option of the Tuckersdevelopingasugarbushinthefuture.Movingcowsandgoatsthroughtheorchardareawasaneffectivewaytomakeuseofdrops. Once drops have been consumed, it is important tomoveanimals to freshground toavoiddamage to fruit trees.Formoreinformationongrazingyourwoodlandorchard,see

.

MinimizeAnimalHusbandryInfrastructureCosts

AvailableResources&Techniques:Coniferareasshouldbeleftasalivingbarn;existingtreeswillformalivingfence.

Outcome:Thelivingbarnaveraged8°Fwarmerinwinterwhileoffering adequate ventilation. The living fence system savednearly $1,000 over a conventional fencing system. Formoreinformation,see .

SustainablyProduce100%OfFirewoodNeeds

Available Resources & Techniques: An inventory of thepropertydeterminedthattheforestcancurrentlyonlyprovide80% of the Tuckers’ firewood needs; employ standimprovement and coppice methods to increase firewoodproduction.

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Outcome: Intense competition among trees meant that fewtreesthrived.Thinningandotherstandimprovementactivitiesincreased productivity. Species capable of coppicereproductionwereselectedthroughoutthewoodlot.Formoreinformation,see .

FindUseForPasturePine

AvailableResources&Techniques:Thestout,branchy formmeansthatonlyhalflogs(8')canbecutfromthesetrees.Thetops,however,maybeinvertedandusedastables,stools,andchairs.

Outcome: The smaller logs were easier to skid using theTuckers’drafthorse,Lady.Aneighborofferedtosawthelogsonaportablesawmill inexchangefor50%ofthelumber.Theweeviledtopswereused,sold,andtradedasrusticfurniture.Formoreinformation,see .

RehabilitateAbandonedAppleOrchard

Available Resources & Techniques: Wild vines, anencroaching overstory, and competing shrubs all preventedthisorchardfromproducingfruit.

Outcome: Releasing the trees through the removal ofcompetition over a two-year period restored the productivityoftheorchard.Thetreesnowproduce,onaverage,5bushelspertreeperyear.Formoreinformation,see .

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C H A P T E R 2

ToolsandTechniques

EssentialsfortheHomesteadWoodlot

Now that you’ve inventoried your homesteadwoodlot andbegun to sharpen your woodland eye, it’s time to startlearning the tools and techniques thatwillmake your landmore productive, sustainable, and enjoyable. Becausehomesteadwoodlotsvary insizefromafractionofanacreto severaldozenacres,we’ll examine tools and techniquesfor a variety of projects and properties at different scales.We’ll begin by turning our eye to the past, to learn aboutwoodlandhandtoolsandtechniquesthathavebeenlargelyforgottenbutareusefultohomesteadersbecausetheyaresimple,arereadilyavailable,andhavestoodthetestoftime.

HOMESTEADTASKS,TOOLS&TIPS

THEAXE

NoothertoolhasshapedtheAmericanlandscapeasdrasticallyorindeliblyastheaxe.Whatbeganasastonelashedwithsinewtoawooden handle during the Neolithic period eventually evolved,over a 10,000-year period, into the modern steel axe. The firstmetal axeswere cast of copper,which couldbe filed to a sharperedgethanmoststonesbutunfortunatelywastoosoftforallbutthemost delicate of tasks. Around 3000 BCE, copper was combinedwith tin to formbronze,whichwas both a durable andworkablematerial. The early bronze axes were both utilitarian and warimplements that remained largely unchanged for nearly athousand years. Around 1300 BCE, iron ore mining led to theproliferation of inexpensive iron axes, which the Romanseventuallyimprovedonbyaddingcarbontocreatesteel.

As steel became the chosenmaterial for virtually any durablegood, Europeanaxemakers began saving steel for just the bit, orcuttingedge,oftheaxeandusedcheaper ironforthecheeksandpoll(theback)oftheaxe.Priortothemid-19thcentury,Europeanblacksmiths produced two types of axes: broadaxes for makingsquare timbers (also called “cants”) and lighter-weight general-purpose axes that were used for a variety of farm and woodlotchores.

THEEUROPEANAXECOMESTONORTHAMERICA

When European settlers arrived in the virgin forests of easternNorth America, they quickly discovered that the smaller, lighter-

weightEuropeanaxes thatwereusedonsmall-diametercoppicedtrees weren’t up to the task of felling large timber. These earlysettlersmadetwomodificationsthatresultedinthemodernfellingaxe.

A heavier poll. First, the settlers added substantial weight to thepoll of the axe. This additionalweightmeant that thewoodsmandidn’thavetoswingashardandcouldinsteadlettheweightoftheaxedothework.Moreweightbehindthehandlealsomeantbetterbalance,whichmadefortruerswings.

Ashorterbit. The settlers also shortened thebit, or cutting edge.EarlyEuropeanaxeshadawide cuttingedge,whichmade foraneffective battle weapon but didn’t allow for concentratedpenetrationwhenitcametochoppingwood.

Felling axes also developed regional identities as blacksmithsandlumberjacksnamedtheiraxesaftertheplacestheyweremade;Connecticut,Michigan,Maine, and Pennsylvaniawere all popularpatterns.Astheyreplacedtheblacksmith,modernforgesbegantoproduce hundreds of patterns for different uses and enoughpatternchoicestosatisfylumberjacksfromcoasttocoast.Infact,by the early 19th century, more than 300 patterns existed forfellingaxesalone.

THEDOUBLE-BITAXE

A variation of the single-bit felling axe was the double-bit axe,sometimesreferred toasa“reversible.”Theseaxes firstappearedin Pennsylvania around 1850 and were commonly used in theNortheastby1860.Thedebatecontinuesastowhetherasingle-bitordouble-bitaxeissuperior.Single-bitaficionadospointtothefact

that this axe benefits from a heavy poll, which allows the axe topenetratedeepintothewood.Thosewhopreferthedouble-bitaxepoint to its utilitarian benefit: one bit can be kept stoutlysharpenedforcuttingknotsanddirtywood,whiletheothercanbefinelyhonedforcuttingclearandcleanwood.Intheend,it’slikelya matter of personal preference, with the single-bit axe being amore efficient tool and the double-bit axe having greaterversatility.

CHOOSINGANAXETHATFITSYOURNEEDS

Axescomeinavarietyofshapesandsizestosuitarangeoftasksand users. The smallest member of the axe family is the trustyhatchet. Its small sizemakes it easy to stow and carry,while theshorthandleaffordscontrol.However,sincethesizeof theaxe isroughlyproportional to thesizeof the job,you’ll find thehatchetmostappropriateforlightchoreslikesplittingkindling.Astepupfromthehatchetisa“boy’saxe,”whichtypicallyhasamid-lengthhandle (about 28 inches) and a 2-to 2 -pound head, making itideal for a variety of woodlot chores. The full-size felling axetypicallyhasalonghandle(31to36inches)andaheavyhead(3to6pounds)butiscapableofhandlinglargerjobsonthewoodlandhomestead.

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Seekingoutoldaxesandrestoringthemiswellworthyourtime.Itis estimated that from 1850 to 1950more than 10million fellingaxes were produced by more than 100 different axemanufacturers.Duringthisperiod,manufacturershadeasyaccessto quality steel, and competition among forges meant that thequality of axes produced remains unprecedented to this day.Relatively few high-quality felling axes are still made, but barnsandbasementscontinuetobegreatplacestofindaqualityvintageaxejustbeggingforasecondchance.

A N A T O M Y O F A N A X E

FINDINGTHEAXE

Findinga vintage axe to restore is easy if youknowwhat to lookfor. First, don’t get hung up on the state of the handle. In mostcases,theoldhandlewillbebrittle,cracked,orrottedneartheeye.Instead, focus your search on finding a salvageable axe head.Considerhowyou’lluse thisaxe:Will itbeforfelling large trees?Maintaining trails? Or splitting firewood rather than choppingwood(cuttingdiagonallyacrossthegrain)? Ifyourgoal is tohaveanaxeforsplitting,eventhemostchippedandabusedaxecanberesurrectedas a trusty splitter. If, however, youwant a choppingaxewithakeenedge,findanaxewithagentlerpastandperformtheall-importantfive-pointaxeinspection.

Five-PointAxeInspection

Size.Astandardfellingaxeweighs3 pounds.Alonger,thinner-bitted axe will slice through wood more easily, while a short,chunkyaxeisbettersuitedforsplitting,whereyou’renotactuallycutting thewood but simply “popping” thewood apart along thegrain.

Markings.Virtuallyallqualityvintageaxemanufacturersincludedtheir name or logo on the cheek of the axe. Some of the morenotableaxemakerswerePlumb,Kelly-TrueTemper,Mann,Collins,andCouncil.Allofthesecompaniesusedqualitysteelintheiraxes.Insomecasesthemarkingscanbedifficulttolocate,thoughabitof steelwoolwill usually reveal a clear enough stamp to identifythe maker. As you search barn sales and basements for vintageaxes, keep an eye out for the rare and highly coveted Kelly-TrueTemperBlackRaven.Thisaxewassoughtnotonlyforitssuperiorsteel quality but also for the intricate black raven stamp on theside.Ingoodcondition,thisaxecanfetchseveralhundreddollars.

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Bitcondition.Thebitof theaxe iswherethework isdone,so it isimportantthatthebitisrelativelyfreeofchips.Achippedbitwillcreateresistance,knownasdrag,whenyoutrytochop.Therefore,it becomes necessary to grind the bit until the chip is gone. Theproblemisthatgrindingtheaxecreatesashorter,stouterbitthatdoesn’tcutverywell.You’llalsowanttoinspectthetoeoftheaxe;itshouldcarrythesamearcastherestofthebit.Ifit’sroundedoff,that’satelltalesignthattheaxehasbeenusedforcuttingrootsormaybe even sharpening rocks. This is problematic because anoverly rounded bit coming in contact with a round log increasestheoddsoftheaxeglancing,ordeflectinginanunsafedirectionasthetworoundedsurfacesmakecontact.

Eye condition. The eye is the only point of contact between thehandleandtheheadoftheaxe.Aneyethatisevenslightlyoutofplumb means that the axe will never swing true, creating justenoughdeviation in theswing that theaxewill likelyglance,andpotentially score a date with your shin. There are two potentialcausesforanuntrueeye.Thefirstisadefectinthemanufacturingprocess. When an axe is made, the eye is generally cut using apunch.Ifthepunchisnotperfectlyaligned,anoff-centereyewillresult. The second is a result of misusing the axe as asledgehammer.Becausethesteelonthesidesoftheeyeneedstobethin to achieve a narrow profile, it is particularly susceptible tobendingandwarping.Thisdeformationoftenpreventsthehandlefromfittingproperly.It’sbesttoavoidanyaxethatshowsanoff-centerordeformedeye.

Pollcondition.Thepollislocateddirectlybehindtheeyeoftheaxeandiscommonly“mushroomed”asaresultoftheaxebeingusedasasledgehammer.Incasesofminimaldamage,theburrededgescan be lightly ground. In other cases, hairline cracksmay extend

fromtheeyeintothepollortheeyemaybedeformed,asdescribedin the preceding paragraph. As a general rule, axes with severemushroomingandcracksshouldbeavoided.

ABOVE: Anaxedriftisusedtoremovethehandlefromtheeye.Ifyoudon’thaveametaldrift,makeonebycuttingashortsection

outofthebrokenhandle.

ANEWHAFTFORYOUROLDAXE

Ifyouroldhaft,orhandle,showsanysignsofdeterioration(cracks,aloosehead,orarottedeye),youshouldbeginyourrestorationbyfittinganewhandlethatyoucansafelyclampinavisewhenyouneedtosharpentheheadoftheaxelateron.“Hanginganaxe,”aswoodsmenoftencalltheprocessoffittingahandle,isasmuchofaskill as swinging or sharpening an axe; it requires both patienceandpractice.

RemovingtheOldHaft

Before you hang a new haft, you’ll likely have to remove the oldone.A common temptation is to toss thehead in the fire toburn

outtheeye.Donotdothis.Doingsowillchangethetemperofyouraxe, inmost casesmaking itmore brittle and prone to cracking.Instead,sawofftheoldhaftandremoveitfromthetopdown.Thiscanbeaccomplishedoneoftwoways:

Ifthewoodenwedgesinthetopofthehandlearedryandbrittle,youmaybeabletoprythemoutwithascrewdriverorchisel.Onceyou’veremovedthewedges,youcanthendrivethehandleoutthebottomoftheheadusinganaxedrift(simplyablockofwoodorsteelthatisslightlysmallerthantheeyeoftheaxe).Placetheaxeheadinaviseorbetweentwowoodenblocks,andhammerthedriftuntilthehandlepops.

Insomecases,youwon’tbeabletoremovethewedges,whichmakesremovingtheeyeofthehandlenearlyimpossible.Inthisinstance,youcanuseadrilltoremoveenoughwoodsothatthe

plugcanbepoppedout.Drillingfromboththetopandthebottomoftheheadmakesthisprocessgofaster.

SelectingaNewHaft

Onceyou’veremovedtheoldhaft,it’stimetoselectareplacement.Threeconsiderationsshouldguideyourselectionofanewhandle:straightness,grainorientation,andgrowth-ringwidth.

Straightness. Handles are generally sawn out of hickory or ashlogsandthenturnedonalathe.Dependingonwherethetreegrewandhowthelogwassawn,thehandlemaytwistorbow.Withtheexceptionofbroadaxes,whichhave intentionally curvedhandles,you’llwant to examine your replacementhandle for trueness. Byholding the eye of the handle just below your eye, visualize animaginarylinefromendtoend.Doesthehandleholdtruetothatline,ordoesitboweitherleftorright,ortwist?Onlyacceptanaxehandlethat isstraightandtrue.Usingatwistedorcurvedhandlecancausetheaxetoglance,causinginjury.

Grainorientation.Theendoftheaxehandleisknownasthedoe’sfootandwill tellyouwhichwaythegrainruns. Ideally, thegrainshouldrunparalleltothebitoftheaxe.Handlesinwhichthegrainrunsperpendiculartothebitareinherentlyweakandsnapunderpercussion.

Growth-ringwidthandquality.Tight,narrowringsindicateslowergrowingwood,whichmakesforastrongerhandle.Youshouldalsopay attention to the color of the wood: Is one side of the handledarkwoodandtheothersidelightwood?Thedarkwoodrepresentsheartwood,whichisdensebutbrittle.Thelighterwoodisthemorerecentlygrownsapwood,whichisstrongandflexible.Trytoselect

an axehandle that ismade entirely of sapwood.Ahandle that ismadeofbothsapwoodandheartwoodismorelikelytofracture.

ABOVE: Takingthetimetoselectahaftwithpropergrainorientationwillrewardyouwithyearsofservice.Thegrain

shouldalwaysrunparalleltothebitoftheaxe.

GettingtheHangofIt

Theexpression“togetthehangofit”originatedwithlumberjackswhowerereferringtoaproperunionbetweenhaftandhead.If

ahaft fit poorly, the jackwouldoftenproclaim, “I just can’t getthehangofit,”meaning“Ijustcan’tgetitright.”

RESTORINGTHEAXEHEAD

By beginning your axe restoration with a new handle, you nowhaveadependablepointfromwhichyouclamp,hold,andworkonyour axe. To preserve your new handle, clamp it in a bench viseusingashoprag.Themiddlethirdofthehandleisthestraightestpart,givingyouthebestclampinglocation.

RemovetheRust

You’ll want to begin by removing the surface rust, which can bedone by hand with a sanding block but is much more effectiveusing either a belt sander or an orbital sander. If your axe looksmore like a relic from a shipwreck than a trusty tool, considerstartingwith 80-grit sandpaper. Start lightly, keeping an eye outformanufacturingmarks.Ifyoufindany,lightlysandtheseareasbyhandusingsteelwool.

Afterremovingthesurfacerust,you’llhaveabetter ideawhatyou’re dealingwith. Deeply pitted axesmay prove unserviceable,though in most cases these axes may be resurrected by using amore aggressive grit of sandpaper and additional elbow grease.Cleaningupthecheeksoftheaxeis importantbecausethis isthepart of the axe that is in greatest contact with the kerf (or cutsurface)of the log.Anypittingorremainingrustwill serveasanabrasive,makingtheaxestick.

Once you’ve removed the majority of the rust with 80-gritsandpaper,move to 120-grit sandpaper.As you continue to clean

theaxe,maintainlightpressureandmakesureyoudon’tallowthesandertocatchthebit.Also,ifyou’reusinganorbitalsander,makesure it’s continually moving; you don’t want to create “hills” or“valleys”inthesurfaceoftheaxe.Withabeltsander,thisiseasierto avoid since you have a large, flat plane that you’re essentiallylayingonthecheekoftheaxe.

Once you’ve cleaned up the surface of the axe, you can thenrestore the back, or poll, to its original form. If the axewas everused as a hammer, the poll will likely be in need of some lightgrinding to remove burrs and mushroomed edges. With the axelaid flat in the vise, make long, smooth strokes to clean up themushroomedpoll.Youmayalso find that the topedgeof theaxeneeds light grinding as well; this is often the result of using ahammer, instead of awood or rubbermallet, to drive out an oldhandle.Takeyourtimeandremoveaslittlemetalaspossible.

CRAFTINGAKEENEDGE

Asktwowoodsmenhowtosharpenanaxe,andyou’reliabletogetthreeanswers.Someswearbyafilededge,whileothersbelieveinonly using a whetstone. Still others use bench grinders or beltsanders. My experience is that the condition of the bit and thequality of the steel are the two factors that ultimately determinewhichtoolIuseforsharpening.

SharpeningwithaBeltGrinder

If thebitofyouraxe is inpoorcondition,withchips,gouges,andother imperfections, I would strongly recommend using the beltgrinder method outlined in this section. Do not use an anglegrinderforsharpeningtheedgeofyouraxe.Thewheelofanangle

grinderistoosmalltocreateasmooth,evenbit.Instead,you’llendupwithabitthatisthickinsomeplacesandthininothers.What’smore,theheatcreatedbygrinderscanresultinhotspotsthatruinthetemperoftheaxe.Amoreeffectivetoolforsharpeningdullanddamagedaxesisanarrow-gauge(1 "×21") .

Tobegin,use180-gritsandpaperbelts.Beforeyouevenplugthesander in, practice drawing the sander back and forth, followingtheradiusoftheaxe.Thesandershouldpointtowardthepolloftheaxeasyoudothis,andbeangledupwardatapproximately20to25degrees.

“GivemesixhourstochopdownatreeandIwillspendthefirstfoursharpeningtheaxe.”

—ABRAHAMLINCOLN

Onceyou’recomfortablewiththemotion,youcanbegingrindingbyusing light strokes. Be sure to count thenumber of strokes sothat youmaintain an even bit angle on both sides. Check the bitregularlytomakesureit’snottoohot.Ifit’stoohottotouch,you’reeithergoingtoofastorapplyingtoomuchpressure.

As you flip the axe from side to side, use a small piece ofhardwood todriveoff themetalburr that formsas thebit of theaxeisthinnedtoanapex.Ifyoudon’tdrivetheburroff,you’llendupwithabrittlewireedgethatwillbreakoff.Onceyou’veremovedthemajor imperfections in the axe, switch to 220-grit sandpaperbelts.Whenthebitisfreeofnicksandimperfections,you’rereadytohonetheaxeusingawhetstone.

SharpeningwithaBastardFile

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Analternative to thebelt sandermethod is thesingle-cutbastardfile,whichIpreferforaxeswithsoftsteeloronlyminordings.Thefilecanbeusedfreehandorwithajig.Thejigmaintainsaconstant20-degreeangleatalltimes.(See .)

HoningwithaWhetstone

The last step in sharpening theaxe is touse a on thecutting edge. This final cutting edge is about 10 degrees stouterthan the grinding or filing angle. You can use either a hardArkansasstoneora long-lastingbutexpensivediamondstone.Aswith grinding and filing, it is important to maintain a constantangle;forthatreasonIpreferlong,evenstrokesoversmallcircularstrokes.Besuretodoanequalnumberofstrokesoneachsideand,asinthegrindingprocess,driveofftheburrwithapieceofcleanhardwood.

Asharpaxewillbeabletoshavethehaironyourarmorcleanlyslice a sheet of paper. Sharpening an axewith finesse takes timeandpatience,buttheinvestmentpaysdividendsinthewoodlot.

Narrowbelt grinder. If doneproperly, using a belt grinder is thefastestandmostaccuratewaytosharpenanaxe.Besuretomarkthecenterofthearconthepolloftheaxeanduseapunchtocreateasmalldivot.Thiswill createa referencepoint for sharpening inthefuture.Remembertocountthenumberofstrokesoneachsideinordertomaintainabalancededge.

here

whetstone

Bastardfilejig.ThissimplejigismadefromaC-clamp,partofanoldyardstick,andabastardfile.Theanglecanbemeasuredusingacompass, and can be adjusted by adding or subtracting metalwashers on the C-clamp. A 20-degree angle is ideal for choppingmostwood.

Whetstone. Honing the axe is the final step in sharpening. Uselong,evenstrokesfromheeltotoe.Foramoredurablefinaledge,youcanincreasethehoningangleupto30degrees.

HangingtheHaftin5Steps

Instructions

1. Filetheeyeofthehandlewitharaspuntiltheaxeheadfitsontheshoulderofthehandle.Aligningyoureyewiththeaxehead,lookdownthehandleandcheckfortrueness.Youmayhaveto

fine-tunethefittogetittohangperfectlystraight,butthisistimewellspent.

2. Marktheheadlocationwithapencilandextendthewedgeslitwithathin-bladedhandsaw,ifnecessary.Theslitshouldextendtowithin inchofthebottomoftheaxehead.Cutoffanyexcesshandleabovetheaxehead.

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3. Slidetheaxehandleintotheheadandusearubberorwoodenmallettopoundthedoe’sfoot.Thiswilldrivetheheadontothehandle.

4. Whenyou’rehappywiththehangoftheaxe,drivethewoodenwedgeinwithyourmallet.Sawoffthetopoftheseatedwedgewithacopingsaw.

5. Ifyournewhandleisuntreated,rublinseedoilintoit.Thiswillhelppreventitfrombecomingbrittleand/orcracked.Ifthenewhandleisvarnished,considerusingmedium-gritsandpapertoremovethevarnish,andthentreatthewoodwithlinseedoil.Varnishcanmakeforanimpossiblyslickaxehandleinwetconditions.

FELLINGANDCHOPPING

Toearlyhomesteaders,theaxewasnotjustasymboloffreedom;itwas a 5-pound ticket to self-sufficiency. Proficiency with an axemeantbeingabletofelltimbertobuildahome,chopwoodforthehearth,andclearlandforpastures.Andwhileyouraxeambitionsmay not be as driven by necessity as they were for early

homesteaders,thereisvalueinknowinghowtoswingthisbasicyetendlesslyuseful tool.We’llcover the twomostcommonchoppingmethodsusedforfellingandbuckingonyourwoodlot.

FELLINGWITHANAXE

Referredtotodayasthestandingblockchoporverticalchop,thistechnique predates the advent of the felling crosscut saw, whichwas developed in the 1880s. However implicit, it is worth notingthatfellingatreewithanaxeisinherentlydangerous.Laterinthischapter,we’llreviewfellingwithachainsaw,whichoffersgreaterefficiencyandcontrol.Despitetheadvantagesofthechainsaw,theaxehasearneditsroleinthewoodlotasaninvaluabletool.

To fell a tree with an axe requires lessons in physics andgeometry. First, the physics: Your axe handle is a giant leverconnectedtoablade.Thelongertheswingofthestroke,thegreaterthe power delivered to the trunk of the tree. However, powerwithoutproperpresentationoftheaxebitwillresultinadullandunimpressive thud. Therefore, axemanship is as much aboutpresenting the axe at the proper angle as it is about developingpower.Whenyoubeginchopping,focusonaccuracyandprecision;powercanbedevelopedintime.

The shortest distance through a log is perpendicular to thegrain. Unfortunately, unlike a saw, an axe doesn’t tear grain;instead, it slices the grain at an angle. So, while a shallow anglewould result in cutting the shortest distance, it wouldn’t beefficientsinceeachhitwouldachieveonlyminimalpenetration.Incontrast,ifyouchopattoowideanangle,youhavetocutagreaterdistance, reducing your overall efficiency. For most species ofwood, you should create an upward 45-degree angle and a

downward 45-degree angle, resulting in a 90-degree face that isapproximatelyequaltothediameterofthetreeinwidth.

When felling a tree,make sure you’re wearing a hard hat, aswell as eye, foot, and shin protection. (See for moreinformation.)

THESEVEN-STEPSWING

InMotion

Begin all felling by identifying hazards, tree lean, and yourescaperoute.(Thesectiononchainsawfellingbeginninggivesdetailsondeterminingeachofthese.)

Mark out your opening face on the front of the tree. Yourbottomhitwillbeatknuckleheightwhenyoustandbesidethetree, arms hanging at your side; the location of the top hitshouldbeequaltothediameterofthetreemeasuredfromthebottomhit.

Ifyouareright-handed,takeawidestancewithyourleftfootin front, about 18 inches from the tree. Then bring the axeback in linewithyourright foot. (Reverse this for lefties.)Foryour bottom hit, allow your top hand to slide down the axehandleasyoustrikethetree.Thestrikingangleshouldbe45degrees.

Foryourtophit,bringtheaxeupandawayfromyourbodyata45-degreeangle.Allowyourtophandtoslidedownthehandleasyoustrikeyourtopmark.

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here

Workinaclockwisedirection,spanningtheaxesothatyoucutboth your near and far wood on larger trees. The V angleformedbythecutshouldclosejustshyofthemidpointofthetree.

Move to thebacksideof the tree,working thesamediameterscarfandsamepatternapproximately1 inchabove the frontcut.Becarefulnottocutthroughthehinge,asthisallowsthetreetofallinacontrolledmanner.

LIMBINGWITHANAXE

Once your tree is on the ground, you’ll have a mess of limbs tocontendwith.Thetemptationistocut intotheVofthebranches,swinging theaxe toward thebaseof the tree.Thismethodcausestheaxetodiveintotheknotratherthancleanlyslicingthebrancheven with the trunk of the tree. Instead, swing from the basetowardthetopofthetree.Worksidetoside,limbingthebrancheswhileyousafelystandontheoppositesideof the tree.Makesurethat the path of the axe is clear of any branches or otherobstructions that coulddeflect theaxe. For larger limbsusea45-degreeVnotchtochopthroughthebranch.

ABOVE: Whenlimbingwithanaxe,standontheoppositesideofthelogtoprotectyourshinsfromaglancingblowoftheaxe.

BUCKINGWITHANAXE

To "buck" a log means to cut it into shorter, more manageablelengths. Historically, lumberjacks would stand atop the tree andswing the axe between their feet to sever the log. As you canimagine, this underhand chop method led to a plethora oflumberjacks earning the nickname “Stumpy.” For most woodlotbuckingneeds,it’ssaferandmoreefficienttohavebothfeetfirmlyplantedontheground.(See .)

Youcanuseafellingaxeforbucking;however,itisimportanttoexercise caution since you’ll be swinging the axe closer to the

BuckingLikeaBeaver

ground.Strikingrocksonthegroundcannotonlydamageyouraxebut also send chips toward your face. Safety glasses arerecommended.

HEWINGWITHABROADAXE

Unlike the felling axe, the broadaxe, or hewing axe, remainedrelatively unchanged after its arrival in the New World. Thepurpose of the broadaxe is to square timbers by slabbing off theroundededgesofthelog,aprocessknownashewing.Inreality,thebroadaxe is a large chisel.Mostbroadaxes carrya single-bevelbitthat’s filed to a razor edge. In order to give the hewer control,broadaxestypicallyhaveashorthandle,nolongerthan24inches.

Once you’ve selected a straight and relatively knot-free log,you’ll want to roll it on to a set of bunks or shorter logs placedperpendicular to the hewing log. These bunks act like sawhorses,givingyouaslightlyelevatedandstablesurfacetoworkfrom.Thebunk logs can either benotchedwith an axe to cradle the log, orhelddownwithapairoflogdogs(giantstaples)thatarepoundedintothehewing logandthebunk log,preventing it frommoving.Alternatively,long(8-to12-inch)lagscrewscanbesetintheendofthehewinglogandscrewedtothebunklogbelow.

Once your log ismounted, begin bymarking out a square oneach end of the log and snapping a line covered in charcoal ashalongthelengthofthelog.Ifyou’reworkingalone,youcantiethestringtoanailthatyoutapintothecornerofyoursquareandpulltautwhileliningupthestringwiththecornerattheoppositeend.Analternativemethodusesastraightboardtoconnectthelinesofthesquare.Thislineservesasadepthgaugeforaseriesofshallownotches, or juggles, cut approximately 1 foot apart. Once thejuggles are cut, the hewer uses the broadaxe to remove large,

dinner-plate-sizeslabsfromthesideofthelog.Thissameprocessisrepeatedontheoppositeside.

Ifthehewntimbersareforabarn,theycanbeleftrough.Ifthetimbersaretobeusedinahouse,theycanbefurtherrefinedusinganadze.Theadzelooksabitlikeahoe,withalong,square-headedhandleandstraightcuttingedgethat’sbeveledtowardthehandle.By standing atop the hewn log and swinging the adze towardyourself,you’llbeabletoslicepaper-thinsheetsofwoodthatleavethe timber perfectly smooth. To protect your feet in this process,rockbackonyourheelssothattheadzerunsunderyourfoot,andnot into your toes! Finally, it’sworthmentioning that the squareeyeoftheadzeisintentional.Sincetheheadisheldononlybytheforce of the swing, the handle can be removed for sharpening, ataskthatwouldbenearlyimpossiblewiththehandlefixedinplace.

ABOVE: Thedepthlinesforhewingweretraditionallymadeusingastringdippedinwoodash;considerusingachalklineora

straightboardandalumbercrayontoconnectthedepthlines.

ABOVE: Ifyou’rehewingalonglog,you’llhaveenoughroomtoworksafelywithapartner,ifyouworkatoppositeends.Whileonepersoncutsjugglesonthetop,theotherpersoncanhewthe

side.

BUCKINGLIKEABEAVER

Beginbystandingon theoppositesideof the log fromwhereyouplantochop.Ifthelogislargerthan10inchesindiameter,it will be most efficient to chop halfway through, and thenswitch to the other side. If you are on a hill, start on the

downhillsideandfinishontheuphillsideincasethelogrolls.Makesureyourfeetarefirmlyplantedandwelloutsideoftheaxe’spath.

As in felling a tree, the most efficient chopping angle is 45degrees, and the face of the scarf should be equal to thediameter of the tree, assuming you’ll be chopping from bothsides. On smaller logs you can buck from one side; simplymake the notch wider so that it doesn’t “vee out,” or close,beforecuttingallthewaythroughthelog.

Bring theaxedirectlyoveryourhead,dominanthandon top.Donotdroptheaxebehindyourhead;thiscreatesfatigue,notadditionalpower.Asyouswingtheaxe,throwitouttocreatealargerarc.

Aswithfelling,useaclockwisepatterntoremovechips.Ifyoufind that you’ve veed out before cutting entirely through thelog,simplymoveyourkerftooneside,givingyourselfafreshchoppingface.

Asyounearthebottomof the log,useshorter, less-powerfulswingstoavoidcontactingtheground.

MakingShakesWhile theearlybroadaxewasessential for formingsquare timbersused in post-and-beam construction, the froe played an equallyimportant role, providing shakes for the roof and siding of earlyAmericanhomes.Froescanusuallybe found fairly inexpensivelyat

barnsales,oryoucanfashionyourownfroeoutofanoldleafspringorfarrier’srasp.Froesaredifferent lengthsfordifferentpurposes.Those that are used for making shakes and small log cleaving(splitting)haveasingle-bevelblade that’s10 to12 inches long.Theeyeof thehandle is slightly taperedso that the froe’sheaddoesn’tfalloff.Here’showtosplityourfirstshakes:

Instructions

1. Selectaclearpieceofwoodatleast10inchesindiameterand16to20inchesinlength;cedarisbest,butredpine,Scotspine,andjackpinearealsocommonlyused,aswellasOsageorangeandblacklocust.Regardlessofspecies,thewoodneedstobestraightgrainedandfreeofknots.Cleavetheloginhalf,orintoquartersifit’salargerlog.Useawoodenmallettodrivethefroeintothewood.Rockthebladebackandforthtobreakoffa

-inchshake.⁄1 2

2. Rotatetheshake90degreesandusetheedgeofthefroetoevenoutthesideoftheshake.

THEPEAVEY

Whilethemightyaxerightlyreceivescreditforfellingmostofthetimberofthe18thand19thcenturies, itwasthepeaveythattookthework out ofmoving these logs, on both land andwater. Thisimportanttool,consistingofalonghandlewithametalspikeandlevered hook on the end, was the creation of blacksmith andinventor JosephPeavey.Peaveywasan industriousMainerwithapenchantforproblemsolving.AmongPeavey’sinventionswerethespill-proof inkwell, thewooden screwvise, thehaypress, and theimpressive Peavey hoist, whichwas known for yanking even themoststubbornoakstumps.

As the story goes, Joseph Peavey developed the namesake toolafter watching several river drivers try to free a logjam on theStillwaterBranchof thePenobscotRiver in the springof 1857.Bymodifying a cant hook so that it had a sharp point and a fixed-swingdog(hook),thepeaveygavelumbermenamoreefficientwaytoskid,deck,turn,andprylogs.

MODIFYINGTHEPEAVEY

As fine an example of practical engineering as the peavey is(virtuallyunchangedfornearly160years),there’sstillroomforacouple of modifications that will yield greater efficiency on thelandingandinthewoodlot:

Add spikes. More spikes mean more contact with the log,ultimatelymakingeachstrokemoreefficient.Byweldingasecondspike(oftenmadeoutofanoldrailroadspikeorabolt)belowtheprimarypoint,you’reabletodevelopanefficientrhythm,yieldingmorepushperstroke.

Bend the point. By bending the point, you’ll create an angle thatrequiresyoutobendyourbody lessandoffersmorecontactwiththelog.

Makeitarazorback.Thismodification,aseriesofpointsweldedtothe back of the peavey, has its roots in competitive lumberjacksports.Themultiplepointsallowyoutorolllogsalongthegroundorupalogdeckwithease.

ABOVE: Peaveystaketheworkoutofmovinglogs.Notetheadditionoftherazorbackspikestothepeaveyontheleft;these

createmultiplepushpointsandincreaseefficiency.

THEPOORMAN’SPEAVEY

Atsomepointyou’llfindyourselfinthewoodswithahungtree(a felled tree that is suspended by one ormore surroundingtrees),butwithoutapeavey tohelp lever the treedown.Thismethod allows you to roll the hung tree using a homemadeleversothat it falls totheground.Itgoeswithoutsaying,butextremecautionisneededwiththismethod.

Beginbysizingupthehungtreeanddeterminingwhichwayitneedstoroll.

Search out a strong 4-inch-diameter pole, 4 to 6 feet long.Make sure you cut this pole from a sturdy hardwood tree,becauseyou’llbeusingitasalever.

Use the attack corner of your chainsaw (see)toboreintothelogabout1footabovethehinge.

Nowbore intheoppositedirectionsothatyouhaveasquareholetoinsertyourpoleinto.

If the hinge is still connected, release pressure by slowlycuttingthehingefiberonthesideoppositethedirectionofroll.

Leavethehingewoodconnectedonthenearsidetoreducethechancesofkickback.

Push the tree away using the pole. Let go of the pole andcontinuedownyourescaperouteassoonasthetreebeginstomoveonitsown.

Anatomy of aChainsaw

THEBOWSAW

Bowsawscanbeusedaroundthehomesteadinplaceofchainsawsfor bucking firewood, cutting kindling, and clearing trails. Earlybowsawswereusedbycarpentersinpost-and-beamconstruction.Later, thewoodenbowsawwasreplacedbyametalbowsawthatearned its spot in the woods cutting small-diameter pulpwood.These bow saws of the early andmid-20th century carried a 42-inch blade and measured 48 inches, including the handle. Thismeantthatthebowsawwasnotonlyahandyfellingandbuckingtool but also the perfect measuring stick for cutting 4-footpulpwood.

BUCKINGFIREWOOD

Ifyou’dliketobuckfirewoodforyourhomesteadusingabowsaw,choose a longer saw, such as the 48-inch version used by earlylumberjacks. While these large bow saws are no longercommercially manufactured, they are fairly common at fleamarketsandbarnsales.However,tobeserviceable,thesawshouldhavebeenstoredwithoutbladetension.Aworn-outbowsawwon’thave the proper tension andwill likely result in a curved, dishedcut.

Whenbuckingwiththebowsaw,makesureyouhaveasturdysawhorse or stanchion. The height of the wood you’re sawingshould be about 36 inches. To saw, place your dominanthand onthe lower handle and your top hand approximately 4 inches infrontofthecurveattherearofthebowsawframe.Ifyou’reusingasharpblade,youwon’thavetoapplymuchpressureatall.Rather,

your job as sawyer is to keep the saw frame over the blade, andmake long, full strokes.A20-degreeangle isaboutright formostsawyers; this allows you to stand comfortably without beinghunched over. You may also find that rolling the saw slightlyforward on the push stroke yieldsmore efficient cutting. On thepull stroke,make sure the teeth are fully engaged so that you’recuttinginbothdirections.

OTHERUSES

Bowsawsarealsousefulformaintainingtrailsandcuttingcoppicewood around the homestead. One advantage of using a bow sawinstead of an axe when cutting saplings is that you’re left withclean, level stumps. With an axe, the remaining stumps arepointed,therebyposingasignificantsafetyhazard.Forbasictrailmaintenanceandcoppiceharvest,optforasmallerbowsawinthe16-to 18-inch range. These saws are inexpensive and endlesslyuseful.

ABOVE: Theweightoftheloghangingofftheendwillopenthekerf,makingiteasiertosawthefartheryoucut.Thinkofitasa

rewardforyourlabor.

THECHAINSAW

Perhapsnoothertoolisasvaluabletothemodernhomesteaderasthechainsaw.Thechainsawallowsyou to cutyourownwood forbuilding both human and animal shelter, efficiently harvestfirewood, create pastures and silvopastures, cut fenceposts, buildtrails and woods roads, clean up after storms, and manage the

ever-encroaching forest along pasture fencelines. The modernchainsawrepresentsavastly improvedproductover earlier saws,which were dirty and extremely dangerous. Once you learn tosafely operate amodern chainsaw, you’ll have the confidence totackletrees,bothbigandsmall.

SAFETYFEATURES

DevelopedinGermanybyAndreasStihlin1926,thechainsawhassince evolved to be a safer, cleaner-burning, and more efficienttool. Among the safety features found on all quality modernchainsawsareaninertiachainbrake,whichstopsthechainwhenitkicksback;amufflerwithasparkarrestor;arearhandguard;achaincatcherorcatchpin;anantivibrationhandlesystem;andathrottletriggerinterlock.

Collectively, these features reduce the risk of injury; however,understanding how a chainsaw works will help you avoidaccidents.Essentially,youcanthinkoftheteethofyourchainsawas consisting of alternate chisels that are able to efficiently cutwoodwhenthey’rebothsharpandattheproperdepth.Thedepthof your cutter teeth is determined by the raker. Tomaintain thechain, you’ll want to follow the manufacturer’s instructionsregarding tooth length and angle, as well as raker depth.Aggressivelyfilingtherakersinanattempttocutbiggerchips(byallowing the teeth to cut deeper) also increases the chances ofkickback, where the chainsaw bar is rapidly pushed back towardthe operator. You can reduce the chances of kickback byunderstanding the reaction forces of your chainsaw: push, pull,attack,andkickback.

You’ll note that the kickback position is the top corner of thebar.You shouldneverattempt to sawdirectlywith this cornerof

thebar. The lower corner, just below thekickbackposition, is the“attackcorner,”usedforboring into thewood.Learning to safelyborewithyoursawisimportantbecauseitwillallowyoutoplunge-cutaspartofthefellingprocess.

PERSONALPROTECTIVEEQUIPMENT

Before you ever think about firingup your chainsaw, you shouldinvest in personal protective equipment (PPE). This includeshead/face/ear protection, gloves, chainsaw chaps, and steel-toeboots.

An integrated forestryhelmet combinesanapprovedhardhatwithfaceandearprotection,eliminatingtheneedtobuyandkeeptrackofindividualcomponents.Thecostofahospitalvisitcanbe100timesmorethanthecostofapairofchaps.Withoutadoubt,thisisasolidinvestment,sincethemostcommonchainsawinjuryis a cut to the lower left leg and thigh. You’ll also want to wearsteel-toeboots,preferablybootsthatareimpregnatedwithballisticnylon,sincefootandlowerleginjuriesarefairlycommonaswell.Finally, invest in a pair of quality gloves that fitwell, offer goodgrip,andallowyou tooperate theon/off/choke switcheswithoutneedingtoberemoved.

ABOVE: Personalprotectiveequipment(PPE)goesfromheadtotoe:notethehelmetwithfaceandearprotection,leathergloves,

chainsawchaps,andsteel-toeboots.

GETTINGSTARTED

Beforeyoustartyoursaw,youshouldconductapreliminarycheck.Adhering to the following tips will reduce the chance of injury,increase your efficiency as awoodcutter, andmake your time inthewoodlotmoreenjoyable:

Checkforaproperlysharpenedchain.Theedgeshouldbeburr-freeandsharptothetouch.

Checkforproperchaintension.Thechainshouldsitonthebarwithoutdrooping,butitshouldnotbesotightthatyoucan’tslideapieceofpaperbetweenthebarandthechainwhenfirmlypullinguponthechain.

Inspectandtightenallbolts.Payspecialattentiontothebarstudnuts,whicharenotoriousforvibratingloose.

Makesureyourcatchpinisingoodshapeandthatyourchainbrakeisworking.

Fuel,oil,andstartyoursawatleast10feetfromignitionsources.

Startyoursaweitherontheground,orwiththerearhandlefirmlybracedbetweenyourlegs.Never“drop-start”achainsaw.

FELLINGATREE,OLDSCHOOL–STYLE

Askanyold-timewoodsmanhowtofellatreeandyou’lllikelyhearhimdescribe some iterationof the conventional45-degreenotch.Without a doubt, variations of this notch have been successfullyused — and not so successfully used. The persistence of theconventional notch can largely be attributed to the use of thecrosscutsaws inthe19thcentury, inwhichtheflatundercutwasbisectedbya45-degreescarfusinganaxe.Whenloggersmigratedfrom crosscut saws to chainsaws in the first half of the 20th

century,theconventionalnotchcontinuedtobeused.However,theconventionalnotchsuffersfromtwoflaws.

ABOVE: Theconventionalchainsawnotchevolvedfromthedayswhentreeswereexclusivelyfelledwithaxesandcrosscutsaws.

Fellingwithachainsawallowsustoimproveupontheconventionalmethodbyemployingaborecutandawidernotch.

A N A T O M Y O F A C H A I N S A W

Anarrownotch.Thefirstproblemisthatitsface,ornotchwidth,istoonarrow.Asthetreefalls, thedirectionof thefall iscontrolledonly until the notch closes. Once the notch is closed, the hingebreaks off, leaving the tree to spin or split. For trees that areperfectlyplumb,itisn’tsomuchofaproblemforthetreetofalltheremaining45degreeswithout thehinge.However, fora tree thathas even a small amount of side lean, the tree can spin off thestump,headinginanunintendedanddangerousdirection.

A dangerous back cut. The second dangerwith the conventionalfelling approach is that the back cut is typically a single cutstarting at the back of the tree and sawing toward the hinge. Inmanycases, the sawyer continues sawinguntil the treebegins tofall.Being inproximity toa falling treewitha runningchainsawcanbedangerous—especiallyif,duringtheexcitementoffellingthetree,thesawyercutstoofaronthehingeandhastoscrambletoescape an ever-accelerating and uncontrolled tree. If the tree

doesn’t fall under this scenario, there’s a good chance the saw ispinched in the back cut. At this point, not only do you have tocontendwith freeing your saw, you alsohave a partially cut treethatposesasignificantsafetyissue.

ASAFERALTERNATIVE:THEOPEN-FACEDNOTCH

DevelopedbySwedishforestersinthe1960sandbroughttoNorthAmericainthe1980s,anewnotch,andanentirelynewapproachtotimberharvesting,allowedtheloggergreatercontrolandsafety.Theopen-facednotchtechnique (cuttinganotchwithanangleof70to90degrees)offersgreatercontrolasthetreefalls.

Thefollowingfive-stepfellingplanoffersasafeandsystematicwaytofelltreesinyourwoodlot.Whilefellingtechniquescouldfillan entire book, this section ismeant to serve as a primer on thetopic.

StepOne:IdentifyHazards

While it is easy to assume yourwoodlot is a safe environment, anumberof seeminglybenign elements canpose a real risk to thesawyer.

Find the widowmakers. Do you see any dead or hanging limbs,eitheronthetreeyou’refellingorinthecrownsofadjacenttrees?Thesehazardsareappropriatelynamedwidowmakers.Thinkabouthowthesebranchesandlimbsarelikelytofall,andmakesureyourfellingplankeepsyouasafedistanceaway.

Removeobstructions.Afteryou’vesurveyedtheoverheadhazards,examinetheforestfloor.Aretheresaplingsinthepathofthetree?Ifso,it’seasierandsafertoremovethembeforeyou’vefelledyourtargettree.You’llalsowanttomakesurethattheareaaroundthetree is clear of other obstructions, including vines, undergrowth,fallenlogs,androotsorholesthatcouldbetrippoints.

Lookforcracksanddecay.Nowthatyou’veexaminedthecanopyand ground for hazards, take a look at the trunk (or bole) of thetree. Does it show signs of decay? How about a split? These areimportant clues that speak to the soundness of the tree. If yoususpectdecay,youcandrillorbore into thewoodtodetermine ifthe tree is soundenough to safely fell. If yourboringexperimentonlyyieldspunkysawdust,selectanothertreetofell. Intheeventofcracksorsplits,it’simportanttonotewheretheybeginandend.Ifthecrackextendsintothebaseofthetree,itisbesttoleaveitforwildlifeandmoveontoadifferenttree.

Finally, it’sworthnotingthatthehazardsdon’tendassoonasthe tree hits the ground. It is fairly common for still-swayingbranches and limbs from neighboring trees to fall after yourtargeted tree is on the ground. Take the time to look up, notehazards,andwaitforthesurroundingcrownstosettledown.

StepTwo:IdentifytheLeanoftheTree

Front,back,andsideleanallinfluencetheeasewithwhich,andthedirection inwhich, the treewill fall. Todetermine the lean,don’tjust lookat the trunkof the tree.Standfarenoughback thatyoucan see the entire tree. Inmany cases, the trunk will sweep onedirection, but the crown will go the other direction, which caneitherbalanceoutthetree’sleanorpersuadeittheotherdirection,based on the size of the crown. When sawyers talk about “side

lean,” they’ll often reference the “good”or “bad” sideof the tree.The good side leans away from the sawyer; the bad side leanstoward the sawyer.Givena choice, you should alwayswork fromthe good side of the tree when making the back cut. Front leanmeans that the tree wants to fall forward; in this case it’simportant to leave a strong hinge. For trees with back lean, it’simportant to set large enough wedges so that the tree can betipped. If a single wedge doesn’t offer enough height, stackingmultiple wedges will often create the necessary mechanicaladvantage.

StepThree:DetermineanEscapeRoute

Fewconsiderationsareasimportantaspickingagoodescaperoutefor the sawyer. Studies have shown that nearly 90 percent offelling injuries occur within 5 feet of the stump. This alarmingstatistic highlights the importance of choosing and clearing thebest route possible. Your escape route should be 45 degrees backandawayfromthefellingdirection.Neveruseanescaperoutethatis directly opposite the direction of fall, since the tree may kickbackward. Remember to work on the good side of the tree, andmakesurethatyoutakethetimetoclearbrushandanypotentialtrippingpointsinyourway.

ABOVE: Whilemosttreesoffertwopotentialescaperoutes,youshouldalwaysdecidewhichrouteyou’regoingtotake,andstick

toitsothatyouneverhavetoenterthedangerzone.Asageneralrule,youshouldusetheescaperouteoppositethe

directionofsidelean.

StepFour:MaketheNotchCut

Your notch is important for determining the felling direction, aswellasforcontrollingthedescentofthetree.Rememberthatthebackofyournotchbecomesthefrontofyourhinge.Thewidthofthehingeshouldbe80percentofthetree’sdiameter.Thismeansthat ifyou’recuttinga15-inchtree, thewidthofthehingewouldmeasure12inches,sidetoside.Knowingthisallowsyoutocutyournotchattheproperdepth.

The open-face notch should be 70 to 90 degrees. This anglemeansthatthetreewillfallallthewaytothegroundwithanintact

hinge,eliminatingthepotentialforthehingebreakingandthetreekickingback,asiscommonwiththeconventional45-degreenotch.

You’ll begin the notch by sighting your felling direction.Mostchainsawshaveabuilt-insightinglineonthecasethatallowsyoutolineupthesawwithyourintendedtarget.Withthesawpointingtoward your target point on the ground, begin cutting at adownward angle of approximately 60 degrees. This cut shouldcontinue until you reach 80 percent of the tree’swidth. You cannowmakeanupward30-degreecutthatbisectsthe60-degreecut.Thiswillresultinaperfect90-degreewedge.Eitheroftheseanglescanbeshortened,butthefinalnotchshouldbe70to90degrees.Itisalsoimportantthatthetwocutsmeet;abypassofnomorethan

inchisacceptable.Theriskofabypasscutisthateitherthetreemay split (called a “barber chair”) or the hinge may breakprematurely.

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ABOVE: The70-to90-degreeopen-facednotchoffersgreatercontrolinfellingthantheconventionalnotchdoes,becausethe

hingeislesslikelytobreakprematurely.

ProtectWaterQualitybyUsingBiolubricants

Foryourchainsawtooperateefficiently,thebarandchainmustbe continually lubricated. Until recently, virtually all bar andchainoilwaspetroleumbased.Giventhatthisoilisleftbehindon

the stumps, limbs, and forest floor, itmakes sense to considerusing a plant-based, biodegradable bar and chain oil. In fact,manycommunitywatershedsrequiretheuseofplant-basedoilstoprotectwaterquality.Mostofthesebiolubricantsusecanolaoil along with a tackifier that helps the oil stick to the bar,includingadditivesthatpreventtheformationofstickyresinsinyoursaw’sclutch.

StepFive:MaketheBackCut

Ifatreeissmallorhasnolean,wedgingisunnecessary;simplycutyour open-facednotch on the front, and cut straight in from theback.

On larger treesor treeswith lean,youshouldemploy thebore

cutandsetwedgesaboutaninchabovethecenterofthenotch.Itisextremely important that you use the “attack” corner (bottomcorner)ofthebarfortheborecut.Beginyourborecutattheapexof the tree, leading with the attack corner and pushing into thetree,parallelwiththehinge.Ifyourbarislongerthanthediameterof the tree, itwill saw through the far side (which should be the“bad” side of the tree). Bring the saw forward to adjust thethicknessofthehinge.Thehingethicknessshouldbe10percentofthe tree’s diameter. Assuming the same 15-inch-diameter tree,yourhinge shouldbe 1 inches.Maintain evenhinge thicknessacross thewidthof thehinge.Once thehingehasbeenset,beginsawing away from the hinge. However, do not allow the saw tocompletely sever thebackof the tree; leavea strap that is5 to10percent of the tree’s diameter. This strap is important, because itprevents your saw from getting pinched and also preserves anopening, or kerf, for inserting the all-important plastic fellingwedge.

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Withthesawsafelyremoved,andyourescaperouteclear,insertawedge(ormultiplewedgesonlargertrees)andpounditwiththepollofyouraxeuntilit’sfirmlyset.

At this point, take the time to look down your felling lane toensureit’sclearofpeople,dogs,orotherwoodlandcreatures.Onceclear,cut theremainingstrap inchbelowthebackcut.At thispoint, the lift provided by the wedges should provide enoughupward force that the tree falls; in that case you should set yourchainbrakeandwalk(don’trun)15feetdownyourescaperoute.Ifthetreedoesn’tfallafteryoucutthestrap,usethepollofyouraxetopoundthewedgesuntilthetreebeginstofall.Ifyoupoundyourwedges all the way in but the tree still won’t fall, stackmultiplewedges(two,andthenthreeifnecessary)tocreatetheneededlift.

For folks used to using the conventional “notch and drop”method, the reaction to the open-faced notch with the bore-cuthingeisalwaysthesame:“Thatfeltsomuchmorecontrolled.”Thiscontrolmeansthatnotonlyareyousaferworkinginyourwoodlotbutyou’llalsohaveahealthierwoodlot.Hungtreesandtreesthatbreak off the stump midfall often result in what foresters call“residualstanddamage.”Thisdamagemaybebarkscrapedfromaneighboring tree or crushed saplings as a result of imprecisefellingwithaconventionalnotch.

Someof themostuseful lessons of tree felling comeafter thetreehashittheground.Youshouldexaminewherethetreehit inrelation to your intended target. Were you right on, or did youmiss?Wasyournotchproperlysighted?Wasyourhingetoothickor thin? Being aware of these details and learning to refine yourtechniquewillmakeyourwoodlotwoodcuttingmoreefficientandenjoyable.

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ABOVE: Theborecutismadebyusingthe“attackcorner”ofthebar(see )toboreintothetree.Makesureyourhinge

thicknessisevenandapproximately10%ofthediameterofthetree,andthatthebackstrapis5–10%ofthetree’sdiameter.Themoreleanthetreehas,thethickerthebackstrapshouldbe.

here

ABOVE: Onsmallertrees,orthosewithlittletonolean,onewedgeisusuallysufficientforfelling.Onlargertreesyoumayneedto

usetwoormorewedges.

ABOVE: Cutthebackstrapabout1to2inchesbelowtheborecut.Thislowercutallowsthewoodfiberstotearvertically,contributingtoaslower,morecontrolleddescent.

WOODLOTMATH,

NoCalculatorNecessary

It’sessentialtodeterminetheheightofthetreebeforeyoufellit,sothatyouknowexactlywherethetopwillland.Todothis,you could dig around in your geometrymemory bank to findthePythagoreantheorem.Or,ifthegroundisreasonablylevel,youcouldusethefollowingsimpletrick:

1. Findastickthatreachesfromyourcheekbonetoyourfingerswhenyourarmisfullyextendedinfrontofyourface.Youmayneedtocutorbreakoffastickifyoucan’tfindonethat’stheexactlength.Extendyourarm,holdingthestickupbetweenyourthumbandpointerfinger,perpendiculartotheground.

2. Walkawayfromthetreeuntilthetopandthebottomofthestickarealignedwiththetopandbottomofthetree.

Ideally,yoursightlinetothebaseofthetreeshouldbeascloseaspossibletohorizontal.

Voilà!Thedistancefromwhereyou’restandingtothebaseofthe tree isequal to theheightof the tree. Ifyou’vecalibratedyourpaceasdescribedin ,simplypacethedistancebacktothetreeandconverttofeet.

LIMBINGWITHACHAINSAW

Limbing,sometimesreferredtoas“chasing,”requiresjustasmuchskill as felling and is just as potentially dangerous. Two errors

chapter1

standoutasbeingparticularlycommonwhen limbinga tree.Thefirstisanerrorinjudgmentthatoccurswhenthesawyerletsdownhis or her guard after the tree is “safely” on the ground. Theproblem is that inmost casesunsuspecting sawyers simply tradevertical uncertainty for horizontal uncertainty, whereby theenormous potential energy of bound limbs presents a dangeroussurprise.Theseconderroristhetemptationtogo“justabithigher”with thechainsaw inorder to reach limbs thatmaystillbeaboveshoulder height. The combination of the chainsaw being outsidethe control zone (above the shoulder) and the limbs being underpressure can have disastrous results. However, don’t despair; bylearningafewbasictricksofthetrade,you’llbeabletonegotiatethetrickiestoflimbs.

Beforeyoubeginlimbing,considerthefollowinghazards:

What’soverhead?Rememberthatasyourtreefell,itlikelyrubbedagainstthecrownofsurroundingtreesandcouldhavedislodgedand/orcreatedawidowmaker.Takethetimetolookupandevaluateoverheadhazards.

Arethereanypeskyspringpoles?You’llrecallthatintheprevioussectionwediscussedhowsaplingsandsmallpole-sizetreesshouldberemovedpriortofelling.However,doingsomeanscuttingdownyounger,smallersaplingsthatrepresentfuturecroptrees.Soonerorlater,you’llhitasaplingthatyouhopedyoucouldmiss,therebycreatingaspringpole(alimbortreebentunderpressurebeneathafallentree).Inthatcase,you’llwanttoslowlyreleasethepressurefromthespringpoleusingthemethoddescribedbelow.

Doesthetreewanttotwistorroll?Especiallylargelimbscancausethetreetotwistorroll.Removinglargelimbsinsectionsusinghingesisusuallysaferthantryingtoremovethemwhole.

What’sthetopographylike?Didthetreelandonahillorhummock,creatingtensionineachendofthestem?Isitonahillsideandlikelytoroll?Evaluatingtheselandscapefeatureswillhelpyouidentifypotentialkickbackandpinchpoints.

Limbing is the art of controlled pressure release. Understandinghowpressurechangeswhileyou’resawinginthekerfofalimbisessentialtosaferemoval.Ifatreeisleaningwithsidepressure,youcanusea limb-lockmethodthatslowlyreleasesthepressure.Youaccomplishthisslowreleasebycuttingabouthalfwaythroughthebranchon thecompression sideand thencutting the secondhalfonthetensionsideseveralinchesdownthebranch.

Springpolescanbeparticularlydangerouswhenthepressureisreleased too quickly and the branch flies into the face of thesawyer. The other danger is that the branch kicks the chainsawback toward the sawyer’s upper body. To avoid this, release thepressure slowlybymakinga series of shallowcuts at theapexofthespringpole.

“Chopyourownwood,anditwillwarmyoutwice.”

—HENRYFORD

BUCKINGWITHACHAINSAW

When bucking a tree with a chainsaw, as with limbing,compression and tension points will dictate how and where youbuck the log. Complicating the bucking process is the likelihoodthatyou’reprobablylookingtocutlogsorotherproductsfromthetree, thereby needing to incorporate additional factors in thebuckingprocess.Thesefactors includeminimizing theamountof

sweep or curvature in each log; bucking out defects, includingwounds that may indicate decay; and working within logspecification guidelines that dictate minimum and maximumdiametersoveragivenlength(e.g.,selectinglogsforalogcabin).

Bucking on hilly terrain poses the danger of rolling logs.Therefore,youshouldmakesuretoalwaysbuckthetreefromtheuphillsideandhaveanescaperoute.Asageneralrule,you’llwanttolimbandthenbuck,startingatthebuttofthetreeandworkingtowardthetop.Ifthetreehascompressiononthetop—meaningthatyourchainsawwouldpinch ifyoucutdirectlydown—useanotch-and-undercutmethod (see illustrationbelow) torelease thepressure.If,however,thecompressionpointisonthebottom,asisoften the case for suspended tops, use a bypass cut, where youbegin on the bottom by cutting one-third to one-half of thediameter,andthencutthetopwitha2-to3-inchoffset.Thisoffsetgivestheenergyaplacetogo,whilesafelyallowingthelogtosever.

ABOVE: Toavoidpinchingyoursawwhilebucking,useabypasscut:sawpartiallythroughthetop,andthenfinishonthebottom.Ifyoufeelyoursawbeginningtopinch,stopandcutfromthe

otherdirection.

BUILDINGTHEPERFECTSPLITTINGBLOCK

Splitting blocks serve several important purposes. First, bysplitting on a wooden block, you’re preserving your axe byavoiding rocks. Second, splitting on a block is safer since itgivestheaxeaknown landingspotwellawayfromyourfeet.Third,asplittingblockcansaveyoufromhavingtobendoverasfar.Yourbackwillthankyou!

Begin by selecting a block that is aminimumof 15 inches indiameterand12to16incheshigh.Theknottier,thebetter;theknots will prevent it from splitting prematurely. Any specieswillwork,butIpreferelmorsugarmaple.

Findanoldtirethat’s justslightly largerthanthediameterofyour block. Drill four 1-inch holes in one sidewall, evenlyspaced(thiswillallowwatertodrain).Usefour3-inchlagboltswithfenderwasherstoscrewthesidewallofthetiretothetopoftheblock.

You now have the perfect splitting block that will hold yourwood securely as you split it. No more standing up fallenpiecesorchasingrunawayfirewood!

If you’re splitting small-diameter wood, you can pack thepiecesinsidethetire;theywillsupportoneanotherwhileyouaresplitting.

Besideyourtire-toppedsplittingblock,youmaywanttohaveasecondblockwithouta tire for largeorodd-shapedpieces. Ialsorecommendputtingaslightangle (about10degrees)onthissecondblocksothatyou’reabletomatchanunevenpieceoffirewoodwiththeangleoftheblock.

SPLITTINGFIREWOOD

Because processing your own firewood is such a labor-intensiveactivity, it makes sense to plan out all the steps in advance tominimize the number of times you have to handle the wood. Inconstructingyourplan, thinkaboutwhere thewood isharvested,what tools youhave at your disposal, and options for getting thewood to the woodshed. (The instructions in this section refer tosplittingwoodbyhand;don’tdisgracethewoodbyusingapowersplitter.)Nodoubt,thevictoriousfeelingofsplittingastubbornlogwith only an axemakes it a fair fight andwill always trump themonotonyofpullingthehydraulicleverofapowersplitter.

Insomecases,itmaymakemoresensetosplitnearthefellingsite,sincepiecesoffirewoodareeasiertoloadandmovethanlargeroundsare.Processingwoodatthefellingsitereducesthedamagetoresidualtreesthatoftenresultsfromskiddingtree-lengthlogs.Finally,thedetritusfromtheprocess(nutrient-richsawdust,bark,andbranches)isleftinthewoodsandreturnstothesoil.

CHOOSINGANAXEFORSPLITTING

Splitting is different from chopping: with splitting, you’rebisectingthewoodalongthegrain,insteadofdiagonallycuttingit.Therefore, toeffectivelysplitwood,you’llneedanaxe thatworksless like a knife and more like a wedge. Your first option is toconvertanoldfellingaxeintoasplittingaxe.Sinceyou’relookingforafatwedgetopopthewoodapart,seekoutawell-wornfellingaxewithashortfacefrombeinggroundandabused.Useaflatfileata40-degreeangleoneachsidetocreateabluntwedge.Iftheaxe

has been out of service for a while, make sure the handle isn’tcrackedorloose.

SPLITTINGWITHAMAUL

Anotheroptionforwoodsplittingisamaul.Theadvantageofthemaul is itsmass,whichallowsyou topower throughthe logwitheach blow. Mauls can range in weight from 6 to 16 pounds. Butremember:whatyougaininmassisn’tfree.You’llstillneedtoliftthemaul,whichcanbetiring.Ipreferlightermaulsthatallowmeto work longer without getting tired. There are also several newhybridmauls that incorporate the thin cheek of an axewith thethickpollofatraditionalmaul.

HOWTOSPLITWOOD

You’renotworkingontherailroad,sodon’troundhouseoveryourshoulder.Instead,raisetheaxedirectlyoveryourhead.Bykeepingtheaxeinaperfectlinewiththecenterofyourbody,you’lldevelopgreateraccuracyandprecision.

Spaceyourlegswideenoughsothatthey’refreeandclearoftheaxeshouldyoumiss.Alsomakesureyou’rewearingsteel-toeboots.

Asyoulineupwiththelog,makesureyou’refarenoughawaythat youdon’t “wood,” or strike thehandle of the axe on the log.This happens when your arms and body are outstretched moreduringtheactualswingthanduringtheswinglineup.

Althoughstandingfartherbackfromthelogcanhelpavoidthis,consider adding a handle saver — a rubber ring placed on theshoulderof thehandle.Theringworksasashockabsorber in theevent of a missed hit. You can purchase a commercially made

handlesaver,oryoucanmakeyourownoutofa3-inchsectionofrubberradiatorhose.

Asyoubringtheaxedown,aimforthenearedgeofthelog.It’salwayseasiertostartasplitattheedgethaninthecenter.

If the log shows no sign of splitting after a couple of blows,rotateit90degreesandtryfromthatside.Ifyoustillcan’tmanagetopopopenthelog,consider“slabbing”thelogbyremovinginch-thick slabs. Once the slabs are removed, you can resume yourregularsplittingpattern.

The final option for splitting wood by hand is to use asledgehammer and metal wedges. This method is particularlyuseful for splitting knotty logswith uneven grain. If you opt forthismethod,makesureyourwedge isplacedbeside theknot,notdirectly in it. If theknot isatoneendof the log, split it fromtheopposite end.Also, it’s best to start at the edgeof the logand setadditional wedges (if necessary) as you work toward the center.Youmaychoosetouseyouraxeormaulsincemuchofthetensionin thewood is released once the initial split ismade. Some folksargue that splitting gnarly logs is too time consuming; however,rememberthatthereasonthelogissotoughisthatthewoodhaddense,unevengrain.Itisthisdensegrainthatisrichestinenergy.Inmyowncabin,thesepiecesarecovetedas“all-nighters”capableofpumpingoutconsistentheatwellintothemorning.

ABOVE: Whensplittingwood,bringtheaxedirectlyoverhead(insteadofoveryourshoulder)toincreaseyourprecision.

ABOVE: Aimforthenearedgeoftheblock(notthecenter)tomakesplittingeasier.Notethewidefootstancethatallowstheaxeto

travelbetweenthelegsintheeventofaglancingblow.

BUILDINGWITHCORDWOOD

Whileit’shardtodenythevalueofacordofwoodforkeepingyou warm, cordwood can also be used as a simple andefficient alternative building material. Cordwood building issimple;debarkedfirewood-lengthlogs(8to24incheslong)arestacked with an insulated mortar to create a wind-andwatertightwall.

SourceandCutYourLogs

It’s imperative that the wood be completely dry before youbegin, so start this process at least one year in advance ofconstruction. Softwoods are generally preferred overhardwoods (which are prone to greaterexpansion/contraction); cedar is among the most desirablewoods since it’s rot resistant. You can use either rounds orsplit wood; just make sure all pieces are cut to the samelength.

MixingMortar

Once your wood is dry and you’ve built a solid foundationabovegrade,you’rereadytomixyourmortar.Likecooks,most

cordwoodbuilders have their own recipe, but this one is themost common: 9 parts sand to 3 parts sawdust to 3 partsbuilder’s lime(notagricultural)to2partsPortlandcementbyvolume.

LayingUptheWall

Withthemortarmixedtotheconsistencyofthickmud,you’reready to begin building, or “laying up” the wall. Start with alayerofmortarat thebase (about2 inches thick), andpressthecordwooduntilfirmlybedded.Thelogsshouldn’ttouchoneanother,andmortarshouldfillalltheairgaps.

Withyourfirstcourseinplace,youcanbegincontinuebuildingthewall layerby layer.Makesure thewalldoesn’tbow inorout, and that theareasarounddoorandwindow framesarecompletelychinkedwithmortar.Beforethemortardriesyou’llwant tosmooth,or “point,” both the insideandoutsideof thewallusingabutterknifewithaslightlyupturnedblade.Usetheknifetobothsmoothandcompressthemortar,addingtoboththestrengthandappearance.

LetItDrySlowly

Itcantakeuptothreeweeksforthemortartocompletelydry.It’s best if it dries slowly, and you can control the rate bymisting the wall daily with water. (For more information oncordwood construction, see .) See forcompletedcordwoodhouse.

Resources here

ABOVE: Pointthemortarbetweenlogswithasmalltrowelorabutterknifethathasanupturnedblade.Individual

logsshouldnottouch;theyshouldbeseparatedbyathicklayerofmortar.

SKIDDINGLOGS

Soonerorlater,you’llfindthatyouhavealogyouneedtobringoutofthewoodstoprocess,whetherit’samaplelogthatwillbemilledintoanewkitchencounterorlog-lengthfirewoodthatyou’dliketoprocess closer to the woodshed. Skidding, or “twitching,” is theprocessofdragginglogs.Thissectionoutlinestheadvantagesandlimits of four distinct skidding methods, starting with peoplepowerandendingwithtractorskidding.

PEOPLE-POWEREDSKIDDERS

If your homestead woodlot is small, consider skipping the gymmembership and skidding logs by hand. If you’remostly cuttingcoppice wood or other small-diametermaterial, this is likely the

bestapproach.Thepeople-poweredlog-movingandskiddingtoolsinclude pickaroons, timber carriers, chainsaw winches, and thehand-pulledskiddingarch.

Pickaroon

Also known as the hookaroon, the pickaroon consists of a 3-to 5-inchtaperedhookmountedperpendicularlyonanaxehandle.Youcanstickthepickarooninthetopofasmallloganddragit,ordriveit into theendofa log to liftanddragat thesametime.This isahandytoolforfirewoodoperations,butitislargelyineffectiveforlogsover6inchesindiameter.

ABOVE: Apickaroonisidealfordraggingfirewood.Toreleasethelog,lowerittothegroundandpushbackonthehandle.

TimberCarrier

Atimbercarrierisatwo-personskiddingdeviceconsistingofa4-foot handle with a pair of swing dogs (hooks) in the center. Theswingdogsworklikeagrapple,divingdeeperintothelogasmorepressureisapplied.

ABOVE: Usingatimbercarrierrequiresnotonlyastrongpartnerbutalsogoodcommunication;makesureyourpartnerknows

whenyou’regettingreadytolift,drag,andstop.

ChainsawWinch

Whenworking in tight areas, the chainsawwinch can be a greatway to skid trees short distances or to free a stuck tree from thesurrounding crowns. The winch mounts on the bar studs of thechainsawandisgenerallybettersuitedtolarge,commercial-gradesaws.Todoublethepullingcapacityofthewinch,considerusinga

snatchblock(apulleyblockwithasideplatethatopenstoallowacabletobeinserted).

ABOVE: Achainsawwinchisidealformovinglogsinremotelocationsandtightoperatingspaces.Itcanalsobeusedforotherapplicationssuchasfreeingstuckvehiclesandhoisting

logsincabinbuilding.

Hand-PulledSkiddingArch

Thehand-pulledskiddingarchliftsoneend(orinsomecasesbothends) of the log,making it possible for one person tomove a logthatweighsasmuchas1,500pounds.Pneumaticall-terrainvehicle(ATV)tiresallowthearchtoeasilyrollovertheroughestofground.

If you opt for a hand-pulled skidding arch, make sure you havefriends to help take turns with it; the work is rewarding butextremelytiring.

SKIDDINGWITHANALL-TERRAINVEHICLE

Given their popularity, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) often offer apracticalsolutionforremovinglogsfromthewoodlot.Ifyoudon’talready own an ATV and are considering purchasing one forlogging, you’re better off selecting a large 4×4 model (500+ cc)sincehauling and skidding logs requires a substantial amount ofpower.Also,becauseoftheheavyhitchload,itmaybenecessarytoaddadditionalweight to the front of theATV. Finally,make sureyouuseextremecautionwhenskiddingwithanATV,particularlyonunevenorhillyterrain.Ifyou’reunsureaboutwhetheraloadistooheavy,erronthesideofcautionandmakeanextratrip.

ThethreemostcommonwaysofskiddingorhaulingwoodwithanATVareskiddingpansorskiddingcones,skiddingarches,andforwardingorutilitytrailers.

SkiddingPan/SkiddingCone

Skiddingpansareeasytomakeathomeusinganinvertedcarhoodor a scrap piece of sheet metal. They offer an effective way toreducedragonthefrontofthelog;thecurvedfrontalsoallowsthepan toglideover rootsandrocks.The log isgenerally fastened tothepanbyachainandbinder,andthenchainedtothehitchplateontherearoftheATV.

Similar to the skidding pan is the skidding cone, which goesoverthenoseofthelog,withachokerchainpassingaroundthelogandthroughthepointofthecone,thentotheATVhitch.

ABOVE: Skiddingconespreventtheendofthelogfromdiggingin,therbyreducingsoildisturbanceandallowingforlargerlogsto

movedwithlesshorsepower.

SkiddingArch

YournextoptiontousewithanATVisaskiddingarch.Currently,thereareovertwodozencommerciallyproducedATVarches.Theyvary greatly in terms of capacity, maneuverability, andchoking/hitching setup. Some of the major considerations aredescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.

ABOVE: Whenpullingsmallerlogswithaskiddingarch,youmaybeabletobalancetheloadbyhookinginthemiddleofthelog.Forlargerlogs,it’sagoodideatoletthebuttenddrag;itwill

serveasafrictionbrakeonhillyterrain.

Self-loadingversusmanual.Self-loadingarchesaredesignedtolifttheloadastheATVoperatordrivesforward.Thisworkswelleitherwith smaller logs or larger ATVs. The primary benefit of self-loadingsystemsisspeed.Manualarchesuseahand-crankwinchtolift the logoff theground. This reduces the initial dragbut takesmoretimetohitchup.

Chokerchainversus log tongs.A choker chain isusuallyabout5feetlongwithaslip,orchokerhook,atoneendandaneedlingpinattheotherendtohelpfeedthechainunderthelog.Theadvantageof thechokerchain is that itallowsyou tobundle small logs inasingle hitch. Log tongs offer the advantage of being able to grabandgo.However,logtongssometimeshavedifficultyholdinghardorfrozenwood.

Two-versus four-wheeled arch. Most arches are two-wheeled,meaning that unless a log is short and perfectly balanced in thecenter, the rearof the logwill stilldragon theground.Thereareseveralfour-wheeledcartsonthemarketthatallowforbothendsof the log to be lifted, thereby reducing ground disturbance. Thedisadvantageof thefour-wheeledcart is limitedmaneuverability,particularlywhenbackinguptothelog.

UtilityTrailer

If the logsyou’rehaulingwithyourATVare small, or if itmakesmoresensetoprocessthefirewoodwhileinyourwoodlot,considermaking or purchasing a durable utility trailer. In addition tohauling wood, a multipurpose utility trailer will find unlimitedemploymentaroundthehomestead.

BUILDINGYOUROWNGO-DEVILLOGGINGSLED

The go-devil was likely developed by early homesteaders inAppalachia,thoughvariousiterationsofthissimpledesigncanbe found worldwide. The go-devil worksmuch like

and discussedpreviously.Liftingthenoseofthelogoffthegroundandontoasetofskidshelpsreducefrictionandkeepthelogclean.Ago-devilissuitableforeitherasinglehorseorsingleox.Becauseitusesachaininsteadoffixedshafts,thego-devilcanbemaneuveredintighterspaces.Here’showtomakeyourowngo-devil:

skiddingpan skiddingcone

ABOVE: Thenoseofthego-devilistrimmedtoactasaskiddingconethatridesoverobstaclesandkeepsthelog

clean.

1. Trimthetree.Beginbyfindingaforkedtreewithequal-sizeleadersoneachside.You’llwanttoselectabranchforkthatisbetween5and8inchesindiameter.Cuttheforksothatyouhave8to12inchesofsolidwoodextendinginfrontoftheintersectingleaders.Trimtheforkssothattheoveralllengthisapproximately4feet.

2. Attachthehitchplateanddragchain.Usefour4-inchlagboltstomounta2"×8"hitchingplateacrossthemiddleofthego-devil.Drilla1 -inchholeoneachsideofthehitchingplatetoallowachaintopassthroughtheplate.Drillathirdholeofthesamesizehorizontallythroughthefrontofthesledforyourdragchain.

3. Loadthelog.Toloadyournewgo-devil,simplyrollyourlogupthesidelegofthesled.Iftheheightistoomuchtonegotiate,useasmallpoleasarampandrollthelogontothehitchingplateusingapeavey.Oncethelogisinplace,cinchthehold-downchainusingachainbinder.Hookthefrontchainofthego-deviltoasingletreebehindthehorseorox.Smallerlogscanbebundledtomakeformoreefficienthitches.

SKIDDINGWITHDRAFTANIMALS

Formanypeople,animalpowerrepresentsanattractiveadditiontothehomestead,andwithgoodreason.Thethoughtoftradingnoisy

⁄1 2

machines for the jingle of trace chains, or dirty exhaust fornutrient-richmanure,seemsalmosttoogoodtobetrue.

However,beforeyoubuyateamofBelgiansorayokeofDevonsonawhim,youshouldevaluatebothyourtimeandyourresources.UnliketractorsandATVs,draftanimalsinvolvedailycommitmentwithregardtotheircareandweekly,ifnotdaily,commitmentwithregard to their training. The bond that develops out of closeinteraction pays dividends in the field and woodlot. A properlytraineddraftanimalwillrespondequallywelltoverbalcommandsanddrivelineorgoad(prod)commands.Inthewoodlot,whereyourhands are likely to be occupied with choker chains and otherlogging tools, being able to communicate verbally is essential. Itmakesworkinginthewoodsbothmoreefficientandsafer,asyouneedtobeawareofhazardstobothyouandyourdraftanimal.

ChoosingDraftAnimals

If you’re serious about integrating draft animals into yourwoodland homestead, start by spending some time around folkswhousedraftanimals.Horsesarethemostpopulardraftanimals,followedbyoxen.Otherdraftanimalssuitedtosmall-scalewoodlottasksincludeminiaturemulesandgoats.

Horsesandoxenaregenerallyrunasteams;however,bothcanberunsingly.Mostoftheworkonmywoodlandhomesteadisdoneiswitha14.2-handHaflingerhorsewho’sabletoskida12'×14"logwith ease. Imove smaller coppice firewood by bundlingmultiplestems,making the operationmore efficient.Using a single horsemeansnotonlyalowerfeedbillbutalsoaccesstotightlocations.Itisn’tuncommonforustoskidlogsbetweentreesthatarelessthan3 feet apart without causing damage to the trees on either side.Ground skidding is done with a singletree in winter and a “

”whenthegroundissoftormuddy.

WorkingSafelywithDraftAnimals

go-devil

WorkingSafelywithDraftAnimals

Logging with draft animals is the ultimate challenge inmultitasking. Youmust be awarenot only of the regularhazardsassociatedwithloggingbutalsoofahostofotherpotentialhazardsrelated toyouranimal.Hereare somebasic tips tohelpkeepyouandyouranimalsafewhileworkinginthewoods:

Conditionyourdraftanimaltothesoundsofwoodswork.Thismaymeanrunningachainsawnearthebarnortossingloggingchainsaroundwhenthey’reinthepaddock.Beingusedtothesightsandsoundsofwoodsworkreducesthechancesofyouranimalbeingspooked.

Alwaysbeontheuphillsideofyourlog.UnlikebeingonatractororanATV,you’reoftenworkingfromtheground,alongsidethelog.Thiscanbeparticularlydangerous,especiallyonhillyterrain.Maintaininganuphillpositionwillhelpreducethechancesofthelogtakingoutyourfeet.

Neverputyourselfbetweenthelogandapinchpointsuchasanotherlog,tree,rock,orstump.Beparticularlyawareofthiswhentakingsharpcornerswithaload.

Workfastenoughtobeproductive,butslowenoughtobesafe.Takepleasureinthepacethat’scomfortableforyouandyouranimal.

Knowwhentostop.Unlikemechanizedequipment,yourteammateispronetofatigueinthesamewayyouare.Misstepsandslipsarealwaysmorecommonwithtiredteamstersandtiredanimalsthanwithfreshones.

While the decision to incorporate draft animals into yourwoodlandhomesteadshouldnotbemadelightly,therewardscome

in the form of personal enjoyment and a healthier woodlot. Thehoovesofdraftanimalscausemuchlesssoilcompactionthanthetires of tractors or ATVs. Andwhereas engine-poweredmachinesmayleakfuelorhydraulicfluid,animalsleavebehindonlyorganicfertilizer,freeofcharge!

If the thought of using draft-animal power is appealing butyou’renotreadyforthecommitmentofadoptingasetofhooves,considerhiringahorseloggertoworkyourproperty.Dependingonyourskills,theloggermaybewillingtotakeyouonasanassistant,buckingordeckinglogs,andjustmaybeyou’llgettotryyourhandatdriving.Beingarounddraftanimalsonyourpropertywillgiveyou a good idea if draft animals are right for you and yourhomestead.

TRACTORSKIDDING

If youalreadyowna compact tractor, you’rewell onyourway toskiddingwood.Youroptionsvaryfrominexpensiveandlow-techtospendyandhigh-tech.

The most basic way to skid wood with a tractor is to simplybundle,or“choke,”itwithachainthat’sconnectedtothedrawbarofthetractor.Aswithotherskiddingmethods,thisbasicapproachcan be improved by using a skidding pan, skidding cone, or go-devil. Not onlywill this keep your logs cleaner but it will reducedragandsoildisturbancealongyourskidtrail.

UsingtheThree-PointHitch

If your tractor is outfitted with a three-point hitch, you haveseveraloptionsthatwillmakeskiddingeasierandmoreefficient.Themostbasicapproachistoattachagrabhooktoyourdrawbar,

hitch the skid chain to the drawbar, and raise the drawbar.Depending on your tractor, you may find that your drawbardoesn’tprovideenough lift.Asecondoption is toeitherpurchaseor fabricate a three-point-hitch skidding plate. This serves twopurposes:first,byusingthetoplinkofthehitch,you’reabletopulllogs higher off the ground, and second, the lower portion of theplatepreventsthelogfromridingunderthetractor.

UsingaWinch

The tractor skiddingmethods described so farworkwell on levelground.Ifyourwoodlotishilly,you’llwanttobeextremelycarefuland consider using a loggingwinch,whichwill allow you to pullthe log to you (up to 200 feet) instead of driving over hilly oruneven ground to get to the log. While logging winches areexpensive, they’reworththeirweight ingold.Becausetheyaresopowerful,onedangeristhatasyougotowinchthelogin,thefrontofthetractorcouldraiseoffthegroundorevenflip.Alwayserronthesideofsmallerloads.Asoneexperiencedold-timertoldme,“Ialways chain the front of my tractor to a nearby tree whenwinching....It’scheapinsurance.”

Thethree-point-hitchtractorwinchisalsousefulforwinchinghung trees or freeing yourself from a mud hole. The blade ontractorwinchescanalsobeusedtopushlogsintoapile (decking)ortosmoothoutrutsinatrail.Winchesareavailablefortractorsfrom17horsepowerup;justmakesureyourtractorandwinchareappropriatelysizedforthewoodyouwanttoskid.

THEPORTABLESAWMILL

Formanywoodlandhomesteaders,theentrypointtomillingtheirownwoodbeginswithatriptothelumberyard,followedbystickershock that’s akin to being hit over the head with a two-by-four.However, the decision to begin milling your own wood canrepresentasignificantinvestmentofbothtimeandmoney,despitethe potential savings. To help guide you through this process,considerthefollowingpoints.

HOWMUCHWOODDOYOUWANTTOMILL?

The scale of your homestead woodlot and the length of yourbuildingproject listwillhelpyoudecide ifpurchasingamill is inyourlong-terminterest.Ifthescopeandscaleofyourhome-grownlumber ambitions is limited to, say, a chicken coop and a newwoodshed, you may want to consider hiring a portable sawmilloperator to mill your wood on-site. While you’ll still have thesatisfaction of harvesting your own wood, you’ll avoid theoverhead,maintenance,anddepreciationassociatedwithsawmillownership. Portable sawmill operatorsgenerallyworkoneitheraper-hour rate or a board-foot rate. These rates will vary greatlybased on local competition, distance traveled, wood species, siteaccess, and volumeofwood to be sawn.Other operatorswork onwhat’s known as halves, meaning that they’ll mill your wood inexchange for half of themilled lumber. If you have a surplus oflogs,thisbartersystemmayjustbethetickettogettingyourwoodmilledonthecheap.

WILLACHAINSAWMILLFITTHEBILL?

Ifyourlumberneedsaremodestandyou’reinterestedindoingtheworkyourself,youmaywanttoconsideraportablechainsawmill.Thesemillsareasmallfractionofthecostofaportablebandsawmillandcanbeusedwithyourexistingsaw,assumingit’satleast60 cc. Smaller sawsdon’t have the power to run a ripping chain,whichisnecessaryforsawinginlinewiththegrain.Alsobeawarethatthekerf,orwidthofthesawblade,issignificantlythickeronachainsaw, meaning that you’ll end up with more sawdust andfewer boards. It’s worth mentioning, though, that the chainsawmill is the most portable of all sawmills. I once helped build aremote cabin in southeastern Alaska where all of the wood wasmilled using the appropriately named Alaskan chainsaw mill.Given that the building sitewas a 10-mile hike from the nearestroad, traileringaportableband sawmillwasoutof thequestion.The chainsaw mill, which we strapped to our backpack in twopieces,wasjusttheticket.

ABOVE: Consideraportablechainsawmillifyourprojectisparticularlysmall,orifit’slocatedinaremoteareawherethe

logscan’tbeextractedformilling.

SELECTINGAPORTABLESAWMILL

If you’ve decided that your woodlot ambitions are best met bypurchasingaportablebandsawmillorcircularmill,you’llbemetwith a wide range of options and price points. There are severalportablecircularsawmillsonthemarket;however,mostarebandsaws that use inexpensive, narrow-kerf band blades. The power

plantsforbandsawmillsrangefrom6tomorethan70horsepowerandvaryintermsoftheirproductionpotentialfrom200to1,500boardfeetperhour.

You’ll also want to decide if a trailer-style portable mill ispreferable to a ground-based unit that’s usually brought to thesawingsiteinthebackofapickuptruckandthensetupnearyourlogpile.Atrailer-mountportablesawmillisfasterandeasiertosetup, but it poses thedisadvantage ofhaving to lift or roll the logsontoanelevateddeckinsteadofworkingatgroundlevel.Onefinaladvantage to groundunits is that they allowmultiple sections oftracttobeboltedtogetherforsawinglongtimbers,whichishelpfulin post-and-beam construction aswell asmaking long, two-sidedcabinlogs.

Attendingalocalagriculturalfairisagreatwaytoseeportablesawmills in action and learnmore about the relative advantagesand disadvantages of each model. One important considerationwill be the size of the wood you’d like to saw, which should bematchedtothecapacityofyoursawmill.Inevitably,manysawmillowners try tomake dowith a smaller sawmill— a decision theyregretassoonastheyrealizethetreetheyjustfelledistoobigfortheirnewmill.

ABOVE: Atrailer-mountedportablesawmilloffersthebenefitoffast,on-sitesetup,butloadingthelogscanbemoreofa

challengethanwithaground-mountedsawmill.

CRUISINGYOURLUMBERLOT

Making themost of your portable sawmill begins in thewoodlot.Oneofthemostchallengingelementsofdevelopingyourwoodlandeyeistheabilitytoimaginewhatastandingtreewilllooklikeasalogandeventuallyasastackofboards.Thisisespeciallyrelevantifyou’re the one harvesting the trees prior to milling. This directrelationshipwithbothlogandlumberpresentstheopportunitytominimize waste and increase efficiency. Furthermore, keeping awell-tuned mill and remembering a few simple tips for dealing

withdifficult logswillmakeyourportable sawmillingexperiencemoreprofitableandpleasurable.

Cut with a product or purpose in mind. Most portable sawmillowners produce lumber for a specific project. Having aspecification listboth in thewoodlotwhenfellingandat themillwillpromotegreaterefficiencybyallowingyoutobucktospecific,usable lengthsanddiameters. Ingeneral,cuttingasshorta logaspossible (while making sure it’s still long enough to meet yourneeds)willminimizewaste,a functionof less total taperand lesscrook or sweep. Also, remember that muddy logs will dull yourbladeinahurry.Ifyouliveinanareawithsnowcover,skiddinginwinter not only keeps logs cleaner but also prevents erosion bykeepinggroundcoverintact.

AHOMESTEADIN(ANDFROM)THEWOODS

ABOVE: Double-taptheimagetoopentofillthescreen.Usethetwo-fingerpinch-outmethodtozoomin.(These

featuresareavailableonmoste-readers.)

A: Using three-sided logs with lag screws is a fast andeconomical way to build a log cabin. Insert rubber weatherstrippingbetweeneachcourseoflogstosealairgaps.

B: When clearing your cabin site, consider leaving severalstrategicallyplaced tallstumps thatcanbecarved intocampchairs.

C:Slabwoodandlog-endtrimmingsmakeforafunctionalandattractivebench.

D:Untrimmedboardswitha“liveedge”makeforrusticcoffeetables.

E: Cedar shakes for the roof were split with a froe (see).

F:Thiswoodshedwasbuiltusing“brainstorm”siding.Itaddsarustic appearance and also saves on labor, since only oneedgeistrimmed.

G:Whenyou’rebuildingyourwoodlandhomestead,beonthelookout for good stones. Make piles for different types (flat,round,andsoon),whichcanbeusedforavarietyofprojects,includingapracticalstonepatiothatkeepsyourfeetoutofthemud.

Think of your woodlot as your lumberyard. A preliminaryinventory of your woodlot and a clear harvesting plan will alsoaffordtheopportunitytomatchthetreesinyourforestwithyourparticularneeds.Theillustration showsaone-roomhuntingcabinbuiltusingmyportablesawmill.Initially,theplanwastouse8" × 8" logs, milled on three sides. An inventory of the woodlotrevealed an average diameter at breast height (DBH) of only 10inches.

Oncetaperandsweepwereaccountedfor,itbecameclearthatusing 8" × 8" logswasn’t possible sincemost of the 10-inch DBHlogs tapered to 6-to 7-inch diameter at the small end. Instead, Irevised the plan to use logs milled to 6" × 6". In addition topromoting greater utilization of the trees in the woodlot, it alsoallowedformoreefficientsawingbyslabbingoff2"×6"boardsfor

MakingShakes

here

rafterswhilemillingthecabinlogs.Thisnotonlyminimizedwastebut also increased production efficiency. In the end, the totalconstructioncost for this cabinwas less than$600, showing thatevensmallwoodlotscanberichinvalue.

Cutlowstumps.Upto80percentofatree’svaluecanbecapturedin the butt log (the log taken from the base of the tree). This is afunctionnotonlyofthevolumefoundinthisfirst logbutalsoofthegradeorqualityofthelog,whichtendstobehigherbecauseithasfewerknotsthantherestofthetree.Thismeansthataboardfootofwoodtowardthebuttofthetreeisworthmorethanaboardfoot farther up the trunk. This increase in volume and value isalmost always justifiable, even if it means shoveling snow awayfromthestumpinwinter.

Take advantage of unique logs. While commercial loggers areoften forced to work within strict industry specifications, thewoodland homesteader can take advantage of logs that wouldnormallybe left behind. These include logswithahighdegreeofsweep for specialty applications, such as a curved headboard, orcurvedstringersforanarchedbridge.Evenshortslabssawnfromtherootflaresofbuttlogshavenichemarketsasartisanalcuttingboards.

MAINTAININGAWELL-TUNEDMILL

Keepitsharp.Thefoundationofawell-tunedportablesawmillisasharpblade.Thereisadangerousandcostlytendencytotrytoget“just one more board” out of a dull blade. Here’s a commonscenario:Youpushadullblade justabitharder toget it into thewood;because it’sdullyoufind itdivingandrising,makingyour

board thickand thin. Then, justwhenyou thinkyou’llmake it tothe end, the bladepops off, nowdeeply lodged in the log.At thispointyoutakeoutyourchainsawandcutoffthehalf-sawnboardtorelease thestuckblade.Youcanavoid this scenariobykeepingyour blade sharp. Pay attention to how themill is cutting; if youhave to tighten the blade frequently, it’s probably an indicationthatthebladeisdull(dullbladescreatefriction,resultinginahotbladethatexpands).

Makesureyourlogsarecleanandfreeofforeignobjects. Ifyouhaveaccesstoagardenhosenearyourmillingsite,washthelogsandremoveanyloosebark.Ifyourlogsareparticularlydirtyorifyoudon’thaveaccesstoahose,considertakingthetimetopeelthebarkwithanaxeoradrawshave.Theonlythingthatwilldullyourbladefasterthansawingthroughdirtishittingametalobjectinalog.Thisisparticularlycommonforyardtrees,inwhichnails,oldclotheslinehooks,andfencewiresareoftenhiddenwithintheslablayerofthelog.Ametaldetectorwillquicklypayforitselfintermsofbothtimeandbladessaved.

Keep a maintenance log. The beauty of portable sawmills is thatthey are relatively simple to operate. Fortunately, they’re equallyeasy tomaintain. I’ve adopted amaintenance schedule, based onthemanufacturer’s specifications, that works well formymill. Ikeep a log of all maintenance activities in a waterproof notepadtuckedintheglovecompartmentofthetruckthatIusetomovethemill. Prior to each use, I inspect the entire mill for loosecomponents.Ialsocheckthebladesharpnessandtensionaswellasallfluids.Ifyourmillisequippedwithawatertankforlubricatingthebladeandyouintendtorunthemillinsubfreezingconditions,

switch tousingcold-weatherwindshieldwasher fluidasawinterlubricant.

If you’re milling softwoods, be particularly aware of theproblemsthatcanbecreatedbypitch.Whenmillingbalsamfir,forexample,Icleanthecarriagerailswithalubricantandputtyknifeevery 8 to 10 logs — it’s amazing how much built-up pitch andsawdustcancontributetounevenorinaccuratecuts.

Other maintenance items include lubricating drive chains,flushing hydraulic systems to prevent corrosion, and packingwheelbearings, especially after themillhas sat idle for extendedperiodsoftime.

CUTTINGTOMAXIMIZEYIELD

Given thatno two logsare identical, it’s fair to say that foreverysawing rule, there are at least two exceptions. Assuming arelativelydefect-free log,beginbytakingaslaboff the topof thelog,followedbyaboardortwo,dependingonwhattypeoflumberyou’remaking.Next, rotate the log180degrees so that thenewlycreatedflatsiderestsonthecarriage,andremoveaslabandboardas you did on the first side. Then, rotate the log 90 degrees andrepeat the sameprocessonboth the thirdand fourth sides.Onceyouhaveacant(squaredtimber),youcanbeginsawingboardsoffoppositesides.

MillingCrookedLogs

Crookedlogspresentseveralchallenges.Fromaqualitystandpoint,logswithsweeporacrookbringlow-gradeheartwooddefecttothesurfacesoonerwitheachsuccessivecutthanstraightlogsdo.Theresult iseithernarrowor short low-gradeboardswithconcaveor

convex faces instead of the long, wide boards that can bemilledfromstraightlogs.Themostefficientwaytosawlogswithacrookorsweepistofirstplacethelogonthecarriagewiththeears(theflared ends) up. Remove the ears and continue sawing until youhave a flat face.Next, rotate the log 180degrees and remove thesweepslab(hump).Thenrotatethelog90degreesandcontinuetosawboardsnormally.

EfficientEdging

Nomatterhowyouopenupyour logs, you’ll be leftwith flitches(bark-edged or “live-edged” boards) that you’ll want to finish. Ifyou’resawinga largeamountofwood, itmakessensetoseparatethe flitches into piles based on their approximate width tominimizewaste.Oncethecantshavebeensawn,placetheseboardsinastack,edge-uponthecarriage;sawoneside;andthensawtheother. If you have just a few boards to edge, you can place themback on the carriage after you’ve formed a cant but before youbegin slabbing the cant. Thisway you’re able to edge boards andslabboardsoffthecantinasinglepass.

Operating a portable sawmill can be rewarding, particularlywhen you can take credit for bringing the wood from forest tofinished product. By practicing wise felling and buckingtechniques,performingpreventivemaintenanceonyourmill,andstudying efficient milling methods, you’ll find that portablesawmills are a practical and potentially profitable forestenterprise.

C H A P T E R 3

AnimalsintheForest

FromStumpstoGreenerPastures

Mention to a forester that you’re considering integratinganimals intoyourwoodlotandyou’ll likelyreceivea lookofdisapproval, a judgment that is rooted in unmanagedgrazing practices of yesteryear. Historically, woodlandgrazinghasbeenadefaultpracticeforfarmersunconcernedor unaware of the ecological consequences of castinglivestock into the forest with free rein. Not surprisingly,unmanaged woodland grazing commonly led to thedegradation of the forest, through soil compaction,elimination of regeneration, andwater pollution. However,thankstoamorecompleteunderstandingofforests,forage,and livestockmanagement, animals can be integrated intotheforestecosystemandactuallycontributetoitshealth.Inthis chapter we’ll explore options for integrating livestockinto your woodlot for a variety of purposes, ranging fromstumpremovaltocontrolledgrazingofunderstoryplants.

SILVOPASTURE

Broadly, the intentional combining of agriculture and forestry tocreate a sustainable and integratedmultiuse system is known asagroforestry.Thischapterwillprimarilyexamineanagroforestrysystemknownassilvopasture,whichcombineslivestock,trees,andforage production on the same acreage— an arrangement that’swellinlinewiththeambitionsofmanyhomesteaders.

Much of the commonly available information on this topicaddresses silvopastures in the context of taking open land andplantingtrees.Inthischapterwe’llfocusonconvertingaforgottenwoodlot to a productive and well-managed pasture system. Oneobviousadvantageofgoingfromforesttosilvopasture,insteadofpasture to forest, is that your crop trees already exist. Onedisadvantage is that you’ll have to contend with brush and,potentially, stump removal in an effort to create a hospitableenvironmentforgrowingforage.Aswithmosthomesteadprojects,the gratification associated with creating silvopastures is notinstantaneous.Inmycase,Ioptedformakingtheconversionusingasfewinputsaspossibleandlookedtoemploymylivestockalongtheway.

ABOVE: Throughcarefulmanagement,silvopasturecombineslivestock,trees,andforageproductiononthesameland.

PASTUREORSILVOPASTURE?

To begin, you’ll want to ask if a silvopastoral system is right foryou.Thediversifiedbenefitsassociatedwithsilvopasturealsoposeatrade-offintermsofmaximizingefficiency.Sincethenumberoftreesinasilvopastureisafractionofthenumberinaforest,woodproduction is reduced. Pasture forage, too,maybe reduced, sincetheshadecastbytreesmeansslowerforagegrowththanwouldbefoundinanopenpasture.However, inmanycasesthebenefitsofbeingable to integrate livestockwhileproducingtree-basedcropsoutweighthecosts.

As is true for any other management activity, assessing theappropriateness of a silvopastoral system begins with aninventory. Silvopasture trees can be grown for a variety ofpurposes, including timber, firewood, fruit, nuts, syrup, andChristmas trees, just to name a few. Your inventorywill tell youwhat potential “crops” you have. Remember, the easiest trees togrowarethetreesyoualreadyhave.

In some cases, the tree species growing on your propertymaynot be suitable for use in a silvopasture. Onmy own property, Ielected to create a silvopasture in one area and a traditionalpasture inanotherarea,basedontheshallowrootingbehaviorofthe balsam fir that predominated in what is now the openpastureland.HadIretainedthemodestdensityoftreesrequiredtoconstitute a silvopasture, I would have ended up with a pickup-sticksmessafterthefirstheavywinds,sincebalsamfirdependsondense, touching crowns for vertical stability. In addition to rootstability, another important factor to consider is shade tolerance.When shade-tolerant species are released from neighboring treecrownsthatprovideshade,thereleasedtreecansuffersunscaldorotherformsofstressthatmayresult inmortality.Unlikeshallowrooting, the stress associated with release can be mitigated byreleasingthetreeovermultiplegrowingseasons.Ifthetreespeciesorforestconditionisn’tconducivetoasilvopasturearrangement,

youmaywant to consider clearing the land to use as traditionalpasture but incorporating other agroforestry techniques such aswindbreaksorriparianbuffers.

Youmayalsodiscover thatyourpotential silvopasturedoesn’thave a single crop but instead has multiple crops, based on thespecies that exist. This could mean that your silvopasture is asourceforapples,maplesyrup,andfirewood—acombinationthatis more common than you’d imagine. As important as the treecropsarethelivestockspeciesyouselect.Theyshouldmatchyoursilvopastureinbothscaleandforagetype.

REASONSTOCONSIDERSILVOPASTORALSYSTEMS

Beyondtheobviousbenefitofbeingabletoharvestbothforestandagricultural products from the same land, silvopastoral systemsoffer less-recognized benefits that promote sustainability andmakeyourhomesteadmoreproductive.Theseinclude:

Growing more food without more land. As populations grow,demand for food will also increase. Neglected woodlots andforgottenforestspresenttheopportunityforcraftingaproductiveworkinglandscapethat’scapableofyieldingavarietyofproductssimultaneously. In addition, modern, portable fencing systemsenable small-scale growers to better control the location anddurationofgrazing,whichincreasesproductivityandreducesfeedcostswhileensuringthatnoparticularplotisovergrazed.

Promoting heritage breeds of livestock. Burgeoning interest inheritage breed livestock is well matched with the browse and

forage conditions that are often created in silvopastures. Unlikefactory farm livestock,which isbredfor rapidgrowthbasedonastrictly controlled diet, heritage breed livestock has the ability tothrive in the diverse forage conditions representative ofsilvopastures.

Controllinginvasiveplants.Lackofcompetitionfromotherplantsorfromanimalsisoneoftheprimaryreasonsinvasiveplantsareable to establish themselves and dominate fields and forests.Fortunately, with controlled silvopasture grazing, many invasivespeciescanbekeptincheckandserveaslivestockforage.Thisdualbenefit of forage and land restoration represents an attractivealternative to invasive plant control that often relies on labor-intensivehand-pullingofindividualplantsortheuseofpotentiallyharmfulherbicides.

Improving animal health. Research continues to show significanthealth benefits associated with silvopastoral arrangements. Theshadeprovidedbysilvopasturesinsummerleadstogreateranimalcomfort,whichmeansanimalsgraze longerandpotentiallygrowfaster.Forlactatinggoats,summershade,versusatraditionalopenpasture,hasbeenshowntoincreasemilkproductionby10percent.Additionally, since silvopastures often represent a less-homogeneous landscape, greater plant diversity is available forgrazers, thereby providing a more diverse and potentially betterbalanceddiet.Thatsaid, realize thatsomeplantsmaybeharmfultoparticularlivestock;takethetimetoinventoryandresearchanyquestionable plants before allowing your animals to browse orgraze.

Taking advantage of free labor. Like children, livestock can beeither a productive asset or a grocery-burning burden. Consider

how you can use your livestock to create and maintainsilvopastures. From plant control to stump removal andfertilization,it’simportanttomanageyourlivestockinawaythatminimizes costs while maximizing benefits. For example, freerangepoultrycanbedeployedtoawinterpastureinearlyspringtobreak down cow patties. At the same time, the chickens arecontrollingparasitesandreducingtheirownfeedbill.

MARKINGYOURSILVOPASTURE

Once you’ve decided to convert your neglected woods to asilvopasture,you’llneedtomarkthecroptreesthatyou’llmaintainforfutureuse.Theconsiderationswhenmarkingcroptreesincludespecies, form/health, and spacing. If you’re looking for ideas onhowtousevariousspecies(especiallycoppicespecies),consultthetables and .

The stocking level of your silvopasturewill varydependingonyour objectives, the successional stage of your lot, available croptrees, and other site attributes. Most unmanaged hardwoodwoodlots have at least 100 square feet of basal area per acre;unmanaged softwood or coniferous woodlots often have around220 square feet of basal area per acre. Obviously, these numberswilldiffer significantlyaccording to locationand forest type,butthey at least provide a useful starting point to tell you whatproportion of the stand you’re likely to have to remove to meetyourtargetdensityinthesilvopasture.

TopThreeRequirementsforSilvopastures

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Water. Is there a source nearby, or will you have to truck inwater?

Access. Is there a trail or woods road leading to yoursilvopasture? Isolated silvopastures can quickly become aheadache,particularly if youhave to truckwaterordon’thaveaneasywaytomovelivestockinorout.

Fencing. Can the area be easily fenced? Is there an adjacentfenceline that can be used to minimize fencing costs? Is apermanent fence necessary, or is portable electric fencing anoption?

Youcanmarkyourcroptreeswithflaggingortree-markingpaint.The advantage to using temporary flagging is that once you’redonewiththepreliminaryestablishmentofyoursilvopasture,youcan remove the flags. If you’re unsure whether a tree should beretainedasacroptree,erronthesideofcautionandsave it;youcan always remove it later. Another approach is to removecompetitiontreesovertime,slowlycreatingyoursilvopastureandallowingyourcroptreestoadjusttonewlightconditions.

Asyoumarkyourstandforcroptrees,payattentiontospacing.Thisisimportantnotjustforyourcroptreesbutalsofortheforagegrown below. If there’s inadequate light at ground level,establishingasilvopasturewillbeimpossible.

In addition to creating semi-even spacing of trees, you mustalso consider the structure of the forest. As youmay recall from

, “structure” refers to the proportion of small trees tolarge trees. The successional stage of your forest, as well as itshistory,largelydeterminesyourforest’sstructure.Largertreeswillcast larger shadows, providing more shade. Smaller trees may

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providelessshade,butiftheyhavelow,sprawlingcrowns, itmayprevent theestablishmentof foragebelow.The trick is to strikeabalancebetweenlightandcover.

You must also consider the balance of light and cover in thecontext of your target forage species. At this point youmay notknowwhatthattargetforagespeciesis.Yourimmediategoalmaybe to control an invasive species, but ultimately you’ll want totransition to growing, through either natural establishment orseeding, dependable noninvasive forage that is palatable to yourspecific livestock. Understanding your soil conditions as well asregionally appropriate forage types is essential. Your localCooperativeExtensionofficewillbeabletoassistwithsoiltestingandtosuggestforagetypes.

E X P E R T P R O F I L E

NorthBranchFarm

JoeOrefice

The young-farmer movement brings new energy andinnovations to small-scale agriculture. One of these youngfarmers, JoeOrefice of North Branch Farm in Saranac, NewYork, is leading the charge to change the way people viewwoodlotsandforest lands.Citingtheever-increasingdemandforfoodandtheburgeoninginterestinlocalfood,Joeisusinghis farm as a living laboratory to study how marginalwoodlands can be converted to silvopastures capable ofproducingavarietyofgoods.

JoeusesScottishHighland,BeltedGalloway,Holstein,andHereford cattle in his silvopastures, noting that the heritagebreedcattlearehisbestbrowsers.Overhis75-acreproperty,Joe has several silvopasture areas that provide firewood,timber for projects around the farm, and wild apples forcidermaking.

Key to the success of Joe’s silvopastoral system is anintensiverotationalgrazingprogram.Usingaportable,single-strand electric fence system, Joemoves his cattle every fewdays, never letting the forage drop below 3 inches in height.Thepaddocksarefairlysmall,typically acreorless.

Prior to the establishment of silvopastures, the propertywas overgrown with woody shrubs and had largelysuccumbed to old-field succession. Within a year ofintroducing cattle, aggressive browsing had knocked backundesirablespeciestoamoremanageablelevel.

THECLOSED-LOOPSILVOPASTURESEQUENCE

Nowthatwe’veoutlinedthegeneralrequirementsforestablishingasilvopasture,let’sdiscusshowyoucancreatesilvopasturesusingminimal inputs and livestock you already own. While myexperience is unique to the species and conditions found onmyhomestead in northern New York, the process can be replicatedunderavarietyofconditions.

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When Ipurchasedwhat isnowmyhomestead, itwasamixofabandoned potato fields that had succumbed to old-fieldsuccession and a forgotten Christmas tree plantation that wasmore than 40 years old. With the help of a willing horse and aportable sawmill, I turned the forgotten forest into a lumberyardforvirtuallyeveryhomesteadproject.However, itquicklybecameclearthat if Iwantedtoexpandanddiversifythe livestockonmyproperty without going broke from buying feed, I’d need tointegratelivestockthroughasilvopastoralsystem.

DEFININGTHEAREA

Since thepropertywasoncecultivated, Ihad thebenefitofusingoldstonewallsasaguideforestablishingthesilvopasturelocation.I knew that I wanted it close enough to the house that it wasconvenientbutfarenoughawaythatIdidn’tfeel likeIwaslivingin a barnyard. An inventory of the site showed that the oldChristmastreeplantationhadnearly260squarefeetofbasalareaperacre!Hadthetreesnotbeenplantedinrows,itwouldhavebeenimpenetrable.

Balsamfir is a short-lived, shallow-rooted species, so I knew itwasn’taverygoodcandidateforsilvopasture.However,therewereseveral gaps in the old plantation, a result of windfall, that hadallowedwhitepine, black cherry, andgraybirch to establish. Thesandysoilprovedidealforthewhitepine,whichdespiteonlybeingabout30yearsoldwasalreadynearlyafootindiameter.Theblackcherryandgraybirchbothhadmultiplecoppicestemsasaresultofbrowsingbydeerandrabbits.

With livestock on the way, I made the decision to fence theperimeterofthesilvopasturefirstandthenemploytheanimalsinclearing the rest of the land. Most of the fenceline clearing took

placein latefall,whichgavemetheopportunitytobarterbalsamboughs(forwreathmaking)inexchangeforcedarfencepostsanduse of a tow-behind wood chipper. As I cleared the fenceline, Idepositedthewoodchipsinathickbedontheoutside,topreventvegetation from establishing and thereby discourage livestock(particularlysheep)frompushingonthefencetoreachforageonthe other side. Eventually, I carved a 30-foot-wide swath in thefootprint of the proposed fenceline. At the time many folksquestioned the wide swath, but it ensured adequate room fordrilling post holes and rolling out fence. Additionally, the wideswathmeantthatfallingtreeswouldn’tbeinstrikingrangeofthefence. Iusedwovenwireas thefencematerial, since Iplannedtousemultiplespeciesforgrazing—fromchickenstocattle.Later,Iused electric polywire fence to create movable, internal grazingpaddocks.

THINNINGYOURSILVOPASTURE

In thecontextofcreatingsilvopastures, thegoalof thinning is toreduce tree density to a level that allows for vigorous foragedevelopment in the understory while retaining asmany trees inthe overstory as possible. One reason this arrangement works isthat trees and forage plants obtain their required inputs fromdifferent areas; trees get their water deeper in the soil and usedirectsunlight,whilegroundforageplantsrelyonwaterclosertothe surface and can maintain growth even under diffuse lightconditions.

It isalso importanttounderstandhowlight ismanipulatedbybothcrownshapeandspecies.Whileconifersgenerallycreatelessshade,becauseoftheirconicalshape,theshadethattheydocreatetends to be heavy and can often prevent the successful

establishment of ground forage. Leaf size, density, andarrangementalsoinfluenceshade.Beechandmaple,forexample,cast heavy shade,while locust and tamarack generally have less-densecrowns,allowingformorelightpenetration.

Whilecommercial-scalethinningusinglargemachinesmaybeappropriate for large-scale silvopastures, most homesteaderswould be well served to develop their silvopasture area on theirown, using low-impact tools and techniques. In my ownsilvopasture, I retained approximately 50 trees per acre in theinitial thinning and removed another 20 trees per acre thesubsequentyeartopreventthinningshock.

Perhapsoneofthemostimportantconsiderationsindoingthiswork is to remember that you’re thinning to create an idealenvironmentforyourcroptrees.Thatmeansthatyoushouldtaketheutmostcaretoreduceresidualstanddamage,bothtoyourtreesandtothesoilbelow(seebox,below).

TipsForReducingResidualStandDamage

Makesurecroptreesareclearlymarkedtoavoidunintentionaldamage.

Usedirectionalfellingmethodsinwhichtreesarefelledintoagap,avoidingcontactwiththecrownsofothertrees.

Whenskidding,neverallowalogtorubupagainstyourcroptrees.Thiscreatesabasalscar,whichisanentrypointforinsectsanddisease.Instead,rollthelogawayfromthetreeusingapeavey.

Avoidworkinginmuddyconditions.Notonlydoesmudmakeyourtimeinthewoodlotlessproductiveandenjoyable,butit

alsocreatessoilcompaction,whichdamagestreerootsandforage.

PRE-THINNING

In creatingmy own silvopasture, I used Scottish Highland cattleandScottishBlackfacesheeptoconductapre-thinningwithintheproposed silvopasture. The purpose of the pre-thinning was tomake the site more accessible for the actual thinning operation.Within a week, the cattle had used their horns to successfully“prune” thedeadboughsfromnearlyevery treeover2acres.Thesheep aggressively browsed the witch hobble (Viburnumlantanoides)andlowbushblueberry(Vacciniumangustifolium)thatpredominatedtheunderstory.

With the pre-thinning complete, I was then able to begin theactualthinningoperation.Ichosetobeginattheinteriorperimeterofthefence(whereIhadpreviouslyclearedanalleyway),workingmywaytowardthecenter.Thissystematicapproachwasfastandefficient. Over the three months that it took to thin thesilvopasture, I used a variety of harvesting tools and techniques,includinghorses,anATV,andacompact4×4tractorwithaloggingwinch. Eachmethod offered advantages and disadvantages, withefficiency seeming to be inversely proportional to enjoyment.Using the horses was certainly the slowest, but the pleasantnostalgiaofknowinghomesteadersacenturyearlierhadusedthesame techniques on the same landmade the hardworkworth it.Withwinterclosinginandstillinneedofmorefirewood,Ifinishedskidding logs with the tractor, which was able to haul twice asmuchwoodwitheachtrip.

IremovedboughsfromseveralwhitepineandScotspinetreesforspacingpurposes,andplacedtheminawindrowforthecattleandsheeptobrowse.Despitehavinganamplesupplyofhayandaminerallick,boththesheepandthecattleshowedakeeninterest,if not a preference, for the boughs. (It’s worth mentioning thatduring the thinningprocess, Imoved the livestock toanadjacentpasture,giventheobviousriskswhilefellingtrees.)

Logsfromthethinningoperationweresortedintothreepiles.Iretainedthelargestandstraightesttreesforbuildingaguestcabinon the property, bartered the smaller-diameter softwood with aneighbor for labor, and reserved the firewood for my winterheatingsupply.

STICKSANDSTUMPS

Onceyoubeginthinning,you’llbeamazedbythevolumeofbrushyou create. If this brush is palatable to your animals, you mayconsidermatchingtherateatwhichyouthintotherateatwhichyouranimalsarewillingtoconsumethebrowse.

Anotheroption,assuminglocallawsallow,istoburnthebrush—aneffectivewayofreturningnutrientstothesoilandincreasingpH for forage that needs alkaline soil. Ideally, you should allowyourbrushtodryforayear.Attemptingtoburngreenbrushwillmakeforasmokymessthatdoes little towinovertheneighbors.Also, insteadofhavingonegiantbrushfire,youcanbuildaseriesof smaller piles over stumps youwish to remove. Like the brush,thesestumpswillburnmuchbetterifgivenayearortwotodry.Asa cautionary note, realize that if the conditions aren’t right (toodry, for example), stumps can smolder underground. For thatreason, I domost ofmy stumpburning in early springwhen thegroundisfullysaturatedwithwater.

Another option for stumps is simply to let them rot. Manypeopleassumethatstumpremovalcreatesmorespaceforgrowingforage, but in reality it is a significant time investment that’stough to justify simply from the standpoint of increasing forage.Onewaytoexpeditestumprotistocutstumpsaslowtothegroundaspossibleandusetheattackcornerofyourchainsawbartocarveagridpattern in the stump. This gridwill holdwater anddebris,therebyencouragingdecompositionandallowingasplittingwedgetobeinsertedayearortwodowntheroadtosplitthestumpapart.

ABOVE: Cuttingstumpslowandcarvingagridpatterninthetopwillexpeditedecay.

Anotheralternativetoremovingstumpsistousethemasaforagesource. (See formoreonthecreationanduseofstumpandroot suckers as a foragematerial.) Inmy case, the only stumps Iintentionally retained for foragewere those from gray birches. Iremoved the black cherry stumps immediately, because of thepotentialtoxicityofwiltedcherryleavestolivestock.Sincefirandpinestumpsdon’tsprout,Iremovedthem.Theynotonlytookawayfromproductivegrowingspacebutalsopreventedmowing,whichwasanimportantpartofallowingmoredesirableforagespeciestoestablish.Ofall thestumpremovalmethodsIexplored, itwasthevenerable“pig-o-tiller”thatprovedmostsuccessful.

PORKPOWERFORSTUMPSANDSOIL

Ifthelocalfarmstoreweretosella“buildyourownsilvopasture”kit,nodoubtitwouldincludeapairofpigs.Apig’ssnoutsharesaremarkableresemblancetoachiselplow:strong,stout,andslightlycurved on the end. It is this snout, in concert with an olfactorycuriosity, thatmakes pigs ideal for rooting up unwanted stumpswhilepreparingtheseedbedforforage.

Pigsdotheirbestworkinacompetitiveenvironment.Asolitarypigwon’t feel a sense of competition at the feed trough andwilllikely do more sleeping than eating. A pair of pigs, however,represents a powerful team capable of turning soil and freeingstumps.Butbecareful:lettingapairofpigshavefreereinofyourhomestead is a recipe for disaster. Instead, youmust focus your

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pigs,givingthemataskthat’slinkedtoatastyreward.Thekeytomakingthisworkisacustom-builtpig-o-tiller.

The pig-o-tiller is a glorified manger or loafing shed thatfocuses thepigon thepurposeof stumpremovaland tillingyoursoil. (See instructions on how to build one .) It’s importantthat the pig-o-tiller be large enough that your animals arecomfortablebutnotsolargethattheylosesightofthetaskathand.Thetrickistouseabitofgraintoenticethemintoworking.Todothis,selectastumpyou’dliketoremoveandusearockbar(aheavysteelprybar)tocreateaseriesof12-to18-inch-deepholesaroundthebase.Next,pourcrackedcorndowneachoftheholes.Pullthepig-o-tiller over the stump and let the pigs go to town! In myexperience,apairofpigswasabletoexcavatea10-inchstumpinabout two days.Whenever they didn’t excavate deep enough, I’drepeat the process until the stumpwas excavated to the point atwhichIcouldfinishpullingitoutwithahorseoratractor.

Overthecourseofasummer,Iwasabletoexcavatemorethan60 stumps using this method. I moved the pig-o-tiller, by hand,aroundthenewsilvopastureinasystematicfashion.Notonlywerethepigsabletoexcavatethestumps,buttheyalsoturnedtheduffandexposedmineralsoil,whichisessentialtothegerminationofmanydesirablegrassesandforbs.Importantly,Ineverputthepigswithin crown distance of my crop trees. To do so would put theshallow roots in danger of being damaged. As a general rule, Inever left the pig-o-tiller in one spot longer than five days. Thismeantthatthepigsalwayshadacleanspottobeddownanddidn’tbecomeboredenoughtotryHoudinitricks.

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ABOVE: Harnessingporcinepowermeansencouragingrootinginawaythat’sproductive,notdestructive.Creatingaseriesof12-to18-inch-deepholesaroundastumpandtossingahandfulof

grainineachholemakesquickworkofatoughjob.

Anotherthingtoconsiderwithapig-o-tilleristhatbecausethepigsworkinaconfinedarea,theymusthaveaccesstocleanwaterandadditionalfeed.Andafinalconsiderationisthattheageofthepigsmakes a difference: when your pigs are small, they’ll be lessproductiveworkers,requiringmoretimetogetthejobdone.

Ifyouwishtopastureyourpigs,butwithoutapig-o-tiller,youmaywanttoconsiderportableelectricfencing.Likethepig-o-tiller,fencingcanlimitthepigs’rangetotheareaaroundastump,and

you can use the same tricks to encourage rooting. However, it’sextremelyimportantthatthepigsaretrainedontheelectricfencefromthetimethey’repiglets,andthatalargeenoughenergizerisusedwith the fence. You can choose either a commerciallymadewoven-strand portable electric fence or two strands of electricfence wire strategically placed at 6 and 12 inches above groundlevel.With either type of fencing, be cautious of pigs using theirchisel-like snouts to build a grounding berm that shorts out thefence.Clevercritters,eh?

FROMPIGPREPTOSEEDING

I seed my silvopasture incrementally, as soon as the pigs havefinished their work removing stumps and turning the soil in agivenarea.I’veusedtwoprimarymethods:feedseedingandfrostseeding.

FeedSeeding

Feedseedingisagoodoptionifyouhaveaccesstohigh-qualityhayforyourlivestock. Inmycase, Ifeed4'×5'roundbalesthatcomefrom a neighboring farmwith amix of quality timothy, orchardgrass, and clover. Once the pigs have finished their prep work, Iplaceabaleonthesitepreviouslyoccupiedbythepig-o-tillerandletthecattle,horses,andsheepgototown.Whattheydon’trealizeisthatwhilethey’reeating,they’realsoworking.Themanuretheyproduce is now rich with quality undigested seed that is spreadthroughoutthepasture(andlaterbrokenupwithachainharrow).Additionally, the site where I fed them has been subject to hoofaction, which creates a depression that’s the perfect moistmicroenvironmentforseedstogerminate.Whatlittlehayremains

behind serves as protective mulch for the seed below. Over thecourse of a year, I fed hay in a different location every week,ultimately creating a silvopasture that looks as if itwere plantedwithaseeder.However,avoidlettingyourlivestockgrazeyournewforagetooearly,asitcandamagetenderroots.

FrostSeeding

Frost seeding relies on Mother Nature, rather than expensiveseeding equipment, to do the dirty work. By broadcasting seedduring the freeze-thaw cycle of early spring, you’re able to takeadvantage of soil movement that provides good seed-to-soilcontact. As ice heaves upward and then contracts, your seed isworked into the soil, thereby eliminating the need for disking orcultipacking.Once temperaturesareoutof the freezingzone, theseedwillbegintogerminate.

In my area of northern New York, red clover has workedexceptionallywellforfrostseeding.Partofthereasonisthatit’sarelativelyheavy,roundseedthat’sabletomakebettersoilcontactthan a lighter, flatter seed. Red clover is also appealing insilvopasture arrangements because it’s able to “fix,” or release,nitrogeninexcessofitsownneeds,therebyincreasingfertilityforboth trees and ground forage. One of the best ways to ensuresuccessfulfrostseedingisto“runout,”orheavilygraze,apastureinthefallprior toearlyspringseeding.Thishelpsto increasethechance of soil–seed contact. Despite how basic the process is, it’snot uncommon to have only a 70 percent establishment rate onfrost-seededsites.

If your pasture is small, you can broadcast seed by hand. Ifyou’re frost seeding a larger area, consider using an ATV or atractor-mountedseederwithrowsappropriatelyspacedtopreventseedoverlaporbarepatches.

Aswiththefeedseedingmethod,withfrostseedingyoucanletyourlivestockhelpworktheseedintothegroundbyallowingthemaccesstothesilvopastureduringthefreeze-thawperiod.Afterthatpoint,move them to another pasture and allow the seed to fullyestablishtograzingheight.

HOWTOBUILD

APig-O-Tiller

While lots of options exist for housing pigs, the pig-o-tilleroffersaportablealternative thatpromotesbothhealthyhogsandpasture improvement.Forapairofpigs,8'x11' is ideal,withtheoptionofanadditional“pigporch”constructedoutofan old hog panel. Because of the stress of beingmoved, andthefactthatpigshaveapenchantforscratchingonposts,usewood screws instead of nails — they’ll do a better job ofholdingthingstogether.

1. Startwithapairof2"×6"×12'boards.Thesewillbecomeyourskidsforthebaseofyourpig-o-tiller.Cuttheendsofbothboardsata45-degreeangletomaketheskidtips.

2. Placetheskidsonedge8feetapartandscrewa2"×4"×30"uprightoneachoftherearcorners.Screwtwoidenticaluprightsonthefrontofthepig-o-tiller1footbackfromthefront.

3. Withyourfouruprightsinplace,useeither1-inchrough-cutboardsorplywoodforthesides.Toentirely

enclosethepigs,youcanboardupbothendsaswell.Ifyouwantanopenpigporch,simplyusea2"×4"×8'boardasabraceatthetop,andattachthehogpanelasshownintheillustration.

4. Coverapproximatelyhalfofthepig-o-tillerwithcorrugatedroofing.It’sagoodideatopermanentlyattachonepiece;however,you’llwanttohaveadditionalpiecesthatyouaddorremove,basedontheweather.

5. Finally,attacharopelongenoughtoallowyoutodragthestructureeasily.

6. Liftthefrontofthepig-o-tillerandpropitwithabucketwhenyouneedtoletpigsinorout.Unnecessarydoorssimplyinvitefugitivebehavior.

TAKINGSTOCKOFLIVESTOCK

The success of your silvopasture will largely be a function ofselecting the right livestock and determining the appropriatestockinglevelforthescaleofyourhomestead.Whilecattlemightnotbeapracticaloptionforyou,smallerlivestockmayprovidetheopportunity to integrate silvopasture components on a moremanageable scale. This section will examine different livestockoptionsandarrangementssuitableforavarietyofconditions.Yourforemost consideration when introducing your livestock to newforageshouldbeanimalhealth.Takethetimetolearnwhatplantsarepotentiallyharmfultoyouranimalsanderadicatethoseplantspeciesbeforeallowinglivestockentry.

CHICKENS

Ifyou’veneverraisedlivestockbefore,bewarned:chickensarethegateway animals that may lead to goats, pigs, and even cattle.Chickens are also a natural choice for the woodland homesteadbecause of their natural foraging abilities. Themodern domesticchicken was bred originally from jungle fowl in Southeast Asia.Whiletheseearlybirdswereabitonthescrawnysideforachickendinner, their hardiness and penchant for stayingnearbywas thestarting point for early breeders, who selected for desirablecharacteristics such as egg production, meat production, or acombinationofthetwo,makingfordual-purposebirds.

ABOVE: Chickensareagreatwaytocontrolpestswhileeffectivelyaddingnitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumtoyoursoil.

ChickenTractors

Chickens can contribute more than just eggs to the woodlandhomestead. Shortly after I completedmy silvopasture, a soil testrevealed extremely low levels of nitrogen. Not wanting to usesynthetic fertilizers, I headed to the chicken coop to call in thepoultrycrew.Whileyoucouldallowyourchickenstosimplyfree-range in your silvopasture, it’s better to confine their activity ifyou’reinneedofamajornitrogenboost.Todothis,considerusing

a chicken tractor, a movable floorless chicken coop (with orwithoutwheels)thatyoucanpullfromonelocationtothenext.Bymoving the chicken tractor daily, you’ll be constantly providingyour poultrywith a fresh salad bar.When chickens are on freshgrass,you’llfindthattheyconsumeaboutone-thirdlessfeedthanwhennaturalforageisn’tavailable.

While using a chicken tractor is an effective way to addnitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to your soil, you may alsochoose to simply allow your chickens to range freely in yourwoodlot or silvopasture. If you allow your birds to free-range, beaware thatunthinned forestswith thickundergrowthmakegoodhiding places for predators such as foxes and weasels. For thatreason, you should always return your chickens to a secure coopfor the night. Usually, chickens will retreat to the coop on theirown;however,ifyoufindyourbirdsroostinginyoursilvopastureorwoodlotfortheevening,consideraddingalate-afternoonsnackofcrackedcornbackatthecoop.This incentiveisusuallyenoughtochangetheireveningbehavior.

HERITAGEBREEDCHICKENSFORTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

TURKEYS

Poundforpound,fewotheranimalsareasusefulonthewoodlandhomestead as turkeys are. With a bit of careful management,turkeyscansaveyoubothtimeandmoney.Infact,turkeysthatareraised using the forest and pasture methods described in thissectionwillconsume,onaverage,25percentlessfeedthanturkeysraised in confinement. They’ll also be healthier because of theiraccesstoopenspaceanduncontaminatedlivingconditions.

UsingTurkeysforWoodlotScarification

UsingTurkeysforWoodlotScarification

One way to integrate domestic turkeys into the woodlandhomesteadistohavethemmimictheactionofwildturkeys,whichplayanimportantroleintheregenerationofsometreespecies.Instumblingupontheworkofwildturkeys,you’lllikelyfindapatchof forest floor that looks like it’s been raked or harrowed. In aneffort to findworms, grubs, nuts, and fungi, turkeyswill scratchthe leaf litter, ultimately exposing mineral soil. This soildisturbance, known as scarification, creates an ideal seedbed forgermination.Usingdomestic turkeys to scarify yourwoodlot is agreatwaytoencourageregenerationoftreesfromseed.Preferably,scarificationshouldbecarriedoutinlatefalltocreateidealspringgerminationconditions.

ABOVE: Turkeyscanencouragetheestablishmentofmanydesirabletreespeciesbyscarifyingmineralsoil,thereby

promotingseedgermination.

Woodlot scarification to promote seed germination of treesmustbejudiciouslymonitoredtopreventsoildamageandpreserveseedstock.Ifyourturkeysareallowedtograzetoolonginanareathatistoosmall,they’llcompactthesoilanddecimateyourseedbank(aninconspicuous,multigenerationalcollectionofseedstuckedneatlybeneath the soil, just waiting for the perfect opportunity to

germinate). One way to preserve this important resource is toestablish a rotational scarification system, in which a portableturkeycoopislocatedinthecenterofthewoodlot,withaseriesofpie-shapedpaddocks that radiateoutward from it. Thiswill allowyou to rotate the turkeys to the next paddock for scarificationwithouthavingtomovethecoop.Toencouragescarificationwithdomestic turkeys, broadcast cracked corn in theareayouwish tohavescarified.

Heritage breed turkeys are naturally good foragers, so usingthemforscarificationmeansyou’llalsosavemoneyonyourfeedbill. However, because heritage breeds haven’t been bred to growexcessivelylarge,likecommercialbreedshavebeen,manyofthemcan flyorat least roost several feet above theground.Bearing inmindthebreedanditsflightabilitiesisimportantifyourgoalistouse your birds in a paddock fence system. Another option formanaging freedom-loving turkeys is to use a turkey tractor(essentiallyjustanoversizechickentractor)topreventflight.

TheRedRoostInn

Fewhomesteadprojectsareasrewardingasbuildingyourownchickencoopandcoopaccoutrements(nestboxes,perches,andfeeders)frommaterialsthatyou’veharvestedonyourwoodlandhomestead.

Ibuilt theRedRoostInn,an8'×8' logchickenchalet,with lessthan $10 of purchased materials. The 6" × 6" pine logs wereharvestedaspartof a silvopasture thinningoperation, and theroof is made of tin sheets once used to ship painted metalroofing.The lumber for thenestboxeswascuton theportable

sawmill, and perches were constructed out of branches thatwereprunedaspartofatendingoperation.Imadethechickenfeeder from a piece of coppice firewood by cutting a V groovedown the center. The bottom of the feeder is kept round todiscouragethechickensfromtryingtoperchonit.

GrazingTurkeysintheSilvopasture

Turkeys can also be grazed in pasture and silvopasturearrangements— however, for a slightly different purpose. As inthe forest, turkeyswillbeable to forageup to25percentof theirdietongoodpasture.Toraisetwodozenturkeysyou’llneedatleasthalfanacreofgoodpasture,suchasclover.Turkeyshaveafairlynarrowgrazingheightrange:noshorterthan1inchandnohigherthan5inches.Considermultispeciesgrazingasameansofkeepingforageheight in check; for example, you can follow turkeyswithsheep,whichareknownformaintaininganevengrazingheight.

Aswithchickens,keepingpredatorsawayfromturkeyscanbeachallenge.Young turkeys,orpoults, canbegingrazingasearlyaseightweeks,buttheyneedextraprotectionfrompredatorsatthisage.Mostpredatorsofpoultswillcomefromabove:owlsatnight,hawks and eagles during the day. The best way to protect youngbirds is to use a fully contained poultry tractor. For terrestrialpredators, using an electrified portable paddock fence inside themainpastureorsilvopastureoffersanextrameasureofprotection.Aswithchickens,turkeysshouldbekeptinthecoopatnight.

HERITAGEBREEDTURKEYSFORTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

GOATS

AnoldPersianproverbsays, “Ifyouhaveno trouble,buyagoat.”Nodoubtthemischievousgoathasearneditsreputation,butitcanalsoearnitskeepasalawnmower,chainsaw,powerpruner,cheesemaker,or,ifthingsdon’tgowell,asgoatburger.However,let’snotbe toopresumptuous;youmaydiscover thatagoat is theperfectadditiontoyourwoodlandhomestead.

In addition to their versatility, goats are easykeepers,makingthem ideal for first-time livestock owners. They don’t requireelaboratehousing, justaplacetogetoutoftheweather.Asimpleprotectivebutwell-ventilatedsheltershouldofferatleast15squarefeetofspaceperanimal.

Since goats are highly social animals, it’s best to have at leasttwo. If a second goat isn’t feasible, consider other livestock ascompanions. Horses, donkeys, cows, and sheep have all beeneffectively integrated as companion animals. In fact, the oldexpression“togetone’sgoat”referstodeviousgoatsnatcherswhostolecompaniongoatsfromfavoredracehorses,therebyupsettingthehorseandultimatelytherace.

Goatsareknownforbeingcuriousandwillingtotrynewkindsof feed, which makes them great browsers and grazers. Thisrelativelyindiscriminatefeedinginstinctmakesthemparticularlywell suited to purposeful and managed woodland grazing. OnewoodlandhomesteaderIknowputitlikethis:“Ihadaneasychoice;Icouldhaveeitherpurchasedanexpensivebrushmoweroraherdof goats that would later provide me with milk, cheese, andfertilizer.”

Goatscanberaisedfordairyormeat;dual-purposebreedscanberaisedforboth.Incontemplatingthechoiceofbreed,youhaveseveralimportantconsiderations:Whatisyourprimaryreasonforhaving goats? Is it their utilitarian value as brushmowers?Or isyourprimarypurpose really toproducemilkandcheese foryourfamily?

Because of their high nutritional requirements, dairy goatsneed a higher proportion of commercial feed versus forage thanmeatgoatsdo.Breedsthatareraisedformeatcan,underoptimalforageconditions, thrivewith little tonocommercial feed. Ifyoudecidetoemployadairyordual-purposebreed inbrushclearing,beawarethataromaticbrowsesuchascedarorjuniperwillmakethemilkunpalatable.Anotherconsiderationinusingdairyordual-purposegoats tobrowse is that indense forest,undergrowth canscratchorcutthegoat’sudder.Inmostcases,it’sbesttousemeatgoatsintheestablishmentofyourgrazingareaandthentransitiontodairyordual-purposegoatsoncethegrazingareaisestablished.

ABOVE: Goatsarevoraciousbrowsersandhaveearnedthereputationofpossessingindiscriminatepalatesthatwilleven

toleratepoisonivyandmultiflorarose.

Given that about three-quarters of the cost of keepinggoats is infeed, the savingsassociatedwithbrowsingand/orgrazingcanbesignificant. Goats allowed to graze and browse are able to selectforagebasedontheirownnutritionalneeds.Researchshowsthatgoatsraisedwiththeoptionofeithergrazingorbrowsingarelesslikely to have digestive problems than those raised on grain andotherbaggedrations.

GOATBREEDSFORTHEWOODLAND

GOATBREEDSFORTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

*Indicatesaheritagebreed

SHEEP

Contrary to popular belief, sheep arenot stupid; they’re simply aflock species that’s opposed to being herded or separated. Thismakes sense, if you consider that their only protection from

predatorsistobandtogether.Ifapredatorisontheprowl,youcanimaginethatindependenceisn’texactlythemostdesirabletrait.

Theflockingtendencyofsheepisadesirablequalityifyourgoalis to systematically graze a pasture or silvopasture.Unlike goats,sheep are usually content to stay within a fenced area andgenerallygetalongwellwithotherlivestock.Sheepareparticularlyversatile, making them ideal for the woodland homestead. Theirwool,milk, andmeat canall beprocessedon thehomestead, andbarteringlambformorecommonhomesteadanimalslikechickensorpigsiseasy.

GrazingSheepintheSilvopasture

Sheepcanplayanimportantroleinpreventingless-desirableplantspeciesfromestablishingastronghold.Asageneralrule,cowsandhorses favor grasses, while sheep seek out leafy forbs, including

invasive species like tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and spottedknapweed(Centaureamaculosa).

Certain breeds of sheep are better suited to the coarse foragegenerally found in newly established silvopasture arrangements.(Seethetableontheoppositepage.)Livestockbehavioristsmakeadistinction between gregarious (defined by their clusteringbehavior) whiteface wool breeds, which display curious andcontagiousbrowsingbehavior,andlessgregariousblackfacemeatbreeds,which are less likely to engage in curious cluster feedingandinsteadsticktograss.

Being aware of this basic (but certainly not definitive)distinction can be helpful in selecting a sheep breed for yourparticular silvopasture application. Of course, what your sheepchoose to eat is also a function ofwhat other forage is available.Thatmeans that if you put blackface sheep on poor silvopasturebut have trees with accessible leaves, you’re likely to find your

treesbrowsedinshortorder.Similarly,ifyouputwhitefacesheepon a lush pasture, don’t expect them to browse trees or woodyundergrowth.

However, it’s important to realize that with sheep, as is truewith humans, individual palates vary from one to the next.Selectingnotjustabreedbutalsoindividualanimalsthatexhibitawillingnesstoforagebroadlyisimportant.Likecattle,sheeplearnwhat to graze from their mothers, so don’t dismiss the value ofobserving the foraging behavior of individual sheep in a flockwhenpurchasingstock.

Frequent rotational grazing of sheep is also important, sinceboredomcanleadtoexcessivebrowsing.Ifyounoticeasheepthatis browsing your crop trees instead of grazing grass, you shouldremove theanimal from the flockbefore other sheep catchon tothisdestructivebehavior.Ifpossible,youshouldalsoavoidputtingyounglambsnearyourcroptreessincetheytendtoinvestigatebybrowsingmorethanewesdo.

It’s vital to provide adequate shelter— especially for shade insummer—aswell as awatering station. If your sheepare in thesilvopastureplantationonlyduringthedayandarereturnedtoabarnorpermanentpastureatnight,you’llbeabletogetawaywitha simple pop-up tent and a portable watering system. If thesilvopasture is used as a permanent home for your sheep, you’llwant to build a sheep shed, preferably on the high point of theproperty. The use of woven wire fences, along with “electro-net”fencing for movable grazing paddocks, offers a second layer ofprotection. You may also want to consider using guard animalssuchasdonkeysorMaremmaguardiandogs.

SHEEPBREEDSFORSILVOPASTURESETTINGS

ABOVE: ScottishBlackfacesheeparegreatgrazersbutwillalsobrowse,makingthemgoodcandidatestohelpestablishand

maintainyoursilvopasture.

FELLINGYOURFORAGE

If you’re using goats, sheep, or cattle to help you clear land,consider a multiphase process that puts your livestock toworkwhilereducingyourfeedcosts.Ipracticedthisoverthecourse of nearly a year; by allowing the livestock to browse

from freshly felled trees, Iwas able to reduce feed costs byabout10percent.

Start by allowing your goats, sheep, or cattle into yourproposedsilvopasturetofeedonundergrowth.Watchthemasthey feed to ensure that your crop trees aren’t included intheirbrowsingactivities.

Oncethe livestockhavegrazedtheunderstory to thepointatwhich you’re able to enter the silvopasture, beginsystematically felling the trees marked for removal. Beparticularlycarefulofcherryfoliage/fruitsinceitscyanogenicacidsaretoxictomostlivestock.Speciessuchasbirch,aspen,andmaplecanbebrowsedbymostspecieswithoutaproblem.(Ifyou’reunsureofthesuitabilityofyourbrowse,contactyourlocal Cooperative Extension office.) Inwinter, consider using“sweet”coniferssuchaswhitepineorScotspine.

Browse loses nutrients as it dries out, so only fell as manytreesastheanimalscanconsumebeforewiltingordefoliation.Makesureotherfeedandmineralrationsareavailablesothatyourlivestockarebrowsingbychoice,notbynecessity.

Mostlivestockwillconsumenotonlythefoliagebutalsotwigsandbark. The removal of barkallows the remainingwood todry faster.What you’re left with is a defoliated and partiallydelimbedtree thatcannowbeconverted to firewoodwithoutthe hassle of dealing with leaves or small branches. At thesametime,you’veprovidedadditionalforageforyouranimal.

PIGS

Whilewe’vealreadyexploredthewaysinwhichtheycanbeusedtodevelop a silvopasture, pigs can also be a key element inmaintainingpasturesystems.

Successfullyraisingpigsinsilvopastureandpasturesystemsisafunctionofdurationandintensity; inotherwords,allowingtoomanypigstograzethesameareafortoolongaperiodis likelytocause rootandsoildamage.Foranestablishedpasturewhere thegoalistomimicdisking,orlighttilling,youmaywanttoconsiderastrip-grazing arrangement, in which a strand of electric fence ismoved forward each day. By doing this, you allow the pigs tocontinuallyworktheedge.Ifyoumovethewaterandpighousingalongwiththestrips,you’llfindthatthepigshavelittleincentivetoback-grazethelandbehindthem,therebyallowingnewseedtotakehold.

While stripgrazing is intended tomimic tillingor turning thesoil,a less-intensivealternativepractice is short-rotationgrazing.Thetraditionalpracticeofgrazingpigs inoakforests isnotedforproducing uniquely flavorful pork. Perhaps the most famousacorn-raisedporkproductisIberianhamfromSpain.IberianhamismadeonlyfromtheblackIberianpig,whichisraisedinsouthernSpain near the Portuguese border in oak forests using a dehesasystem(see ).Thepigsinthissystemconsume up to 25 pounds of acorns per animal per day. Theresulting hams are cured for up to three years and sell for over$100 per pound. In Appalachia, raising pigs on acorns is an oldtradition that’s enjoying new interest from gourmands whoappreciate thesavoryand,not surprisingly,nutty taste.Themostcommon breeds for acorn pork in North America are Berkshire,LargeBlack,andRedWattle.Ifyouwanttoexperimentwithraisingpigs for acorn pork but don’t have an oak silvopasture, consider

TheEuropeanDehesaSystem

finishingyourpigonadietof60percentacornsforthefinalthreemonths.

Should your woodland homestead contain a small orchard,considerusingaportableelectric fence torotationallygrazeyourpigs as they approach finishing. This model tends to work well,sincemostpigsareharvestedinlatefall—thesametimewindfallappleslittertheorchardfloor.Theapple-gleaningperiodshouldbekeptrathershorttominimizedamagetorootsofyourcroptrees.

ABOVE: Allowingpigstoforageinnutgrovesandorchardsisagreatwaytosalvageafallencrop,butbesuretopracticerapidrotationalgrazing;pigshavebeenknowntoclimbforfruitand

nutsoncethegroundisbare.

Regardless of the management system you choose, considerselectingheritagebreedpigs,whicharebettersuitedforpasturingandgrazingthanindustrialcrossbreeds.Heritagebreedpigswerebred for foraging ability and the hardiness to withstandtemperature extremes. As factory farming took the place ofhomesteads and small farms in producing meat, industrial pigsbetter suited for confinement and commercial feed rations tooktheplaceofoldbreeds.Fortunately,manyoftheseheritagebreedpigshavestartedtomakeacomeback.

HERITAGEBREEDPIGSFORTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

TheEuropeanDehesaSystem

Among the oldest of silvopastoral systems is the dehesasystem, which has been practiced extensively in both SpainandPortugal forcenturies. Thesystem is characterizedbyatwo-layered, savannah-like vegetation structure where holm(evergreenoak)andcorkoakoccupytheoverstory,andcattle,goats, sheep, pigs, and horses graze the understory. Leafyfodder, acorns, firewood, charcoal, and herbs are all

harvested in the dehesa system.While the browsing animalsaregenerallysuccessfulatkeepingshrubs incheck,periodicplowingissometimesusedaswell.Theplowingisalsousefulfornutrientcyclingandsoilaeration.

CATTLE

Asthelargestmemberofthewoodlandhomestead,cattlecanofferimportant contributions in the form of milk, beef, and pullingpower(inthecaseofoxen).Whethertoaddcattletoyourspreadisadecisionthatshouldbemadebasedonthesizeofyourproperty.While site productivity varies greatly from region to region andsite to site, you’llneedat least2acresper cow/calfpair if you’rehoping to rely on grazing and browsing for themajority of youranimals’ feed. Of course, if you live in a northern environment,you’llalsohavetoconsiderwinterfeed,unlessyousimplyraisea“feedercalf”overthesummertobebutcheredinfall.

A family milk cow might fall under a different arrangementthan beef cattle, if you choose to keep the family cow near thehouse or barn and bring harvested forage to her. You may alsodiscover that based on the quality of the forage, she may needadditional feed rations to meet her nutritional requirements,particularlywhileshe’slactating.

Manyhomesteadersliketheideaofraisingforage-fedbeefbutsimply lack the land necessary for 1,500-pound animals. Oneoption is to consider miniature cattle, which are moreappropriately scaled for a smallholding. Miniature cattle aresimply smaller individuals within the breed that have beenintentionally selected out over time. Virtually all common (andsomerare)breedsofcattleareavailableasminiaturecattle,which

aredefinedasbetween36and48inchestallatthreeyearsofage.Ofcourse,naturalvariationoccursinallherds,soyoumaybeableto ask local farmers if they’d bewilling to partwith any of theirsmalleranimals.Inmanycases,productionfarmswillbehappytomovesmalleranimalsoutoftheherd.

In terms of browsing behavior, beef breeds tend to be betterbrowsers than traditional dairy breeds like Holsteins. Also,selecting a cow that shows strong browsing tendencies isimportantsinceshe’llteachhercalveswhat’sedible.Finally,you’llwanttomakesurethatyouselectabreedthat’sappropriatetoyourparticularclimate.LivinginnorthernNewYork,I’vefoundScottishHighlandcattletobewellsuitedtooursubzerotemperaturesandbrowse-heavyforage.

CATTLEFORTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

ABOVE: Selectingbothabreedandindividualsthatarewellsuitedtothebrowsefoundonyourpropertyisanimportantpartof

matchinglivestockandland.Whenpurchasinganimals,observeandselectthoseindividualsthatshowanopportunisticpalate,

gooddemeanor,andsolidbuild.

MobGrazingPoultry

Portable electric fences havemademobgrazing poultry all therage. Because it’s easier than ever to confine and move

chickens, the fertilizing benefits of chickens are also easy tocapture. The key to successful mobgrazing is to have freshpastureeachday.Onecommonarrangementistofollowcattleinamobgrazingarrangementinwhichchickensareabletofeedonbeetlesandinsectsthatareattractedtothe“cowpatties.”

While placing a large number of animals in a relatively smallareawouldn’tbeadvisableundermostcircumstances, the factthatchickensareturnedontoanewbuffetdaily(ortwiceadayinsomecases)createsahealthyandsystematicgrazingsystem.This arrangement of intensive, short-term grazing is in manyways analogous to the way many animal species move —whetherit’saflockofsheeporaherdofcattle.

Bymimickingthesenatural,intensivegrazingbehaviors,youcangreatly improve soil fertility, not just through the addition ofmanure but also through the mulching of grass/forbs. Thismattedmulchcanhelpcreatean idealmicroclimate (warmandmoist) forpromotinghealthy,biologicallyrichsoil.What’smore,by using an intensive mobgrazing system, you’re ensuring aneven application of fertilizer — a near impossible goal usingfree-rangemethods.

H O M E S T E A D E R P R O F I L E

AtlasHoofedItFarm

AtlasHoofedItFarm

DanandSaraBurke

Dan and Sara Burke are the owners and operators of AtlasHoofed It Farm, in Sugarbush, New York. As small farms go,theBurkes’ farm is about asunconventional as it gets. Their80-acre spread is a former missile silo site that wasdecommissioned during the 1960s. Dan and Sarah decidedthat turning a site devoted to destruction into one thatproduces healthy, local food was a transition of the highestorder.Standingbetweenthemandthemissilesilowasalow-qualityforest,repletewithinvasivespecies.

Using a combination of Scottish Highland cattle forbrowsing and an army of nearly five dozen pigs, the Burkeshavebeenabletoreclaimthisdenudedsite,reducinginvasivespecies by using intensive grazing. One of the primarychallengesofreclaimingthelandwasthatmuchofthetopsoilwas scraped off prior to its development as a militaryinstallation. To amend the soil naturally, the Burkes practicemultispecies grazing, where pigs periodically turn the soil,mixing organic and mineral material. The pigs also play animportant role incontrollingunwantedplant speciessuchassheepsorrelandgoldenrod.

Believingthatefficiencyistheabsenceofwaste,theBurkeshave established a pre-consumer food scrap networkwhereby Dan does a daily run to local supermarkets,restaurants, co-ops, and colleges to collect pre-consumerkitchen scraps and day-old breads for their pigs. In aweek,Dan is able to collect nearly a ton of scraps, thereby savingperfectlygoodfoodfromgoingtothelandfillandreducingthe

farm’sfeedcosts50percent.Thebusinessesalsoappreciatethisarrangement,sinceitsavesthemthecostofdisposal.

MULTISPECIESGRAZING

So far, we’ve explored the use of various livestock species asindividual components in multistep systems (e.g., clearing landwith goats or sheep to create pasture). However, integratedmultispeciesgrazingisastrategythatisparticularlywellsuitedtosmall-scalelivestockoperationsonthewoodlandhomestead.

Sojustwhatismultispeciesgrazing?Simplyput,itistheuseofmorethanonespeciesofherbivoretograzeyourpasture.Havingan understanding of the agroecological niche and foragerequirements of various species, you can integrate a variety oflivestock,includingchickens,goats,sheep,horses,andcattle.

Therearemanybenefitsofmultispeciesgrazing.First,ifyou’reconverting an abandoned woodlot or forgotten forest to asilvopasture/pasture system, you’re likely to have high plantdiversity that’s not entirely suitable to a single species. Byintegratingmultiple species, you’re able to better use what yourland is producing. Because multispecies grazing means that nosingle plant species is targeted, it is easier tomaintain a diverse,high-qualitypasture.Intheconversionorreclamationofpastures,itisusefultothinkaboutyouravailableforageasbrowse,forbs,orgrass. Browse includes trees, shrubs, and vines; forbs areessentially broad-leafed flowering plants that most of us wouldconsider weeds. For example, thistle (Cirsium spp.) or spotted

knapweed(Centaureastobe)grassesarefloweringmonocots,whichaccountformostlivestockforage.

Thesuccessful integrationof livestockspecies isdependentonunderstandinghowgrazingpreferencesdifferamongspeciesandvariousbreeds.Consultthebreedchartsthroughoutthischaptertoselectthebreedsmostappropriateforyourapplication.

While we normally think of larger livestock for grazingapplications, smaller livestock such as rabbits and chickens canalso be an important part of multispecies grazing, especially interms of balancing the nutrients that are returned to the soil.Nitrogen deficiencies, for example, can be corrected byincorporating chickens in your grazingplan, but itmust be doneproperly. Chickenmanure on a pasturewith low grass and forbsisn’tideal,sincetheunincorporatedmanureislikelytoburnoffasammonia. Instead, one option is to allow poultry to graze tallergrasses and forbs, which will fold over, creating an ideal (moist)environment for nutrient movement and uptake. This sameapproachcanbeusedwithrabbits;however,you’llwanttoreducethe amount of time they’re allowed to graze in one area, sincerabbitmanurehashigherconcentrationsofnitrogen,phosphorus,and potassium than chickenmanure does. If your pasture is tooshort to practice the folded-grassmethod, consider following upyour grazing sequence with cows or horses, either of which willmixthemanureinthesoilthroughhoofaction.

PARASITECONTROL

Another benefit of multispecies grazing is parasite control. In asingle-species grazing system, worm eggs are deposited on thepasture through manure; the eggs then hatch, attach to newgrowth,andareconsumedbygrazers.Thisrepetitivecycleresults

inanaccumulationofparasites,therebythreateningthehealthofyour herd. Multispecies grazing offers a disruption of this cyclethat can keep parasite levels in check. Since most parasites arespecies-specific, amutualistic relationship is establishedwherebycattle ingest sheep-worm larvae and vice versa. The consumptionofparasitesbynonaffectedspecieskeepsparasitelevelsincheck.Itisworthnotingthatthelarvaearegenerallyclosetogroundlevel;maintaining higher forage levels can therefore be an importantparasitecontrolmechanism.Thisisespeciallytrueforgoats,whichcandevelopseriousparasitelevelsifthey’reforcedtograzeclosetotheground.

Finally, it’s worth mentioning that multispecies grazing canhelp make your land more productive while at the same timereducingcosts.Theadditionofgoatstocattlesystems,forexample,means that aggressive shrub species such as multiflora rose,honeysuckle, and blackberry brambles can all be controlled bygoats, allowing light to get to the pasture floor and therebyestablishing additional forage for cattle. In fact, there are manystudies that suggest you can add one goat per cow to a pasturewithoutany reduction in cattleperformance.What’smore, you’llbecontrollingweedspecieswithouttheuseofherbicidesorlabor-intensive mechanical pulling, while adding a new productivemembertoyourwoodlandhomestead.

C H A P T E R 4

TheCoppiceForest

Fauna,Fodder,Fuel,andFurniture

Ofall the forestry techniques available towoodlot owners,perhaps no other method is more underused thancoppicing. Coppicing is a reproduction method whereby atreeiscutbackperiodicallytostimulatenewgrowththroughdormantbudsonthe“stool,”orstump. Inturn, thesebudsdevelopintoshootscapableofgrowingfirewoodandahostofotherproductsinjustafewyears,insteadofdecades.

WOODLOTLINGO

Bogget.Acraftspersonwhousesgreenwood,primarilyfromcoppiceharvests,toproducerusticgoods.

BTU. British thermal unit. A unit of energy equal to 1,055joules. Commonly used to express the stored energy offirewood.

Coppicing. A method of reproducing trees through dormantharvestingthatencouragescontinualgrowthofmultiplestemsforavarietyofwoodproducts.

Facecord.Astackof firewoodmeasuring8 feet long, 4 feethigh, and 16 inches deep. In otherwords, one-third of a fullcord.

Faggot. A bundle of sticks lashed together and traditionallyusedtoproduceasmall,hotcookingfire.Modernusesincludeerosioncontrolandstreambankstabilization,wherethefaggotbundlesactasabarriertokeepsoilinitsplace.

Full cord.A stack of firewood measuring 8 feet long, 4 feethigh,and4feetdeep.

Layering . A method of vegetative reproduction in whichbranchesrootonceincontactwiththeground.

Maiden.Atreethathasneverbeencoppiced.

Mast.Fruitornutsproducedbytrees.

Pleachers. Partially severed saplings grown at an angle toformhedges.

Pollarding.Aggressivepruningofa tree’supperbranches toencouragedenseheadgrowth.Historicallyusedforproducinganimalfodderandlivingfences.

Rhizosphere. The narrow region of soil that is directlyinfluenced by root secretions and soil microorganisms,includingfungi.

Shredding. (Also called “snedding.”) Removing the lateralbranchesfromamainstemforkindlingoranimalforage.

Standard.A single-stemmed crop tree, usually reserved formastorlumber.

Stool.Alivingstumpfromwhichnewcoppicestemswillgrow.

Sucker.Avegetativesproutoriginatingfromrootstock.

Teller. An acceptable growing stock in the sapling or polestagecapableofbecomingadesirablestandard.

Underwood.Coppicetreesintheunderstory.

ABRIEFHISTORYOFCOPPICEFORESTRY

Coppicing as a forest management technique dates back to theNeolithic period, when coppice wood was used for a variety ofpurposes, ranging from bean poles and lath to firewood andfenceposts. In fact, the economic importanceof coppice firewoodwas so significant that Henry VIII required fences to be built toprotectcoppiceforeststhroughoutEngland.However,overthelastcentury, Britain has lost more than 90 percent of its coppicedwoodlots because of land conversion, abandonment, andmodernforestry techniques that favor longer rotations and a focus onindustrial lumber production instead of utilitarian products forusearoundasmallholding.

InNorthAmerica,coppicinghasbeenaratherlimitedpractice,not because of ecological limitations but simply because thevastness of early North American forests didn’t necessitate

efficiencyingrowingtrees,onlyinharvestingtrees.Thisstandsincontrast to Britain, where prehistoric settlement, largerpopulations,andasmaller landbaseforcedruralcommunities todevelop more efficient land-use methods, including coppiceforests.

In recent years, there has been renewed interest in coppiceforestry throughout Western Europe. The British Forestry

Commission is currently promoting the restoration andrejuvenation of forgotten coppice forests. In fact, this renewedinterest in coppice systems has led to the development of a newresearchareaknownasshortrotationforestry(SRF)andgenerallyreferstowoodthatisbetween8and20yearsold.Therenaissancehascomeaboutinpartbecauseofdemandforthewidevarietyofproductsthatcoppiceforestryproducesandinpartbecauseoftherole that coppice forestry plays in the rural economy related tonontimber products such as baskets, bean poles, fuel wood, andcharcoal.

While thehistorical dependence on coppice systems is limitedin North America, their potential for application is great,particularly at the homestead level. Central to making thistransition will be a change in the way we view forests: not assimply vertical lumber yards or, conversely, as preserves whereresources are left unmanaged. Somewhere between thesecompetingparadigms isamoreutilitarianview that sees coppiceforestsasawaytofillyourwoodshed,toolshed,andlarder.

BENEFITSOFCOPPICINGFIREWOOD

Certainly,themostobviousadvantageofcoppicingisrapidgrowth,thanks to the already established rootstock. This regenerativeadvantage eliminates the need for a tree to allocate significantresources to germination and root development and insteadfocusesthetree’senergyondevelopingrapidverticalgrowthintheformofshoots. Inmanycases, thismeans thatyoucanharvestatreeinhalfasmuchtimeasanequivalenttreegrownfromseed.

Becausecoppiceforestsdependonhealthyrootsystems,soundmanagement of these forests also prevents erosion in thesurrounding landscape, thanks largely to the stability afforded

through a healthy rhizosphere capable of developing into awell-anchoredmatoflatticedroots.

Asaforester,I’moftenaskedhowlongitwilltakeforatreetogrow to a specific size. If I know something about the site, I canmakeaneducatedguess.However,moreoftenthannot,therearetoomanyfactorsatplaytomakeanysortofreasonableestimate,since both environmental and genetic factors influence growthrates.Environmentalfactorsincludeclimaticconditionsaswellassoil quality. Primary genetic attributes include vigor, diseaseresistance, photosynthetic efficiency, and, of course, species.Almost without exception, some species will grow faster thanothers,even ina lesssuitableenvironment.Willows,forexample,will almost always outpace oaks in terms of growth rate, whilebeech trees in a northern hardwood forest are notorious foroutcompeting maples and birches, creating thick single-speciesstands.

Becauseofthisnaturalvariation,itisimportanttoavoidbroadgeneralizations regarding yield. However, despite the manyvariables,coppicesystemsoffertwoclearbenefitsovertreesgrownfrom seed. The first benefit is reduced establishment time,meaningthatyouneednotwaitforaseedtogerminate,establish,and develop a full root system. The second benefit is that sincecoppice trees formmultiple stems, instead of a single stem, youhavetheopportunitytogrowsignificantlymorewood.

HOWITALLSTACKSUP

The following example illustrates how coppice firewoodproduction stacks up against trees of seed origin. All of the

trees in this case study came from the same site, so as tominimizevariability.

First, I cut down a 40-year-old American beech tree with asinglestem,likelyestablishedfromseed.Thetreemeasured8inches diameter at breast height (DBH) and yielded one facecord. As a point of comparison, I then harvested coppice-grown trees (with three to four stems each) to see what itwould take to equal the same wood volume. The harvestincluded two 15-year-old coppiced gray birch and one 18-year-old coppiced American beech— all of which producedonefacecord.Inotherwords,equalwoodproduction in lessthanhalfthetime.

While this isn’t a perfect comparison (gray birch has fewerBTUs than beech, and this 40-year-old teenager of a beechwas just entering its most productive growing years), theexample stands as a testament to the production benefitsassociatedwithcoppicing.

ESTABLISHINGACOPPICEWOODLOT

Depending on the conditions of your woodlot, you’ll be eitherestablishing new coppice stools frommaidens or tending a long-forgotten coppice stand that may or may not have been createdintentionally.Eitherway,themethodsoutlinedinthissectionwill

serveasyourblueprintforimprovingthehealthandproductivityofyourcoppicewoodlot.

STARTWITHESTABLISHEDTREES

Tobegin,it’simportanttochoosetreesthatarewellestablished(4-inch base diameter minimum), since the diameter of the stoolbeingcoppicedisproportionaltothenumberofshootsthatcanbeproduced. In other words, larger stumps have the potential toproduce more wood. At this point, being able to refer to yourwoodlot inventory will be important (see ). Theinformationyoucollectedaboutthespecies,size,andhealthofthetreeswillhelpyoumakeinformedmanagementdecisions.

Theshoots thateventuallydevelop inacoppicesystemusually

originate as dormant buds located under the bark at the base orsideofthestump.Shootscanalsobeadventitiousbudsthatsproutfromcallus tissue that formsbetween thebarkand thecambium(the layer of active cell growth just under the bark) at the cutsurface.Generally,dormantbudsformingatthebaseorsideofthestumparehealthierandmorevigorous

COPPICINGINFOURSTEPS

Whilecoppicingcanbedoneanytimeoftheyear,yourbestresultsare achieved when the trees are dormant: between late fall andearlyspring,priortoleaf-out.Selecttreeswithpoorformthathavelittlevalueassawlogsorotherforestproducts.Quality,defect-freesinglestemsshouldbeconsideredforuseasstandards(see ).

CutLow,AngledStumps

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here

A low stump encourages the establishment of new shoots at orbelow ground level; this promotes the development of roots andincreases the tree’s stability. The ideal new coppice stool shouldonlybe2to3inchesabovethegroundandshouldslopeslightlytoshedwater. Ifpossible, cut thestumpsata south-facingangle, tominimize the potential for rot. It is also worth noting that somestudies have shown that higher stumps produce more shootsinitially,butthetrade-offsofdecreasedvigorovertimeandlackofstabilitysuggestthatlowerstumpsarestillmorepreferable.

If you’re harvesting a previously coppiced stump, make thesameangledcut justabovethepointatwhichthestoolsplits intomultiple stems. It is important that the cuts be clean, with noseparation of bark fromwood. In order to achieve this clean cut,makesureyoursawissharpandfellthetreeatkneeheight,thentrim the base at the appropriate angle. This method not onlyensuresacleancutbutalsoleavesyouwithafirewood-lengthtrimpiece.

DeterBrowsers

Ifyouliveinanareathatispronetoanimalbrowse,Irecommendplacing branches around the stool as a deterrent. Anotherapproachistodevelopacoppicesystemusingspeciesthatarelesspalatabletobrowsers.Beechandbirch,forexample,arelesslikelytobebrowsedthanmapleandoak.

Thesizeofyourwoodlotwilldeterminetheappropriatemethodfordeterringbrowsers.Onsmallersites,fencingtheentireareatoprotectnewgrowthmaymakesense.Atalargerscale,fencingmaybe cost prohibitive. In that case, you may want to considerharvesting larger areas as ameans of deterringwildlife (becausemostwild animals prefer to forage in small gaps in the forest oralongtheedgesofalargeopenarea).

ABritishForestryCommissionstudydetermined thatharvestslargerthan1hectare(2.47acres)weremoreeffectiveatdeterringwildlife browsing than smaller group-selection arrangements(essentially miniature clear-cuts). If browsing threatens theestablishment and growth of your coppice woodlot, considerhunting or trapping as a means of controlling the damage (andfillingthesouppotatthesametime).

RemoveSmallSprouts

Inearlyspringyou’llbegintoseenumeroussproutsemergefromthe stump, forming a J-shaped leader. After leaf fall, clip off thesmaller,lessvigoroussprouts.Onaverage,leavefourtosixsproutsperstool.

BESTTREESFORCOPPICING

Sincenotalltreespeciesarewelladaptedtocoppicereproduction,it’simportanttoselectspeciesthathaveaprovenrecordofefficiencyandproductivity.Thefollowingchartoutlinesthosespeciesthataremostsuitableforcoppiceproduction,alongwiththeirpotentialuses.Often,treesofvariousspeciesthatarewithinthesamegenuscanpossesssimilarwoodqualitiesanduses.Theseinterchangeablespeciesareidentifiedbytheabbreviation“spp.”

Harvest

Theamountoftimeittakestoproduceyourfirstfirewoodcropwillvary depending on species, site, stool size, and desired firewooddiameter.I’veestablishedmycoppiceforestinsuchawaythatI’llbe able toharvest in 8-to 12-year cycles. Formymoreproductive

trees, this will yield firewood that’s 3 to 4 inches in diameter—smallenoughtoavoidsplitting.Thebeautyofcoppiceproductionisthatifyoumaintaintreesinajuvenilestage,theywillneverdieofoldage.

SLOWGROWTH=HIGHERBTUS

Ifyou’reestablishingacoppicewoodlotprimarilyforfirewoodproduction,realizethatinmanycasesthere’saninverserelationshipbetweenrateofgrowthandtheenergypotentialofcoppicespecies.Ifweweretorankfourcommonspeciesintermsofestimatedgrowthrates,andcomparethosegrowthratestotheirenergypotential,we’dseethatasageneralrule,slower-growingtreeshavemoreBTUs.Itisimportanttobeawareofthistime/energytrade-offwhetheryou’retryingtodecidewhichspeciestocoppiceorpurchasingfirewoodandfacedwiththequestionofwhichspecieswillyieldthemostheatperdollar.

CONSIDERATIONSWHENCOPPICING

CONSIDERATIONSWHENCOPPICING

The longhistory of coppicing in European forests has provided asurplusofdata regardingspecies’ability to coppiceover the longtermandoptimalcoppicingdiametersuniquetoEuropeanspeciesandgrowingconditions.Becausecoppicinghasbeenso limited inNorth America, relatively few studies have focused on coppicingspeciesnativetothecontinent.Oneexceptionwouldbeaseminal1967 U.S. Forest Service study, which revealed importantdifferences between sugar maple and red maple in terms ofsproutingcapacityandsize.Insugarmaple,forexample,sproutingcapacity was found to be greatest in smaller trees and becamelimitedby the timea tree reaches the 12-to 14-inchDBHclass. Inredmaple,sproutingwasfoundtoincreaseuptothe10-inchDBHclassbutremainedasteadysprouterthroughthe20-inch-diameterclass. This sort of species-level data can be extremely useful inguidingyourcoppicestrategy.

Intheeventthatspecies-levelcoppicedatadoesn’texistforthetrees in your woodlot, there are several considerations that holdtrueformostspecies.First,avoidveryyoungtreesandoldgrowth.Sapling-stage trees may lack the necessary root structure andcarbohydratestoragecapacity tosuccessfullycoppice.Youshouldalso avoidmature trees, particularly thosewith thick bark at thebase.Oneof theprimaryfunctionsofbark is toprotect the tree’scambium;however,asthebarkthickens,itbecomesmoredifficultforthedormantbudstostump-sprout.

ABOVE: Thisgroupofbirchesisactuallytwotrees.Inthiscase,Ioptedtocoppicethethree-stemmedclumpontheright.

ABOVE: Hereisthebirchstool10weeksaftercoppicing.You’llwanttoretainthemostvigoroussprouts,removinglessvigoroussproutsassoonasthetreegoesdormant.

ABOVE: Two15-year-oldcoppicedgraybirchesandone18-year-oldcoppicedAmericanbeechadduptoafacecordonmyporch.

OTHERWAYSTREESREPRODUCEFORCOPPICING

So far,we’ve primarily discussed stump coppicing as ameans ofproducingvegetativesprouts.However,itisimportanttonotethattwo other vegetative reproduction strategies exist: layering androotsuckering.

Layering is a relatively common reproduction method,particularly in spruce forests. When a lower branch or boughcomes incontactwiththeforestfloor, thetree isabletosetroots

offthedormantbranchbudandistherebycapableofindependentgrowthafterseparatingfromtheparenttree.Becausethelimbsofsprucetreesgrowinwhorls,thiscanleadtotheforestdevelopinginaconcentricpatternfromonesuccessivegenerationtothenext.The trees that develop through layering are typically singlestemmedand are genetic clones of theparent tree.One commonhomesteadapplicationoflayeringistheconstructionofhedges,orlivingfences,asdescribedin .

Root suckering is a processwhereby dormant buds of shallowroots send up a single leader, which, as in the other asexualreproductionmethods,isacloneoftheparenttree.Relativelyfewspecies root sucker, though twonotablesareAmericanbeechandaspen species. One distinct advantage of root suckering overtraditional stump sprouting is the relatively even spacing thatresults,sincethesproutsfollowtherootmatinsteadoforiginatingfromasinglecoppicestool.

Essentially the same management practices can be used toencouragebothrootsuckeringandstumpsprouting.Suckering isencouragedbycuttingtheparenttreeduringdormancy.Thetree’ssurvival response is touse the stored energy in the roots togrowrootsuckersandstumpsproutsatthesametime.Forspeciesthatdoactivelysucker,prescribedfirescanencouragesuckeringvigor.However,harvestingparenttreesduringdormancystillappearstobethebestmethodofencouragingrootsuckering.Inonestudy,anaspen stand cut in winter produced four times as many rootsuckersasonecutduringsummer.Inlightofthis,youshouldplanyourharvestschedulecarefully.

CREATIVEWOODLOTTENDING

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Every woodlot needs tending, especially those that have beenneglected for quite some time. The time you spend in thewoodsmaintaining your coppiced trees can be combined with othertendingoperationsthatwillallowyoutorejuvenateyourwoodlotand achieve a broader range of goals, like timber production orwildlifehabitat improvement.Amongthemost importantaspectsof managing your woodlot are tending activities that focus onimproving the quality of the trees and yourwoodlot by ensuringthatyouracceptablegrowingstock(AGS)hasthelightandgrowingspaceitneeds.

Thinkof tendingas themaintenanceprogramforyour forest,which can be timed to coincide with other activities like cuttingfirewood, thinning coppice sprouts, or harvesting fruit in yourwoodland orchard. These tending operations include releasetreatments,thinning,andpruning.

RELEASETREATMENTS

The goal of a release treatment is to free relatively young trees(seedlings and saplings) from competing vegetation. Thetreatments include weeding out competing seedlings (usually bymowing);takingdowncompetingtreesofthesamesize(selectinghealthy, well-formed, well-spaced trees to leave behind); andremoving larger, overtopping trees to allow more light for thesaplingsbelow.

Thinning

Thinningissimilartoareleasetreatment;however,it’stargetedattrees past the sapling stage. The goal of thinning is to give eachcroptreetheroomitneedstogrow,withthegoalofimprovingthe

overall quality of the stand. Two thinning methods commonlyemployed in woodlot management are low thinning and freethinning.

Lowthinningaimstomimicnaturalthinningprocessesthatresultin larger trees shading out smaller ones, leading to theestablishment of distinct crown classes, which create amultilayered forest. To do this, remove suppressed andintermediate trees that likely wouldn’t be able to compete withmorevigoroussurroundingtrees.Inessence,lowthinningaimstospeed up natural forest succession by removing trees that areunlikelytosurvivebutarestilloccupyingvaluablegrowingspace.

Free thinning focuses on the development of evenly spaced,selected trees known as alpha stems, which are usually retaineduntil maturity as crop trees. Any other trees that threaten thealpha stems are removed to eliminate competition. Unlike lowthinning,which is focusedon removingcompetition in the lowercanopy,freethinningpromotestheremovalofbothlowercanopytreesandlargercrowntreestocreateamplegrowingspacearoundindividualcroptrees.

REASONSTOTHINYOURWOODLOT

Allowyouracceptablegrowingstock(AGS)tonotonlysurvivebutthrive.

Increaseyouryield,intermsofquantityandqualityofwoodlotproducts.

Usethinnedmaterialforavarietyofhomesteadprojects.

Shortentherotationtimebetweenharvests.

Maintainforesthealth.

Improveaesthetics.

Allowintermediateharvestsofsmallandlargetreesbeforethefinalharvest.

Controlspeciescompositionbyremovingundesirablespecies.

Getaleguponnextyear’sfirewoodsupply.

Increaseaccessibilityandrecreationalopportunities.

PruningforClearWood

Thecreationof clear,knot-freewood is themost commonreasonfor pruning. Unpruned branches create knots, which not onlycompromisethestrengthofthewoodbutalsocreateunevengrainthat can be difficult to work. Once a branch is pruned and thewoundhashealed,thetreewillbegingrowingnewlayersofwoodthatareclearandfreeofknotdisturbance.Asageneral rule, thesooner you prune a branch, the better. Smaller branches createsmallerwounds,which serve as less of an entrypoint for insectsanddiseases.

Somespecies,suchasmostpines,areself-pruning.Thissimplymeans that the lower branches die in the shade created by thecrown above. After several years, these branches shed naturally.However,iftheycanbeprunedwhilethey’restillalive,thetreewillhealfasterandwillhaveasmallerknot.

Thedefectthatresultsfromadeadbranchbecomingencasedinlivingwood is known as a black knot and generally represents a

fairlyseriousstructuralflawshouldthatwoodbeusedaslumber.This is because the live wood growing around the dead branch(stem wood) can’t bind as well as cells of a living branch that’sencasedwithlivingwood.Aswooddries,themoisturedifferentialbetweenthedeadknotandthesurroundingwoodoftenresultsintheblackknotlooseningandeventuallyfallingout.Thisobviouslycompromisesthestrengthofthewood.

“Red knots,” which are named for being red-tinged in coniferspecies,representlivebranchesthathavebecomeencasedinstemwood. This interface of live cells between the branch and stemwood bond so strongly that these knots rarely fall out of lumberand,structurally,areonlysecondtoclear,knot-freewood.

OtherReasonstoPrune

While you may not always have the chance to remove livebranches,youshouldstillpruneyourcroptreesregularly.Researchhasshownthatpruningcaninsomecasesreducetheprevalenceofdiseaseinforestsbyincreasingaircirculationandprovidingfewerhosts(intheformofdeadbranches)forforestpests.InthewesternUnited States, pruning can be an important technique formanagingwildfires,simplybyremovingdeadbranchesthatactasladderfuels.

Finally, if you’re fortunate enough tohave fruit trees on yourhomestead,pruning isan importaspectofencouragingbountifulfruit production. Specific pruning techniques are examined in

,andpruningtoolsarediscussedin .chapter6 chapter2

ABOVE: Thestarpatternonthislogrepresentsabranchwhorlthatwaspruned,allowingclear,knot-freewoodtogrowonthe

outerrings.

COPPICEWITHSTANDARDS

To promote greater biodiversity than what exists in traditional,even-agedcoppicesystemsandtoproduceawiderrangeofgoodsforthehomestead,considercoppicingwithstandards—treeswith

asingle,uprightclearstem.Thisisahybridsystemthatcombinestheproductionofyoungcoppicetreesalongsidestandardsthataregrownfromseedandallowed tomature intomastproducersandeventuallytimber.

BENEFITSOFCOPPICINGWITHSTANDARDS

The primary benefit of coppicing with standards is that thewoodlot is able to produce goods both annually and over longerperiods of time. Historically, American forestry practices havefocusedoncreatingqualitytimber,agoalthatinmanycasesisn’trealizedwithinahumanlifespan.Thedisciplineandcommitmentto the future this requires are certainly admirable qualities,especiallygivenourpenchant for instantgratification inmodernsociety.However,a forestorwoodlotneednot simplybeagift tothe future. It’s hard to imagine a scenario as rewarding asharvestingfirewood,fruit,nuts,andcraftmaterialsannuallyinawoodlotamongstandards thatmayonedaybecomethewoodforyourgrandchild’shome.Itisthisvisionthathasledtoexplorationofalternativehybridmethods.

Intentional development of coppicewith standards dates backatleast1,000yearsintheBritishIsles.Inmostcases,thestandardswereplanted fromthemastofwell-formeddominant trees.Oaksandbeechesweremostcommonlyplantedasstandardsandwereusuallygrowninasemigeometricpatterntoensureefficientuseofspace and access to sunlight. Because of the importance ofefficientlymanagedwoodlotstotheself-sufficiencyofBritain,thegovernment historically enforced a rule that required 8 to 20standardsperacre.

In this kind of system, standards occupy the forest overstory,and the understory is managed for coppice products. These two

distinct crops can coexist easily, as long as the understorycontinues to receive adequate sunlight. Maintaining sufficientlevels of light on the forest floor is achieved through both thepruning of standards and their occasional removal. At thehomesteadscale,youhavethebenefitofbeingabletoremoveanduse a single standard; at a commercial scale, the inefficiencyassociatedwithremovingasingletreeisusuallycostprohibitive.

ALABOROFLOVE

To be clear,methods like coppicingwith standards and the otherintensive approaches to woodlot management described in thisbookshouldbeconductednotsimplyforthegoodstheysupplybutalso as a labor of love. Removing a single standard or handlingsmaller coppiced firewood represents a commitment to workingthe land, which is rewarded in products but also through thedevelopment of yourwoodland eye and anewfoundappreciationforyourhomesteadwoodlot.

In time, your visionwill sharpenandyou’ll noticedetails thatwere once lost among the brambles. You won’t be able to helpyourself from noticingwhich trees leaf out first orwhere in the

woodlot the deer bed at night, ormaybe you’ll finally see one ofthosespringpeepersthatuptothispointyouhadonlyheard.Youmay also find that your homestead woodlot becomes the larderwhereyouruntopickmushroomsorhangbucketseachspringtogather sap for boiling into syrup. In your relationship with yourwoodlot, you’re the steward. And like all other meaningfulrelationships,thisonetakestimetodevelop.

CONSIDERWHAT’STHERE

Before you begin clearing your existingwoodlot just so you havespacetoplantstandards,considerwhat’salreadythere;youmaybesurprised to learn that potential standards already exist. As youreview your woodlot inventory, note the large-diameter treescategorized as AGS. Potentially, these trees may representstandards if theyare largeandofgoodform,or futurestandardsknown as tellers if they have the potential to become standardsovertime.Importantly,thestandardsandtellersyouselectshouldbeclimaxspecies,capableofbecomingstrong,healthyveterans.

ABOVE: Thisforestdemonstratescoppicingwithstandards.Themultistemmedtreeswereallgrownfromcoppicestoolsandthe

medium-size,single-stemmedtreesaretellersthatwill

eventuallygrowintostandardscapableofproducingvaluablelumber.

CONSIDERYOURLONG-TERMGOALS

Ifyouhavealargenumberoftrees,ormultiplespeciescapableofachievingstandardstatus,itwillbeimportanttocarefullyconsideryour long-term goals. Unlike coppicing and other understoryactivities focused on annual cropping or short rotations, thestandardsrepresenta long-terminvestment.Whatmightyouliketo use the standards for in the future? Building a timber framebarn?Makingcabinetsorotherfurniture?Growingacashcroptopay for your child’s college tuition? Ormaybe the anxiety of thefuture is too much to consider — maybe you’d prefer to havestandards that could be sold someday but in the meantime aresimply a source of nuts or syrup (which can be produced from asurprisingnumberofspecies).

SELECTINGFUTURESTANDARDS

The successional stage of your woodlot will determine how youtreat the tellers or standards. In a very young forest, it may bedifficulttotellwhothefuturestarsare—thosethatarecapableofachieving standard status. However, once trees reach the polestage,naturalthinningwillhavereducedsomeofthecompetition,therebymakingtheidentificationoftellersmoreobvious.Thinkofthese treesasbeing in theirmost formative teenageyears; this isthepointatwhichtheirfuturesuccesswillbedetermined.Aswithhumanteenagers,thetendencyistotrytogivethebuddingtellersalltheresourcestheyneedtothrive.

In the case of trees, the resource most often in demand isfreedom,manifested as ample growing space. However, freedomfor a tree can be as dangerous as freedom for a teenager. Thetendency for tellers and aspiring standards is to respond toincreased growing space by developing more branches. If theprimary use of your standards is some purpose besides eventuallumberproduction,thismaynotbeanissue.If,however,yourgoalis to ultimately harvest tall, straight timbers for a barn or clearlumber forkitchencounters, training these trees togrowupwardinsteadofoutwardiskey.

QUESTIONSTOASK

WhenSelectingStandardsInYourCoppiceForest

Plantortend?Unlessyou’restartingwithbareground,chancesaregoodthatyourwoodlotalreadyhasstandardsthatcanbetended,ortellersthatmaydevelopintosuitablestandards.Inventorythesetrees,recordinglocation,species,size(DBH),andrelativecondition.

What’syourgoal?Thespeciesoftreesyouselectasstandardsshouldbeinlinewithyourgoal,whetherthatbetimberproduction,mastproduction,orsimplyacashcropforthefuture.

Uporout?Dothetellersorstandardsneedupwardtrainingfromtheirneighborsorgrowingspacetothrive?Thisjudgmentisbasedontreespecies,height,andthefinalproduct.

Howwillyouprotectyourstandards?Ifyourstandardsareinalocationthat’svulnerabletomechanicaldamage(suchasaskid-trailintersection),considerusingunacceptablegrowingstock(UGS)asbumpertrees.

Whentoharvest?Harvestyourstandardswhentheymeetthespecificationsofthegoodsyou’retryingtoproduce.Harvestingofstandardsshouldcoincidewithanunderstorycoppiceharvesttopreventresidualstanddamageandincreaseefficiency.

TRAININGTELLERS

Totrainyourtellersandstandardstoreachfortheskyrequiresabitofpersuasionintheformofhealthycompetition.Whenyou’veidentifiedatreethat’sagoodtellerorpotentialstandard,examinethe other trees around it. Are there trees close by that are atapproximately the same crown level? These intermediate andcodominant treesarecompetitionforyourcrop trees,but they’realso providing a competitive atmosphere that keeps your chosentellergrowingupward.

However, too much competition can be detrimental to treehealth. As a general rule, if neighboring trees are touching thecrownofyourcroptree,cutthemdown!Retentionofsurroundingtreesisfineaslongasenoughlightispresenttoallowcoppicingintheunderstory.

Oneoftheadvantagesofconvertinganabandonedwoodlottoacoppice with standards is that a lack of management has likelyencouragedupwardoveroutwardgrowth.Ifyou’relucky,youmay

discoverthatyouhaveyoungstandardsoraspiringtellersthatarereadytobereleased.

The process of releasing a tree from surrounding competitionshould be gradual; trees suddenly exposed to intense light mayexhibit shock in the form of epicormic branching (dormant budsthatsproutinrandomandoftenundesirablelocations,suchasthelowertrunk)orleafscorch.Toavoidshockingyourtrees,considerremovingcompetitionoverthecourseofoneortwoyears.

AVOIDINGINJURYTOTELLERS

Other important considerations in cultivating healthy standardsincludemaintainingsoilqualityandpreventingbasalinjuries.

SoilCompactionandWaterProtection

Inhealthyforestsoils,approximatelyhalfofthesoilvolumeisairand water space. These physical qualities ensure adequateinfiltration and percolation of nutrients and allow roots to growboth vertically and laterally. Working in your woodlot poses apotential threat to soil quality through compaction. Minimizecompaction from equipment (such as tractors and forecarts) byfollowingbestmanagementpractices(BMPs).BMPsinclude:

Ifyouliveinacoldclimate,considerharvestingwhenthegroundisfrozen,asawaytoavoidsoilcompactionandreducethechanceoferosion.

Avoidbuildingtrailsorskidroadsthroughseepsandvernalpools,whichareimportantbreedingareasforamphibiansandreptiles.

Keeptrailsandskidroadsonslopeslessthan15percent.Ifthatisn’tpossiblegiventhetopography,installwaterbars,diversionditches,orculverts.

Neverskidlogsthroughastream;considerbuildingaportablebridge,orlayaseriesoflogsandculvertsparalleltostreamflowforatemporarycrossing.Formoreinformationonstreamcrossing,contactyourstateDepartmentofNaturalResources(oritsequivalent).

BasalInjuries

As discussed in , injuries to the base of a tree aregenerallyassociatedwitheitherfiredamageorloggingoperations.Basalinjuriestocoppicetreesrarelyrepresentahealthissue,sincethe trees are usually harvested before decay becomes a problem.However,basal injuriesontellersandstandardsrepresentamoreseriousissue,sincethesetreesaretypicallygrownfor60yearsormore. This long life span also means greater risk of fungal andbacterialinfectionsenteringthroughabasalscar.Onewaytoavoidthiskindofinjuryistoleavehighstumpsfromthecompetingtreesyoucutdownaroundyourvaluablestandards.Thesesurroundingstumpsbecome“bumpers” thatprotectyourstandardswhen logsareskiddedthroughtheforest.

Windthrow

Intime,yourreleasedtellersandthinnedstandardswillrespondtoimproved growing conditions by developing a healthy crown andregularseedcrops,atleastintheory.Atsomepointyouwilllikelyexperiencemortalityof some tellersand standards.Onecommonthreat to standards is windthrow. In an unthinned forest, tree

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canopies are in contact with one another, offering a communitysupport network. When competition is reduced to allow yourstandard to thrive, not only does it lose the support of thesurroundingtrees,butitalsofeelstheeffectsofwindthat,underpriorconditions,wouldhavebeenblockedbyneighboringtrees.

Once a tree is uprooted by windthrow, you have a limitednumber of options. In most cases, the practical solution is toharvest the tree for lumber, firewood, or some other homesteaduse. In some cases, the roots of windthrown trees may remainintact,creatingahorizontaltrunkcapableofproducingnumerousepicormicbranchesthatcanbeusedforanyofthesmall-diametercoppiceapplicationsdescribed in thisbook.Anadditionaluse forthese windthrown standards is to use them as mushroomcultivationsites(thistechniqueisdescribedin ).

QUESTIONSTOASK

WhenSelectingStandardsInYourCoppiceForest

Plantortend?Unlessyou’restartingwithbareground,chancesaregoodthatyourwoodlotalreadyhasstandardsthatcanbetended,ortellersthatmaydevelopintosuitablestandards.Inventorythesetrees,recordinglocation,species,size(DBH),andrelativecondition.

What’syourgoal?Thespeciesoftreesyouselectasstandardsshouldbeinlinewithyourgoal,whetherthatbetimberproduction,mastproduction,orsimplyacashcropforthefuture.

chapter7

Uporout?Dothetellersorstandardsneedupwardtrainingfromtheirneighborsorgrowingspacetothrive?Thisjudgmentisbasedontreespecies,height,andthefinalproduct.

Howwillyouprotectyourstandards?Ifyourstandardsareinalocationthat’svulnerabletomechanicaldamage(suchasaskid-trailintersection),considerusingunacceptablegrowingstock(UGS)asbumpertrees.

Whentoharvest?Harvestyourstandardswhentheymeetthespecificationsofthegoodsyou’retryingtoproduce.Harvestingofstandardsshouldcoincidewithanunderstorycoppiceharvesttopreventresidualstanddamageandincreaseefficiency.

FAUNAINYOURFOREST

Collectively,yourwoodlotobjectivesandthesuccessionalstageofyour woods will determine your options for creating wildlifehabitat.Birdsandmammalsare thetwomaintypesoffaunayouwillbeconcernedwith.

BIRDS

Generally,birdsare consideredanasset in coppice-with-standardsystems.Amongthemostnotablebenefitsofbirds istheirroleasseed dispersers. Using wildlife to disperse seeds is a natural

regenerationmethodthatsavesthetimeandlaborassociatedwithplanting by hand. As birds consume fruits, the seed coatsexperience abrasion that aids in germination. One way toencourageseeddispersalbybirdsistoretainbothsnagsandlivingtreesinsemi-clearedareas.Thesetreesserveasrooststhatincreasetheprobabilityofseeddispersalandcanacceleratenaturalforestsuccession.

Largerbirds,suchaswildturkeys,appeartoplayanimportantrole in promoting the establishment of seed-borne trees, whichmay become standards in future woodlot rotations. As turkeysscratch at the forest floor looking for insects, fungi, andworms,they inadvertently create an important microenvironment forgermination. The scratching action mixes organic material withmineralsoil,whichisnecessaryformanyseedstogerminate.

WoodpeckersandSapsuckers

Contrary to popular belief, woodpeckers do not generally attackhealthy trees. Because they’re actually in search of beetles,termites, and ants, they’re most likely to peck at dying trees.Knowing this, you may wish to provide habitat to localwoodpeckersifattractingthemisoneofyourwoodlotgoals.

Onesimplemethodistogirdlealargebutpoorlyformedtreeinyourwoodlot.Girdlingisdonebychoppingorcuttingthroughthecambiumofyourtargetedtreewithanaxeorchainsaw.Ifyouopttogirdlewithachainsaw,useaseriesofthreecircumferentialcutsapproximatelyone inchapart, since thekerfofa chainsawcut isnarrowerthanthatofanaxe.Mosttreeswilltrytorespondtothisinjury; therefore,makesureyouremovea thickkerfofcambiumsothatthetreecannotheal.Cuttingoffthetransportofnutrientseventually kills the tree and allows beetles, termites, and ants tomovein.Inanactofefficiency,woodpeckerswillexcavatecavities

astheysearchforfood.Thesecavitieswillbelargeenoughtoallowtheestablishmentofnests.

Be careful, however, not to confuse the common red-headedwoodpecker with its cousin, the sapsucker. Despite their name,sapsuckers do not actually suck sap; instead they bore a shallowhole in the tree that allows sap to flow to the surface, therebyattracting insects. Sapsuckers commonly establish forest routeswhere theymove from tree to tree, boring small holes, and thenreturnalongthesameroutetopickoffinsects.

One way to differentiate sapsucker damage from beetle orinsectdamageisthatsapsuckerswillboretheir -inchto -inchholes instraight,parallelrows,notrandomly.Becausesapsuckersgoafterlivetrees,youmaywishtoprotectyourtrees,particularlyif you have desirable standards or future crop trees. Whilechemicalrepellantsexist,wrappingburlaparoundtheattackzoneseemstobeaneffectivedeterrent.

SuccessionEncouragesDiversity

It’s also worth noting that different successional stages of yourcoppicedwoodlotwillattractdifferentbirdspecies.InastudythatexaminedtheabundanceofbreedingmigratorybirdsinanEnglishmixed coppice woodland, it was determined that white-throatedsparrowsweremostabundantone to threeyearsafter coppicing,but other species, such as the blackcap chickadee, were mostabundantsixtoeightyearsafterthecoppiceharvest.

Game birds such as partridge, grouse, andwoodcock thrive intheearlysuccessionalforestcreatedthroughcoppicing.Aftertwoyearsofgrowth,coppicesproutsofferenoughprotectionthatthesebirds often seek coppice stools as camouflaged protection sites.Occasionally, game birds will use coppice stools as nesting sites;

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because of this, coppice shoots should not be harvested duringspring.

ABOVE: Girdlingcanprovidehabitatforwoodpeckersandcavitynesterswhilecreatinggrowingspaceforneighboringtrees.

MAMMALS

Not surprisingly, small mammals are greatly influenced by thecoppicingcycle.Generally, the sizeof theanimals isproportionaltothesuccessionalstage;firsttomoveinaremice,chipmunks,andsquirrels,followedbyrabbitsanddeer.Whilegamespeciesmaybeanattractivewoodlotadditionforhunters, thedamagecausedbythese animals can be significant. The dense growth created incoppicesystemsprovidesprotection,whichdiscouragesmigration.The combination of protective habitat and an ample supply ofyoung, succulent shoots can lead to significant damage to yourwoodlot.

Beyondhuntingortrapping,oneofthemosteffectivemeansofdiscouraging browsing is by entering your coppice woodlot asfrequentlyaspossible.Thepresenceofhumans,hunterornot,stillremains one of the greatest deterrents to animals. If excessivebrowsecontinues toaffect regeneration inyourwoodlot,youcanopt for either a physical barrier, such as a tree-saver tube ornettingthatcoversyounggrowth,orasprayrepellentthatreducespalatability.

COPPICINGFORFODDER

Anotheruseforcoppicesystemsistogrowfodderforlivestock.Inthissection,“fodder”primarilyreferstobuds,earlyshoots,fruits,leaves, and young branches, which are both abundant in thewoodlotandofnutritionalvalue.

Choosing livestock to match your fodder options is animportantaspectofdevelopingahomesteadthatrequiresminimalexternal inputs. In the case of my high-elevation, high-latitude

homestead,I’veselectedbreedsthatarenotsimplygrazersbutalsobrowsers.Foddercanbeeithercollectedorbrowsed.

COLLECTINGFODDER

Collecting fodder can be done more efficiently if it is combinedwith other woodland goals. For example, thinning red maplecoppice stoolsmakes for a tasty treat formyhighland cattle andutilizessproutsthatordinarilywouldbecutandlefttodecomposeinthewoodlot.

COLLECTORBROWSE

CollectedFodder

Advantages:

Efficient

Amountharvestedcanbeeasilycontrolled

Damagetoparentplantmaybeavoided

Disadvantages:

Timeconsuming

Shortfeedingwindowafterbeingharvested

Givesanimalslesschoiceintheirbrowsingdiet

Fencingsystems(temporaryorpermanent)areneeded

BrowsedFodder

BrowsedFodder

Advantages:

Canbecombinedwithotherobjectives,suchaslandclearing

Noplantingcosts

Perennialcrops

Disadvantages:

Potentialforoverbrowsing/indiscriminantbrowsing,resultinginplantmortality

Animalsmayrequiresupplementalfeed

E X P E R T P R O F I L E

AMasterBowMaker

CraigMilewski

Craig Milewski is a fish and wildlife professor, voluntarysimplifier,hunter,backyardlumberjack,andbowmaker.CraiggrewupinruralNorthDakotaandspenthisearlyyearswithfarmers, foresters, and fishermen. This lot of outdoorsmengaveCraiganearlyappreciation forruralskillsandnature’sbounty.

BelyinghismodestdemeanorareCraig’saccomplishmentsas a primitive hunter. Craig doesn’t hunt with guns or evencompoundbows.Instead,hepreferstousehiswoodlotashiswoodshop for crafting handmade bows, with the goal ofreturning to that same woodlot for a hunt. For Craig, thisnested relationship begins by combing his woods for clear,straightashtrees.

The trees need to be only about 4 inches in diameter,meaning that in many cases Craig is able to use coppicedstems.When selecting a tree, he looks for a straight sectionwithout knots or twisted grain. Once he’s located a suitabletree,Craiguseshisbowsawtocutouta5-foot-longsection,thenusesafroetosplitthelogintoa2-inch-thickstave.

“Eventhestraightestoftreeshaveanaturalcurvetothegrain.”

Eventhestraightestoftreeshaveanaturalcurvetothegrain.Byholdingthestaveuprightandrestingthebottomonhisfoot,Craiggentlypushesonthecenterofthestave.Ashepushes,thestaverotatestorevealthenaturalcurveofthebow.Fromthis point forward, Craig primarily removes wood on the“inside” of the bow. Removing wood on the “outside” wouldcompromisethestructuralintegrity.Thetwoprimarytoolsheuses to remove the wood are a drawshave and a farrier’srasp. The drawshave is fast but poses the risk of run-off,wherethebladecutstoosharplyintothegrain,compromisingtheoverallstrength.

Next, Craig marks out the handle and begins to bend thebow, noting areas of unequal thickness, which result in

unequal tension. To make sure both ends of the bow bendequally, Craig makes long passes with a drawshave to evenout the thickness,aprocessknownas tillering.OnceCraig issatisfiedwith the overall shape of the bow, he uses a roundrat-tail file to carve the nocks, the grooves in which thebowstringrestsateachend.Thestringismadefromsinew,orstretched tendons from a previous year’s deer hunt. Craiguseslinseedoilasapreservativeonthebow.Thefinalstep,ofcourse, will be returning to the woodlot to harvest a deer,hopefully just a few yards away from where the boworiginatedasacoppicesprout.

Shredding

Another technique that makes for efficient small-scale foddercollection is shredding (also known as “snedding”). Shredding isthe removal of side branches on a tree. This process is usuallycarriedout in latesummer,whenthe leavescontaintheirhighestnutrient levels.Theshreddedbranchescanthenbefeddirectlytolivestock(mostcommonlygoatsandcattle)orsavedandpiledasawinter fodder source. Oaks are commonly used as shreddingmaterialbecauseoftheirleafretentionandhighnutrientcontent.

Traditionally,shreddingwasdonetotheentirestemofsaplingandpole-sizetrees.Thisdramaticphysiologicalchangeshocksthetree into releasing dormant buds capable of growing into newbranchesoverasingleseason.Onevariationofthismethodwouldsimplybeless-aggressivepruning,intendedtocreateclearwoodorimprovetheformofacroptree.Itisimportantthatanypotentialforage be researched to determine if it has toxic qualities. Black

cherry, forexample,containsacompoundknownasprussicacid,whichcanbeharmfultolivestock.

Pollarding

Pollardingissimilartoestablishingacoppicestool,onlyhigher,sothat the new growth is safe from grazers.When a tree has beenpollardedovermultiple generations, itwill developbare, scaffoldlimbs, with “knobs” at the end of each branch. These knobs arewhatproduceabundantnew,leafygrowth.Aswithshredding,thegoal is to produce tender sprouts and leaves suitable for animalfodder.Theterm“pollardhay”referstotheyounggrowth,whichistraditionally cut at two-to six-year intervals and either fed tolivestockgreenorstackedinsilagemoundsforwinterfeeding.

Unfortunately, pollarding is often done carelessly with amacheteorbillhook(see ),resultinginunnecessarydamage.Bytakingyourtimeandfollowingafewbasicsteps,you’llpreservethe health of the tree and be able to produce an abundant crop.Perhapsthemostimportantprecautionistomakesurethesproutsareremovedatthebaseoftheknob,whichmakesiteasierforthetree toheal thewound. It’s also important to start thepollardingprocesswhenthetreeisyoungsothatyoudon’thavetocutlimbslargerthan1inchindiameter.

Overtime,theknobswilldevelop,creatingmoredormantbudscapableofproducing largeamountsofpollardhay.Finally,makesurethatyouselecttreesforpollardingthatarevigorousandtakewelltopollarding;sycamores,beeches,oaks,andchestnutsareallgoodcandidates.

here

ABOVE: Thistreeillustratesthevariousdevelopmentalstagesseenwithpollarding.Thelowerrightportionshowsthecrownpriortopollarding,andtheupperrightportionisafterseveralsubsequentpollardingtreatments.Theleftsideofthecrownshowspreviouslypollardedbrancheswithnewgrowth.

BROWSINGFORFODDER

Rather than collecting the fodder yourself, allowing animals tobrowse offers the temping advantage of letting your livestock dothework.Thattemptationcomeswithacautionarytale.Youhavetoconsidertwofactors—animalspeciesandbrowsingduration—andintegratebothaspartofyourgrazingplan.Theoneexception,of course, would be if your goal is to eliminate vegetation in a

specific grazing area. Assuming your goal is not to eliminate allvegetation from an area, then short, light browsing is best.Dependingon the typeof livestockand the sizeofyourbrowsingarea,thismaybejustafewhoursorperhapsaslongasacoupleofdays.

ABOVE: Younggreenleafletsthatemergeinearlyspringareatreattolivestockthathaveoverwinteredonhay.

DevelopinganAnimal’sPalate

Youwillalsofindthatdifferenttreespecieshavedifferentlevelsofpalatability. If you’re trying to get your animals to consume aspecies they’re less than fond of, you may need to move to acollectionsysteminwhichthebrowseismixedwithmorepalatablefeed. Over time, you’ll be able to increase the ratio of browsingmaterialuntiltheanimalsdevelopapalateforbrowsingaspecifictypeoffodder.Isuccessfullytransitionedmycattleandsheeptoafeed mixture of 75 percent hay, 25 percent conifer browse by

combining the two. I’m now able to toss a wagonload of coniferboughsoverthefenceandcreateaninstantfeedingfrenzy.BeforeIintroducedthisfodderintheirhayration,theywouldn’ttouchit.

The way that animals browse will dictate whether you collectforage or allow browsing. My Highland cattle, for example, willconsume woody stems up to inch in diameter. On the otherhand, my blackface sheep are much more delicate, carefullyremoving the leaves without damaging the stem. This delicatebrowsingis,essentially,naturalshredding.

Somelivestockbreedssimplywon’tbrowse,nomatterhowhardyou try. The selection of livestock breeds on my homestead washighlyintentional;itinvolvedselectingthebreedsandindividualsfrom within herds best suited for a combination of grazing andbrowsing. In my case, this has meant raising Scottish Highlandcattle, Scottish Blackface sheep,Mulefoot hogs, and Bourbon Redturkeys. Your specific location and available browse will informwhichbreedsarebestsuitedforyourhomestead.

BrowsingasaSupplementtoFeed

Finally, it’s important to note that browsing alone is not entirelysufficientforanylivestock.Onmorethanoneoccasion,I’veheardlivestockfolksoverpromisethevirtuesofbrowsing,leadingonetobelieve that livestock could live on sticks alone. Instead, I wouldencourageyoutoviewbrowsingasasymbioticfunctionthatyourlivestockcanplayarolein:controllingvegetationwhilebenefitingfrom nutrient-dense supplemental fodder. Formore informationon creating silvopastures, including browsing and grazingtechniques,see .

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chapter3

COPPICINGFORCHARCOAL

WhileEuropeancavepaintingsdrawnwithcharcoal indicatethatcharcoaldatesbackatleast30,000years,itisnotknownwhetherthecavepaintersintentionallyproducedcharcoalasafuelsourceor simply found it asaby-productofwood fires.However,wedoknow that 4,000 years ago, charcoal became an essential anddeliberatepartoftheeconomy,becauseitwasusedtosmelttinandcoppertomakebronze.Theshiftfromsmeltingcoppertomakingbronzerequiredtemperaturesalmost572°F(300°C)hotter,but ledto the development of essential tools such as the more durablebronzeaxe,whichwasusedinbothwarandwoodlot.Thesehigherbronze-forging temperatures could be achieved only through theuseofenergy-densecharcoal.

By 1000 BCE, Europe had cleared much of its land foragriculture, using wood by-products for charcoal production.However, as the wood supply dwindled, the need for charcoal inbronze production, and eventually iron, led to the creation ofcoppice woodlots, specifically designed to yield high-qualitycharcoal.Thisisconsideredbymanytobethemostinfluentialfuelinhistory.

Although virtually any wood species can be used to makecharcoal, themost common species in coppice arrangements arealder,oak,andmaple.(Hickorymakesfamouslygreatcharcoalbutdoesn’t coppice very well.) For most people, charcoal is a by-productofotherforestactivities,andthewoodthatisusedtofireyourcharcoalovenshouldbeyour“worst”firewoodor,betteryet,scrapsleftfromotherprojects.

Charcoalcanbeusedforanumberofotherapplicationsbesidesbarbeque. Both commercial and more primitive water filtration

systems rely on the same basic charcoal-based technology toremove sediments, volatile organic compounds, and odors fromwater. One common method for remote off-grid homesteadsemploys a gravity-fed charcoal filtration system in which waterpercolatesthroughafilterfilledwithgroundcharcoal,muchlikeadripcoffeemaker.

Using the same process as the lump charcoal proceduredescribed above, you can create charcoal pencils from the twigs,seedlings, and saplings removed as part of your regular tendingoperations. Load the pencils vertically in a 1-gallon paint can,fittingabout200pencilspercan.

The charcoal-cooking process results in usable by-products aswell,beginningwiththechar-ashleftatthebottomofthecrucible.Thisashcanbeusedasasoilamendmenttomakeacidsoilsmorealkaline.Ifyouchoosetomakecharcoaloutofsoftwood,theresultwillbealessenergy-densecoal;however,you’llfindthebottomofyour crucible lined with a thick tar, roughly the consistency ofcaulking. This cement has historically been used for a variety ofadhesive needs but is useful on the modern homestead as apatchingmaterialthatstickstovirtuallyanything,includingwood,metal,andcloth.

CharcoalUsesbySize

Fines.Thisisthedustthat’sleftinthebottomofthecrucibleafterfiring.Usefor:waterfiltration,soilamendment,aslug-resistantgardenborder,oraddtodishsoapasamildabrasiveforcleaningmetal.

Twigs.Makesexcellentpencilsforcharcoaldrawings.

Mediumlumpcharcoal.IdealforawoodlandhomesteadBBQ.

Largelumpcharcoal.Analternativetocoalforblacksmithing.Burnsfasterthancoal,butwithwithoutmaking“clinkers.”

HowtoMakeCharcoalCharcoal is nearly pure carbon. “Cooking” wood in a low-oxygenenvironmentreleaseswater,hydrogen,methane,andeventar(inthecaseofsoftwoods).What’s leftafter thecookingprocessare lumpsofcoalthatweighabout25percentasmuchastheoriginalmaterialthatwasplacedinthecruciblebutaremoreenergy-densethantheoriginal“raw”wood.

Materials

55-gallonmetaldrumforthestill

5-gallonmetalpaintcanwithclench-tablidforthecrucible(orforsmallerbatches,a1-gallonpaintcanwithlid)

Approximately40piecesofdrywoodtofiretheoven

Drycoppicedfirewood1to3inchesindiameter,debarkedandcutintouniformpieces.Youwillneedenoughpiecestofillthecan.Thiswoodwillbecomeyourcharcoal.

Instructions

1. Makeyouroven.Convertyourmetaldrumtoacharcoalovenbypunchingholesinthelowerthirdofthebarrel.Theseholes

canbepunchedrandomly,astheironlypurposeistoprovideoxygentothefireinside.

2. Constructthecrucible.Thecrucible,whichholdsthecharcoal,canbeconstructedfromthemetalpaintcan.It’simportantthatthecanbeclean.Layerthesmall,debarkedfirewoodinthecan,packingitastightlyaspossible.Thegoalistominimizethechanceofcombustionbyminimizingairspace.Drilla -inchholeinthelidofthecan,andsecurethelidusingthemetalclenchingtabs.Ifyourcandoesn’thavetabsoraclosureband,you’llneedtoplaceaweightonthetop,aspressuremaybuildwithinthecan.

3. Buildthefire.Placethecrucibleinsidethebarrel.Becauseafirewillhavetroubledraftingwellinsidethebarrel,you’llneedtostartasmallfireandbuilditupslowly.Besuretouseuntreatedwood.Continuetobuildthefiresothatitcoversthesidesandthetopofthecrucible,thoughyou’llwanttomakesurethattheholeinthetopofitisunobstructedandvisible.Itisveryimportanttokeepthefirehot!Toachievethehightemperaturesrequired(aminimumof500°Finsidethecrucible),youmayneedtosplityourfirewoodintosmallerpiecesthatwillburnfasterbuthotter.

4. Cookthemoistureoutofthewood.After30minutesorso,youwilllikelyseesteamwispingfromtheholeinthetopofthecrucible.Thisistheremainingmoisturebeingcookedoutofthewood.Asyourcharcoalnearscompletion,asmallflamewillappearfromtheholeinthetopofthecrucible.Asthislastlittlebitofhydrogenandoxygenburns,you’llwanttopayattentiontothecrucibleflame.Onceitgoesout,carefullyremovethe

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crucibleusinglongtongs,andimmediatelycovertheholeinthetopwithadamprag.

5. Charcoal.Oncethecruciblehascooled,it’stimeforthemomentoftruth.Ifyouhavetendedyourfirecarefullyandremovedthecrucibleassoonastheflameburnedout,you’llberewardedwithyourownharvestofgenuinelumpcharcoal.

ABOVE: Makingcharcoalfromcoppicedfirewoodcanbedoneinanafternoonwitheasilysalvagedmaterials.Thequalityofthe

charcoalproducedissuperiortostore-boughtbriquettesthataremadeofcompressedsawdustandburnquickly.

FORESTFURNITURE

I hope by this point you’re starting to see your forest less like aspecialty storeandmore likeawell-stockedgeneral store.Asyouwork in your woodlot, note the possibilities not only for fauna,fodder, and fuel but also for furniture. Admittedly, seeing thisfuturefurniturewillrequireabitofimagination.

UTILIZINGWEEVILEDTOPS

I’llusemyownhomesteadasanexample.Sinceagoodportionofmy woodlot was an abandoned Christmas tree farm, the twoprimaryspecieswerewhitepineandbalsamfir,withsmallpatchesof red maple and gray birch. Unfortunately, much of the whitepinehadbeeninfectedbythewhitepineweevil,aparasiticbeetlethat deforms the tree by killing the terminal leader at the top.(Multistemmed tops are common inmany tree species followingdamagetotheterminalleader;minejusthappenedtobepine.)Thetreerespondstothedeathofthis leaderbyallowingthebranchesinthewhorlbelowtocompetefortheroleofnewdominantleader.These competingwhorlmates forma bushy tree thathas limitedvalue as timber. Since Iwanted to encourage species such as redmapleandgraybirchthatareabletocoppicesprout,Iremovedtheweeviled pines and converted the inverted tops to stools, chairs,andtablebases.

ABOVE: Treatyourwoodlandhomesteadlikeahomeimprovementstore;lookforburlsforbowlmaking,curvedbranchesfordoorpulls,andmultileadertreetopsthatcanbeinvertedtomake

tablebasesandstools.

GROWYOUROWNFURNITURE

You could also employ your coppicing knowledge to growmultilegged stools and tables by coppicing taller stumps andselectingthethreeorfourleadersthatlookmostpromisingasstoolortablelegs.Obviously,thisprocesstakesmuchlonger(20yearsormore) than simply selecting a tree from your woodlot that has

alreadydevelopedthisutilitarianform,butitisworthmentioningfor those interested inmanaging foraunique, long-termcoppicecrop.

If you’re looking for more instant gratification, considercoppicing willow for bentwood furniture. Small-diameter willowcan be coppiced on an annual or biennial basis. It can also beharvestedasaby-productwhenthinningthesproutsonacoppicestoolthat’sbeinggrownasalonger-rotationcrop.

ABOVE: Coppicingwillowallowsyoutosustainablyharvestwoodtomakeyourownrusticfurniture,suchasthisbench,inaslittle

astwoyears.

TipsforHarvestingFurnitureWillow

TipsforHarvestingFurnitureWillow

Whilewillowmaybeharvestedanytimeduringdormancy,manywillowcraftsmenpreferlatewinterjustasthesap’sstartingtoflow.Theadditionalwatercontentmakeswillowmoreflexibleandeasytoworkwith.

Ifyoudon’thavewillowonyourhomestead,chancesaregooditgrowsonaroadsidenearyou.Askthelocalhighwaydepartmentifthere’sanareawhereyoucanharvestit.Inmostcases,they’llhappilydirectyoutoalineofroadsidewillowsinneedofpruning.Ifyoulivenearanationalforest,anotheroptionistoobtainaninexpensivepersonal-useharvestingpermitfromtheforestservice.Intheeventthatyoucan’tfindwillow,alderisgoodsecondchoice.

Gettherighttoolforthejob.Pruningshearsarefastbutareonlymeanttocutmaterialuptothethicknessofapencil.Ifthebranchisbiggerthanapencilbutsmallerthanyourthumb,usebypassloppers.Forallmaterialbiggerthanyourthumb,useahandheldpruningsaw.

Asyouprunethebranches,bunchthemtogetherandplacethemcutenddowninapailwithwater.Thiswillhelptoretainbranchmoisturemakingthemworkableforseveraldaysafterharvesting.

Saveyourscraps!Whenyou’redone,you’llbeleftwithapileofgreentwigs.Ifyouhavegoats,theywillgladlysnackonthesewoodlandtreats!

HowtoBuildaWillowBenchInstructions

1. Startbybuildingthesideframesofyourbench.Workonaflatsurfaceandpre-drillallofyourholes.Laydownyourfrontandbackbenchlegsfirst,thenscrewthetopandbottomrails,alongwithadiagonalbrace,tothetopofthetwolegs.Usedeckscrewsthatpenetrateatleastthree-fourthsofthewaythroughthelegs.Onceyou’vemadeoneend,you’llwanttomaketwomoresideframessothatyouhaveamiddlesupport.

2. Withthehelpofanassistant,standupallthreeframesandscrewtworailsonthetop(frontandrear),thenchecktomakesurethatallthelegsareverticalbeforescrewingonthetwolowerrails.Therailsshouldbescrewedtoboththelegsandthehorizontalsupports.Thelongeryoumakethebench,thethickertherails.Twoinchesshouldbetheminimumraildiameter.

3. Withtheframeupright,youcanscrewthetoprailalongthebackandbeginscrewingdowntheseatrungs,whichshouldbespacedapproximately1inchapart.Again,remembertopre-drillalltheholes.

4. You’renowreadytoscrewonthebackrest.Ipreferasunburstpattern,thoughyoucouldoptforverticalrungsorevenawovenback.Asafinalstep,consideraddingacrossbraceonthefrontandbackofthebenchtoaddadditionalsupport.Ifyouplantoleaveyourbenchoutside,it’sagoodideatocoatitwithlinseedoil,whichwillprotectthewoodwhilestillallowingittodry.

C H A P T E R 5

Woodland

Structures

FromLivingFencetoLivingBarn

Fences are an infrastructure item that receives relativelylittlefanfareintheestablishmentofawoodlandhomestead.This is unfortunate, given that fences are our best tool forkeeping critters where they belong. By investing in goodfences, you’ll save yourself the frustration and timeassociated with herding independent-minded livestock.You’llalsofindthatsoundfencesarethekeytobetterlandmanagement, whether it be keeping critters out of thegarden or concentrating chickens for mob grazing. Just asimportantasyourfence is theshelteryouprovideforyouranimals. Living barns, stump sheds, and windbreaks usenaturalmaterialsfromyourlandtoprovidesimple,low-costprotectionthat,bestofall,doesn’trequireasinglenail.

FENCINGPSYCHOLOGY

Whenconstructinga fence,either livingornonliving,you’llneedto consider whether your defense is a physical barrier, apsychological barrier, or a combination. Physical barriers includebarbedwire,wovenwire,boardfences,hedges,andotherfencingsystemsthatplaceapermanent,physicalbarrierbetweenlivestockand the prospect of freedom. Physical fences are often a goodchoiceforcreatingperimeterboundariesandofferthecomfortofknowingthattheireffectivenessisn’ttiedtoanenergizerthatcanfail foravarietyof technical reasons.Electric fences that requiretraining for your livestock to become “fence wise” serve aspsychologicalbarriers.Manyold-timershangapieceofwetgrass

on thewires to “train” livestock to respect the electric fence.Notsurprisingly,theanimalsareprettyquicklearners!

Electric fences offer the benefit, over traditional physicalfences,ofdeterringpredatorswithashocking jolt,andcomparedto other types of fences are generally easier to install over roughterrain. Permanent high-tensile electric fence offers the strengthofaphysicalfencebutischeaperthanoptionslikewovenwire.

Onmy ownhomestead, I prefer a combination ofwovenwireand two strands of electric fence, one at the top to discourageleaning over to browse trees/living posts, and a second at thebottom to discourage destructive grazing/fence pushing. Both ofthese lines are powered by a solar energizer that produces itsmaximum jolt in summerwhen discouragement ismost needed!Youmay also opt for using an electric fencing systemwith yourliving fenceposts. These systems may be either temporary orpermanent.

LIVINGFENCELINGO

Espalier. A French method of growing orchard trees byencouraging lateral branch growth along a series of wires.The resulting fence is known for early fruit production andeasy harvesting, since horizontal, not vertical, growth isencouraged.Pleacherscanbeaddedbetweentreestocreateatighterlivestockbarrier.

Gall. An outgrowth of plant cells often created throughmechanicalabrasion(e.g.,branchesrubbing inthewind).Theresult is a natural pleach through osculation and gallformation.

Hedgerow. A traditional, permanent living fence that,depending on construction methods, can serve a variety ofpurposes, including livestock control, protection of crops,privacy,andsecurity.

Hurdle.A fence panelmade by pleaching branches or vines.Hurdles, sometimes called “wattlehurdles,” can be tiedtogethertoformgrazingandholdingpens.

Inosculate.Osculateliterallymeans“tokiss.”Inthecontextofliving fences, inosculate refers to the ability for branches tonaturally graft, forming an impenetrable web of ingrownbranches.

Pleach.Tohorizontallyinterweavebranchesorvinestocreatea basketlike fence. Pleaching is commonly used in theconstruction of hurdles. Live pleachers are the horizontalmembersinquickthornhedges.Pleachingcanalsorefertotheosculationorgraftingofbranches.

Snedding. The process of stripping side shoots and lateralbuds froma tree orwoody shrubas part of the hedgelayingprocess.

Wattle.Awoven latticestrip that isusuallymadeofcleaved,orsplit,saplings.

ASHORTHISTORYOFLIVINGFENCES

Forthewoodlandhomesteader,it’ssomewhatbafflingtoconsiderhowpeopleusuallybuild fences.Theycutdownperfectlyhealthytrees, break their backs digging holes and removing rocks, insertthe cut-down trees, stretch the fencing material, worry aboutrotting fenceposts (because all nonliving wood eventually rots),andthenreplacethewholesystem15yearslater.

Interestingly,therearerelativelyfewplacesintheworldwherethiscut/dig/fence/replacemodelisactuallypracticed.Whilesomegrazing environments such as western rangelands don’t havemuch of a choice — wood or metal fenceposts are necessary —most woodland homesteads have the options of employing somesort of living fence or live-tree system. Living fences have beenused in Central and South America for over 2,000 years, and inEuropeforatleast4,000years.

Use of living fences in theUnited States goes back to colonialtimes.Infact,inhisdiaryGeorgeWashingtonextolledthevirtuesof living fences atMountVernon,wherehe plantedhoney locusttrees every6 incheson center as ameansof keeping livestock inanddeerout.ItshouldcomeaslittlesurprisethatWashingtonsawthe living fence as a practical solution, given the long history ofhedgeandhurdlefencesintheBritishIsles.

It’s likely that the first living fences or hedgerows in Britainwereconstructedtokeeppeopleoutasopposedtokeepinganimalsin. Known as dead hedges, these rustic fences were laced withsharpened branches as a defense against attacks. Later, in theBronzeAge,livingfences,orhedges,becameanimportanttoolfor

controlling livestock and delineating boundaries. These earlyhedgeswerestripsofdensewoodlandthatwereleftbetweenfieldsaslandwasclearedandcultivated.

Eventually,thepracticeofhedgingevolvedintoanartthatin55BCE Julius Caesar described while observing the Nervi tribe inFlanders:

Cutintoslendertreesandbentthemoversothatmanybranchescameoutalongthelength;theyfinishedthisoffbyinsertingbramblesandbriars,sothatthehedgesformedadefenselikewall,whichcouldnotonlynotbepenetratedbutnotevenseenthrough.

TheprocessCaesardescribes remainsessentiallyunchangedeventoday.Hedges proliferated in Europe largely because their utilityextended far beyond simply keeping animals in; theywere also aforagesourceforpeopleandanimals,andinsomecasestheyevenprovidedcoppicefirewood.

Thelate19thcenturybroughtthedevelopmentofbarbedwire,amaterial that, unlike hedges (which took three to five years toestablish), could be constructed in a single day. The transition toindustrial-scale agriculture after World War II emphasizedefficient use of land and highlighted the amount of productiveland that was lost to thick, sprawling hedges. The argument forproductivity eventually won out, and thousands of miles ofhedgerows in both Europe and the United States were replacedwithbarbedandwovenwire.

Fortunately, living fences are experiencing a renaissance inboth Europe and the United States. In England, legislation nowoffers protection for existing hedgerows and incentives forconstructing new hedgerows. In the southern, mid-Atlantic, andmidwestern United States, the practice of growing Osage orange

fences using the slurry trench technique described is onceagainmakingforhog-tightfences.

My own fascination with living fences originated in theDominicanRepublic,where Iworkedwith local farmers to createintegratedagroforestrysystemsthatprovidedbothshort-termandlong-term benefits to rural communities. While some localpracticesweredownrightfrustrating(pruningvaluablemahoganytrees with machetes), other practices were efficient and highlysustainable. One such practice was a system of horse-high, bull-strong,hog-tightlivingfences,manyofwhichweremorethan100yearsold.

Byblendingbothtraditional livingfencesandmodernfencingtechniques,thewoodlandhomesteaderhasavarietyofoptionsforconstructingdurable,economical,andvisuallyappealingfences.Inthis chapter we’ll explore a variety of living fence options, fromrudimentaryandrustictoinnovativeandimpenetrable.

MASTERINGTHEBILLHOOK

Abillhookisatraditionalcuttingtoolthat’sbestthoughtofasacrossbetweenaknifeandanaxe.TheJ-shapedblademakeschopping against a rounded object (like a log) more efficientthan chopping with a straight blade. The hook is also usefulwhenshreddingbranchesorcuttinghedgepleachers.Tousethebillhook,makesurethatyouhaveafirmgriponthehandleandthatthebladeisn’tinthepathofyourbody.Somebillhooksaresharpenedonthebacksidesothat theycanalsobeusedforsplitting.

Acousin to thebillhook is thebrushhook,whichusesa longaxe handle attached to a blade that resembles that of the

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billhook.This longerhandlemakes formorepowerfulswingsthatareabletosevermultiplestemsinasingleblow.Aswiththebillhook,makesureyourbody isn’t in linewith theblade,andbesuretousebothhands.

ABOVE: Thebillhookanditslong-handledcousin,thebrushhook,areessentialtoolsformaintainingalivinghedge.You’llalsofindthemusefulforclearingboundarylines

andkeepingshrubsfromencroachingontrails.

LIVINGFENCESFORTHEHOMESTEAD

Geography,growingconditions,andculturehaveallcontributedtomyriaditerationsofthelivingfence.Inthissectionwe’llexaminetwo common living-fence options: the traditional quickthorn laidhedge and the inosculation hedge. It is the commitment of thefence builder, more than the fence style, that determines the

strength of the fence. Also, remember that the benefits of livingfences extend beyond livestock, so it may not be necessary toconstruct a hog-tight fence if it’s simply meant to serve as awindbreakorproduceforagematerial.

THEQUICKTHORNLAIDHEDGE

Laid hedges (those that are planted, then cut, and “laid” over, asdescribed )areoftenreferredtoasquickthorns,with“quick”meaningalive and “thorn” referring to the barbs ofmany choicehedgespecies.It’sworthnotingthatmanyquickthornlaidhedgesuse thornless species such as willow or alder, and are laterreinforcedwithdeadwood from thorny species such as locust orevenblackberry.

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ABOVE: Whilealivinghedgetakesyearstotrainandestablish,itprovidesmanybenefitsthatatraditionalfencenevercould,includingbirdhabitat,erosioncontrol,andwindbreaks.

An inventory of yourwoodlotwill reveal potential growing stockforyourlivingfence.Ifyou’reconvertingyourforgottenforesttoapastureorsilvopasture,considertheplantsandtreesthatalreadyexist in your proposed fenceline. Using trees and shrubs thatalready exist is always easier than planting new stock. If you’relucky enough to have Osage orange growing on your property,begin harvesting the fallen fruit as a seedstock source. As alivestock hedge, Osage orange is ideal thanks to its sharp thornsanddensebranchinghabits.Willowalsomakesagreatlaidhedge,andcuttingsareusuallyfreeforthetaking.

Yourotheroption is topurchasestartedplants fromnurseriesandthentransplantthemtoyourfenceline.However,whetheryoubeginyourhedgefromseedorvegetativecuttings(placedabout9inchesapart),realizethatbuildingahedgeisaprocessthattakesatleast four (and often as long as six) years to establish.Andwhilehedging is simple in theory, the hedge laying takes time andexperience tomaster. Formany amateur hedgemakers, the firstmistakeisrushingtheconstructionprocess;thesecondmistakeisintroducinglivestocktothefencebeforeitisfullyestablished.

Despite the timeand skill required to constructa living fence,the cost savingsandecological servicesofferedare significant. Iflaborisavailable,alivingfencecanbebuiltwithonlyaminimumof tools (billhook,hatchet, anvil loppers, andbypasspruners)andwithout anypurchasedmaterials. In terms of ecological benefits,living fences, and hedges in particular, provide important edgehabitatforsongbirdsaswellaserosioncontroland,dependingonspecies,evennitrogenfixinginthesoil.

THEHEDGELAYER’STOOLBOX

Scythe or brush saw. If you’re resurrecting an old hedge,you’llwanttocleartheareaoneachsideofthehedgetomakeiteasiertowork.If theundergrowth iswoody(asopposedtograssy),considerusingabrushsawtocleanthingsup.

Billhook.Likeanycuttingtool,yourbillhookneedstobesharpto work well. Be sure to also maintain a stout bevel whensharpening; many people assume that they should thin theblade to allow the billhook to slice better. Unfortunately, thisjustencouragespinchingandsticking.

Stakes. You’ll need enough stakes to place one every threefeet. The stakes can be cut from virtually any wood; manyhedgelayers simply use scraps left over from thinning thehedge.

Ties.Partofthebeautyoflivinghedgesisthatovertimetheygrowtoaccepttheformsuggestedbystakesandties.Forthisreason, I recommendusing natural, biodegradablematerialssuchassisalbailingtwinethatdecomposesoverthecourseofacoupleofyears.

Binders. Depending on the intended function of your hedge,youmayoptforbindersasawaytoaddstrengthandbeautytoyourhedge.Long(16feetormore),1-inch-diameter“whips”are best as binders, thought shorter pieces may be lashedtogether.

HEDGELAYING101

HEDGELAYING101

More than twodozenquickthorn laidhedgedesignsandmethodsexist, but most are variations of the same basic method. Hedgelayingisanactivityperformedwhilethehedgetreesaredormantand the sap is down. The assumption here is that you haveestablishedstemsatleast8feettallthatareabout9inchesapart.

Trim.Beginbytrimmingunderbrushthatwouldinterferewiththepleachedstemsreceivingsunlight.

Bend and slice. Start with the first hedge tree, whose stem willbecomeyourfirstpleacher,anduseabillhooktoslice thebaseofthe tree with a downward diagonal cut. The cut depth is usuallyone-halftotwo-thirdsofthediameterofthebase.Muchoftheartof hedging is knowing how far to cut, which will vary based onspecies and diameter. If you don’t cut far enough, the stem willsnap; if you cut too far, the stemwon’t receive enoughnutrientsandwill die. TheU.K. NationalHedgelaying Society offers useful

advice on this particular point in their publication,Hedge LayingExplained(see ).

Bendthepartiallyseveredstemtowardthenexttreeata40-to60-degreeangle.Ifthestembreakswhilebending,it’sbesttotrimthe stem at the ground, allow it to coppice sprout, and recut thefollowingyear.

Tie and bind. With the pleacher stems cut, insert 1-to 2-inch-diameterstakes,10to12incheslong,at3-footintervalsandtiethepleacherstothemattheprescribed40-to60-degreeangle.Fortheties,biodegradablematerialssuchasbalingtwinearepreferredtometal ties since the pleachers will “learn” to grow diagonally in

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shortorder. Ifyourstemsareplantedparticularlyclose,youmaychoose to retain some stems as uprights for attaching cutpleachers.

Toaddextrastrengthtoyourhedge,consideradding“binders”or“heatherings,”whicharewoveninaspiralpatternbetweentheupright stakes, giving rigidity to the overall structure. Commonbinderwoodsarebirch,ash,willow,hazel,andgrapevine.

ABOVE: Hedgelayingshouldbedoneinlatewinterorearlyspringbeforetheplantsleafout.Experiencedhedgelayerscanbuildupto60feetofhedgeperday;setmoremodestgoalsonyourfirst

attempt.

VARIATIONSOFTHEQUICKTHORNLAIDHEDGE

Like most art forms, hedge laying has evolved into countlessiterationsthatexpressbothplaceandpurpose.Thequickthornlaidhedge techniques described in this section illustrate innovativeapproaches that may prove useful in the development of yourlivingfence.

MidlandBullock

Asthenameimplies,theMidlandBullockmethodwasdevelopedtofencecattle.Severalconstructionfeaturesmakethisaparticularlydurable fence. First, dead brush is placed on the interior of thehedgerow to deter the cattle from browsing the new growth.Second,bindingisplacedbelowthetopofthehedgesothatcattlecan’tdisassemblethefencewiththeirhorns.Finally,thebacksideof the hedge is kept neat and free of excessive growth, to allowmaximumspaceforadjoiningcropfields.

Derbyshire

AswiththeMidlandBullock,brushisplacedonthelivestocksideoftheDerbyshirehedgetodiscouragebrowsingonthehedgerow.Thisfenceiscommoninbothsheeppasturesandmultispeciesgrazingarrangements.Itusessawnstakes,whichcanbemadefromedgingscrapsfromasawmill.Thestakesshouldbeplacedreasonablyclose(18 to24 inchesapart),withpleacherswoven tightlybetween thestakes. This tight weaving pattern means that no top binding isnecessary.

Lancashire

TheLancashiretechniqueisuniqueinthatitusesadoublerowofalternatelyplacedstakes.Thepleachersrundownthecenterofthe

stakerowswiththebranchgrowthfromthepleacherspulledandwovenaroundthestakes.

Brecon

TheBrecontechniqueusesasinglerowofstakesdownthecenterofthehedge.Whenusedwitholderandlargerhedgematerial,thestumpsareallowedtocoppicesproutandgrowforeventualuseaspleachers. To protect the coppice growth, dead wood is placedaroundthestumpstodiscouragebrowsing.Additionally,pleachersarelooselywovenaroundeverystake,creatingaprotectivebowforthecoppicestump.

Yorkshire

Commonlyusedasasheephedge,theYorkshirehedgehasadensebaseandacenterrowofstoutstakesthathasaraileithernailedontop,oroneachsideoftherail,tocreateabinderandslotthroughwhich the pleachers can run. Because this fence is low andsusceptible to browse, it should be used on a rotation basis,allowingforregrowth.

Cornish

In the windy Cornwall region of southwest England, a distincthedge system is used where an earth bank is faced with stones.Shrubsareplantedontoptoextendtheheightofthewindbreak.Inavariationof theCornishhedge,used in theNewEnglandstates,soil and rubble are placed in the center of a stonewall and thencultivatedwithroseorotherthornyshrubs.However,itshouldbenotedthattherootactioncausedbyplantsgrowingwithinstoneswill,overtime,causethefencetoloseitsbatter,bulgingoutward.

IsleofWight

Perhaps the crudest but most utilitarian of hedges, the Isle ofWightisanuntidybuthog-tightfence.Ifyou’reinneedofalivingfenceinshortorder,thisisyourhedge.Pleachersarecrisscrossedatoponeanotherandpeggeddownwithstakes.Thisisamongthewidest ofhedges, oftenmeasuring20ormore feet inwidth. Thismethodmaybe suitable for repurposing seminaturalhedges thatmay lack the appropriate pleacher density for other hedgerowdesigns.

INOSCULATIONHEDGES

Whilethequickthornlaidhedgereliesonrapidgrowthtocreateatight fence structure, inosculation fences use branches’ self-grafting abilities, triggered by abrasion, to form a physical bond.When selected branches of young trees or shrubs are tied orbraidedtogether, thetouchingbarkiswornawayasthebranchesmove in thewind,and thebranches thenbegin togrow together.Thebarkmayalsobecuttospeedtheprocess.

This grafting of branches results in a living fence that, evenwhenheavilybrowsed,willremainimpenetrable.

Further examination of George Washington’s diary indicatesthatthefencehewasultimatelytryingtobuildwasahoneylocustinosculationhedgewith“entwiningbranches.”LetterstoseveralofWashington’s farmmanagers indicate that theprojectnever tookpriority, especially when farm managers were given access tomilledlumberforconstructingboardfencesthatpromisedinstantgratification.

In other parts of the world, inosculation has been used forconstructingnot just fencesbutalsoentirevillages.Manycoastalareas of medieval Europe show evidence of inosculated treesplantedasageometricorchard.Thelimbsofthesetreesweretheninosculated to forma flat, interlockedcanopy thatwas thenusedas a platform on which rustic huts were constructed. Thisillustrates not just the physical strength associated with thismethod but also the ways in which the grown environment canequal,ifnottrump,thebuiltenvironment.

ABOVE: Aninosculatedhedgegetsstrongerwithtimeasbranchgraftsformsolidunions.

CREATINGANINOSCULATEDHEDGE

Inosculatedhedgescanbecreatedeitherfromanexistinghedgeoras part of the establishment of a new hedge. If you’d like toinosculate a new hedge, you have two options: you can eitherconstruct a , or you can plant willow (orsimilarspecies)inatightspacingarrangement(4to6inchesapart)and inosculate the lateralbranches.Eitherway,oncethehedge isestablished, begin training potential inosculation branch mates.Note branches that are growing in a potential opening or escaperouteasfutureinosculationcandidates.

Inosculationismostsuccessfulifthematchamongbranchesismade in early spring, prior to leaf-out, but once the sap startsflowing. As a general rule, inosculation is easier and moresuccessful on smaller branches than on larger ones. Some treesrespondto inosculationbest if thebark is lightlyabradedusingafine rasp. Other trees (particularly willow) seem to prefer cleanmatingsurfacesthatresultfromusingasharpknifetoexposetheinnerbarkofeachofthematingsurfaces.

Once you’ve prepared the branch surfaces, bind the matedbranches together so that thepointofunioncan’tmove.Youcanusepaper-coated twist ties, thick rubberbands, electrical tape, orself-fusing splicing tape to hold your newly joined branchestogether.Youmaydiscoverthatinordertokeepthebranchesfrommoving or shifting, you’ll have to add bracing, in the form ofadditionaltiesorstakes,topropandtrainyourbranches.

Inosculationwilloccuroverasinglegrowingseason;however,itwilltakeseveralyearsforacellulargalltoformbetweenthemated

quickthorn laid hedge

branches.Removingrestrictivetiesandreplacingthemwithlargerorexpandabletieswillalsohelpensurecleanbindingbetweenthematedbranches.

TREESFORLIVINGFENCES

Asageneralrule,treesthatarevigorouscoppicespeciesalsotendtobegoodcandidatesforinosculation.Whileinosculatingtreesfromthesamespeciesismostcommon,it’salsopossibletoperformthesameprocedurewithtreesfromdifferentspecies,orevenwithaconiferandadeciduousspecies(thoughthisisfairlyrare).Thefollowingchartillustratesthosespeciesbestsuitedforinosculatedlivingfences.

REINFORCINGHEDGEFENCES

Theprimarychallengewithhedgefencesisthatyou’ll likelyneedfencinglongbeforeyourhedgeislivestockready.Ahedgemayfailif you introduce livestock before the hedge is mature enough towithstandthepressure.

ReinforcingwithPolywire

Portableelectric fencesareyourbestbet forprotectingyournewhedge.Todissuadeyourlivestockfromexploringornibblingonthehedgeuntilithastimetofullyestablish,considererectingasingleordoublestrandofelectricpolywireontheinsideofthehedgerow.

Polywire is a flexible ropelikematerial that is twistedwithmetalwireforuseinportableelectricfencingsystems.

Choose the right solar energizer. If your hedgerow is a gooddistance from an electrical source, you may want to use a solarelectric energizer. The livestock species that you’re grazing willdictatewhetheryouneedasingleordoublestrand,aswellas thesizeoftheenergizer.Horsesandcowswillrespectasinglestrandinside a newhedge, as long as the fence is powerful enough andtheyhaveamplefeedinsidetheirgrazingarea.Sheepusuallyneedtwostandssincetheirsizemakesthemcandidatesforgoingbothunder and over the fence. For standard goats, consider using apolynetarrangement4to5feethigh.

Many homesteaders lament how their livestock escaped a“perfectlygood”electricfence.Theelectricfencemaybefine,butthe energizer units might be undersized or have a poor ground,leading to a weak charge. In northern areas where the days areshort in late fall, early spring, andwinter, a solar energizer thatworkswellinsummerisinadequatetherestoftheyear.

Keep grass short. The othermajor issuewith using an auxiliaryelectric fence within the perimeter of your hedgerow is theinterferenceofgrassandweeds,whichcandrawvoltage,makingfor aweaker fence. Bymowing or trimming before you establishyour temporary electric fence, you can avoid this voltageinterruption.

Once the hedge is established, youmay choose to remove theelectric energizer and drape the unelectrified polywire over thehedge.Mostlivestockwillassociatethewirewiththedispleasureofbeingshockedandsteerclear!

FillingintheGaps

Youmay discover that there are sections of your hedgerow thatrefuse to fill in. While master hedgebuilders would fret at thesuggestion,usingdeadwoodtoblocktheseopeningsmaybeyourbestbet,atleastasashort-termsolution.Anotheroptionistodoan“enrichment planting,” in which additional trees or shrubs areintercroppedinthegaps.

OSAGEORANGESLURRYFENCE

If you’re fortunate enough to live in a part of the countrywhere Osage orange grows, you need not look further forfencing options. While the native range of Osage orange islimited to Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, it has beensuccessfullycultivatedinallbutthemostmountainousregionsof theUnitedStates.Osageorangewood is rot resistantandmakes fabulous fenceposts. It can also be used as a livingfence thatcanbecultivated fromseed,shoots,orsuckers. IfOsage orange grows in your region, but not on yourhomestead,consideraskingsomeonewhoownsafewtreesifyoucancollectfruitinthefallforyourfencingproject.Inmostcases,landownerswillbepleasedtohavethefruitcleanedup.

Begin by filling plastic buckets approximately three-quartersof theway full with Osage fruit. Drill a series of small holesnear the top of the bucket to allow water to drain, whilepreserving the seed slurry inside. A 5-gallon bucket issufficientfor25to35feetofsingle-rowfence.

Before thegroundfreezes,diga5-inch-deeptrenchoutliningthe proposed fenceline. If you intend to house sheep withinyourlivingfencearea,considerdiggingasecondtrench2feetapartfromthefirsttrench.Thiswillgiveyouadoublefence.

Leave the buckets exposed to the weather; freeze-and-thawcycleswillhelpbreakdownthefruitandexposetheseeds.

In the spring, once the threat of frost has passed, you canapply your slurry. If it’s been a wet winter, you can simplymashupthefruitwiththewaterthathasaccumulated in thebucket.Intheeventthattheslurryisdry,addwaterandmashuntilit’stheconsistencyofamilkshake.

Pourtheslurryintoyourtrenchandbackfillwithnomorethanan inch of soil. Continue to water the fenceline throughgerminationandestablishment.

Because of the aggressive coppicing behavior and the stoutthornsofOsageorange,manypeopleallowanaturalverticalhedge to form instead of going to the trouble of cuttinghorizontal pleachers. In doing so, you’ll want to prune yourhedgeinawaythatencouragesdensityoverheight.Giventhespecies’ rapid growth, annual pruning is necessary,with theprunedclippingsmakinggreatanimalfodder.

THELIVINGFENCEPOST

Ifhedgebuildingseemsliketoolaboriousanundertakingforyourwoodland homestead needs, consider living fenceposts as anoption that can save you time and money. In traditional fenceconstruction,approximatelythree-quartersofthetimerequiredtofenceanareaisdevotedtotheinstallationoffenceposts.Ifyou’recreatingasilvopastureorpasturearea,chancesaregoodthatyourboundary is linedwith trees. If the treesalongyour fencelinearewellestablishedandfirmlyrooted, they’ll likelymakegood livingpost candidates. If your pasture is devoid of trees, has only verysmall trees (seedlings),orhasshallow-rooted trees,youmayneedtoplanttreesasfuturelivingfenceposts.

Unrollingaspoolofbarbedwireandhaphazardlystaplingittotrees throughout your forest or pasture may bring instantgratification, but it will ultimately result in regret. There areseveral problems with attaching fencematerial directly to livingtrees. First is the obvious consideration that you run the risk oflimbs (or even entire crowns) breaking and crushing your fencebelow.Theotherproblemisthatasthetreesgrow,boththestaplesandthefencewirebecomeingrown,renderingthefirst loginthetree useless for lumber. Finally, if the trees selected as livingfencepostsaren’twindfirm,theymayuprootandtakeasectionoffencewiththem.Fortunately,thereareseveraltechniquesthatcanhelpyoutogrowtrustyanddurablefenceposts.

ABOVE: Livingfencepostsarekeptinthejuvenilestagebypollardingthecrowns.Intentionallykeepingthetreeshortreducesthechanceofwindthroworoflargelimbsfallingon

yourfence.Theboard-mountmethodshownisfurtherexplained.

POLLARDINGFENCEPOSTS

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Pollarding is a pruning practice in which a tree or living post ismaintainedinashort,juvenilestagethatpromotesadenseheadoffoliageandbranches.ThesamebasicprocesshasbeenpracticedinEurope sincemedieval times and is now used in both temperateandtropicalregionswithcoppicespecies.

Pollardfencepostsnotonlyrequire littlemaintenancebutalsoproduce livestock fodder. The biennial pruning required tomaintain the pollards results in trimmings that can be fed toanimals—whatwasonceknownaspollardhay.Longer intervalsbetween pruning (8 to 14 years) result in larger logs that can beusedtomakefencerails,stakes,charcoal,orfirewood.

Since pollarding is essentially elevated coppicing, all of thesame species and rules apply. However, unlikewith ground-levelstoolcoppicing,therootsystemofpollardtreeshastoworkharderto get water and nutrients up to the new growth. By judiciouslypruning the lowerbranches,you’renotonlyensuring the flowofnutrients to the crown but also discouraging browse by curiouslivestock.

UsingBarbedWire

Pollarded trees generally live longer than unpollarded treesbecausetheyarekeptyoungwithsmallcrownsthatarelesslikelytosufferwindthrow(whichwoulddamageyourfencebelow).Sincethesizeandformofpollardedtreesgenerallyprevent themfromeverbeingusedas timber, it isnotuncommontoseebarbedwireattached directly to the tree. As with all manufactured fencing,qualityvariesgreatly.Besuretoconsiderwiregauge,barbnumberand length,andcoatingmaterialwhenpurchasing. Ifyouopt forusingbarbedwirewithyour livingfenceposts,reviewthespacingandheightrecommendationsinthechartbelow.

USINGBARBEDWIREWITHPOLLARD

USINGBARBEDWIREWITHPOLLARDFENCEPOSTS

UsingWovenWire

Beyondbarbedwire,avarietyofotherfencematerialsmaybeusedwithlivingposts.Itisworthnotingthatbarbedwireshouldnotbeusedwithhorsesbecauseoftheriskoflacerations.Wovenwireisagoodchoiceformultispeciesgrazingsystemsbecausetheopeningsare small enough that you can graze virtually any size/breed oflivestock. It also offers the advantage of being impenetrable bymanypredators.

Ifyou’regoingtobuildafenceyou’d like to last foras longaspossible, purchase high-quality materials. Quality varies widelywith woven wire fencing, so be sure to read the label. Qualitywoven-wirefenceisheavygauge(verythick)andcontainscopper,which makes it elastic (able to expand and contract based ontemperature)insteadofbrittle.Buyonce,cryonce.

TheLivingFencepost,1816Style

TheLivingFencepost,1816Style

In1816thePhiladelphiaAgriculturalSocietyconductedastudythat looked at options for “living trees connected with rails ofwire.”Thiseconomicstudyconcludedthatovera50-yearperiod,farmerswouldsave$1,329perhundredacresenclosed if theyused living fenceposts instead of traditional fenceposts thatwouldneedperiodicreplacement.Thestudywentevenfurther,suggesting that with the fruits, nuts, and firewood beingproduced by the living fenceposts, a farmer could theoreticallyharvest$396peryearperhundredacresenclosed—asizableincomeinearly-19th-centuryAmerica.

STARTINGWITHTEMPORARYFENCES

I’m a fan of starting all pasture projects with temporary electricfencesthatusestep-inposts.Temporaryfencesallowyoutotryoutdifferentarrangementsandconsider themostpractical locationsforgates,holdingpens,andcross-fences.Thetypeoflivestockyouhave will determine which temporary fencing system is best.Polystring and polyrope are among the most affordable options,but they should be used in conjunctionwith an adequately sizedenergizer (erring on the side of larger) since the conductive “hotline” is only a single strand in the fence. For horses, a single ordouble strand of high-visibility 1 -inch polytape is adequate,though polytape has a tendency to develop sags in the snow andrainifitisn’tproperlytensioned.

Once you’ve experimented with temporary fencing todetermine your ideal pasture arrangement, seewhat treesmightexistthatcanbeusedaslivingfenceposts.It’sokaytohaveamixoflivinganddeadposts.Dozensof temporary fenceconnectorsand

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insulatorsexist;however,theuseofpermanent,livingpostsmeansthatyoushouldpurchasequalityhardwarethatcanbeadjustedasthetreegrows.

MINIMIZINGDAMAGETOLIVINGFENCEPOSTS

Sohowdoyouminimizedamagetoyourlivingfencepostwhilestillinstallingthenecessaryhardware,suchasinsulators?First,ifyouhave a choice of stainless-steel or galvanized over untreatedhardware, go for the stainless or galvanized to minimize rust.Second,ifyouhavetheoptionofscrew-inversusnail-inhardware,choosethescrew-inoption.Thescrew-inhardwareusestreads,notthehead,toholditinplace;thismeansthatyoucanpartiallyscrewthe fencing hardware in, allowing the post to continue to growwhilestillhavingafirmmountingpoint.Ifanailispoundedflush,you’lllikelyfindtheheadofthenailbeginningtofoldoverinjustafew years, which ultimately results in broken hardware and anadditionalcompartmentalizationwoundforthetree.

However, perhaps the best option for securing insulators andother fencehardware to living posts is the board-mountmethod.Thisapproachusesshortsections(about2feet)ofpressure-treated1"×6"boardsmounted toyour livingpostswithgalvanizedring-shank 20d nails or polymer-coated deck screws. The insulator isthen connected and either screwedornailed to the board.As thetree grows, it pushes against the board, but your insulators don’truntheriskofbeingenvelopedbythegrowingtree.Isuggestring-shank nails because they tend to resist being pushed out by thegrowingtreewhereassmooth-shanknailsdonot.

Ifyourlivingfencepostsarenotpollardedtobeshortandstout,you run the risk of windthrow since fencerows experience great

windturbulence.Ontheotherhand,ifyourfencerowismadeupofancientmaples or towering pines, youmay not have a choice inselecting your living posts, and pollardingmay be a century toolate. Inthatcase,youshouldconsiderpruningalldeadanddyinglimbsoutofyourlivingfenceposttreesbeforeerectingyourfence.Also, inselectingtreesfor livingfenceposts, favorthosethat leanaway from the pasture to reduce the chance that a broken orblown-out topwill land on your fencerow. Another strategy is toprune,orraisethecrownon,thefencesidesothatthetreenotonlydevelops a natural bias to fall away from the pasture but alsoreducesshadingforsun-lovinggrassesandforbs.

Intheeventthatyourlivingpostsareofcoppicestock,youmaywant to consider training and selecting leaders so that the stemsfacing away from your pasture are reserved for firewoodproduction,whiletheforward-leaningsproutsserveasyourlivingfencepost. These can be maintained as pollard posts thatconveniently lean into the pasture; pollard haywill then literallyfallatthefeetoflivestockasit’scut.

ABOVE: Mountingaboardtoyourlivingfencepostmeansthatasthetreegrowsitwillpushagainsttheboard,insteadofgrowing

aroundyourfencehardware.

FORMERLYLIVINGFENCEPOSTS

While living fenceposts present the opportunity to save time andmoney,andprovideancillarybenefitslikenutcropsorpollardhay,there are also reasons to use “dead posts.” If your woodedhomestead is short on land but long on wood, you may want tomaximize your space by using every available inch of yourproperty. Admittedly, using living fenceposts often meansacceptingMotherNature’shaphazardarrangementoftrees,whichmaysignificantlyreduceavailablespace.Tocontendwiththis,youmayopt to construct your entire fenceline out ofdeadposts of arot-resistantspecies,oryoumayoptforahybridsystemthatusesacombinationofdeadandlivingposts.

DEBUNKINGMYTHS

Avarietyofmyths surroundnails, staples, andother fencinghardware,includingthenotionthatatreewillliftyourfenceasit grows. First, let’s just be clear about how trees (includinglivingfenceposts)grow.Treesdonotgrowfromthebottomup;instead,eachyear’sverticalgrowthisaddedtothetopofthepreceding year’s growth. This means that your fence willremainatthesamelevel,notbeliftedupward.Treetrunksandbranches also grow in diameter year by year, so nails andotherfencinghardware (andsometimeseventhefence itself)willovertimebecomeencasedinnewcellulartissue.

Attaching hardware to a tree can pose several problems.Anytime you pierce the bark of a tree you’re inviting insects

anddisease.Also,shouldasawyerdecide to turnyour livingfencepost into boards someday, the encased metal willdamagethesaw’sblade.

Anothermythsurrounding fencehardware is thatgalvanizednails and stapleswill poison the tree. This isn’t true. In fact,galvanized nails are coated with zinc, an element that’sactuallyessentialfortreegrowth.Thismightmakeitseemlikegalvanizedhardwarecanbebeneficial;onthecontrary,whencomparedtountreatedsteelhardware,thegalvanizedcoatingappears to slightly inhibit the tree’s ability to heal itself bywallingoffthewound(aprocesscalledcompartmentalization).

CHOOSINGWOODFORPOSTS

If you decide to use dead posts, be sure to choose the most rot-resistantwoodyoucan.Therearespeciesthatwilllastjustaslongastreatedpostsbutwithoutthechemicals.Atthetopofthelistareblack locust and Osage orange, both of which easily last half acentury, and inmore arid climates have been known to last 100years.Easternredcedarseemstolastwellforabout30years.IntheWest,redwoodisthepreferredspecies,thoughyou’llwanttomakesure it was sustainably harvested. In the South, bald cypress iscovetedforitsrotresistance.WhenIquestionedanold-timerabouthowlongabaldcypresspostwouldlast,heresponded,“Threeyearslonger than stone.” Other acceptable fencepost woods includetamarack, spruce, and white oak. Woods to avoid for fencepostsincludepine,poplar,basswood,ash,andbirch.

ToPeelorNottoPeel

Considerable debate prevails over the peeling of fenceposts. Forsome species like black locust, the tight bark and thorns quicklyremove any casual notion of peeling the bark. The one notedexceptioniscedar,whichmanyold-timersinsistwilllastlongerifthe bark is removed. The theory is that the spongy bark retainsmoisture, thereby encouraging decomposition. If you do opt forpeeling cedar posts (the bark can be used for rope, chinking, ortinder),you’llwanttocutandpeelthelogsinearlyspring, justasthesapisstartingtoflow.Ifyoutimethisproperly,you’llbeabletopeellongstripswithouttheaidofaknifeordrawshave.

BUILDINGWITHSTUMPS

Three hundred years of taming nature in the name of pastoralagrarianism has largely erased the fact that millions of stumpswere pulled to create cropland in America. The processwas slowbut straightforward for early homesteaders. First, the house sitewascleared,withthewoodbeingusedforhomeconstructionandeventually outbuildings. Like ripples in a pond, homesteadsexpanded outward, from kitchen gardens and chicken yards topasturesandeventuallycropland.Grazingandbrowsinglivestockon freshly cleared land was an efficient arrangement as newgrowth was controlled, and livestock happily grazed aroundstumps. After a couple of years, the best growing sites wereconverted from grazing areas to cropland by pulling the nowpartiallyrottedstumps.Thesestumpsplayedanimportantroleinsegregatingpotentiallydamaginglivestockfromthenewlycreatedcropland. While stone walls were erected over time, with stones

“growing”fromthesoileachspring,theearlyfencesneededtobeerectedquicklyandeconomically;stumpsfitthebill.

THEGRUNTWORKOFSTUMPREMOVAL

Asyoucan imagine,muchof the laborassociatedwithbuildingastumpfenceisinthepullingandmovingofthestumps.Althoughsuchanendeavoristheepitomeofgruntwork,you’llbegainingafence and clearing land at the same time. Like the earlyhomesteaders,you’llwanttowaitatleastacoupleofyearsbeforeattempting to pull any but the smallest of stumps. While anambitious homesteadermay choose to extract a stump or two byhand,buildingentirefencesystemswiththemisapropositionthatrequiressomeserioushorsepower,literally.

PullingwithHorses

Small stumps may be removed by a single draft horse, but it iseasier,safer,andmoreefficienttouseateamofhorses. Ifyou’veleftthestumpshigh,thiswillgiveyoualeveragepointfromwhichtotipthestump.Inthiscase,usingachokerchainwithacinchingsliphookissufficient.However,ifthestumpiscutlow,you’llwanttouseskiddingtongsfirmlyplantedintothesideofthestump.

Make sure the horses’ harnesses fit properly and are in goodshape;harnessesandtracesthatbreakundertheextremestressofstump pulling pose a danger to you and your horses. If you areunfamiliar with fitting a harness, I recommend the book DraftHorses and Mules: Harnessing Equine Power for Farm and Show(see ). Also, make sure your horses are pulling at theproper angle of draft, and that when you give the command to“stepout,”thereisn’texcessiveslackinthetracechains.Youmay

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discover that the stump loosens but doesn’t pull from a singledirection.Inthiscase,resetyourchokerorskiddingtongsandpullintheoppositedirection.

PullingwithTractors

If draft power isn’t anoption,usinga small farm tractormaybejusttheticket,especiallyifit’sequippedwithafront-endbucket,orloader. Pushing or pulling with the bucket offers severaladvantages over pulling with the drawbar. First, a hydraulicallyoperatedbucket allowsyounotonly topushandpull stumpsbutalso to lift andplace the stumps forwall construction. Second, ifyourstumpshavebeencuthigh,youcanusetheedgeofthebucketto push on each side of the stump to loosen it. Once you’vemanaged topush the stumpover, you cangenerally lift itwith achoker chain attached to the bucket. Welding a flat-backed grabhook to the bucket will prove invaluable, not just for pullingstumps but for any other homestead project that requires liftingobjects thatdon’t fitneatly in thebucket.Onceyou’vepulled thestump, jiggle the bucket to remove any loose soil, which ismorevaluableonyourpasturethaninyourstumpfence.

ABOVE: Anoldtruckrimmakesforaperfectstump-pullingdevice.Asthestumpbeginstoloosen,itrotatesoverthetopoftherim,

poppingitoutoftheground.Wheneverpossible,leavetallstumpstocreategreaterleverageforpulling.

BUILDINGASTUMPFENCE

Layingup stumps is similar to laying stones: overlappingcoursesformthewall.Beginby layinga rowof stumpsalongyourentirefenceline,rootballsdown,asiftheywerestillgrowing.Ifthefinalfenceistobetallerthan4feet,you’llneedtobuildadoublebaseinwhich two parallel rows of stumps are placedwith a 1-foot-widegapinthecentertoaccommodatethenextcourseofstumps.Placethestumpssothattherootballspointintowardthepastureandup

towardthetopofthefence.Astherootballdriesout,therootswillbecomefirm,pointydeterrentsfor livestockthatmightotherwiseconsidercrawlingonthenewfence.

Aim for making the walls of the fence as vertical as possiblewhilestillretainingstrength.Usethebucketofthetractortopackdowneachcourseofstumps.Don’tworryifsomesoilstillremainson the stumps; this will serve as “mortar,” binding the fencetogether.Ifyounoticeholesinyourstumpfence,don’tbeafraidtofillthemwithsmallerstumpsorrocks.Mostpeopleareamazedbythenumberofstumpsrequiredtobuildawall;however,ifyoufindthat you have too many stumps, consider either adding anadditionalcourseorbuildingastumpshed(seebelow).

THESTUMPSHED

Onarecentpasturedevelopmentproject,IfoundthatIhadasurplus of stumpsbut a lack of shelter for the livestock. Formost livestock breeds, it is winter wind more than cold thatleadstodiscomfortandincreasedfeedconsumption.Buildinga run-in for the livestock is the traditional solution to thisproblem,butforthewoodlandhomestead,amoreresourcefulsolutionexists.Thesheermassofstumpsmakesthemanidealbuilding material, one that is less prone to damage thanconventionalbuildingmaterialsare.

WhatIwaslookingtodevelopwasashelterthatwouldallowfivecows,ahalf-dozensheep,andtwodrafthorsesprotectionfromwindinoneofmymoreexposedpastures.Additionally,Iwanted theshed toserveasa feedingarea toreducewinterexposure for these rugged-yet-not-invincible critters. One ofthe benefits of building with stumps over conventional

methods is that you can build fences and structures in anyshapeyoucandreamup.Inthisparticularcase,Isettledonahorseshoe shape that allowed the prevailing winds to passaroundthecurvedstructure.Thewallsaredoublestumpsatthebaseandimpenetrabletowind.Theoverallheightisnearly7 feet. I opted to leave the top open, but it could easily becoveredbylogpurlinsandeitherametalorearthenroof.

At the center of the horseshoe-shaped shed, I feed 4' × 5'haylagebalestothelivestock.Thecurvedshapematchesthatof the upright bale so that the animals are able to easilycirculatearoundthefeed.Normally,Idon’tuseabalefeeder;instead,eachspringItakeapitchforkandcleanoutthestumpshed.Themixoftrampledhayandmanureissimplytossedonthe walls of the stump shed. In doing so, I’ve created theperfectenvironmentforgrassesandforbstoestablish.Asthestumps decompose, it will begin to look less likemodern artand more like a grassy knoll or berm that eventually willbecomepartofthepasture’sfunctional,andedible,shed.

ABOVE: Buildingahorseshoe-shapedstumpshedisagreatwaytoutilizeoldstumpsandslashleftbehindafterclearingapasture.Orienttheshedtoblockprevailing

winds.

SHELTERBELTS

In addition to using stumps as windbreaks, it’s also possible tocreateshelterbeltsfromlivingtrees.Shelterbeltsarerowsoftreesplantedstrategicallyaroundfarmsandpasturestoserveasnaturalobstructionstoslowwindandprotectsoil fromerosion.Theycanalsobeconstructedaroundhomesandbuildingstoreduceheating

and cooling costs, and can provide important wildlife habitat aswellasavarietyofnontimberforestproducts.

Shelterbelts possess ecological and structural qualities that, inmanyways,makethemsuperiortobuiltwindbreakssuchassnowfencesandbarrierwalls.Thestrengthofatree,ofcourse,liesinitsabilitytoflexandbend.Crownsallowairtopassthroughwithoutcreatingtheturbulencegenerallyassociatedwithsolidbarriers.

Commonly, shelterbelts and intercropping (growing two ormore crops in proximity) are combined to form an alleycroppingsystem inwhich a variety of row crops are planted adjacent to arowoftrees.Thetreesprovidearangeofproductsfromlumbertofruit, while the alleycropped plants enjoy the protection of thesurroundingtrees.Alleyorrowcroppingsystemsarediscussedin

. Another hybrid option is to use shelterbelt trees aslivingfencepostsor,inthecaseofhedges,asawindbreak.Theuseof shelterbelts on thehomestead isnot anewconcept. In fact, inthemid-1400s,theScottishParliamenturgedsmallholderstoplantbeltsoftreestoprotectcrops. IntheUnitedStates, inresponsetothe Dust Bowl of the 1930s, nearly a quarter million acres ofshelterbeltswereplantedacrosstheGreatPlains.

SHELTERBELTDESIGNTIPS

The design and purpose of your shelterbelt allows for plenty ofcreative license, though it’s worth adhering to a few basicprinciples:

Shelterbeltsshouldbeorientedperpendiculartoprevailingwindstomaximizeprotection.

Ifyourshelterbeltdoublesasalivingfence,makesuregatesandaccesspointsareincludedinyourdesign.

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Theidealshelterbeltisoneortworowsdeepandcomposedoflong-livednativespecies.

Sinceshelterbeltsareusuallylocatedinstressfulenvironments,besuretoselecthardygrowingstock.Fullcrowns(40to60percentofoveralltreeheight)indicateproductivityandbetterservetheshelterbeltfunction.

Ifyourshelterbeltisintendedtodoubleasasnowbelttodiscouragesnowdriftsinwinter,considerusingconiferspecies.

THECORDWOODWINDBREAK

Cordwood windbreaks represent an effective, temporary barrierfor windy garden sites. By constructing a cordwood windbreakperpendiculartotheprevailingwinds,youcanallowyoungplantstoestablishthemselvesunderalessstressfulenvironment.What’smore, if you build a cordwood windbreak in a sunny but windyarea,suchasyourgardenplot,yourfirewoodwilldryfaster,whichwillcauseittoyieldmoreBTUsinlesstime.

Once the gardening season is done, consider moving yourcordwoodwindbreakfromthegardentotheporchorsideofyourhouse.Notonlywill itbecloser toyourwoodstovebut itwillalsosave energy by cutting down on drafts. Otherwinterwindbreaksincludehaybales stackedaround the foundationandgrain sackspackedwithleaves.

SHELTERINGINTHEWOODS

Growing up, I helped out a neighbor who raised beef cattle.Overhis150-acrespread,therewasa2-acrehemlockstand

that the farmer considered sacrosanct. This dense patch ofwoodswasreservedforshelter,andthecattleknewit.Theoldfarmer referred to the patch as the “living manger,” a spotwhere the cows could bed down under the comfort andprotectionofthehemlockboughs.

Rememberingthissimpleyetingenioussolution,whenthetimecame I made sure that my own homestead incorporated asimilarshelteringspot.Theprotectionofferedbyalivingbarnis a result of crown density. In my case, having all conifersmeansthatthefloorofthelivingbarnisoftensnow-free,evenwhen the surrounding silvopasture is under several feet ofsnow. While this tight canopy means good protection forlivestock,notenough lightpenetrates the livingbarn toallowfor grass or forbs to grow, a trade-off I willinglymake. Thisdensityandtheprotectionitprovides,alongwiththeabsenceof ground-level forage, arewhat differentiate the living barnfrom the surrounding silvopasture. Since the stump shed isprimarily used as summer housing, the living barn becomesthe winter abode for my livestock, which is important sinceyear-round use of the living barn would lead to soilcompactionandeventuallytreemortality.

THELIVINGBARN

Whenfellowhomesteadersaskforadviceonbuildingpasturesfortheir woodland homestead, I always start by asking the samequestion: “Where are you going to put your living barn?” The

response is often a quizzical look, which invariably leads to mywell-rehearsedsermononthevirtuesofshelteringanimalsamongthe trees. A living barn is essentially awooded area that shelterslivestockduringroughweather.Butitoffersmuchmore:it’sabarnthatdoesn’trequireahammertobuild,offersgoodaircirculationon the stillest of days, and doesn’t require a building permit toerect.

Deciding to integrate living fences and living barns as part ofyourhomesteadinfrastructurerepresentsacooperativeinsteadofa dominant relationship with nature. From a purely practicalstandpoint, it’s a low-cost and efficient way to address what areusuallytwoofthemostexpensiveitemsonthehomestead.

LIVINGBARNANDPATHWAYMANAGEMENT

Althoughyoudon’thavetopaintorfixhingesona livingbarn, itisn’t entirely maintenance-free. As with a “real” barn, it’simportant to control where your livestock go, or don’t go, in thelivingbarn.Withoutpathwaymanagement,you’llquicklydiscoverthatyourlivestockwillmovearoundhaphazardly,knockingdownsmallertreesandcreatingunwantedgapsoropenings.Onewaytoaddressthisistoallowyourlivestockintothelivingbarnforjustacouple of days, noting the paths they choose most often. Youranimalswillwantanescaperouteonallsides,butyou’llnoticethatthere’susuallyoneareathattheynaturallygravitatetoward.Oncethey’vebeengiventheopportunitytocarveoutacoupleofpaths,makethepathsmoreobviousbyclearinganyobstructingdebris.

Inlayingoutthelivingbarn’s“alleynetwork,”orpathwaysyouwant to encourage your livestock to use,make sure you do yourbest to preserve the core as a protected bedding area. This isparticularly important if youhavea small livingbarn thatoffers

few bedding locations. Generally, it’s a good idea to feed outsidethe livingbarn. Leftoverhayandbeddingcanbecomecompactedand smother tree roots. One way to encourage the use ofestablishedalleywaysistoplacehayfeedersneartheentryandexitpoints.

ABOVE: Thelivingbarnoffersprotectionfrombothwindandsun.Controlentrypointsandcreateadditionalprotectionbypiling

brusharoundtheperimeterofyourlivingbarn.

Living barns can also be modified to offer greater livestockprotection and to encourage the use of prescribed entry and exitroutes.One approach is to build stump fences between the entryand exit points. This creates awindbreakwhile at the same time

controllinglivestockmovement.Analternativetobuildingastumpfence is to simply pile brush in areas where you’re looking todiscourage livestockpassage.Dead and thornybrushbarriers arepreferabletogreenbrush,whichcouldserveasattractivebrowse.

Conifers offer year-round protection as part of living barnarrangements. If the lower boughs of these trees prevent yourlivestock from bedding down or passing through the living barn,you may want to conduct a crown raising, in which the lowerboughs are pruned, thereby allowing livestock to walk and beddownbeneath.Ifyourlivestockincludesaggressivebrowserssuchasgoats,chancesarethisworkwillbedoneforyou.

Living barns can also be constructed out of deciduous species,though thebenefitsaremostly in the formof summercoolingasopposed to winter protection. The dense shade cast by trees insummer often translates into temperatures that are 8 to 10°Fcooler than the surrounding pasture. Conifer-protected livingbarns offer warmer winter temperatures, customarily 6 to 8°Fwarmerthanoutsidethelivingbarn.

MAINTAININGTHEHEALTHOFYOURLIVINGBARN

Given that livingbarns see intensiveuse,make sureyourbarn ispartofarotationalsystemsothatthetrees,andthesoilbeneath,aregiventheopportunitytorecover.Thisisespeciallyimportantifyourlivingbarnisusedwhenthegroundissoftorwet.Alsomakesurethetreeswithinthe livingbarnstayhealthyandcontinuetosupportlargecrowns.Ifyounoticethatchoicetreesarebeginningtoshowsignsof stress (firstobserved throughoff-coloror sparsefoliage), consider protecting them and their surrounding rootzones with fencing, or better yet, move the livestock to another

area.Finally, realize thatyour livingbarnwillneedmaintenance,intheformofperiodictendingandselectivethinning.

As you begin planning fencing and shelter systems on yourhomestead, I’d encourage you to think about ways in whichsystemscanbedesignedtoachievemultiplegoals.Inotherwords,can your living fence also be a crop source? Can youmake yourstump removal project into a homestead construction project?Cultivating this sort of resourcefulness will turn linear systemsintocircularsystemsandmoveyouclosertoself-sufficiency.

C H A P T E R 6

GivingTrees

Fruit,Honey,andSyrup

The family orchard was once a staple of virtually allhomesteads. Like most other features of the woodlandhomestead, theseorchardswereplanted toserveavarietyof purposes: the good fruit was eaten ormade into cider,and the wormy drops provided animal fodder. In thischapterwe’ll consider theoptions fordevelopingyourownhomestead orchard, whether it consists of 3 trees or 300.Andifyou’reluckyenoughtodiscoveroldfruittreesonyourproperty, we’ll discuss methods for resurrecting theseforgotten,butcertainlynotfruitless,relics.We’llalsotakealookatopportunities for the integrationofothercrops likehoney and maple syrup. But first, let’s spend a little timeunderstandingtheanatomyofanorchard.

THEHOMESTEADORCHARD

Anorchardneednotbeanendlessexpanseoflargetreesinperfect,longrows.Orchards,and the trees thatmake themup, come inavarietyofshapesandsizestomatchthelandandtheneedsofthehomestead.Aswithagarden,establishinganorchardrequiresyouas head homesteader to match both the soil and the species (orvariety)inawaythatoffersthegreatestopportunityforsuccess.

THESITE

If we could design the ideal orchard site, it would be a gentlyslopinghillside protected by forest edgewithwell-drained loamysoilandapHintheneighborhoodof6.5.Youmay,ofcourse,findthatyourhomestead isonasite that fallsshortof that ideal. (Myunimprovedsoil,forexample,ismuchsandierandhasapHabout2 points lower than the ideal 6.5.) However, don’t despair: fruittreesandorchardscanbefoundfromSonoratoSiberia.It’sjustamatter of taking advantage of your homestead’s strengths andavoidingmicroclimatesthataretrulyunsuitable.

Hardiness

By consulting a map of hardiness or growing zones, you’ll get agoodideaofwhatisorisn’tpossibleinyourgeneralarea.However,agiventree’sgeographicknowledgeextendsonlyasfarasitsroots;in otherwords, your particular sitemay bemore or less suitablethanwhatthemapsuggests.Onceyou’veidentifiedthefruittreesthatcouldtheoreticallygrowinyourarea,basedontheirhardinessrating, take a closer look at themicroclimatewhere you’d like toplantyourtrees.

Wind

You’llwant tobeginyoursiteevaluationbyexaminingprevailingwinds and opportunities to reduce extremewind. A living fence,forexample,offersaneffectivemeansofbufferingwindwithoutcreating destructive downdrafts generally associated with solidwindbreaks. Conifers are often used effectively as shelterbelts toprotectvulnerablebudsfromcoldwinterwinds.

Elevation

Elevation is likely tobe themicroclimatevariableoverwhichyouhavethemostcontrolwhenestablishinganewhomesteadorchard.Low-elevation sites, particularly those that are in bowl or kettlelandforms,aremorelikelytoexperiencefrostthanhigh-elevationsites and should therefore be avoided. Hillsides are generallypreferable. If you can’t avoid a frosty site, consider selectingvarietiesthatflowerlater.

Soil

While offers a more in-depth discussion of soilproperties, it is worth examining several soil characteristics thatareofparticularimportanceonthehomesteadorchard.

Drainage. Root health is largely a function of well-drained soilsthat are able to carry and deliver water and nutrients but don’tleave the roots waterlogged. Clay soils retain moisture, which isgreat for helping trees through dry spells but can result inwaterlogged roots. Even if the saturated roots don’t kill the treedirectly, they may stress it, allowing fungal diseases such asphytophthorarootrottoestablish,whichcanleadtomortality.Ifawell-drained site doesn’t exist, planting on mounds may be anoption. Youmay also choose to select fruit trees that can handlewetfeetbetter,suchasquinceandpear.

Biodiversity.Untilthemid-1800s,itwaslargelyassumedthatsoilwas nonliving and primarily served as a substrate to keep treesupright and anchored. It was early European foresters whoeventually noticed the effects of compaction, erosion, and otherfactorsthathaveprofoundeffectsontreehealth,whicheventuallyledtoamorebiologicalviewofsoils.Today,forestersandfarmers

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alikearewellacquaintedwiththeideaofa“soilfoodweb.”Thanksto photosynthesis and a powerful vascular pumping system, thesoil food web cycles nutrients from deep within the soil. Aidingplantsintheirsearchforfoodarefungiandbacteriathatnaturallycycle nutrients through both biological action and physicalmovement.

Perhaps the most amazing members of the soil food web are

mycorrhizalfungi.Theseroot-colonizingfungiaremicroscopicbutcanincreaseby100timestheroots’abilitytoacquirenutrientsinthe soil. They also increase the absorptive capacity of therhizosphere (the zone surrounding the roots, where importantnutrient exchanges occur) 10-fold. If you were to examinemycorrhizalfungiunderthemicroscope,you’dseelong,threadlikehairs (hyphae) that serve as a network of connecting roots thattransfer macro-and micronutrients, increase surface area, andprotectrootsfromparasiticfungi.

Mycorrhizal fungi can even improve the physical structure ofsoils;whenhyphaegrowbetweenclayplatelets,forexample,theyhelp form larger aggregates. A healthy mycorrhizal communitycanbeenhancedthroughsoilamendmentsorrootdips,whicharea mycorrhizal inoculant that can be applied to roots duringtransplanting, or worked into the seedbed. However, one of theeasiest and most important means of promoting healthy soil,includingalargecommunityofmycorrhizalfungi,istoavoidsitecompactionfrombothlivestockandmachinery.

Soil,Mulch,andAmendments

While volumes have been written about both mulching and soilamendments,thereareseveralbasictenetsthatcanhelpyourtreestonotonlysurvivebutthrive.Ifyou’reestablishinganeworchard,you’ll have the option of improving either the immediate

rhizosphere or the soil over your entire orchard area. Given achoice, improving the entire area is preferable since the roots ofyour trees will eventually extend well beyond the holes wherethey’replanted.Bybeginningwithasoiltest(see ),you’llbeabletoseewhichnutrientsyoursoilislacking.

Ifyou’reabletoamendthesoilforyourproposedorchardareaprior to the establishment of trees, consider sowing a crop of“green manure” (a cover crop that is plowed under andincorporated into the soil) the year before planting your trees.Greenmanure plants have the ability to draw up nutrients fromdeep within the soil or, in the case of some cover crops, extractnitrogenfromtheairand“fix”it(thatis,convertthenitrogentoausable form) for your orchard trees. One of the benefits ofintegrating animals with your homestead orchard is that theyprovidevaluablefertilizerthatcanbecompostedor,inthecaseofsoiled animal bedding, applied directly to the base of the tree asmulch, delivering a slow dose of nutrients and improving waterretention.

You’realsolikelyhaveasupplyofwoodchipsfromotherforestimprovement activities. Thesewood chips can play an importantrole as mulch material for saprophytic fungi, which aid indecomposition, and also serve as a food source for mycorrhizalfungi.

Thebestwoodchips formulchingplantsare thosemade fromsmall-diametertreesandbranches.

DECIDINGWHATTOGROW

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If you’re beginning your orchard from scratch, you’ll need todecide what type of fruit you’d like to grow. While apples areundoubtedly the most ubiquitous fruit trees, you may want toconsidertheapple’spomecousin,thepear,orstonefruitssuchascherries orplums. (See .)Apples are themost numerous fruits in terms of varieties, with 2,500 varietiesgrown in the United States and 7,500 grown worldwide. Thesevarietiesnotonlydeliverdifferentfruitqualitiesbutalsorepresentawiderangeofgrowingconditions,fromUSDAZones2to9.Otherfruits,likeapricots,struggletogrowbelowZone4.Thetableontheoppositepageoutlinescommonapplevarietiesaswellastheirusesandattributes.

SELECTINGFORSIZE

Yourselectionoffruittreesisn’tlimitedtojustspeciesandvariety;you’ll also want to select your trees based on size, which isdetermined by the rootstock. In addition to space, otherconsiderations linked to rootstock are preferred soil type,hardiness, disease susceptibility, and anchorage. Rootstock isgenerally categorized as standard, semidwarf, or dwarf.Referencing rootstock can look a bit like alphabet-and-numbersoup,with initials indicatingtheresearchstationwherethestockwas developed. The most common rootstock categories, fromstandardtodwarf,are:MM.111;MM.106;M.7;M.26;M.9;Mark;andM.27.

Nurseriesmatch rootstockwith a scion (a live shoot cut fromyour desired variety) through grafting. Sometimes you’ll have achoice of various rootstocks for your desired species; other timesthegrowerhasdeterminedthataparticularrootstockisbestsuitedtothatscion,soyoumaynothaveachoice.Thesizeofthetreeisan

ChoosingPomeorStone

important consideration in the context of the size andarrangement of your homestead orchard. Thosewith ample landoftenoptforlargestandard-sizetrees,whichofferthebenefitsofshadeandhighercrownsbutoftenrequireharvestingapplesfromladderheightcomematurity.Consideringthesefactorsbeforeyouplantisthekeytodevelopingyourdreamorchard.

MakeYourOwnBonemeal

In 1871, Sereno Edwards Todd, author of the seminal orchardmanualTheAppleCulturist,declared,“Thereisnomorevaluablefertilizerforappletreesonmostsoilsthanbones.”Indeed,bonesare among the most soluble form of organic phosphorus,essentialforrootdevelopment.

I believe that anything that provides only one use on thehomesteadissecondclass;bonesarenoexception.Afterusingthemassoupstock,youcanturnthemintobonemeal fertilizer.Use a heavy-duty blender to pulverize small bones, such aschicken and rabbit bones. For larger bones,make sure they’rethoroughly dried and place them in an old pillowcase or grainsack.Tiethesackshutandplaceitonawoodensplittingblock,then use a hammer ormallet to pulverize them. Be creative inyour methods: hand-crank clothes dryers, car jacks, and carsdrivingoversandwichedbones(alongwiththetraditionalmortarandpestle)willallgetthejobdone.

Thefinerthegrains,themoresolublethephosphorus.WhentheAmishmakebonemeal,theypulverizethebonesaccordingtothesiteonwhich the fertilizerwill beused. Foracid soils, theyoptfor coarse-ground bones, since the low pH environment will

continue tobreakdown thecalcium-richbonemeal.Sweeterormorealkalinesoilsuseafinerbonemeal.

APPLESFOREVERYREGION

THEMULTIPURPOSEFORESTMICRO-ORCHARD

Asyouwalkyourhomesteadwoodlot,you’lllikelyfindareaswheremature trees have fallen, leaving behind large, sunny gaps. Inaddition to fallen tree sites, these gaps also occur on old loglandings and long-forgotten pastures. Assuming acceptable siteconditions (drainage, slope, access), these forest openings can beideal locations for establishing your own multipurpose forestmicro-orchard.

Withabitofcarefulplanning,you’llbeabletointegrateseveralhomestead objectives in the same area. In other words, you cangrow apples beside firewood, and firewood beside animal fodderand fenceposts. Theultimate success of thismultipurposemodel,however, is based on understanding a few key agroecologicalconcepts.

ChoosingPomeorStone

Orchard treesareclassifiedaseitherpomesorstones.Pomesinclude fleshy fruits like apples and pears and have a centralcore with five seed capsules, each containing up to 10 seeds.Stonefruitsincludecherries,apricots,peaches,nectarines,andplums.Thecommoncharacteristicoftheseisasingle,centralpitorstone.

MANAGINGGAPSIZEFORSUNLIGHT

MANAGINGGAPSIZEFORSUNLIGHT

Thegapmustbelargeenoughtoallowlighttoreachyourorchardtrees, as well as any shade-intolerant and mid-tolerant plantsyou’re growing alongside your fruit trees. Natural forestsuccession will attempt to reclaim the site as soon as a gap iscreated. Thismeansyou’llneed tomaintain thegapby removingtreesattheperipherytoallowsufficientlight.

Dependingonthesizeofthesurroundingtrees,youmaybeableto maintain sufficient light levels through judicious pruning.Region,aspect(thedirectionaslopefaces),surroundingtreecover(conifer ordeciduous), and successional stage (pioneer or climax)willalldeterminetheminimumgapsizeneededtomeetthesolarrequirements of yourmicro-orchard. However, as a general rule,1 to 2 times the height of surrounding trees is generallysufficient.

MANAGINGCOMPETITION

You’ll also need to “weed” any undesirable trees that attempt toestablishinyourproposedmicro-orchard.Ifyouprovideadequateprotectionfororchardtreesusingasturdyfence,youmaybeableto control competition through grazing. Other options includemowingwithascytheorabrushhog.Asyouremovelargerdebris(logs, saplings, even rocks), consider using them to construct acrudefencearoundyourorchard.

In addition to competing plants, you’ll also have to deal withcompeting wildlife. Although establishing an orchard within aforest setting offers a variety of benefits, it also carries thechallenge of keeping wild animals from snacking on your croptrees.Fencingtoprotectboththebaseofthetree(youngbarkisa

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nutrient-densesnackforvolesandrabbits)andthetopisessentialuntilyourorchardisfullyestablished.

CONSIDERINGSOIL

Whenestablishingaforestmicro-orchard,youhavefeweroptionsforamendingthesoil,sinceplowinganddiskingamongtreesandstumps isn’t practical in a forest setting. The surrounding trees,alongwiththehumuslayer inyourforestmicro-orchard,will tellyou a lot about your soil. A densemat of needles surrounded byconifers is a good indication that the site has a lowpH that isn’tideal for fruit trees. If you allow the surrounding conifers toencroach, theywill continue to perpetuate poor, acidic soil. Youroptions are either to remove these surrounding trees and amendthe soil throughout the orchard or to aggressively apply lime,potash,orotherpHboosterswithintherootzoneofyourorchardtrees. If you choose the latter, realize that amending the soilrepeatedlyisnecessary.Treesneedaconsistentsupplyofnutrientsforhealthygrowth.

If,incontrast,yoursurroundingforestismadeupoftrees,suchas sugar maple, that demand highly fertile, alkaline soils, you’lllikelybeabletoestablishyourorchardwithoutsoilamendment.Infact, the surrounding leaf litter blowing into your orchard, alongwith the carbon inputs from decayingwood,will help promote ahealthyforestmicro-orchard.

ABOVE: Toproducelotsoffruit,orchardtreesneedamplesunlight.Thesuccessofaforestmicro-orchardisoftendependentonmaintainingsufficientgapsizeovertime.

MATCHINGHEIGHTANDLIGHT

The physical structure of your micro-orchard is an importantconsiderationtoensurethat light isbeingusedatdifferent levelswithinthecanopy.If,forexample,yoursurroundingforestismadeup of tall trees with high crowns, you’d want to select smallerorchardtreesthatareabletocaptureandusediffusedlightinthemidstory and understory. Another challenge of tall surrounding

trees is that theycast longershadows, therebyshadingyourfruittrees.Onewaytoaddresstheissueofshadeistocreateastructuraltransition zone where trees are thinned so that those borderingyour forest micro-orchard are smallest, gradually increasing insizeasyoumovefromtheorchardcenter.

COMPLEMENTARYCROPS

Thebestcomplementarycropsinaforestmicro-orchardarethosethat can be produced without competing with orchard trees forsunlightornutrientavailability.

UnderstoryForage

Developing understory forage is among the most compatible ofuses. This can be eitherwoody animal forage collected using theshreddingtechniquesdiscussedin ,orgrassesandforbs.If your orchard trees are properly protected, you may choose toallow your animals to do the labor of harvesting. In late fall,considerallowingyouranimalstosweepyourorchardfloorcleanofwindfallfruit.Notonlyisthisfreeforage,butit’salsoahelpfulwaytocontrolfruit-borneinsectsanddiseases.

CoppicedFirewood

Coppiced firewood is another complementary crop in the forestmicro-orchard. Growing trees for coppice wood works well inconjunction with cultivating taller, standard-size fruit trees. Igenerallyharvestthesecoppicetrees justastheyreachthecrownheight of the neighboring fruit trees. Any “slash,” or remaining

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branches leftafterharvestingthecoppicefirewood, iscutupandleftbehindtodecomposewithintheforestmicro-orchard.

SugarMaples

My favorite complementary crops to orchard trees are sugarmaples,usedformakingmaplesyrup. Ifyou’refortunateenoughto live in a region of the countrywheremaples grow, theymakegreat forest micro-orchard companions, whether dispersedthroughout the orchard or planted in a row along the fenceline.Whilemaplesareknownforcastingdeepshade,youcanthinthemstrategically so that both your orchard and maple trees havesufficient light.Onebenefitofcombiningorchardandsugarbushis that management activities like pruning can be carried outsimultaneously. The open structure of the hybrid orchard-sugarbushalsoprovidesaccessforharvestingbothfruitandsap.

RowCrops

Ifyour forestmicro-orchard is laidout in rows,youmaywant toconsiderusingtheSwisssandwichmethod,inwhichlowrowcropssuchasbeans,potatoes,oroatsaregrownbetweenorchardrows.InSwitzerlandthewidthoftherowsbetweentreeswasoriginallybasedonthewidthofthehorse-drawncultivatorsandseedersthatwere pulled between the rows. Grasses, flowers, and forbs areallowedtogrowina3-to5-footswathoneachsideofthetreewiththe row crops occupying the sunny, center alley. Animals werethenallowed tograzeand togleandropsafter the rowcropsandfruithadbeenharvestedinlatefall.

ABOVE: Thestumpsleftfromclearingaroundcroptreescanbeusedassquash-growingcontainers.Constructamoundofrich

humusoverthestump,andinsertyourseeds.

THEECOTONEORCHARD

“Ecotones”areareasoftransitionbetweentwodistinctecosystems.Examplesincludetheareabetweenthebarnyardandgarden,andtheintersectionofpasture,fence,andforest.Often,thesearesomeofthemostunderusedareasofthewoodlandhomestead.Ecotoneorchards make the most of these areas by taking advantage ofgrowingspacethatmightnotordinarilybeused.Asinanyorchardarrangement, you’ll want to consider space. In some cases anecotoneorchardmaydoubleasashelterbeltorevenalivingfence.

Themost common ecotone orchard arrangements are locatedalongpastureedges.Ifsufficientspaceisavailable,youmaywantto opt for standard-size fruit trees,which are able to handle this

environmentally competitive zone. For these larger trees, 25-footspacing is ideal. When you first plant these trees, the distancebetweenthemwillseemmonumental,especiallyifyou’replantingone-year-oldwhips.However,asthetreesgrow,you’llbegladyouopted for thewide spacing since the crownshaveapropensity tosprawloutward.Forsemidwarftrees,18-footspacingisideal,anddwarftreescanbeplantedon10-to15-footspacing,dependingonspecificrootstock.

TheEdibleOrchardFloor

Several indicator speciesofmycorrhizal fungi canbe foundontheorchardfloor;theseincludepuffballs,thefamouslyfunfungithat kids love to explode, and morel mushrooms, which cooksand foragers adore. Also, organic orchards commonly haveabundant morel mushroom populations that make for healthysoilandhealthymeals!

LAYERINGFORORCHARDANDGARDEN

Thesuccessofalltheforestmicro-orchardspresentedthusfarwillbebasedoncapturing lightandnutrientsfromdifferentareasoftheforest, therebymaximizingefficiency.Mostoften,yourforestmicro-orchardwill have two or three layers, each representing adifferentcrop,thoughit ispossibletooccupyvirtuallyeverylevelof the forest with careful planning and the right plant species.Forest gardening expert Robert Hart took this polyculture to anextreme by carefully selecting species that are adapted to

increasinglevelsofshadeintheunderstory.Theresultisaseven-layerorchardthat’sanedibleforestlandscape.

Hart intercropped edible polyculture landscape with thefollowinglayers(seeillustrationbelow):

A. Agroundcoverlayerconsistingofediblecreepingplantsthatspreadhorizontallyandinhibitweedgrowth.Theseplantscanincludestrawberries,nasturtium,andwintergreen.Insystemsfocusedonanimalforageproduction,considerplantingclover.

B. Arhizosphereorrootlayer,whichcreatesanundergroundsiteforplantinggarlic,onions,orpotatoes.Shallow-rootedplantsarepreferredtominimizeinterferencewithotherplants.Ifanimalforageisyourgoal,considerplantingJerusalemartichokes,whichareafavoriteofpigs.

C. Anherbaceouslayerconsistingofperennialvegetablesandherbs.Whilethislayerisgenerallyassumedtobemostlynonwoodyplants,therearesomeexceptionssuchaslowbushblueberry.Herbaceousplantsthatrequiremoresuncanbeplantedattheorchardedgeorinanyparticularlysunnyopening.Optforperennialstominimizelabor,andfornativespeciesthatsupporthealthyecosystemsbeyondyourhomesteadorchard.

D. Ashrublayerconsistingoffruitbushessuchascurrantsandberries.Plantsinthislayermaybeedibles,suchasblueberriesandhazelnuts,orspeciesintentionallycultivatedtoattractpollinators,essentialtoyourorchard’ssuccess.

E. Alow-treelayerconsistingmostlyofsmallernutandfruittrees.Commonly,thesamespeciesoffruitsornutsgrowninthecanopylayeraregrownhere,justondwarforsemidwarfrootstock.Manystonespeciessuchasapricots,peaches,andtartcherriesdowellinthisgrowingzone.Iffencepostsareonyourshoppinglist,youmaywanttoconsidergrowingblacklocustinthisspace;itslight,opencanopyisanaturalfit.Whileblacklocustcangrowlarge,theassumptionhereisthatyou’dharvestpole-sizetrees.

F. Atalltreeorcanopylayerconsistingofmaturefruittrees,mostlyapplesandpears.Atthislevelit’simportanttomakesurethetreesarewidelyspaced.Specieswithdensecrownsarebettersuitedtotwo-orthree-levelmicro-orchardsbecauseoftheshadingeffects.Walnuttreesarealsoagoodchoicesincetheytendtogrowtallwithrelativelyopencrowns.

G. Vinesandlianas,whichtakeadvantageofspacethatisrarelyused.Theycanbetrainedtoclimbexistingtreesorcanbesupportedusingpolesortrellises.Optionsincludegrapesandhopsaswellasavarietyofpollen-richflowers.Youmayalsowanttoconsidercucumbers,melons,andevensquash.

ABOVE: Creatinganedibleforestlandscaperequiresanunderstandingofrelativeshadetoleranceamongspecies,

nutrientrequirements,andinterspeciesecologicalrelationships.

THEARTOFPLANTING

Foresters,horticulturalists,pomologists,andnurserymenallseemtooffer different advice on the “proper”way toplant fruit trees.Opinionsvaryonthebesttimetoplant,whichsoilamendmentstouse,andevenhowtowaternewlyplantedtrees.TheinstructionsIgive here are based on the methods I’ve used to plant andtransplant trees with a good track record of success, even underless-than-idealsiteconditions.

WHATSIZETREE?

Whether planting trees as part of an ecotone orchard, amultipurpose forest micro-orchard, or simply as a single tree,you’llneedtodecidehowmatureatreeyou’regoingtoplant.Formostfolksthisisasmuchaneconomicquestionasanythingelse.Those looking for an instant orchard can purchase mature fruittreesandplantthemusingatractor-mountedplantingspadethatkeeps therootball intact.Thecost for thiscanrangefromseveralhundreddollarstoseveralthousanddollars,dependingonsizeandlocation.However, for the cost of a singlemature tree, you couldpurchaseenoughyoungbare-roottreestoplantanentireorchard.It’sforthisreasonthatmanypeoplerecommendestablishingyourorchardastheveryfirsthomesteadproject.

Mostfolkswillbestartingwithmuchyoungertrees,andtheseare usually sold either bare-root or in containers. Bare-root treesaregrownatnurseriesand lifted fromthe soilduringdormancy.Thesetreesareusuallyonlyoneortwoyearsold,meaningthatinmostcasesyou’llbewaitingfourtosixyearstoharvestyourfirst

fruits,dependingonspecies/variety.Yoursecondoptionistobuycontainerizedtrees,whichmaybeolderandclosertofruit-bearingage but are also more expensive. In general, younger trees areeasier to transplant and show a much higher survival rate afterbeingplanted,compared to largerspecimensof thesamevariety.So it follows that smaller trees would generally show bettersurvivalrates.However,thisdependsuponthequalityofthetree’sroot system. A dense, fibrous root system survives transplantingbetterthanaless-branched,less-fibrousrootsystemdoes.Forthisreason,somenurseriesroot-prunefield-growntreesayearbeforetransplanting,asawayto improvetheoddsofsurvivalfor largertrees.

“Thebesttimetoplantatreewas20yearsago.Thesecondbesttimeisnow.”

—CHINESEPROVERB

PLANTINGBARE-ROOTTREES

Whenneworaspiringhomesteaderstellmeabouttheirdreamsto“liveofftheland,”Ioftentellthemthatthefirstthingtheyshoulddowhentheyacquirepropertyisplantfruittrees.Ittakesseveralyears to establish a woodland orchard, and themost economicalway tostartone isbyplantingsmall, inexpensivebare-root trees.The most inexpensive of all bare-root trees are one-year-old“whips”— a young treewith no branches or lateral snoots. Theseare often sold at subsidized prices by state nurseries or soil andwaterconservationdistricts.Yourotheroptionistopurchasetwo-orthree-year-oldbare-roottreesthataremoreestablishedbutalsosignificantlymoreexpensivethanthewhips.

KeepRootsMoist

KeepRootsMoist

If you’ve ordered your bare-root trees bymail, they’ll arrivewiththe rootswrapped inwetnewspaper or straw to keep them fromdrying out. If you’re unable to plant your trees as soon as theyarrive, that’s okay; you’ll just need to make sure that the rootsremainmoist. Ideally, it’s best to plant on a damp, overcast daythat’s not too windy, since roots can dry out quickly duringplanting.

DigaLargeHole

Begin by digging your hole. It should be approximately twice thewidth of the roots of your treewhen the roots are spread side toside.Thedepthoftheholeshouldextendacoupleofinchesbelowtherootdepth. If thesizeof theholeseemsextravagant,considerthatyou’re tryingtocreateconditionsthatwillallowyourtreetonot only survive today but also thrive tomorrow. As onehomesteaderputit,“Diga5-dollarholefora50-centtree.”

ABOVE: Makesureyourplantingholeiswideranddeeperthanthetree’sroots;thiswillallowforrapid,unencumberedroot

growth.

StakeforStability

To give your tree additional stability, consider staking. It’simportantthatthestakeisinsertedintotheholepriortoplantingthe tree. Inserting the stake after the tree has been plantedmaydamagetheroots.Thestakeshouldbepoundedintotheholeonthe

sidefromwhichprevailingwindsblow.The treeshouldbestakedat a 45-degree angle, and the stake should be placedwell outsidethe root zone. An alternative staking method is the double-postapproach that uses vertical stakes, each located well outside theimmediaterootzone.Thetreeisthenconnectedtothestakesusingsectionsofinnertubefromanoldtire.

ToAmendorNot?

Itwasonce thought that theholeshouldbeamendedwith lotsoffertilizer to give the tree extra nutrients. One problem with thisapproachisthatthetreecansufferanutrientdeficiencyoncethenutrientsareusedup.Anotherlineofthoughtarguesthatifallthenutrients are contained in the planting hole, the tree has littleincentivetoestablishdeepandwideanchoringroots,and insteadnever leaves the “comfort zone.” A better way to address thisquestion is in the context of your existing soils. If your soil hasgood texture (loam) and good structure (low compaction) andacceptable levelsoforganicmatter, then it’snotnecessary toaddanyfertilizeroramendment.Ontheotherhand, ifyouhavepooror sandy soils (which don’t retain nutrients very well) it may beworthaddingasoilamendmentsuchasorganiccompost.Ifyoudothis,beawarethataddedcompostoftenresultsinthecreationofavoidas itsettles.Avoidthis issuebybackfillingcarefullyandmixwiththeparentmaterialthatyouremovedfromtheplantinghole.

BackfillCarefully

Takeyourtimeinbackfillingthehole.Makesurethattherootsarespreadoutwardanddownward,bothtomaximizenutrientuptakeandtoanchorthetree.Rootsthatcurlup,knownasJroots,almostalwaysresultintreemortalitysincerootsareintendedtogrowand

drawnutrientsupward.Toavoidthis,holdthetreewithonehandas you backfill,making sure that the graft union is 3 to 4 inchesabove ground level. You can also make a slight mound at thebottomoftheplantingholetoencouragetherootstospreadout.

Asyouaddsoilbacktothehole,makesurethattherootsofthetree remain horizontal; pretend you’re making root sandwiches,withthelateralrootssmoothlyrollingoffthesidesofthetaproot.Witheachsuccessivelayer,youcanpatthesoildownuntiltheholeisfilled.Oncetheholehasbeenfilled,packthesoilaroundthebaseof thetreewithyourhandstoworkout theairpockets.Nowthatit’s compacted, you’ll notice a slight depression, which is okay.Water the tree slowly (10 gallons is usually sufficient); this willallowthesoiltoworkitswaydownandfillinanyairpockets.Asafinal step,dress theareaaround thebasewitha top layerof soil,makingitlevelwiththesurroundingground.

Youmayopttomulcharoundthetreewithramialwoodchips,soiled animal bedding, straw, or grass clippings, all ofwhichwilladd nutrients as they decompose and prevent other plants fromestablishingand“stealing”nutrientsfromyourfruittrees.It’salsoessential that the treebewatered immediatelyafterplantingandregularlyforseveralweeksthereafter,dependingonyourclimate.Asageneralrule,thelargerthetransplantedtree,themorewateritwillrequire,bothinquantityandduration.A4-inchDBHtree,forexample,may require dailywatering for amonth,while a 2-inchsaplingmightonlyrequiredailywateringfortwoweeks.Frequentwateringisimportant,becauseitcandiscouragehealthissuessuchasslowestablishment,canopydieback,andbarksplits.

PLANTINGCONTAINERIZEDTREES

The process for planting containerized, or pot-grown, trees isessentially the same as for bare-rooted stock, with a couple ofnotableexceptions.Sincethetreehasbecomeacclimatedtothesoilinthecontainer,it’simportanttocreateagradualtransitiontothenewparentsoilontheorchardsite.Byusingyourfingerstoloosenanyboundrootsandsoil,mixthesurroundingsoilinyourplantinghole. The more gradual this transition is from containerizedpottingsoiltothesite’ssoil,thebetter.Asageneralrule,thewidthof your hole should extend 18 inches beyond the containerizededge.

Once the tree is planted, staked, and mulched, it’s easy toassume the work is done. However, in my experience, moreimmature fruit trees fall victim to improper protection fromanimalsthantoimproperplanting.Protectingtreesneednotbeadauntingprospect.Asimplerabbitorvoleguardcanbemadeoutof hardware cloth andwire ties. The guard shouldnot onlywraparoundtheentiretreeandextendtoaheightabovethesnowline,but also be pinned to the ground using a short metal stake topreventrodentsfromburrowingunderneath.Ifyouliveinanareawithsignificantdeerpopulations,or ifyou’llbegrazing livestocknearyouryoungtrees,considerbuildingasecondaryfencearoundthevoleguard.Justmakesureit’stallenoughandstrongenoughtowithstandacuriousanimal’spenchantforyoung,freshshoots!

TRELLIS-TRAININGYOURECOTONEORCHARD

Perhapsyourproposedecotoneorchard is alonganold fenceline,but you don’t havemuch space to expand outward? If this is thecase,consideremployinganancientorchardingmethoddevelopedby the Romans and perfected by the French. Known as espalier

(derived from the French word épaule, meaning shoulder), thisartfulmethod allows us to grow fruit trees in a two-dimensionalarea—perfectforthewoodlandhomesteadwithlimitedspace.Bydeveloping a lateral structure to the tree, you allow the fruit toreceivefullsunlightandstayataneasilyharvestableheight.

ABOVE: Trainingfruittreestogrowinespalieredformtakesadvantageofexistingfencelinesandotherunderutilized

spaces.

SelectWhips

Your espalier orchardbegins by selecting qualitywhips ondwarfstock. Apples, plums, and pears are most suitable for espaliersystems, though cherries can be trained to grow in a fan,serpentine,or tieredpattern. Importantly, thevarietiesyouselect

needtobe“spur-bearing,”meaningthattheirfruitsformclosetothe branches, as opposed to at the tips of vertical shoots. Applevarieties best suited for espalier include Northern Spy, GoldenDelicious, Liberty, Redcourt, and Holiday. Since most fruit treesaren’tself-pollinating,you’llneedatleasttwooftheminordertoproducefruit.

EstablishaStructure

Ifyou’replantingalonganexistingrailfence,youcaneithertrainyour tree to use the existing rails or attach a series of horizontaltraining wires to serve as the lateral support system (at 12-inchintervals). It is important to establish this structure prior toplantingyour trees, to avoiddamaging the roots. Trees shouldbeplanted12to15feetapart,usingthemethoddescribed .

MaketheTrainingCut

Once the dormant tree is planted you’llmake your first trainingcut,a45-degreeanglejustabovethesecondwire,whichshouldbe2to2 feetabovethegroundandjustaboveahealthybud.Attachthetreelooselywithtwisttiestothebottomandsecondwires.Thiscompletestheprocessuntilthegrowingseasonbegins.

TraintheLateralBranches

Throughoutthefirstgrowingseason,trainthelateralbranchestogrow along the wires or rails. When they reach the next post orneighboringespaliertree,headoffthetips.Asthelateralbranchesgrow,sowilltheterminalleader,whichwillneedtobeprunedbackperiodically.You’llwanttopruneitinsuchawaythatyouretainapairofbudsthatcangrowlaterallyonthenextwire.

here

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By the third year, your espalier system should be sufficientlyestablished. At this point you’ll be able to focus your energy onpruningerraticgrowthandpromotingfruit spurs.Vigorous treesmaybearfruitinyearthree,butitmaytakeasmanyassixyearsdependingonindividualtreevigorandmicroclimate.Ifyourtreesproduce small or immature fruit, it may be due to low lightconditions. To address this, you may need to remove taller,surrounding trees. Remember, as an orchardist, it’s your job tomanagecompetitionforbothlightandgrowingspace.

RESURRECTINGTHEWOODLANDORCHARD

For me, homesteading is about the resurrection of knowledge,tools, and land.When I purchasedmy land, I asked if therewereany fruit trees on theproperty. The real estate agent toldme theland had been the site of an old homestead a century prior, andthatallhomesteadshadafewappletrees,butthatIshouldn’tgettoo excited because theywere probably dead by now, assuming Icouldevenfindthem.Whiletheagentwascorrectinguessingthatthepropertyhadafewfruittrees,hewaswrongabouttheirhealth.Fruittrees,andparticularlyapples,areamongthemostresilientoftrees,almostalwayscapableofresurrection.

AlloftheappletreesI locatedonmyhomesteadweregrowingin the understory of an overstocked mixed forest. Fruit treesrespondtotheextremeshadeofsuchasituationbyslowingtheirgrowth rate and ceasing fruit production. The trees are able to

maintain this conservative existence fordecades,waiting foryoutoappearonedaywithsawandshears.

Theresurrectionofoldfruittreescomeswithabitofacaveat.When you stumble upon an old fruit tree in your woodlot, youwon’t know the tree’s origin or variety, and the quantity andqualityoffruititwillproducewon’tbeapparentforseveralyears.Still,ifyourgoalistomakecider,sauce,orjamratherthantoeatsweet, blemish-free apples straight from the tree, this isn’t somuchanissue.

CLEARAROUNDTHETREES

Restoring a woodland orchard, even if it’s just a couple of trees,beginsbyclearingtheareaaroundyourtrees.Sincethetreeshavelikelybeenundershadeformanyyears,Ibelieveit’sbesttoslowlyintroduce the tree to increasing levels of sunlight. In year one, Iremovedalltreestallerthanmyfruittreewithina20-footradius.Iexpandedtheareaanother10feetinyearstwoandthree,creatinga 50-foot radial gap after three years. This three-year gapexpansion coincides with the amount of time it takes to restoremostabandonedfruittreestoproductive,fruit-bearingcondition.

Whenclearingtheareaaroundyourfruittrees,rememberthatyourgoalisjusttogiveyourtreeaccesstosunlight.Thismaymeanthatyou’llbeabletogrowcoppicefodder/firewoodorothershorter“products”aroundyourfruittreewithoutinhibitinggrowth.

ToolsforClearing

In addition to the tools and techniques for clearing discussed in, you will need several specialized tools for efficient

pruning. These include pruning shears, bypass loppers, and achapter 2

pruning saw.Aswithmost other tools, pricepoint varies greatly.Investinginqualitytoolsnotonlymakestheworkmoreenjoyable(pruning with sharp shears is akin to carving butter) but alsomakes for higher-quality work. Dull loppers, for example, cancrushbranches insteadof slicing them, thereby injuring the tree.Qualitytoolsalsomeanfasterwork,whichleavesyoumoretimetoadmireyourorchard—glassofciderinhand,ofcourse.

Asageneralrule,usepruningshearstocutbranchesuptothethicknessofyourpinkiefinger,orabout inch.Forlivebranchesbetween and inch,useasharppairofbypassloppers,whichwork essentially like big scissors. For dead branches, you canuseanvil loppers, which work like a knife and cutting board, or as Iprefer,ahandheldpruningsaw.Handheldpruningsawscanhaveeither a fixed blade or a fold, the latter of which is handywhenyou’re climbing on a ladder. With all of these tools, your goalshouldbetoproducecleancutsthatallowthetreetohealquickly.

TIPSFORTHEWOODLANDORCHARD

Admittedly,pruningandcaringforfruittreescanbecomeabitofan obsession. You’ll find yourself studying the form of eachbranch,tryingtoencouragegrowthinsomeareasanddiscouragegrowthinotherareas.Thefollowingtipsandtrickscanhelp.

DecidingHowMuchtoPrune

Acommonquestionregardingpruningis,HowmuchofthecrowncanIremoveatonetime?Asageneralrule,youcantakeoutuptoone-third of the crownwhenpruning or thinning.Attempting toremove any more than this in a single season will cause unduestresstothetree,andmorewatersproutsthefollowingseason.As

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forcrowndensity,rememberthatyourgoalistogetlighttoallthebranchessothatfruitbudscanbearfruit.Theoldadageisthatyoushouldbeabletotossyourhatthroughthecrownofanadequatelyprunedfruittree.

TrainingBranches

Branches that are too close together or that are growing at anupward angle instead of the ideal 70-to 90-degree outward anglecanbetrainedbyusingbranchweights.Onesimplewaytomakeabranchweightistosuperglueafruit-sizerocktoaclothespinandhangitonbranchthatyou’dliketotrainlower.Avariationofthisistotieastringtoaclothespinandstakethestringinthegroundwiththeappropriatetensiontocreatethedesiredbranchangle.

Onyoungtrees,youmaydiscoverthatadesirablebranchcouldbenefit from a wider crotch as a means of producing a widelylayeredscaffoldform.Oldpaintsticksorbrokenshakesworkwellforconstructingcrotchspreaders;justmakesurethatthenotchineachendisappropriatelysizedandplacedtopreventthespreaderfrom coming out on a windy day. Other methods of trainingbranchesincludetyingastonetoastringandhangingitfromthebranch(stonesizewilldictatehowlowthebranchhangs)andtyingoffbranchestoaprotectivecage(a“treefortress”)below.

RestoringaForgottenFruitTree

Once the tree has been given a growing season to adjust toincreasedlightconditions,youcantakethefollowingstepstorestore

it.

Instructions

1. Studytheshapeofthetree.Beforeyoupulloutyourloppersandsaw,takesometimetostudytheshapeofthetreeor,morespecifically,theshapethatthetreecouldbe,giventhebenefitoftimeandjudiciouspruning.Striveforcreatingacentralleaderandashapethatresemblesapyramid.

2. Removewatersprouts.Beginbyremovinganyverticalbranchesorwatersprouts.Watersproutsarevigorousverticalshootsthatredirectnutrientsfromtherestofthetree,therebydiscouragingfruitformation.Watersproutscanbeprunedinsummertoencouragethetreetofocusitsenergyonfruitbuds.Oldverticalwoodshouldalsoberemovedtoencourageacentral,singleleader.

3. Removebranchesthatcross.Abrasionscausedbyrubbingareentrypointsforpestsanddisease.Additionally,removeanybranchesthatdouble-backintothecenterofthetree.

4. Removelateralbranches.Ifyou’reintendingtograzepigsorsheepinyourwoodlandorchardtogleanfallenfruit,considerpruningalllateralbranchesbelow3feet.Thiswillhelpdiscourageclimbingwhichcanbreakbranchesanddamagethebark.Repeatthesestepsovertwotothreeyears.Gradualpruningoftreesthathavebeenabandonedandforgottenisessentialtopreventingshock.

5. Removedeadwood.Aftertheimmediateareaaroundthetreehasbeencleared,youshouldremoveanydeadwoodfromyourfruittree.Unlikeremovinglivewood,thisdoesn’tneedtobe

donegradually;justmakesureyourcutsarecleanandexecutedatthebranchcollarwhichwillencouragecallustissuetodevelop,sealingoverthewound.Ifyoucan,allowthetreeafullgrowingseasontoadjusttothenewlightconditionsandbeginhealingthewoundswheredeadwoodwasremoved.

ABOVE: Thisillustrationshowswhichbranchestoprunebasedonthepruningguidelines.Notethatonthistreetheterminalforkwasremovedtoencouragealowercrown,givinggreater

accessibilityduringtheharvest.

NotchingandNickingBranches

Whilepruning,youmayalsoidentifysomebudsthatyouwanttoencourage and others that youwant to discourage. “Notching” ismakingacuttoabranchaboveabud;thisencouragesthetreetosendnutrientstothebudasaresponsetotheinjury.Theresultisthe establishing of a vigorous new leader the following growingseason. This method is particularly useful if you’re trying toencourage a bud in a specific location, such as with espaliers.Similar to notching is “nicking,” which is removing wood just

below the bud to discourage growth. The result in this case is a“bleeding” of nutrients thatweakens the bud. Both notching andnicking should be used only on apple and pear trees, since stonefruits are generally more susceptible to bacterial cankers fromopenwounds.

Forbothnickingandnotching,useasharpknifeandextendthecutjustpastthecambium,whichisthelayerofactivecellgrowthunder the bark. Be sure to clean your knife with a dilute bleachsolutionbetweentreestopreventthespreadofbacteriaandfungi.

ABOVE: Althoughnotacommonpractice,notchingandnickingareaneffectivemeansofdiscouragingandencouragingbudgrowth.

Nickingdiscouragesgrowthbypreventingsapfromreachingthebud;notchingencouragesahormonalresponsethatsendssaptowardthe

budyou’retryingtopromote.

MANAGINGPESTS

MANAGINGPESTS

Managing pests in awoodland orchard can be a challenge, but itcanalsobeanopportunity.Theshadeprovidedbyfruittreesmakesyour orchard an ideal location to practice mob-grazing chickensthroughoutthesummer.Notonlywillyoulowerthepestcountinyourorchard,butyou’llalsobesupplementingyourchickens’dietwhilesimultaneouslyfertilizingyourorchard.A ,ormobile coop, helps ensure even and concentrated grazing (seebelow).

ABOVE: Usingachickentractortocontrolorchardpestsisanorganicalternativetoconventionalpesticides.Thetractorshouldbemovedatleastonceperday,preferablytwice.

PhysicalBarriers

Intermsofprotectingyouractualfruit,physicalbarriersareoftena practical solution. While labor intensive, bagging individual

chickentractor

fruitsmeansyoucanavoidusingchemicalpesticidesandstillhavea beautiful, blemish-free harvest. Among the predators you’ll bestoppingareapplemaggots, stinkbugs,andvariousmoths;you’llalsobeabletoreducebirdandsquirreldamage.

Bags.You’llwanttobagduringthefruitletstage,beforepestshavethe opportunity to wreak havoc. Traditionally, cotton sacks (andlater,paperbags)wereused toprotect fruit,butyoucanalsouseplasticsandwich-sizebagswithslider locks, thoughyou’llneedtopunchafewholesineachbagorsnipoffthelowercornerstoallowthe leaflets to transpire. Paper bags can be loosely tied on withstrings,whileplasticbagscanbeheldinplacewiththesliderlocks.As you bag your fruitlets, use this as an opportunity to thin thecrop,focusingonremovingsmalloralreadyblemishedfruits.

Kaolinclayspray.Anotheroptionforprotectingyourfruitcropistouseakaolinclayspray.Thisdiluteclaymixtureisagreatwaytodeter pests such as the apple sawfly and plum curculio. Pestsquickly discover that the clay clogs their pores; the inhospitableenvironmentalsomakesitimpossiblefortheinsectstoreproduce.Although early orchardists experimented with potters’ clay, theclayparticleswere too large to stick to pest orifices and thusdidnot clog them. Commercially available clays have been siftedthroughanextra-finefiltertoensureeffectiveness.Finally,realizethat a single applicationof kaolin spray is insufficient.Most clayproductswillrequirethreeapplications,sinceyou’llwanttotargetpestsatvariouslifestages.

Tree fortresses. If your orchard experiences significant deerpressure, consider building individual tree fortresses. Thesefortresses can bemade frompole-sizewood that’s left over fromthinningyourorchard.Tobuildthetreefortress,alternatestacking

logs (as if you’re building a log cabin), and screw each course oflogs together toadd stability. The fortress shouldbehighenoughthatdeercan’treachoverthetoptobrowse.Youmaywanttoaddasecondary fence of monofilament fishing line at the top of thefortress to deter deer. Fishing line is surprisingly effective as asecondarypsychological barrier: thedeer feel thepressure of thelinebutcan’tseeit.

BEESINTHEWOODLANDHOMESTEAD

Youmayhavenoticedthatbehindthemyriadpracticesdiscussedin thisbook is aphilosophy thatnoplant, animal, orplot of land

servesasinglepurpose.Instead,thefocusisoncreatingsynergisticsystemsinwhichmultiplebenefitsstemfromasinglecomponent.Perhaps nowhere is this so clearly exemplified as in the case of

homesteadbeekeeping.Honeybees(Apismellifera)aretheultimatemultipurpose producers, a friend to the forest, orchard, garden,andhomesteader.Infact,beesareresponsibleforpollinatingaboutone-thirdofour food supply, ranging fromapples towatermelonandbeans.

Unfortunately, our venerable homestead companion has inrecentyearsfallenpreytoaphenomenonknownascolonycollapsedisorder (CCD).While experts debate the exact causes ofCCD, it’slikely that several compounding factors have contributed to thedecline.Thesefactorsincludelossofforageplants,insecticideuse,and an influx of the varroa mite. By establishing your ownhomestead hive, you’ll not only be doing your part to help keep

honeybees alive, you’ll also be rewardedwith increased fruit andvegetable production, beeswax, propolis (used by the Greeks totreatburnsandwounds),and,ofcourse,honey.

WhichBeeDoesWhat?

Asuccessfulhive isdependentonaqueen,drones,andworkerbees.The jobof thequeen is togrowthecolonyby layingeggs,often as many as 2,500 per day. The small worker bees (allfemales)arethemarathonathletesofthehive,visiting50to100flowersoneachtripandonlylivingaboutsixweeks.Largerthantheworker bees are the drones,who don’t have a stinger anddon’tproducehoneybutdotendtothehiveandmate.

GETTINGSTARTEDWITHBEEKEEPING

The initial equipment investment is several hundred dollars, butthe cost ofmaintaining a hive over the long term isminimal. Ifyou’re a frugal homesteader, you may be tempted to buy usedbeekeepingequipment;however,indoingso,you’retakingamajorrisk. Diseases such as American foulbrood can perpetuate on oldequipment for quite some time and candevastate your colony aswell as neighboring colonies. You’re better off investing in newequipment.Onewaytosavemoneyonnewequipmentistobuyahive kit, as opposed to preassembled boxes, and assemble ityourselfwithbasictools.

Forthebeginningbeekeeper,themostcommonwaytoacquirebeesistopurchasea3-pound“package,”whichwillcontainabout10,000 bees plus a queen. Your second option is to purchase a

nucleus colony (commonly called a “nuc”), which is a partiallyestablished colony. Other options include buying a complete,ready-to-gocolonyfromanexistingbeekeeperorcollectingawildswarm. In addition to the excitement of finding and capturing aswarmofwildhoneybees,you’llhavetheaddedbenefitofhardierbeesthatarebetteradaptedtoyourparticularenvironment.Ifyoudecidetopursueawildswarm,makesureyouhaveanexperiencedmentorwithyouforthecollectionandhiveintroductionphase.

In your first season of beekeeping, you’ll want to beconservativeintheamountofhoneyyouremovefromthehive.Inmost cases, you’ll only remove one to four combs. The followingspring, however, you’ll likely be able to remove three to sevencombs (though climate, colony vigor, and various environmentalstressesmayaffectyourharvest).

ATTRACTINGNATIVEBEES

Attracting native cavity bees is an important part ofencouraging biodiversity of pollinators. Select dead or dyinglogsandstumpsinareasthatareunlikelytobedisturbed,areprotectedfromwind,andhavegoodsouthernexposure.Usea

-inchdrill toboreaseriesofholes inchapart inagridformat.Eachholeshouldbeabout5inchesdeep,andatleast8inchesabove theground.Encouragecolonizationbysprayingtheholeswitha1:1mixtureofsugarandwater.

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ABOVE: Createhomesfornativebeesbydrillingholesintostumpsandsnags.

NATIVEBEESFORPOLLINATING

Ifyou’d like tocapturethepollinationbenefitsofbees,butaren’tallthatinterestedinthehoney,considercreatinghabitatthatwillencourage native bee populations on your homestead. One easymethodistotakeanold,partially intacthaybale,placeit inyourorchardduringlatesummer,andallowittodecomposeabitoverwinter.Inthespringyou’llhaveawarmmicroenvironmentthat’sidealforaqueenandherhareminsearchofanewhome.

Inadditiontohoneybees,thereareover4,000nativecavitybeesintheUnitedStates.Theydon’tproducecopiousamountsofhoneyand tend to live in less-organized colonies, but they are just asimportanttopollinationashoneybeesare.Youcanencouragetheirpresence around your woodland homestead by creating habitat.Oneof the easiestways todo this is to takeadvantageof stumpsandsnagsaroundthehomestead.See ,formoreinformation.

CELLARANDCIDER:ENJOYINGTHEHARVEST

Fewotheractivitiesonthewoodlandhomesteadareasrewardingas harvesting apples. The fall harvest stands as a testament to aproductive summer, and as the winter larder fills with crates ofapplesandjugsofsweetcider.

Forme,thefallappleharvestandthesubsequentciderdaysareas much about cultivating community as they are aboutcelebrating our self-reliance in putting up food and drink.Whilemywoodlandorchardprovidesmewithenoughapplestolastuntilspring, and about 30 gallons of cider (most of which I freeze bystockingtheminthewoodshed),myneighborsandIpressasmanyas200gallonsofciderwithina3-square-milecommunity.

Thisneighborhood feat always involves creative bartering: theapple-tree-poorfolksofferthepromiseoffinishedcider,jelly,andapplesaucetotheapple-tree-richfolksinexchangeforharvestingrights.I’mhappytosupportthisneighborhoodtraditionbylendingmywell-used antique ciderpress. In return,not onlydo I get the

AttractingNativeBees

pleasureofknowingthatlocalresourcesarebeingwiselyused,andthatanimportantruraltraditionhascontinuedanotheryear,butI’m also lucky enough to get the leftover apple pomace.Conveniently, this sweet and seasonally abundant fodder, alongwitha touchofgrain, isusually enough to sustainmyhogsuntiltheirbutcherdate.Notabaddeal!

HARVESTINGAPPLES

Fruit ripens at different rates, depending on its location on thetree.Intheearlydaysoffall,you’llfindsmallandoftenblemishedfruits belowyour tree.Early cidermakers referred to theseas the“sheep’s share” and allowed flocks to consume the drops.Apparently, these early cidermakers knew a thing or two, asresearchconfirmsthat theseearlydropsaremost likely tobe thewormiest of the season. From a pest management perspective,grazingsheepintheseareasisagoodwaytocontrolapplemaggotsbeforetheycompletetheirlifecycle.

The use of drops for cidermaking is largely a question oftradition and personal preference, though the sooner you cancollect them, the better. If you do collect drops, particularly inareaswherelivestockhavegrazed,it’simportanttopasteurizeanycidermadefromthem.Pasteurizationcanbeachievedbyheatingtheciderto165°F,andthenrapidlycoolingittominimizeenzymeloss.

WhenIpickapples,Iusuallycarrytwosacks,oneforthelarge,blemish-freefruitsthatwillbekeptintherootcellar,andasecondfor the small, blemished ones that will be used for cidermaking.Since I’mpickingapplesthathaveneverbeen incontactwiththeground (the greatest risk of ground contact being E. coli fromanimals), Ioptnot topasteurize.Whilecertainlysafer thanusing

drops, even this drop-free cider comeswith a bit of risk. It’s alsoimportant to note that while freezing cider will kill some

microorganisms,itwillnotkillE.coli.Inshort,ifyouthinkthere’seven a slight chance your applesmay be contaminated, take thetimetopasteurize.

PUTTINGUPAPPLESANDOTHERFRESHFRUITS

One of the chief virtues of apples is that they keep particularlywell. Inaventedrootcellaryoucaneasilykeepqualityapplesforsix months. Even blemished apples can be kept for a couple ofmonths without degrading in quality. Later, thicker-skinned,firmer fruit keepsbetter thanearly, thin-skinned, soft fruit.Asageneralrule,mid-30°Ftemperaturesand90percenthumidityareidealforlong-termstorage.

Ifyouhaveasmallappleharvest,youmayopttotakethetimetowraptheapplesindividuallyinnewsprintandplacetheminanopenwooden box. This prevents one bad apple from spoiling thelot. Additionally, thewrappinghelps contain ethylene gas,whichapples (and pears) naturally release but which can expediteripening and eventually rotting. If you’re putting up a largerquantityofapples,thenewsprintapproachmaynotbepractical.Inthatcase,it’sbesttocarefullysorttheapples,removinganysoftorbruisedonesformoreimmediateuse.Iusewoodencratesthatarestoredafootorsoabovetherootcellarfloor.Wirestoragebasketstendtoresultinbruisedfruitthatspoilseasily.Finally,makesurethat your apples are stored in a separate room from other fruitsandvegetables, sinceapplesnaturallyreleaseethylene,agas thatacceleratestheripeningprocess.

Pears can be stored under the same conditions as apples, butwill keep only one to three months in storage. Stone fruit isgenerallybestkeptbyeitherdryingorcanningorfreezing,duetoits soft flesh and perishability. If you opt to freeze stone fruits,removetheskinsandpitsfirst.

CiderSwitchel

Mostcidermakersadmittomakingatleastoneaccidentalbatchofcidervinegar.Thisisusuallyaresultofexcessoxygeninthefermenting container, which triggers a switch from anaerobicfermentation to aerobic respiration. If a batch of your ciderturns to vinegar, don’t despair; make switchel. Switchel is atraditional homestead drink that was popular during hayingseason as a thirst quencher. To make your own switchel, mixfourcupsofcoldwater, cupofcidervinegar, cupmaplesyrup,andoneteaspoonofgroundginger.Stirandenjoy.

MAKINGCIDER

Ihadthegreatfortuneofgrowingupbehindanappleorchard.Myventure into cidermaking began at age seven, when I hauled 5gallonsofapples fromtheneighbor’sorchardandcommenced tobuildmyownapplepress.

Thedesignwasadmittedlycrude,but itworked. I chopped theappleswithmy trusty hatchet andwrapped them in a section ofcheesecloth that I “borrowed” from my mother’s pantry. I thencarefully placed the wrapped apple chunks between two boardsplaced on the threshold stoop of my childhood playhouse cabin.

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With chunks of scrapwood, I built a precarious tower of lumberthat reached towithin6 inches of the top of the door frameandinserted a scissor jack that I “borrowed” from the trunk of myfather’s car. As I cranked the jack, golden cider ran out the sidesintoa tincupbelow. Iwashooked.Mycidermakinghasevolvedabit since those early days, but the principle remains the same:grind,press,bottle,enjoy.

“Itisindeedbadtoeatapples.Itisbettertomakethemallintocider.”

—BENJAMINFRANKLIN

H O M E S T E A D E R P R O F I L E

RavenwoodHomestead

BruceandNancyKilgore

BruceandNancyKilgore’shomestead,knownasRavenwood,isanartisticandfunctionalexpressionofwhat’spossibleonawoodland homestead. The Kilgores’ house is an innovativeblendofcordwoodconstruction,post-and-beamconstruction,andpassivesolardesign.Thewallsof thehomearemadeofcedar, which was collected from the slash piles left after

loggingjobsinthearea.Therooftrussesaremadeofmassive22-inch white pine timbers that support a living roof thatdoublesascropspace.

TheKilgoresresurrectedthewoodlandappletreesnotonlyfor the fruit but also for the bees. Bruce notes that after heintroducedbeestohiswoodlandorchard,thesizeandquantityof apples increased significantly. In addition to producingapplesandhoney,Brucealsohasa200-tapsugarbushonhisproperty,whichhetapsalongwithtreesonhisneighbors’landaspartofasyrupcooperative.

Known for his thoughtful integration of systems, Bruceoffers some sageadvice to those looking to create symbioticand efficient systems for the wooded homestead. First, hesuggeststhatbeforeyoueliminateoneecosystemcomponent,you should consider what impacts it has along the way. Forsomeone looking to produce fruit, honey, and syrup on thesame land, this is going to mean retaining as many earlysuccessional species (basswood, aspen, and birch) aspossible,becausetheyare,inmostcases,thefirsttoflowerinthespring,providinganimportantfoodsourcetobees.Healsonotesthatallofhiswoodfromtendingthesugarbushbecomesfuelwoodforfiringtheevaporator.

Finally, Bruce and Nancy advocate for working with yourneighborsandbarteringhomesteadgoodsalongtheway.Thismaymeantradingsyrupformeat,orhoneyforlabor.Theideais,asBrucedescribes,anetworkinwhichneighborslendoneanother their goods, time, and knowledge as currency in thewoodland homestead economy. Taking the advice of thelegendary Helen and Scott Nearing, the Kilgores practiced a“payasyougo”philosophy,buildinginstages,usingcashandsweat equity. When asked about the advantages of thatapproach,BruceKilgoregrins,saying, “There’snotabankor

mortgage company in this world that knows my homesteadexists.”

Before you begin, make sure you have the following supplies onhand:

Applegrinder.Somepressesmountthegrinderontheactualpress,othersareaseparateunit.Thesmalleryougrindtheapples,themorejuiceyou’llbeabletosqueezeout.

Applepress.Ifanewpressisn’tinyourbudget,considerlookingforanoldoneatfleamarketsoronline.Makesurethepressingscrewworkssmoothlyandisn’tstripped.Don’tworrytoomuchaboutthewoodcomponents,asthey’reeasytorebuild.Replacementpressingbasketsarereadilyavailable,too.

Plasticciderbucket.You’llneedabucketbelowthepresstocatchthecider.Mostpressesaretoolowforastandardfive-gallonbucket,soyou’llneedtofindashorter,widerone.

Cheeseclothormuslin.Asyoupressthecider,smallpiecesofpomacecanworktheirwayintothecider.Toavoidthis,linethepressingbasketwithcheesecloth.Youcanalsomakeareusablebagoutofmuslin,whichismoredurablethanthecheesecloth.

Sanitizedcontainers.Makesureyouhaveplentyofsanitizedcontainersonhand.You’llwanttobottleyourciderrightawaytoavoidcontaminationandkeepfromattractingwaspsandflies.

Aplanforthepomace.Afterpressing,you’llbeleftwithlotsofpomace.Makesureyouhaveaplaninadvance,otherwiseyoumayfindyourselfattractingunwantedwildlife.

SweatingtheHarvest

Planningyourcidermakinginadvanceisimportanttoensurethatyourappleshaveenoughtimetosweat.“Sweating”simplyreferstoagingyourapplesforaweekortwoinacoolplace,whichsoftensthem up for easier grinding and increases the sugar content. Ifyourharvestissmall,youmaysweatyourapplesbyleavingtheminyourcollectingbuckets.For largerharvests, it’sbest topile theapples on awooden floor and loosely cover themwith a tarp.Analternate method is the “cold sweat,” in which apples areintentionally left outside (usually in the back of a pickup truck,uncovered) on an evening when the temperature is expected todropbelowfreezing.Thisflash-freezingisagreatwaytoageyourapplesinahurry,butyoumustpressthemthenextday.

WashingandGrinding

Alargewatertubnexttoyourgrinderis idealforwashingapplesasyoupassthemintothegrinder.Somegrindersareseparatefromtheactualpress;othersaremountedabovethepressingbasket. Ifyou’remakingaparticularlysmallbatchofcider,youcangrindtheapples in a food processor. Regardless of your grinding method,makesurethatyoupressthepomaceimmediatelyaftermilling,toavoidattractingwaspsandvinegarfliesthatcancontaminateyourcider.

Pressing

Old-timers often refer to pressing as “wringing.” By exertingpressureonatubofgroundfruit,you’reextractingjuicefromtheruptured fruit cells. Sometimes folkswill use cheesecloth to holdthemilledpulp.Ifyourpomaceisinlargechunksand/orthestavesof your pressing tub are close together, youmaynot need to use

cheesecloth. Nonetheless, you’ll want to let the juice (technicallyreferredtoas“must”)passthroughastrainerbeforeflowingintoyourbucket. In termsof collectionbuckets,neverusegalvanized,copper, iron, or aluminum containers since the must will reactwith the metal, making a most unpleasant cider. Instead, makesureyou’recollectingineitherastainless-steelorplasticcontainer.Asyouwring,orpress,thecider,you’llreachapointatwhichthemust tapers off, indicating that you’ve extracted all the juice. Besuretocoverthejuicerightaway;otherwise,itwillattractinsectsinshortorder.

ABOVE: Adouble-tubciderpressofferstheadvantageofpressingonebatchwhilethenextisground.Besuretosavethepomace

tofeedtoyourlivestock.

BlendingandTesting

Differentapplevarietiesyieldciderswithdifferentqualities:somearetart;othersaresweetorastringent.Whileblendingcanbedoneduringthegrindingprocess,you’rebetterabletocontrolthetasteofthefinalproductbyblendingthecider(bycropand/orvariety)afterpressing,butbeforebottlingorfermenting. Ifyou intendtoconsume the cider fresh (not hard), your blend will be basedentirelyontastepreference.If,however,yourgoalistomakehardcider,blendingandtestingwillbeanimportantpartofcontrollingthealcohollevelofthefinishedcider.

H O M E S T E A D E R P R O F I L E

Cidermaker&TreeFarmer

AlRobertson

Listening to Al Robertson describe his 60-acre freehold inVermont, it’sclear thathispruningshearsandchainsaware

hispaintbrushes.Whilehewas trainedasacivilengineer,Alhasspent the last30yearsestablishingawoodlandorchardandtendinghisforest.In1985,Alclearedanimmatureforestto establish his woodland orchard — populated by 30-plusvarietiesofheirloomapples,whichheblendstomakeaward-winning hard cider. The diversity of both varieties andmicroclimate means that the apples ripen at different timesand that Al’s able to spread his cidermaking over a longer,less-hectic season. When asked what advice he’d offer tonovicecidermakers,Alstresses the importanceofsanitation,mixing different varieties, and taking the timewith friends toenjoythecider.

Whennotmakingcider,Alcanbefoundinhiscertifiedtreefarm, practicing a German forestry method known asDauerwald, which aims to create a multi-aged, multilevelforestwheretreesareharvestedeitherindividuallyorinsmallgroups.Alnotesthatthesuccessofthissystemisdueinpartto an extensive road network throughout his woods thatallowsforeasyaccess.Forotherwoodlandhomesteaders,Alrecommendstakingthetimetodesignandbuildgoodroadssothat you canmaximize the use and enjoyment of your entireproperty.

Fermenting

Sweet cider changes to hard cider when the sugar in the juiceconverts into alcohol and carbon dioxide through the growth ofspecific yeasts under controlled conditions. Like winemaking orbeer brewing, the process can vary greatly in terms ofsophistication;mostcidermakersproducetheirfirstbatchesusing

asingle-stepfermentationprocessinwhichtheyeast(eitheraddedornaturalfromtheskinsoftheapples)isallowedto“eat”untilallof the available sugar has been converted to alcohol, therebyslowingandeventuallystoppingthefermentationprocess.Asyourefine both your techniques and your cider palate, youmay alsolooktoexperimentwithsecondarymalolacticfermentation,whichgives cider a smoother finish. To learnmore aboutmaking hard

cider,findacopyofCider:Making,Using&EnjoyingSweet&HardCiderbyLewNicholsandAnnieProulx.(see .)

Bottling

Regardless of whether you’re making sweet or hard cider, makesure your bottles are sterilized prior to bottling. For sweet cider,youmaywant to consider using clean plastic jugs, which can befrozenuntilyou’rereadytoenjoyyourcider.Justremember,don’tfill the jugs more than three-fourths of the way, to allow forexpansionwhilefreezing.

Resources

ABOVE: Withinafewdaysofpitchingtheyeast,you’llnoticebubblesemergingfromtheairlockinthebungonyourcarboy.

Allowyourcidertofermentinadarkspacewiththetemperaturebetween45–65°F.

TheWildCiderOrchard

TheWildCiderOrchard

Onsiteswithrelativelyalkalinesoils,neighboringfruittrees,andample wildlife, it’s not uncommon to find naturally establishedwildapple treesthatproducesmall,blemished,andoftenbitterapples.While thesewildapplesmay lackpalatabilityassnacks,considerpruningupthewildtreesaspartofahomesteadciderorchard. If the cider’s particularly tart, you can sweeten it byaddinghoneyorblendinginsweetervarieties.

THEHOMESTEADSUGARBUSH

If you spend a bit of time aroundhomestead sugarbushes, itwillsoon be apparent that sugaring is about far more than makingsyrup; sugaring is a culture, a hopeful sign of spring, and areminder that nature’s bounty is just below the bark. And if youthinkthatsyrupmakingisn’tanoptionforyoubecauseyoudon’thave sugarmaple trees on your property, think again. Birch andevenwalnutcanbetappedtomakedelicioussyrup,albeitwithabitofwork.

HOWSYRUPISMADE

Althoughwethinkofsugaringasanearly-springactivity,thetreeactuallybeginssapproductioninthefall.Atthattimeofyear,treesslow their growth and begin storing excess starches throughouttheir sapwood. In the case of sugar maples, this starch isoverwintereduntilthewoodtemperaturewarmstoabout40°F,at

whichpointenzymesinthesapwoodconvertthestarchestosugar.This sugar then moves through the tree as sap to feed newlyemergingbuds.Whenatapholeisboredintothetree,thecarryingvesselsaresevered,allowingthesaptoflowout.

The early Algonquians are thought to have been the firstsugarmakers.TheyusedstonetoolstocarveV-shapednotchesintomapletreesandcollectedtheoozingsapinbirchcontainers.Aftercollectingthesap,theymadeitsweeterbycontinuallyaddinghotrockstoevaporatethewater,therebyincreasingthesugarcontentandultimatelyyieldingsyrup.

Thisprocessofconcentratingsugarthroughevaporationisstillthe underlying principle of modern sugaring, though both thetechniques and the equipment have been greatly refined. At thehomesteadlevel,you’llbeabletogetatasteofsugaring,evenifyoujusthaveacoupleoftappabletrees,afewbuckets,andacampfirewith awide, shallowpanproppedover it. Larger-scale operationswithmanymoretapsoftensetupnetworksoftubingtocollectsapinto a central tank and boil it off using commercially madeevaporators with drop flues, automatic draw-off values, andreverseosmosisconcentrationsystems.

TheRuleof86

TheRuleof86isabasicequationthatyoucanusetodeterminethenumberofgallonsofsapneeded tomakeagallonofsyrupbasedondifferentBrixsugarvalues.So, forsap thathasa2%sugarcontent:86/2=43gallonsofsapareneededtomakeonegallonofsyrup.Anotherwaytothinkofthisisthatyou’llhavetoevaporate42gallonsofwatertomakeonegallonofsyrup.

MAKINGYOURSUGARINGCAMP

MAKINGYOURSUGARINGCAMP

In the old days, maple camps were erected in forests naturallyendowed with a preponderance of maple trees. Often, the menworkinginthesemaplecampswereloggersandfarmerswhowerelooking for work during a time of the year commonly known asmudseason,atimethegroundwastoosoftforeitherfarmingorlogging.Whilesomeofthesecampswereelaborateestablishmentscomplete with evaporators and bunk houses, others were crudeestablishmentsconsistingofnothingmorethana lean-towithanopenfireandalargecast-ironcauldronforboilingsap.

Inestablishingyourownmaplecamp,you’llbe facedwith thesame question of how elaborate or simple your setupwill be. I’dencourage starting small, which allows you to try out differentsystemsandconfirmyourownaffinityforsugaringbeforemakingmajor investments. The simplest setup is a propane turkey fryer,though if you have wood available, I’d strongly encourage goingthat route instead.My first sugaring rig consistedof two rowsofcinderblockssetabout2feetapart,withalarge,deepcommercialcakepanstraddlingthecinderblocksandaroaringfirebelow.Theopen ends allowed wood to be fed from both sides, and a metalcoffeecanwithapinholepunchedinthebottomedgeservedasasap preheater that was balanced on the corner of the pan.Preheatingthesap,andallowingittoslowlydribblein,meansthatthepandoesn’tloseitsboil,therebyslowingdowntheevaporatingprocess.

Overthecourseofacoupleseasons,youmaychoosetobuildasugarshackwitharoof,a“proper”evaporator,holdingtanks,andeven a few comfy chairs. If you go this route, youmay be luckyenoughtobeabletousethematerialfromthinningthesugarbushtobuildyoursugarshack.Inthiscase,accesstoa portablesawmill

will make the whole process much more efficient. What’s evenbetter,aftermillingyourlumber,you’llbeleftwithapileofslabsthatmakesforgreatsugaringwoodtoburninyourevaporator.

IDENTIFYINGTAPPABLETREES

While the sugar maple is king of the maple world, other treespeciesaresuitablefortappingaswell.Someofthesespecies,suchas the birches, are complementary to sugarmaples because theirtapping season begins just as the sugarmaples are finishing up.Otherspecies, likeredmaple,havebeengivenabadrapfor theirlower sugar content, but can produce syrup equally delicious tomaple.This listssomeothertreespeciesthatbringthefunof sugaring to regions of the country that rarely get to enjoy thesmellofboilingsaponacoldday.

If you’re considering tapping any of these lesser-used species,there are several important points to keep inmind. Lower sugarcontent means more boiling. For those species with less than 1percent sugar, you’d want to use reverse osmosis to reduce theboiling time. If you’re looking for the sweet flavor but don’t feelcompelled to make syrup, consider a short boil just to make thesweetnessmore pronounced and serve it as refreshing beverage.Anotheroptionistoletyoursappartiallyfreezeandremovetheicefromthetop;thedensersugarwaterwillsinktothebottom.

It’salso important tounderstandabitabout thephysiologyofthetreesyou’retapping.Sapfrommapleandwalnuttreesreliesonafreeze-thawcycletoproducepressureinthetree.Thispressureiswhatallowsthesaptoflowfromthetap.Birchesaredifferent;theyrelyonrootpressuretomovethesaponcethesoilwarmsto45to50°F.Thismeansthatjustasthemapleorwalnutseasoniscomingtoanend,thebirchseasonisjustbeginning.

TOTAPORNOTTOTAP?

chart

TOTAPORNOTTOTAP?

If you’re getting ready to tap your trees for the first time, youprobably have quite a few questions. Among the most commonquestions I’m asked is, “Does tapping hurt the tree?” The shortansweris“No,solongasit’sdoneproperly.”Thekey,ofcourse,is

definingproperly.First,thinkoftappingatreeasbeinganalogoustogivingblood;

youwanttomakesurethedonorishealthy,anddon’twanttotaketoomuch.Lookforatreewithalarge,fullcrownandnodecay.Toensure that you don’t stress the tree by taking too much sap,consult the . If you suspect a tree may bestressed,considerreducingthenumberof taps,orgiving itarestfortheseason.

It’simportanttoavoiddamagingthetreebycarefullyfollowingthetappingdirectionsbelow.Equallyimportantispullingthetapsassoonas thesapstopsrunning.Thiswillallowthe tree tobeginclosingthewound,whichisnormallya2-to4-yearprocess.

MAKINGMAPLESYRUP

SugaringseasonusuallybeginsinlateFebruaryorearlyMarch,asthedaysget longerandtemperaturespushabovefreezingduringthe daytime, but return to below freezing at night. Somesugarmakers always start on the same calendar daywhile othersrollthedicebasedonalong-rangeforecast.Taptooearly,andyourtapholeswilldryup (thinkof it as the treecauterizingawound)beforetheendoftheseason;taptoolateandyouriskmissingabigrunofqualityearlysap. If it’syourfirsttimesugaring,watchforotherstohangtheirbucketsandfollowsuit.Havingyoursugaring

Tapping Guidelines

equipment ready and a plan in place is key to fast and efficienttappingoncethesapbeginstorun.

ABOVE: Oldhotelpansproppedonacinderblockarchmakesforaninexpensiveevaporator.Asthesapevaporates,moveitfromtherearpantothefrontpan,andaddnewsaptotherearpan.

DrillYourTapholes

A standard tap, or spile, is made for a -inch-diameter hole.Thesemetaltapscanbefoundathardwarestores,barnsales,and

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antique stores.Newer, smaller-diameter plastic taps are availableaswell( inchand inch).Theadvantageofthesmallertapsisthatthetappingwoundcanhealfasterthanwithastandardtap.Ifyouoptforasmall-diametertap,onlydrillinabout1 inches;for a standard tap, you’llwant to drill in 2 inches. You canmarkyour drill bit with paint or electrical tape so that you drill to aconsistentdepth.Drillyourholewithasharpbitataslightupwardangle,sothatthesapcanflowout.Ideally,you’llwanttobeatleast6inchesleftorrightofaprevioustapholeand24inchesdirectlyoverorunderaformertaphole.

What’sReverseOsmosis?

Visit a commercial sugaring business and you’re likely to hearthe operator extolling the virtues of their reverse osmosis or“R.O.”system.This isa filtrationsystemthat takesrawsapandforcesitthroughasemipermeablemembranethatseparatesoutsome of the water, resulting in sap that’s close to 10 percentsugar.However,R.O.unitsareexpensive,withevensmallhobby-sizeunitscostingseveralthousanddollars.

Thereasonthesesystemsaresovaluedbysurgarmakersisthatrawsap isusuallyaround2percentsugar(inthecaseofmostmaples), but finished syrup is approximately 66 percent sugar.This 64 percent increase in sugar is both energy and timeconsumingfortheproducer.

TAPPINGGUIDELINES

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SetYourTaps

Useahammerormallettotapthespoutintothetree.Youwantitto be snug, but not so tight that it splits the wood. As you’rehammeringthetapin,you’llnoticeachangeinsoundasittightensup; use this as your cue that it’s properly secure. Tapping on awarm day, just as the sap is beginning to run,willminimize thechanceofthewoodsplittingandalsoallowyoutomakesureyourtapsareseatedsnuglyanddon’tleak.

Ifyou’reusingbucketstocollectthesap,hangabucketonthehook and attach a cover to keep out precipitation and debris. Analternativetothebucketisatranslucentsapbag,whichisnotonlycosteffectivebutalsoallowsyoutoseefromadistancehowmuchsapyouhavecollected.Oneofthedisadvantagesofbucketsisthatyou can’t seehow full they areuntil youwalkup to the tree andremove the cover. In a large sugarbush, remembering whichbuckets you’ve already attended to can be a challenge. Somesugarmakers paint half the lid, replacing it in the oppositedirectionsotheyknowfromafarthatthebuckethasalreadybeencollectedthatday.

If you’re using plastic tubing,make sure that your drop lines(smallerdiameter lines that connect the tap to themain line)arelongenoughthatyou’reabletotapin“fresh”wood.Also,takethetimetowalkyourlinetocheckfordamagefromeitherrodentsorfallinglimbs.

ABOVE: Whentappingwithacordlessdrill,besuretopackextrabatteriesandasharpbitformakingcleantapholes.

CollectandBoil

The amount of sap you collect during sugaring season will varygreatlyfromdaytodayandyeartoyear.Temperature(itneedstobe above freezing for the sap to run), barometric pressure, andsunlightallinfluencethesaprun.Somedaysyou’relikelytocollectseveralgallonsofsap,otherdaysitwon’trunatall.Intimeyou’llalso begin to notice how different areas of your sugarbush andindividualtreesrespond.Don’tbesurprisedifyoubegintodescribeindividual trees as being “early,” “stubborn,” “sweet,” or“dependable.”(Whosaidtreesdon'thavepersonalities?)

Inanyevent,it’simportanttocollectandboilyoursapassoonas possible. One good way to keep your sap cool and discouragebacterial growth until you boil is to bury your storage tank in asnowbank.Youcanthenstoreyoursapforweekendboilingpartieswithout having to boil daily or worrying about the sap goingrancid.Ifyoudon’thaveanevaporator,youcanstillmakequalitysyrupoveranopenfire.The larger theevaporatorpan, the fasteryou’ll be able to make syrup. Boiling off the sap in commercialbakingpans and old turkey roasters is a goodway to get started.Makesureyouhaveplentyoffirewood,sinceboilingoff42gallonsofsaptomakeagallonofsyrupcantakeanentireday.

The transition from sap to syrup occurs when your sugarcontentis66to67percent.Thebestwaytomeasurethisisbyusinga hydrometer. You can also make perfectly good syrup using acandythermometer;however,itrequiresabitofcalibrationbasedon elevation and barometric pressure. On boiling day, note thetemperatureatwhichthesapbeginstoboil(itshouldbe212°F+/-a

fewdegrees,dependingonelevation);you’llthenwanttoadd7.1°Fto that boiling point to arrive at the proper temperature forfinishedsyrup.

Makingsyrupfromstarttofinishinthekitchenisgenerallynotadvisable, though finishing up on the stovetop is a good way toprevent scorching since stovetop temperatures are easier tocontrol.Asthesapboils,itwillfoamup.Addingadollopofbutteroradripof canolaoilwill calm thingsdown.A smallmeshhandstrainer is useful for picking out debris and foam during theboilingprocessaswell.

ABOVE: Ifyou’dliketoupgradeyoursugaringhobbyfromcinderblocksandhotelpans,considera2'×4'evaporatorcapableof

handlingsapfromupto125taps.

BottleYourSyrup

BottleYourSyrup

Whenyoursyrup isfinished,you’llwanttocanorbottle ithot insterilizedcontainers.Syrupthat’sallowedtocoolbeforecanningorbottlingcanspoil,butitcanalsobereheatedto180°F.Somefolksallowthesyruptocoolovernightbeforebottlingtoallowthesugarsand(solidifiedminerals)tosettleout.Otherfolksusecoffeefiltersor,betteryet,afeltconetofilterthehotsyrup.

In addition to your back aching fromhauling sap, there are afew indicators thatsugaringseason isover.As temperaturesrise,bacteria will begin to grow in the sap, making it milky inappearance. Early fly hatches, drawn in huge numbers to yourbucketsorsapstoragearea,areanotherindicatorthattheseasonisending.Oncethesugaringseasonhascometoanend,you’llwantto make sure you take the time to thoroughly clean all yourequipment, using a solution that’s 1 part bleach, 20 parts water.Remember, any residual sapmakes for an ideal environment forbacteria.Takingtimetocleanyourequipmentthisspringwillyieldbetter-qualitysyrupnextseason.

After a six-week season of hauling sap and feeding theevaporator, you’ll no doubt be ready to enjoy your harvest. Taketimetoinviteallthosewholentahandduringtheseasonandhostyourownmaplebreakfast.

“Asap-runisthesweetgood-byofwinter.Itisthefruitoftheequalmarriageofthesunandfrost.”

—JOHNBURROUGHS,SIGNSANDSEASONS, 1886

SIZINGUPYOURSUGARBUSH

InthissectionI’lldiscusshowthemaintainingasugarbushcanbecombined with other homestead goals. I’ll assume that you have

sugar maple (Acer saccharum) trees, but remember that a widerange of species can be tapped in the spring so long as youhavecoldnights(belowfreezing)andwarmdays(abovefreezing).

Your sugarbush may consist of anything from a few maplesalong your fenceline to an elaborate tubing layout that you cangrow into with time. The discussion here is targeted to a largerhomesteadsugarbushsinceitallowsustodiscussawiderrangeofmanagement options, but many of the concepts are applicable,regardlessofsugarbushsize.

SiteSelectionandStandStructure

Ifyou’refortunateenoughtohaveawoodlandhomesteadthathasmultiple sugarbush site locations (indicated by an abundance ofcroptrees),thefollowingguidewillhelpyouthroughtheplanningprocess.Beginbysettingupyoursugaringoperationbasedononeimportantquestion:Howwillyougatherthesap?Thisisaquestionas much of labor as of the lay of the land. If your long-termambitions includemorethan100taps,youmaywanttooptforalayout that allows for a plastic tubing system with a centralcollection tank. If you opt for a more manual system, using atractororhorsesandbuckets,youwillneedaroadortrailnetwork.

Ifyouoptfora tubingsystem,studyyour landtosee ifyou’reabletousegravitytomovethesaptoyourcollectiontank.Ideally,your sugarbush will be on an eastern or southern slope, whichoffersthebestcompromisebetweengrowingconditionsandgoodsapproduction.Ifyou’reusingbuckets,flattergroundisgenerallypreferable.

Sugar maples prefer deep, well-drained, moderately coarse-textured soils. On less-fertile sites, you’ll often find sugarmaple

intermixedwith redmaple, basswood, ash, or evenwhite pine. Ifyour property doesn’t host many sugar maple trees, considertappingthealternativespecies(see ).

StandStructureandHealth

You’ll recall from that “stand structure” refers to thesize, arrangement, age, and species of trees in your forest. Yourgoalistooptimizegrowingconditionsforyourmapletreessothatthey’reabletodevelopwide,vigorouscrownscapableofproducingmore sap. Additionally, there will be variability in the sugarcontentofsapfromtreetotree,thoughthenormalrangeisusuallybetween1.5and4percent.Studiesalsoindicatethatincreasingtheamount of direct sunlight a crown receives increases sapsweetness.

Given the virtues of creating sites with little intraspeciescompetition, it would be easy to assume that a monoculture ofsugarmaplesistheperfectsugarbush.Certainlyfromaproductionand convenience standpoint this is ideal, but amonoculture alsorepresents trade-offs that should be carefully considered. If youthink of your forest as an investment, and apply a bit ofinvestment theory, you’ll quickly conclude that eliminating all“non-maples”isariskyproposition.

The risks of developing amonoculture includemaple-specificdefoliators, increased vulnerability to vascular disease, gradualadversechangesinnutrientrelationships,andreducedresiliency.These risks tend to be greatest on sites that arenot “ideal” sugarmaple sites, where the removal of associated species may causestress from logging damage, or changes in light conditions thataffect the remaining trees. In the interest of sustaining thesugarbush for future generations, we’ll focus on “uneven-agedmanagement” — maintaining crop trees of different ages — in

here

chapter 1

order to ensure a steady supply of tappable trees. In addition toconsidering forest structure and health, other trade-offs toconsideronthehomesteadsugarbushincluderetainingalternativetappable species, keeping trees for firewood production, orgrowingminorforestproducts.

MANAGINGFORMULTIPLEUSES

Since a good sugarbush can and should provide multiplecrops, it’s important to explore all the possibilities for yourown homestead. In some cases, sugaring may be the minoruse of your land, with firewood or forage productiondominating.There’snorightorwrongcombination;thegoalisto find the combination that is best suited to yourneedsandthe production possibilities of your land. That said, I wouldencourage you to develop flexible plans that allow for shiftsbasedonchangingneeds.

THEMULTIUSESUGARBUSH

As we’ve discussed, the homestead sugarbush need not be amonoculture of maples; instead it can be a multiuse forest thatsuitsavarietyofhomesteadgoals.Withabitofplanning,you’llbeable tomaximizeyourrangeofgoodsandproducts.Asastartingpoint,I’drecommendmakingamasterlistofalltheproductsyouhopetoproduceonyourhomestead;thislong-rangeplanningwillplayanimportantroleindecidingwhatstaysandwhatgoesinthehomesteadwoodlot.

To illustrate this point, suppose that in addition to producingmaplesyrupyou’dalsoliketoraisehoneybees.Onekeyelementtoraisinghoneybeesisprovidingavarietyoftreeswithearlyflowersthatprovidepollenwhenit’smostneededforsurvival.Amongthebest early-flowering trees for bees are basswood, aspen, anddogwood.Ifyouweremanagingyoursugarbushasamonoculture,youwouldhavelikelyremovedthesetreesasameansofreducingcompetition. However, entertaining these two goals side-by-sidedemonstrateshowstrikingabalanceamonggoalswillrequirebothawillingnesstoaccepttrade-offsandacontemplativemindthat’sable to appreciate the challenges associated with multiusemanagement.Tothatend,considerthefollowingguidelinesasjustthat,guidelines,whentendingyoursugarbush.

FocusonCropTrees

Whilemanysugarbushoperatorswilltellyoutoaimforaspecificbasalarea(40to60squarefeetperacreiscommon),youmayfinditmoreusefultofocusonindividualcroptrees,especiallyifyou’reworkingwithasmallorhighlyvariablemultiusesugarbush.Croptreesarereleasedbycuttingadjacenttreesthatcrowd,orhavethepotential to crowd, your crop tree. As a general rule, crowns ofadjacenttreesthatareindirectcontactwithyourcroptreearecut,whereas shrub species and other plants that don’t interferewitheither the growth of the crop tree, or collection of sap, should beretainedforbiodiversity.Whenconductingacroptreereleaseforthefirsttime,it’sbesttoreleasethecrownslowly,clearingjustoneortwosidesperyear;thiswillhelpreducestressandallowthecroptree to adjust to new light conditions. In addition to spacing andmaintaining a clear crown, you’ll also want to consider otherfactorsthatcontributetotheselectionofcroptreesandtheoverallhealthandproductivityofyoursugarbush.

ConsidertheHealthandVigoroftheTrees

ConsidertheHealthandVigoroftheTrees

Attimes,managingyourhomesteadsugarbushwillrequireyoutoactasatreedoctor,diagnosingtreediseasesandmaladies.Youwillwant to be able to determine whether a disease will result inmortality or is simply a cosmetic or temporary health issue.Various illustrated field guides are available to help you throughthe tree disease diagnosis process (see ). This said, ifduring your crop tree release you’re faced with the question ofremoving a competing tree but aren’t sure which one to take,consider the following factors: favor large crowns over smallercrowns,favorstraighttreesover“leaners,”andfavorthetreethatrepresents better access and/or more optimal spacing withneighboringtrees.Intheeventthatbothtreesseemequally“good,”considerusingarefractometertocomparethesugarcontentofthetreesinquestion.Whilesugarcontentwillvaryfromyeartoyear,therelativesweetnessamongtreesisratherconsistent.

ConsiderWildlife

Whilewildlife can sometimes be a nuisance in the sugarbush, asany sugarmaker who has had to deal with rodents chewing saplinescanattestto,itcanalsobeanimportantcomponentforbothnonconsumptive uses (like aesthetics and biodiversity) andconsumptiveuses(likehunting).Huntersappreciatetherelativelyopenforeststructureofsugarbushes,whichallowforclearshots,while birders appreciate the open canopy structure for observingbirds. Removing thinned trees for firewood is practical, but alsoconsider some as a way to provide habitat for cavitynesterslikewoodpeckers.

ConsidertheFuture

Resources

girdling

Since your trees should be at least 10 inches DBH before beingtapped,itcanbetemptingtocreateasugarbushwithjustbigtrees,removing all the smaller trees and undergrowth. While thisapproachwillcreateaparklikesettingwithwonderfulaccess, it’simportanttoconsiderwhatwillreplacethetreesyoucut,longafterthebigtreeshavebeen“tappedout.”Promotinganewageclassofcroptreesisimportantandwillallowyoutoestablishasugarbushthatbenefitsfuturegenerationsofsugarmakers.

OTHERTREESTOTAP

*Thewidesugar-contentrangepresentedforeachspeciesisinfluencedbyboththegrowingsiteandthegeneticsofindividualtrees.Theseshouldbeconsideredgeneralguidelines.Tomeasuretheexactsugarcontentofyourtrees,youcanusearefractometer,whichyourlocalCooperativeExtensionofficemayprovidefortestingpurposes.

E X P E R T P R O F I L E

MeetDr.Maple

MichaelFarrell,PhD

Dr.MichaelFarrellisdirectorofCornellUniversity’smapleresearchfieldstationinLakePlacid,NewYork,wherehetapsmorethan5,000trees.Thefieldstationisbothacommercial-scale production facility and an important research hub thattackles maple-related issues from forest health to theeconomicsofsugaring.

FromthemomentyoumeetMichael,onething isclear:hewants nothing more than to make the sugaring experienceaccessibletoasmanypeopleaspossible.Tothatend,Michaelhasemergedasaleaderandadvocateforalternativespeciestapping, a practice that expands syrup making beyond thegeographic range of sugar maple, thereby making sap andsyrup production possible in every state but Hawaii (thoughhe’s quick to point out that Hawaiian palm sap could becollected,too).

In addition to promoting alternative species for tapping,Michael isquicktonameoffawholehostofothergoodsthatpeoplecanincorporateintotheirsugaringoperation,includingwild edibles, medicinal plants, florals, and his particularfavorite,tapholemaplelumber.

Tapholemaple isagoodexampleof justonemoreuniqueproduct that can be harvested from your homesteadsugarbush.Traditionally, tappedtreeswereregardedasonlysuitable for firewood because of the stains and holesassociatedwithtapping.However,justasbird’s-eyeandcurlymapleareincreasinglysoughtafterfortheiruniquequalities,soistapholemaple.AsMichaelexplains,theaddedvalueisn’tjust about the beautiful multicolor wood but also aboutnostalgia, knowing that each board contains the history andindeliblemarkofasugarmaker’stap.

“Tapholemapleisagoodexampleofjustone

“Tapholemapleisagoodexampleofjustonemoreuniqueproductthatcanbeharvested

fromyourhomesteadsugarbush.”

C H A P T E R 7

FarmingtheForestFloor

Nuts,Berries,Mushrooms,andMore

With all the products provided above the forest floor, apersoncouldbeforgivenforoverlookingall thegoodsthatlieathisfeet.Thischapterwillexamineavarietyofedibles,as well as several medicinal plants, that can be grown,managed, and collected on your woodland homestead.Whilewe’llfocusonsomeofthemostcommonforestcrops,taking the time to learn aboutotheruseful plants that arewell suited to your particular region will not only result inmoresuccessfulproductionbutalsobeanimportantpartofpreservingtraditionalruralknowledge.

HÜGELKULTUR:AWHOLE-TREECOMPOSTING

SYSTEM

Admittedly,myentryintohügelkulturwasabitinadvertent.Iwasintheprocessofremovingstumpsfromapastureusingthepig-o-tillermethod(see ),whenIrealizedIhadanabundanceof stumps piled up. I had constructed several stump walls asbarriers butwasnow interested in getting stumps to decompose,rather thanbuildingwith them. Itwasat thispoint that a friendsuggestedhügelkultur,notingthatitwasinperfectalignmentwithmygoalsasastump-rich,soil-poorhomesteader.

Hügelkultur,whichliterallymeans“hillculture,”issaidtohaveoriginated with German farmers who wanted to find a use forstumps and debris that resulted from clearing cropland. In its

chapter3

simplestform,hügelkulturisburyingwoodydebrisunderlayersofsoilandcompost,tocreatedeep,rich,water-retentivebeds.

BUILDINGTHEBEDS

Hügelkulturbedsaremeant tobeproductivegrowingspaces thatsomehavedescribedasoversizeraisedgardenbeds.

Choosea site. Start byplanningout the locationandorientationforyourhügelkulturbed.Sincethebedwillhaveopposingslopes,or planting surfaces, you’ll have the advantage of creating twodifferent microclimates on opposite sides of it. East–westorientationwill create an early growth southern bed on one sideand a later-season bed for hardier crops and perennials on theother.Thebedcanbelengthenedovertime,somakesuretoallowroomforexpansion.

Gathermaterials.Onceyou’vedeterminedagoodlocationforyourhügelkulturbed,takestockofyourmaterials,whichshouldincludestumps, logs, brush, and some sort ofmulchmaterial, preferablycontaining animalmanure. If you find yourself running short ofwoody debris for your hügelkultur bed, check with your localwaste-disposalprograms.Manymunicipalitiescollectwoodydebrisand landscapewaste tokeep itoutof the landfillandoftenallowgardenerstocartawaythematerial.Freenutrientsforthetaking!

Digthetrench.Whilehügelkulturbedscanbeconstructedentirelyby hand, the process can be expedited with the aid of a tractoroutfitted with a bucket loader and backhoe. Excavate a trenchequal indepthtocoarsestmaterialsyou’llbeadding(i.e.,equaltothediameterofthelargestlogsorstumpsthatwillformthebase).

Asyoubegin,besuretosetasidethesodwhichwillbeinvertedandusedtotop-dressthebed lateron.Thewidthofthetrenchshouldbeequaltotheoverallheightofthefinalhügelkulturbed.Startingthe bed in a shallow trench will give future plants access tominerals and macronutrients that are best obtained from thesubsoil, as well as tie the bed into the existing fungi-richrhizosphere.

Addlayersofwoodydebrisandmulchmaterial.Oncethetrenchisdug,beginbylayinginyourcoarsestdebris,includingstumpsandlogs. Ifyou’reable topull theoldstumpsandmove themto theirnewhügelkulturhomeonthesameday,you’llbemoresuccessfulinpreservingsaprophytesandotherbeneficialsoilfungi.Minimizetheadditionofgreenconifermaterialthat’srichintanninsandofpine boughs. Aspen, willow, and birch (all coppice species) decayquickly and have reasonably good nutrient content. Once you’veestablished your first layer, add a layer of grass clippings andleavesor,evenbetter,soiledanimalbedding.

Add a final layer of soil. Continue this layering process, withsuccessivelysmallerwoodydebristowardthetop,whereyou’lladdthe final soil layer. The height of the bedwill depend on both itsintended purpose (are youmaking this bed so youwon’t need tobendoveratharvest time?),andavailablematerials (thebedscanbe added to over time). The depth and quality of the soil layershould be determined by the types of crops youwish to grow. Intime, layers of thick humuswill develop as your hügelkultur bedages. In the beginning, however, it’s best to plant shallow-rooted,crawling plants like squashes,melons, and strawberries. You canalsouseyourhügelkulturbedstoestablishperennialgardens;thiswill maintain a constant cover (thereby reducing the chances oferosion)andmake low,backbreakingberrypickinga thingof the

past. Over time, as the woodymaterial within breaks down, youmaynoticeanincreaseintermitesandwoodborerbeetles.Inthiscase,setupportablepoultrynetonthebedsandletyourchickensearntheirkeep.

ABOVE: Hügelkulturbedscreateanutrient-richenvironmentthat’seffectiveatretainingmoistureduringdroughtandoffers

aconvenientheightforharvestingthecrop.

HÜGELKULTURTHEORY

Because of their abundance of wood, hügelkultur beds are acarbon-rich environment; in fact, they are sometimes too rich.Whengreenwoodisintroducedintoyourhügelkulturbed,youcanend up with an off-kilter carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (recall ourdiscussionof ramialwood chips in ),where, at least inchapter6

theshort-term,surroundingplantmatter(includingyourpotentialcrop) may be robbed of essential nitrogen. To counteract thispotential nitrogen deficit, you can enrich your hügelkultur bedwith nitrogen-rich fertilizer (it’s time to clean the chicken coopanyway, isn’t it?) or, alternatively, add partially rotted wood toyourbedasasourceofnitrogen.

As the wood decomposes, pockets are created within the bed.Thesepocketsallowforbothwaterandnutrienttransport,butarealsohabitats forbacteriaand fungi.Asdecomposersdo their job,thehügelkulturbedwillbegintoshrink.My6-footbedshrankto5feet in a period of three years; it is now the perfect height forharvesting.

Perhaps the most noticeable difference between these andconventional raised beds is the water-retaining capacity ofhügelkulturbeds.Unlike conventionalbeds,whichdryout easily,hügelkultur beds are essentially giant sponges, holding hugeamounts of water in their decaying logs. The level of waterretentioncorrespondstothetotalmassofthewood,sothebiggerthebed,themoremoistureitwillhold.

HÜGELKULTUR2.0

Onceyou’vehadtheopportunity toexperimentwithhügelkultur,you’ll likely think of otherways to use hügelkultur beds on yourhomestead.Somepeopledesigntheendsoftheirhügelkulturbedssothatthey’reexposed;theycantheninoculatetheendsofthelogswithmushroommycelium,foranadditionalediblecrop.

Whenhügelkulturbedsareplantedinrows20to30feetapart,you’re leftwithvalleysbetween thebeds thatmake for ideal roworchardsaswaterandnutrients runoff thebedand towardyour

orchard trees.Dwarf trees arebest for this application, sinceyoudon’twanttoshadethehügelkulturbeds.

Finally, consider experimentingwith different-shaped beds tosuit your spaceand specific crop.Variations include thepyramiddesign,therock-walldesign,andthetimber-ledgerdesign.Boththerock-wall and timber-ledger design can be added to existinghügelkulturbedstominimizeerosion.

CULTIVATINGFORESTEDIBLES

Onafairlyregularbasis,Ihearfromfolkswhotellmetheirdreamsofhavingan“ediblelandscape.”Ioftenaskthemtodescribetheirwoods; invariably, what they describe is a setting that in manycasesalreadycontainsavarietyofediblefruits,berries,nuts,andmushrooms,amongotherthings.Whatthey’remissingisatunedwoodland eye that tells them where to look and how to expandcultivationofadesiredspeciesonceit’sfound.Let’stakealookatsomeofthemostcommonforestediblesaswellasafewtricksofthewoodstoencouragethemonyourwoodlandhomestead.

BLACKBERRIESANDRASPBERRIES

As you survey your woodland homestead, note the areas whereblackberryand/orraspberry(Rubusspp.)appear.Maybeyouknowabitaboutthehistoryofyourland;ifso,whatcanyourecallaboutpast activities on the site where the berries are found? In mostcases, the answer is the same: logging, land clearing,mowing, orotheractivitiesthatincreasedsunlightanddisturbedthesoil,often

complementedbyscarification.Oncethegroundwarmed,dormantseedsgerminated,resultinginaberrypatch.

Natural berry patches can be reasonably short lived (less than10 years), unless shade is kept at bay and canes are regularlypruned.Thebasicprocedure is the same forboth raspberriesandblackberries, but it’s important to realize that blackberries aren’tquite as vigorous as raspberries, so it’s generally advisable toremovefewercaneswhenpruning.Bothtypesofberriesreproducethrough suckering, so your berry patch will expand if there’senoughavailablelightandspace.

ExpandingYourBerryPatch

Youcanpromotetheestablishmentandexpansionofberrypatchesby creating forest gaps and edgehabitat, and then scarifying thesoilbyrakingitinthefall.Themostimportantpartofscarificationistomakesureyougetbelowtheduff,exposingdormantseedstomineralsoil.Ifyouliveinapartofthecountrywhereraspberriesor blackberries are commonly found, chances are good there aredormantseedsinthesoil,soyoucanprobablyavoidtheexpenseofpurchasingcultivatedvarietiesofbrambles,which inmanycasesaresusceptibletodiseasescarriedbywildvarieties.

RestoringaWildBramblePatch

Begin by pruning all canes that bore fruit last year; theywon’tfruit again. Typically, these canes have peeling, purplish-graybark.If thestemsaretoothickorwoodytoremoveusinghandshears,useloppers,cuttingthembacktowithin4inchesofthebase.

Removeanyspindlyorshortcanesaswell,andanycanes thatgrowsideways.Remember that the fruitneedssunlight to fullydevelop.

In the case of blackberries, prune the growing tips of all newcanes to encourage side shoots (laterals). This is where nextyear’sblackberrieswillgrow.

STRAWBERRIESONTHEFORESTFLOOR

If we think of the woodland homestead as edible layers, wildstrawberries are on the ground layer, often located at woodlandedges. Wild strawberries are smaller than cultivated varieties,whichareahybridofthewildstrawberryandaEuropeanspecies.

Fields and open lawns commonly host the Virginia wildstrawberry(Fragariavirginiana),knownforitsexceptionallysweetberries and geographic distribution, which includes the entirecontinental United States. In forests and woodlots, you’re more

likely to encounter the woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca),which can tolerate shade better and produces fruit that is largerthan the Virginia wild strawberry. The woodland strawberry issometimessoldbynurseriesunderthename“alpinestrawberry.”

Whilewildstrawberriescanbegrownfromseed,yourchancesof success are greatly increased by transplanting establishedplants.Thebesttimetotransplantisintheearlyspring,justasthenew growth appears. Plants can be gently lifted and the crownspulled apart. Top-dress your transplants with a thin layer ofcompost, and water them daily until they’re clearly established.Strawberries spread by stolons (aboveground runners), and you

can encourage their movement in a particular direction byrearrangingthestolons.

Onedrawbacktogrowingwildstrawberriesistheirdiminutivesize. An alternative is to select a larger cultivated variety (alsoknown as a cultivar). When choosing among cultivars, considerwhen they fruit, their resistance or susceptibility to particulardiseases,andsizeor tastecharacteristics. Ifyou intend toeat thestrawberries fresh, consider an everbearing cultivar. If youprimaryuseiscanning/freezing,considerearly-seasoncultivarsinwarmerclimatesandlate-seasoncultivarsincoolerclimates.

NUTSASAFORESTCROP

Nutsareanimportantcroponthewoodlandhomestead—packedwith protein and easy to preserve. Throughout this section, we’llexamine some of the most common nut trees found on thewoodlandhomestead, aswell as someof their less commonuses,bothgastronomicandutilitarian.

Acorns

Traditionally, acornswere valued as ahigh-calorie, versatile foodstaplethatcouldberoasted,boiled,orgroundintoflour.Acornsareextremelyhighintannins,andanyattempttoeatmostrawacornswill make yourmouth pucker with astringency. There are a few

“sweet oaks,” such as the emory oak (Quercus emoryi) of theAmericanSouthwest,which are sweet enough to eat off the tree,but in most cases boiling the acorns is the key to making thempalatable.

“Certaincrop-yieldingtreescouldprovideusefulsubstitutesforcerealsinanimalfeedsaswellasconservetheenvironment.”

—J. R. SMITH,AUTHOROFFORESTCROPS , 1929

ShellingandLeachingAfter you’ve collected your acorns, remove their caps and husks.Instead of using a conventional nutcracker, I recommend usingpliers.Thesewillallowyoutopopthecapoff,whilesimultaneouslygivingthenutagentlesqueezetocrackthehuskandallowyoutopeeloutthekernel.Onceyou’vemanagedtoamassabowlofacornkernels,you’llneedtoleachoutthetannins.Youhaveatleasttwooptions for this: you can process them whole, or you can grindthemformeal.

Processingwhole kernels. Boil the whole kernels in at least twochangesofwater to leachout the tannins.After thekernelshavebeenboiled,placethemonabakingsheet,saltthem,andbakefor20minutesat200°Fbeforeenjoyingasasnack.

Making acorn meal. Another option is to make acorn meal,traditionallyusedbyNativeAmericansforthickeningsoupandformakingacorncakes.Inthismethod,thekernelsaren’tboileduntilafter they’ve been coarsely ground in a grain mill or foodprocessor. Using ground instead of whole kernels speeds up theleaching process. Place the ground acorn meal in a bowl, pourboilingwateroverthem,andletthemstandforhalfanhour.Tastethemeal; it shouldbeboth sweetandastringent. If youwant theacornmealtobesweeter,pourmoreboilingwateroverthem.

Once you’re satisfied with the sweetness of the acorn meal,removeitfromthebowlandpressitinacleanteatoweltosqueezeoutthelastbitofwater.Next,spreaditonacookiesheetandallowittoslowlydryintheovenonthelowestheatsettingpossible.Or,betteryet,place themealoutsideona sunnyday; justmake surethesquirrelsdon’tfindit.Thefinalstepistorunthecoarse-groundmeal through your grainmill, on the “fine” setting. The finishedmealwillstoreforacoupleofweeksontheshelf,oryoucanfreezeitforuptosixmonths.

AcornsforAnimalFodderHistorically,theothermainuseforacornswasanimalfodder(see

).Whileavarietyof livestock— includingcows, sheep,andgoats—haveallbeensuccessfullyraisedonacorns,pigsthrivelikenootheronanacorndiet.Becauseacornsarerichinbothfatand protein, the U.S. Department of Agriculture examined thepotential for pasturing pigs in oak stands in the early 1900s andconcluded that “a bushel of acorns makes 6.6 pounds of pork,”thereby being equal to “ten good ears of corn.” In addition todemonstratingthelongtraditionofusingnutsasanimalsfodder,theseearlyrecordsalsohighlightatimewhenresourcefulnesswasvaluedasmuchasmodernmetricsofefficiencylikecarcassyieldandrapidweaning.

Walnuts

The black walnut (Juglans nigra) is the walnut native to NorthAmerica.It’sacousintothebutternutandhickorynut,butitholdsthedistinctionofhaving the tastiestofnuts (howeverdifficult toaccess through its thick shell). At times, I’ve consideringnominating walnut splitting as an Olympic sport: it requires

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strength,stamina,andperseverance.However,atthecenterofthetoughshell isameatygemthat’llrewardyourtastebudslikefewother nuts will ever do. When folks ask how it compares to theEnglish(Persian)walnutsthatyoufindatthegrocerystore,Ioftendescribe itasthedifferencebetweenasweetwildstrawberryandthe large but tasteless strawberries in the produce aisle. Blackwalnutsarerich,buttery,andhaveapleasant,lingeringflavor.

Harvesting.Inmostpartsofthecountry,walnutharvestingbeginsinOctober,whenthenutsfalltotheground,allowingforaneasygathering. The green hulls will begin to discolor and decomposesoonafterhittingtheground,butinmostcasesthenutsinsidearestillgood.Beforeyoubeginharvesting,makesureyou’rewearingold clothes and gloves; walnut hulls will stain your clothesyellowish-brown.Whengatheringwalnuts,excludethosethatfeelnoticeablylight(butdon’tworryifyoufindinsectsorgrubsinthehull).

Hulling.Theprocessofhullingthenutcanbedoneseveralways.Inyouliveinanaridpartofthecountryandthehullshavebeguntodryout,youmayfindthatyoucansimplypeelthehullwhereit’sbegun to separate. More likely, though, the hull will still be wellattached;inthatcase,useaknifetocutaringaroundthehull,thentwist to release the nut inside. Another method is to make a“hullingpress”outofa2×4about2feet long.Laytheboardflatwith a block under each end, and drill three holes of varyingdiameters in the top: 1 inches, 1 inches, and2 inches.Useahammer or rubber mallet to pound each walnut through theappropriate-size hole in the hulling press. You’ll then be able topeelawayanyremaininghull.Ifyourwalnutharvestingfallsabitlateintheyear,youmaybeleftwithgooeyhulls.Inthiscase,these

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partiallydecomposedhullscanusuallybepeeledwithoutaidofaknife,or(asonefrienddid)peeledwithapressurewasher.

ABOVE: Inhumidregions,walnuthullsmaynotdryandpeeleasilyastheydoinaridregions.Buildingahullingpresscanmakethis

difficulttaskmucheasier.

Curing. Once all your walnuts have been hulled, wash them andplacetheminanonionorcitrussacktodryandcureforabouttwoweeks. To prevent mold, make sure the curing area is wellventilated.Leaving themtohang in thesack is theeasiestway tostorethemforextendedperiods.

Shelling. Once thewalnuts have cured, the hardwork of shellingthenutsbegins.UnlikeEnglishwalnuts,whichcomeoutinperfecthalves, black walnuts will likely come out in pieces; but don’tdespair,thesepiecesarefarsuperiorintastetoanyothernut.Iusea16-ouncehammerandawood-splittingblockasmyprimarytoolsforaccessingthemeat.However, tokeeptheshellandmeatfromflying,Iwrapeachnutinatowelpriortohammering.Usuallytwoorthreestrikesareallittakestoshattertheshell.

Picking the nutmeat. Before you celebrate, keep in mind thatcracking isn’t the final step of the process; your nutmeat is stillfirmlyconnectedtotheshellandmustbeteasedapart.Thiscanberather frustrating unless you have the right tools. Diagonal wirecutters are ideal, allowing you to snip the connective tissuebetweenthemeatandtheshell.Toshellapoundofwalnutstakesme about three hours, which means you’ll chew slower not justbecauseoftheirrichtastebutalsooutofappreciationforthelaborinvestment.

Storingthenutmeat.Rawwalnutscanbekeptforuptotwoyearsinthefreezerusingairtightbags.Iprefertoeatblackwalnutsraw,butsomefolksbakethemwithabitofmaplesyrup.

Usingtheshells.Thehullsandshellshaveseveralinnovativeuses.Because the walnut shells are so hard, they make a wonderfulabrasive for “sandblasting” old tools. You’ll have to grind (orhammer) them to the consistency of sand, but the result does afabulous jobwithouterodingthemetal. Ifyouaccumulatea largequantity of the shells, you can burn them as “firewood” —amazinglyhot!

As for the spent hulls, they contain an allopathic compoundknown as juglone, which inhibits the growth of many plants

(besides walnut trees). Directly applying the hulls on sites whereyou’retryingtoinhibitwoodyplantgrowthishighlyeffective.Thehulls(andshells,too)canbeusedtomakeabrownwooldye;boil4gallonsofwaterwith1gallonofhulls/shells, and1 cupof salt tohelpsetthecolor.Wettheskeinsinwater,andthenputthemintheslurry.

Chestnuts

Chestnutsbelongtothesamefamilyasoakandbeech(Fagaceae),with European, Asiatic, and American species all cultivated for

their edible nuts. At one time, American chestnut (Castaneadentata) was among themost valued and prolific tree species onfarms and homesteads, accounting for nearly one of every fourtrees in the Appalachian forest. Its wood was prized for timberframes,toolhandles,andfinefurniture.Thetreesalsoprovidedacopious supply of nuts that sustained both homesteader andlivestockthroughthelongwintermonths.

Sadly, though, in the early 1900smany trees were discoveredwith chestnut blight, which likely entered the United States onChinese nursery stock. Within 40 years, the nearly four-billion-strong American chestnut population in North America wasdecimated. Over the last century, various disease-resistant,nonnativespecieshavebeenplanted, therebypreservingmanyofthe uses associated with the chestnut. More recently, a processknown as back-breeding has allowed for genetic material fromdisease-immuneAsiaticspecies tobecrossed,andthenrecrossed,withasmallpopulationofAmericanchestnut trees thatsurvivedthe blight, resulting in a disease-resistant American chestnut.Whilemanyofthesedisease-resistantAmericanchestnutsarestillin their infancy, foresters are hopeful that this ecologicallysignificanttreemaymakeareturntoourwoodlands.Fortunately,

Asiatic and European chestnut species are well establishedthroughout North America, particularly as ornamental trees,thoughtheyaresometimesalsoplantedinforestgardens.

HarvestingLikewalnuts, chestnut fruitsarematurewhen they fallnaturallyfrom the tree. Thenuts ripen in late September andOctober andgainhalfoftheirfinalweightinthefinaltwoweeksbeforefalling,so there’s littlepoint inharvestinggreennutsbefore theyhit theground.

ABOVE: ChestnutsareharvestedinSeptemberandOctober.Besuretocollectthemsoonaftertheyfall,tominimizechestnut

weevildamage.

Hulling.Thehuskofchestnutsisthick,withsharp,stiffbristlesandtwo or three nuts inside. Wearing leather work gloves, you canremovethehusktoreleasethenuts.Anotherapproachtoreleasingthenuts is tostepon thehuskandrollyourfootso that thenutspop out the side. Once the hull is removed, many growersrecommendsoaking thenuts inhotwater (120°F) for20minutesbeforestorage,tokillanychestnutmaggotsthatmightbelurking.At this point, you can either preserve the nuts in their shell byhangingtheminanonionbagforfutureuse,oryoucanroastthemintheoven(orinaDutchovenoveranopenfire)andenjoy.

Roasting.Regardlessofyourroastingmethod,you’llneedtocutaslice in the shell so that the nut roasts evenly and the moistureinside has a way to escape. Some people cut an x in the shell,thoughasinglecutacrossthecenteroftheshellseemstoworkjustas well and is a safer cut tomake. If you’re working with curedchestnuts, they may benefit from parboiling to soften the shellbeforecutting.Roastthechestnutsonacookiesheetat425°Ffor30minutes, and then open the shell along the incision. The roastedchestnutscanthenbesaltedandeatenasawarmtreatorusedtomakeaheartystew.

MUSHROOMSINTHEFOREST

Toharvestmushroomsfromyourwoodlandhomestead,youhavetwo basic options: forage forwild ediblemushrooms or cultivate

them.Sinceidentifyingwildmushroomscanbetricky,youmightwant tostartwithcultivatingmushroomsasyourfirst foray intotheworldoffungi.Theprocessofcultivationthroughinoculatingachosensubstrate(suchasalogorstump)withaparticularspeciesof fungus is straightforward. The simplest inoculation methodrelieson“spawnplugs”thataretappedintoaseriesofholesdrilledinafreshlogorstump,thensealedoverwithwax.

Choosingwhichmushroomtocultivate isamatterofpersonalpreference,basednotonlyonhowyou’llusethembutalsoonhoweasytheyaretogrow.Morels,forexample,areextremelytastybutalsoextremelydifficulttocultivate.Themushroomsselectedbeloware all well suited to beginners, and to being grown in thehomesteadwoodlot.

Finally, it isworthnotingthatasyoutendyourwoodlot,you’lllikely accumulate a large amount of pole-size wood, which isperfect for cultivating a variety ofmushrooms. Again, this is anexampleofhowasingleactivitycanprovidemultiplebenefits.

ChoosingYourFungus

Spore plugs are available for dozens of different fungi.Experimentationwillallowyoutoidentifythosespeciesbestsuitedtoyourparticularmicroclimate.Thissectiondiscussesthreeeasy-to-growspeciesthataresuitableforavarietyofregionsandknownforexcellentflavorandyield.

ShiitakeMushrooms(Lentinulaedodes)The shiitake mushroom is perhaps the most popular cultivatedmushroom in the world, growing naturally on Asian oaks andbeeches.Ifcultivatedondenserwoodspecies,itcanproduceforupto10years.Softerwoods,likeaspen,willdecomposeinaslittleas

three years. Shiitakes enjoy diffuse light, meaning that theyshouldn’tbeindirectsunordenseshade.It’sbesttoharvestthemwhenthemarginsofthecapsarestillslightlyrolled,representingthe highest-quality mushroom. In addition to being easy tocultivate,theshiitakeispopularforitsnutritionalqualities,whichincludeDandBvitamins,traceminerals,andprotein.

ReishiMushrooms(Ganodermalucidum)Commonly found in oak, maple, and hemlock forests, the reishigrows best in a truly moist environment. In Asia, one commoncultivation method is to partially bury inoculated logs and thencreate a small plastic hoop frame over the log pile. It generallytakessixmonthstotwoyearsforthefirstflushofmushrooms,butthelogswillcontinuetoproduceforfourtofiveyears.

TreeOysterMushroom(Pleurotusostreatus)The beauty of the oyster mushroom is that it is the easiestmushroom togrow. In somepartsof thedevelopingworld, ithasbeen used as a rural economic development tool. The oystermushroomismostcommoninlowlandhardwoodforestsandcanbecultivatedonvirtuallyanyhardwoodspecies.Inadditiontothewedge-cutmethoddescribed ,oystermushroomsalsodowellinlogs10to16inchesindiameterand4feetlongthatareplantedverticallyintheground,1footdeep,andinoculatedwithplugs.

CHOOSINGTHERIGHTMUSHROOMHOST

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Which mushroom species are best for cultivating? For mostmushrooms it’s more about having proper habitat thantargeting a specific species, though all mushrooms prefercool, moist, well-shaded areas. You should always useinoculation logs that have been cut from a live tree. It’stempting to use a dead or dying tree, but chances are goodthat it’salready inoculatedwithotherfungiorpathogens. It’salsoimportantthatthebarkis intact.Thiscanbeachallengesincethebesttimeoftheyeartocutmushroomlogs(spring)isalsothetimeatwhichbarkismostpronetopeelingasaresultof sap flow.Carrying, insteadof dragging,will goa longwaytoward preserving the bark. Oak, maple, and beech arepreferred species, with aspen, birch, basswood, and alderbeingalternativechoices.

SelectingSitesandSpecies

Withabitofplanning,mushroomcultivationcanbeasideactivitywithimpressiveyields.Theideaistoinoculateyourchosenlogs—that is, to inject themwithmushroommycelium (the part of thefungus that colonizes the substrate, and from which themushroom fruits). While some fungi grow on softwoods, we’llfocus on mushrooms that grow on hardwood species. Start themushroomseasoninearlyspringbycuttingyourcultivationlogs.Early spring is when the moisture and sugar content is highest,therebymakingittheoptimaltimetocutmushroomlogs.

Sincemushrooms lovemoisture, it’s best if you can keep theinoculatedlogsinashaded,moistareaofthewoodlot.Northslopesareoptimal.Another factor to consider iswind;high,windy sitestend tobepoor formushroomcultivationbecause the spores can

easily dry out. You’ll also need to water your mushroomsthroughouttheseason;locatingyourinoculatedlogsnearawatersourcewillcertainlymaketheprocesseasier.

As you’re searching for your idealmushroom site, note othermushrooms in the area. As a general rule, it’s best to avoid siteswithobviousmushroompopulations,sincetheymaycolonizeandoutcompete your mushroom spawn. As you become moreexperienced inmycology (i.e., the study of fungal life), youmayidentify and cultivate species of mushrooms that behave inmutuallybeneficialways,eliminatingconcernsofcompetition.

Tositethelog,considereitherthelogcabinortipiarrangement.Ifyou’reconcernedthatwatermightbea limitingfactor,gowiththe tipiarrangement,as itwillallowthe log todrawwateroutofthegroundlikeastraw.Keepingthelogsdampisimportant;manymycologistswatertheirlogsasoftenastheywatertheirgardens.

Manyold-timersinsistthatforagoodcrop,youneedto“knock”the log, which is thought to stimulate the mycelium, just as afallingbranchwould. Tome, it seems likeabit of a folk tale, butwhynot?

If you’re inoculating various logs in your woodlot, you maywanttotackametaltagintheendofthelogtoidentifythespeciesandinoculationdate.

StumpCultivation

In addition to growing on small logs, you can also cultivatemushrooms on stumps. Fresh stumpsmake excellent cultivationsites, because their root systems continue to function, pumpingwater andnutrients long after the treehas been cut. Stump topscanbedrilled andpluggedon6-inch spacing, as described .Another method involves using sawdust spawn, applying it to aseriesofwedgescutonalternatesidesofahighstump.Inaddition

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tocreatinggreatmushroomhabitat, thismethodalsogivesyouachance to practice the open-faced chainsaw notch discussed in

. There is alsoa third inoculationmethodwherebyyouaddsporeoiltobiodegradablebarandchainlubricantasawaytoinoculatestumpsandwedgecuts.

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ABOVE: Thestumpnotchmethodworksparticularlywellforcultivatingoystermushrooms.Sincethestumpnolongerhas

thebenefitofthecanopyforshade,considercoveringthestumpwithaclearplasticbagtoretainmoisture.

CultivatingMushroomsonLogsIf you inoculate freshly felled trees, you’ll have sufficient moisturecontentforyourspawn.However,iftherearemorethanafewdaysbetweenfellingandinoculating,you’llhavetosoakthelogsovernightbeforeinoculation.Havingaqualitydrill (withafreshbattery)andasharp -inch drill bit is essential for cultivating logs. You’ll alsoneed to have your hardwood spawn plugs (nothing more than awoodenplugthathasbeencolonizedbymycelium),amallet,meltedwax, and, of course, the logs themselves. The standard length formushroom logcultivation is40 inches,andat least3 to6 inches indiameter.Workingonabenchwhereyoucanrollthelogsishelpful,aswellasameasuringstickmarkedat6-inch intervals.The largerthelogdiameter,themorerowsyou’llbeabletohave.Besuretousehealthy, living trees for mushroom cultivation logs. Dead or dyinglogs will have already been colonized by other fungi, drasticallyreducingorpreventingyourfungifromfruiting.

Instructions

1. Drilltheholes.Beginyourdrillingpattern2inchesfromtheendofthelog,withholesspacedevery6inches,ending2inchesbeforetheotherend.Amarkonthedrillbitwillallowyoutoconsistentlydrilltotheproperdepth(approximatelyhalfaninchbelowthebark).Drillthenextrow3inchesfromtheinitialrow,butoffsetitbyabout1inch,sothatstaggeringthefirstholecreatesadiamond-shapedpatternbutstillmaintainsa6-inchoffsetbetweenplugsineachrow.Ona3-to6-inchlog,you’llprobablyaverageaboutfourrows.It’sagoodideato

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sterilizethebitwithrubbingalcoholbetweenlogs,toreducethechanceofpathogeniccross-contamination.

2. Tapintheplugs.Onceyourlogsaredrilled,tapintheplugs,makingsurethatthey’reseatedatthebottomofthehole.Whileyou’redoingthis,youcanbewarmingthewaxinpreparationforsealing.

3. Waxtheholes.Waxshouldbeheldatatemperatureof150to155°F.Dabthewax,sealingentirelyaroundthehole.Ifthelogyou’reworkingonhasabranchwound,youcancoatitwithwaxtopreventmoistureloss.Somepeoplealsocoattheendsofthelogformoistureretention.

EDIBLES,MEDICINALS,ANDMISCELLANY

Thewoodlandhomesteadisalsoanidealenvironmentforgrowingavarietyofmedicinalplantsandminorforestproductsthatsimplyaren’t well suited to open, intense cultivation. Perhaps the mostdesiredwoodlandcropisginseng,whichisusedasmedicinalherbtotreatavarietyofailmentsfromthecommoncoldtodepression.Ginseng has been used in China for over 5,000 years but is alsofoundgrowingacrosseasternNorthAmerica.Whileginsengcanbecultivatedingreenhouses,themostvaluableginsengiswildgrown.Itcanalsobewildsimulated,aprocessinwhichtheplantdevelopsslowly,forminglargerootswithnarrowconcentricringssimilartothecross-sectionofatree.

H O M E S T E A D E R P R O F I L E

Mushrooms,Ales&Herbs

TomHuber

Tom Huber practices what he refers to as “hobbit-scalefarming”: he keeps his operation intentionally small andfocuses on producing goods that he’s able to trade withothers.Becausehe lives inacoldclimate (Canton,NewYork)and is surrounded by vegetable farmers, he’s chosen toproduce mushrooms, herbs, and beer, rather than growingvegetables. This homesteading arrangement is largely arecognition that among Tom’s neighbors are theSwartzentruber Amish, who specialize in vegetableproduction.Otherbarterarrangementsincludetradingcedarfencepostsformushroomcultivationlogsandherbsforhoney.These unique goods from Tom’s forest garden have a hightradevalueandarewellsuitedtohisinterestsinlocalecologyandbarteringnetworks.

Inadditiontomaintaininghisforestgarden,Tomisalsoanavid forager who’s passionate about sharing his expertise,which iskeenlyattunedtoforestediblesandmedicinals.Tomalsohopestopromotetheethicsofforaging,whichincludethefollowing:

Takeonlywhatyouneed,notwhatyouwant.

Sharethewealthforthesakeofbothtwo-andfour-leggedfriends.

Taketimetostudytheediblesandmedicinalsyoucollect,includinghowtheyreproduceandtheirscarcityandabundancebothlocallyandglobally.

GROWINGGINSENG

Todetermineifyourwoodedhomesteadisasuitableenvironmentforgrowingwild-simulatedginseng,employyourwoodlandeyetohelplocateindicatorspeciesthatmaytellyouifyou’restandingona ginseng gold mine. The ideal ginseng growing site has well-drainedsoilswiththick,accumulatedorganicmatter.Conifersitesaren’t recommended, because of their low pH and sandy soils.Instead, seek out forests with ferns, Solomon’s seal, wild ginger,jack-in-the-pulpit,andspleenwort.Mixedforestswithbirch,aspen,ash,andmaplearealsogoodsites,buttheseprolificseederscreatecompetitionevenastheyprovideneededshadecover.

ABOVE: Whencultivatingginseng,selectplantingsiteswithshadynorth-andeast-facingslopes.Seedbedsshouldbeorientedin

thesamedirectionastheslopetofacilitatedrainage.

Find the right site. Ginseng likes to have moist roots and ampleshade.Ideally,you’dwanttohaveabout70percentcrownclosure,

whichreferstotheareablockedbythecrownasyoulookupfromthe proposed ginseng-growing area. Once you’ve identified whatyouthinkisagoodsite,takethetimetodigdownandseewhatthesoilbelowislike.Ifyou’reonamaplesite,youmaybesurprisedtofind that the surface roots form an impenetrable mat, makingginseng cultivation difficult at best. One alternative is to moveawayfromthemostheavilyrootedarea(atthebaseofthetree)andestablish artificial shade using brush to create an arbor thatmimicstheidealcrownclosure.

Preparethebed.Onceyou’veidentifiedanidealsite,youcanbeginpreparing the seed (or root)bed.Removeanyexistingherbaceousmaterial thatmight competewithyourginseng.Dig theplantingbed 4 to 5 inches deep and about 4 feet wide, so that you canharvestfromeachsideofthebed.Ifyou’replantingmultiplebeds,leave 2-foot walkways below the rows to facilitate maintenanceandharvesting.

Plant seeds or roots.With ginseng you have the option to planteither seeds or roots. While the roots cost more, they are morelikely to survive and develop roots relatively quickly. Beforeplanting rootstock, soak the roots for at least 15 minutes torehydratethem.Someginsenggrowersaddafungicidetreatmenttothesoakingsolutiontoreducethechancesofafungalinfection.Roots shouldbeplantedabout9 inchesapart,with the topof therootabout2inchesbelowthesoil.

Ifyouplantginsengseeds,you’relookingatapproximatelyfivetosevenyearstoachieveyourfirstharvest. Ifyoupurchaseseedsfromamailordercompany,askwhethertheyhavebeenstratified.Stratification is the process of pretreating seeds to simulatenaturalwinter conditionsnecessary forgermination. If the seedsaren’t prestratified, you’ll need to account for the two-month

stratification period in your planning. The actual stratificationprocess is simply a matter of placing the seeds in your freezerwithout disruption, though some growers use a sand-filledstratification box that is buried in the fall to mimic naturalstratification.

Mulch well. Once your stratified seeds or roots are planted, it’simportant to mulch the planting bed as a means of retainingmoistureandoffertilizingyourseedsbeneath.Inmostcases,1to2inchesofmulchissufficientforroots,and to1inchforseeds.Ifyouliveinaparticularlycoldregionofthecountry,optforslightlydeepermulchandavoidwholeleaves(particularlyoakandbeech),which canmake for an impenetrablemat. Instead, use shreddedmaterialslikestraw,bark,andsawdust.

Monitor.Over thenext fewyears, you’llwant tomonitor the siteforplantcompetitionandanimaldamage.Removingseedlingsandherbaceouscompetitionbyhandistimeintensive,butitisusuallyyouronlyoption.Deerwillfeedonginseng(aswilllivestock),soifyourcropareaisparticularlysmall,itmaybefeasibletofenceoffthearea.

Harvest. Ginseng is harvested in the fall by carefully pulling theentire plant, much like harvesting carrots. Once it has beenharvested and separated from the rest of the plant, wash anyremainingsoil fromtherootandplace itonahorizontalwindowscreentodry.Dryingshouldbeconductedinawell-ventilatedareato prevent mold. This process generally takes several weeks tocomplete. Dry roots may be stored in a mason jars with holespunchedinthelidforventilation.

Amongthemostcommonusesforginsengistea,whichcanbemadebymixing teaspoondriedginsengrootwithonequartof

⁄1 2

⁄1 4

boilingwater.Theresultisaspicyandadmittedlyearthydrinkthatmanyfolkssweetenwithhoney.

CHAGA

Inonotus obliquus, commonly known as chaga mushroom, ismemorablethefirsttimeyouseeit.Commonlyhostedonthetrunkof birch trees, the conk has the appearance of a lump of wetcharcoal. This growth, however, is not the fruiting body of thefungibutinsteadamassofblack-pigmentedmycelium.

In Siberia, chaga has been used since the 16th century as anutritional supplement. In China it’s regarded as the key tolongevity, and is most commonly consumed as a tea. While fewclinicaltrialshavebeenconductedonchaga,ithasbeenproventocontain numerous B vitamins, flavonoids,minerals, phenols, andenzymes.

TheincreasedinterestinchagaintheUnitedStateshascreateda dilemma for thosewho try to harvest it sustainably. Because itgrows slowly and isn’t easily cultivated, experts recommend onlytaking a small portion of the conk and not harvesting in earlyspringwhenthesapisrunninginthehosttree.

Tobrewchagatea,simplygrind cupofchaga,steepingitintwo quarts boiling water, and then filter the tea to remove thesolids.

FIDDLEHEADSANDRAMPS

While a sugarbush is an ideal location to grow wild-simulatedginseng, two other wild edibles are often found nearby: ostrich

ferns (Matteuccia struthiopteris) andwild leeks, also called ramps

1

⁄1 4

(Allium tricoccum). Ostrich ferns are often located in the wetterareasofyoursugarbush,particularlyalongdrainagesandriparianzones.Theircurledfronds,knownasfiddleheads,areharvestedinavery shortwindowof justa fewdays inearly spring.While thefiddleheadfrondsgrowinclumps,it’simportanttotakejustafewfromeachplant(cutatgroundlevelwithasharpknife)toensureasustainableharvest.Theyarenutritious(withiron,vitaminsAandC, and potassium) and have a unique flavor. In terms ofpreparation,manyfolkssimplyoptforsautéingthemwithabitofbutter and salt; however, it’s recommended that you boil thefiddleheadsfirsttoavoidgastricupset.

Wild leeks, or ramps, are also found in northern hardwoodforests during the spring. Because ramps are sought by gourmetchefs, they are at some risk of being overharvested. Usually, theentire plant (leaves and bulb) is harvested and consumed. Analternative, more sustainable method is to harvest the leaves(whichhavethesameflavor)insteadofthebulb.ThisisbelievedtobethemethodthatwastraditionallyusedbytheCherokeetoavoidoverharvesting. You can also dry the leaves and store them forfutureuse.

ABOVE: Fiddleheads(top)andramps(bottom)areoftenfoundonfertilehardwoodsites,makingthemacommonforestcropin

sugarbushesandlong-abandonedagriculturalland.

BASKETS,BURLS,ANDBIRCHBARK

As your woodland eye develops, you’ll begin to see all sorts ofunique forest products that you might have once dismissed. Inmanyways,becomingattunedtothepotentialofyourwoodlotisabit like unearthing a treasure trove. As you dig deeper intowhatyoumayhave thoughtofas simply “thewoods,”youwill start toseeburlsasbowlsjustbeggingtobeturnedonalathe,orstripsofbark,readytobewovenintobaskets.Youmayevendecidethat itmakes sense to map your woods, noting the location of uniquewoodlandmaterialsforfutureuse.Thisperspectivestandsinsharpcontrasttothatofanindustrialforester,whowouldviewmanyoftheproductsdiscussedinthisbookas“defects.”

CREATIVECULTIVATION

Forest farming is only limited by your own creativity. Manywoodland homesteaders have developed uses forunconventionalcrops. In theSoutheast, forexample, longleafpine (Pinus palustris) needles are collected as “pine straw”that is used for mulch, groundcover, and animal bedding.Others have found that the boughs of balsam fir (Abiesbalsamea)canrivalthevalueofitswoodwhensoldtowreathmakersandfloraldesigners.Evenspeciesthatarenotusefulin a conventional sense find new purpose on the woodlandhomestead.Stripedmaple,aspeciesthatrarelygrowslargerthan a tall shrub, has sinewy bark that can be peeled like abanana and sliced into strips for weaving. What’s more, thehollowpith (center)of thestripedmaplemakes itofuseasaprimitive maple tap, or as a whistle. Be creative, and thinkoutsidetheforest.

Even if yourwoodlandhomestead issmall,don’tdespair; youstill have plenty of potential homestead crops, ranging frommedicinal plants like jewelweed (great for treating poison ivyrashes), to craft materials like grapevines, forsythia sprigs,and pine boughs. And let’s not forget the edibles that can befound in backyards and parks, including all of the nutsmentionedearlier in this chapter, aswell as themanyedibleornamentalplantsthatpopulateneighborhoods.

BURLSFORBOWLS

If you’ve ever dreamed ofmaking a burlwood bowl, but assumedyou couldn’t because you don’t have a professional wood lathe,think again. In recent years, a variety of new blades have beendevelopedthatcanbeattachedtoaconventionalanglegrinderandused to carve beautiful bowls. The following steps will take youfromburltobowlinabouteighthours.

Letitdry.Onceyou’velocatedaburlandcutitfromthelog,letitdryforat leastayear.Attemptingtocarveabowlfromwetwoodwillonlygumupyourtools.

Clamp and carve. For safety, it’s important that the burl you’reworkingwith is properly clamped. Once it’s secure, use an anglegrinderwithacarvingwheeltohollowtheburl.Uselong,smoothstrokesradiatingfromthecenter.Takeyourtimeanduseapairofcaliperstomeasureandmaintaineventhickness.Oncethecenteris roughedout, youcanusea smallergrindinghead to shape therimofthebowl.

Sandandfinish.Onceyou’rehappywith thegeneralshapeof thebowl, you can begin sanding the inside. Begin with 80-gritsandpaperandworkupto120,180,andfinally240grit.Useawoodfiller to sealup small crack, or leave themas is foramore rusticappearance.Finishwithapolyurethane-basedsealant.

ABOVE: Ananglegrinderoutfittedwithasawchaingrindingwheelmakeshollowingaburlmuchfasterthanifyouuseda

traditionalwoodchisel.

E X P E R T P R O F I L E

TheRampResearcher

JimChamberlain,PhD

Jim Chamberlain works for the USDA Forest Service as aforest products researcher in Blacksburg, Virginia. But he

doesn’t study sawlogs, veneer, or any of the commoncommercial products that you might associate with nationalforestlands. Instead, Jim studies wild leeks, or ramps. Whatbegan as a simple inquiry into how and where peopleharvested leeks has evolved into a career that aims tounderstand both the cultural and ecological aspects of thisfascinatingplant.And,asinterestinharvestingrampsgrows,Jim is charged with developing strategies for sustainablycultivatingthisnativeedible.

When asked what common mistake novice ramp huntersmake,withouthesitatingJimsays“timing.”Bytiminghemeansthat oftentimes people harvest ramps too early. In the earlydays of his research, he noticed that many of the rampfestivals in the South were held in April, even though therampsweren’t fullydevelopeduntilMay.This then ledhim tobeginstudyingtherelationshipbetweenleafsizeandbulbsize,a relationship that many homesteaders had anecdotallynoticed,andJimwasabletosubstantiatewithempiricaldata.

Jim’s optimistic about the future of ramps as a managedforestcrop.Currentlyhe’sexperimentingwithgrowingrampsinraisedbeds linedwith landscaping fabricasanalternativecultivationmethodfordriersites.

Although the popularity of foraging for ramps and otherwoodland crops helps to preserve important culturalknowledge, it can also inadvertently promote overharvesting.Forthoseinterestedinsustainablyharvestingrampsfromthewild,Jimoffersasimplerule:carefullyharvestrampclumps,but only take one-third and return the other two-thirds(rhizomeintact)backtotheground.Youcanevenpromotetheexpansionofyourramppatchbytransplantingtheremainingtwo-thirdstoacompetition-freezoneafewfeetaway.

“Whenaskedwhatcommonmistakenovice

“Whenaskedwhatcommonmistakenoviceramphuntersmake,withouthesitatingJim

says‘timing.’”

BARKFORBASKETS

Withallthefocusonwood,it’dbeeasytooverlookthebenefitsofbark.Birchbark inparticularhasavarietyofuses, ranging fromthe iconic birch bark canoe to simpler products like baskets andrusticwall coverings.While you could theoretically remove birchbark without killing the tree, the health of the tree is ultimatelycompromised. Instead, it’s best to remove the birch bark using autilityknifeafterthetreehasbeenfelledinlatespring.Sincethebarkofthebirchtreedecomposesslowerthantheactualwood,it’soften possible to slide an intact sleeve of bark off a partiallydecomposed log. Below is a simple design for a four-sided birchbasketthatcanbemadelargeorsmalltosuityourneeds.

Flatten the bark. Begin by drying and flattening a piece of birchbark;placeitbetweentwoboardswithaheavyweightontopforatleasttwoweeks.

Cutstrips.Withaboardasaguide,useautilityknifetocutstrips-inchwide andat least 18 inches long— the longer the strips,

thelesssplicingyou’llhavetodo.Ifyoudon’thaveaccesstolargerpiecesofbirchbark,don’tdespair,youcancutyourstripsusingaspiralpatterntomakethemlonger.

⁄3 4

Weave thebase. Beginbyweaving three strips in eachdirection.Continueweavingstripsuntilyouhavethedesiredbasesize.Onceyou’rehappywith the sizeof thebase, placea clothespinat eachcornertohelpholdthingstogether.Youcannowfoldeachsideofthebaskettotheedgeofyourwovenbase.

Begin weaving the sides. Additional clothespins are handy forkeepingthingsincheck.Ifyourstripsaretooshort,spliceinanewpiece by overlapping it with the end of the sort piece and tuckunderaverticalstrip.Ifaverticalstripistooshort,youcanspliceinanewpieceusingthesametuckingmethod.

Make the rim. Once you’ve reached your desired height for thebasket, it’s time tomake the rim. Begin by trimming the verticaledgestripssothatthey’reaboutaninchhigherthantheheightofthe last woven course. Cut two long strips for your inside andoutsideedges.

Alternatebending the top tabs andweave the inner andouterrim at the same time, but make sure they’re offset by one stripwhenyoubegintoensureatight,strongrim.Tucktheendoftherimpiecesonitselfandenjoyyournewbasket.

ATypicalWoodlandHomesteadCalendar

JanuaryThisisagreatmonthtohunkerdownbythewoodstoveandresearchspringhomesteadprojects.

Forhardysouls,Januaryisalsoagreattimetosplitwood,givingitampletimetodrybeforethenextheatingseason.

Considerloggingandskiddingwoodinwinter.Ifyouliveinanareawithfrozenground,itwillpreventsoilcompactionandminimizedisturbancetounderstoryflora.

Headtotheworkshopandbuildrusticfurniturewithmaterialsharvestedfromyourwoodlotthepreviousseason.

FEBRUARY

Beginpreparingforsugaringseasonbycleaningyourequipmentandconvincingfriendsandneighborstoswapsugaringlaborforashareofthesyrup.

Cutcoppicestools.

Prunefruittrees.

MARCH

ByearlyMarch,mostfolkshavebeguntappingmapletrees.Collectandboilthesapassoonasyou’reableto,sincesapcan

spoil.

Inspectbeehivesforwintermortality.

Marchisagoodtimetofrostseed,whichencouragessuccessfulgermination;goodsugaringconditions(freezingnights,warmdays)makeidealseedingconditionsforlegumessuchasclover.

APRIL

Withleaf-outcompleteinmostareasbylateApril,thisisagoodtimetobeginyourwoodlotinventory.Youcanusethenewleaves(insteadofjustthebuds)tohelpidentifythetreesinyourwoodlotbeforesummer,whenundergrowthbecomesdenseenoughtomaketheprocessdifficult.

Putyourpigstoworkinapig-o-tillerassoonasthegroundbeginstodryout;pigswillbereadytoharvestinNovember.

Plantspringfruittrees.

MAY

Birch-tappingseasonbeginsinlateApril/earlyMay.

AttendMemorialDaybarnandyardsales,agreatwaytofindoldtoolsandhomesteadingaccoutrements.

Livestockbeginbrowsingonnutrient-dense,early-seasongrowth.

Harvestwillowforfurnitureconstruction.

JUNE

Inspectandrepairfences.

Harvestwildstrawberries.

Tendwoodlot,thinningtreesforoptimalgrowingspace.

JULY

Rapidpasturegrowthmakesthisahighlyproductivemonthformob-grazinglivestock.

Enjoyeatingfreshfruitsandvegetablesoutofyourwoodlandgarden.

AUGUST

Practiceintensiverotationalgrazing.

Collectandpreservewildberries.

Buildhügelkulturbeds.

SEPTEMBER

Harvestfallhoney(besuretoleavesomeforthebees).

Harvestnuts.

Beginharvestingandcellaringfruitsandvegetablesforwinterstorage.

OCTOBER

Hostacidermakingpartyonthefullmoon.

Attendalivestockauction;ifyouhavewinterforage,thiscanbeagreatwaytoacquirelivestock(smallandlarge)atreasonablepricesasotherhomesteadersandfarmersdownsizeforwinter.

Makefirewoodwindbreaksforaroundthehouse.

NOVEMBER

Addfuelstabilizertoallpowerequipmenttopreventfuelfromgellingoverthewinter.

Begincuttingandlayinghedgeasalivingfence.

Cooldaysmakethisanidealtimeofyeartofireupyourcharcoalkiln.

DECEMBER

Experimentwithanimalpowerandkeepyourdogs/horses/oxeninshapebyhavingthempullasled.

Iflocalordinancespermit,thisisagreattimetoburnbrush(ifthere’ssnowcover).Ifyourgardensoilsareacidic(pH4.6–6.0),considerplacingyourbrushpileoveryourgarden;thewoodashwillworkasalimingagent,raisingpH.However,beforeyoudothis,you’llwanttocheckyoursoilpHtoseeifahigherpHisnecessarytogrowyourdesiredcrops.

Repairanybrokentools;sharpensaws/axes;organizeyourtoolshed.

Resources

Chapter1:SeeingtheForestthroughtheTrees:HowtoUnlockYourWoodlot’s

Potential

Griffin,TimothyS.“UsingWoodAshonyourFarm.”UniversityofMaineExtension,Bulletin#2279,

Hansen,AnnLarkin,MikeSeverson,andDennisL.Waterman.ALandowner’sGuidetoManagingyourWoods:HowtoMaintainaSmallAcreageforLong-TermHealth,Biodiversity,andHighQualityTimberProduction.StoreyPublishing,2011.

Harlow,William,etal.TextbookofDendrology,8thed.McGraw-Hill,1996.

Nyland,RalphD.Silviculture:ConceptsandApplications,2nded.WavelandPress,2007.

Wessels,Tom.ReadingtheForestedLandscape:ANaturalHistoryofNewEngland.CountrymanPress,1997.

http://umaine.edu/publications/2279e

Chapter2:ToolsandTechniques:EssentialsfortheWoodlot

Homestead

Bealer,AlexW.OldWaysofWorkingWood:TheTechniques&ToolsofaTime-HonoredCraft,rev.ed.CastleBooks,1996.

Bubel,MikeandNancyBubel.WorkingWood:AGuidefortheCountryCarpenter.Rodale,1977.

Roy,Rob.CompleteBookofCordwoodMasonryHousebuilding.SterlingPublishing,1992.

Seymour,John.TheSelf-SufficientLifeandHowtoLiveIt,6thed.DKPress,2009.

Wilbur,C.Keith.HomeBuildingandWoodworkinginColonialAmerica.GlobePequotPress,1992.

Chapter3:AnimalsintheForest:FromStumpstoGreener

Pastures

Chedzoy,Brett,andPeterSmallidge.“SilvopasturingintheNortheastAnIntroductiontoOpportunitiesandStrategiesforIntegratingLivestockinPrivateWoodlands.”CornellCooperativeExtensionbulletin,2011,

Logsdon,Gene.AllFleshIsGrass:ThePleasuresandPromisesofPastureFarming.SwallowPress,2004.

———.ASanctuaryofTrees:Beechnuts,Birdsongs,BaseballBats,andBenedictions.ChelseaGreenPublishing,2012.

Saunders,Olivia.“GuidetoUsingWoodAshasanAgriculturalSoilAmendment,”UniversityofNewHampshireExtension,Spring2014,

Smith,J.Russell.TreeCrops:APermanentAgriculture.IslandPress,1950.

Will,OscarH.,andKarenK.Will.PlowingwithPigsandOtherCreative,Low-BudgetHomesteadingSolutions.NewSocietyPublishers,2013.

http://www2.dnr.cornell.edu/ext/info/pubs/MapleAgrofor/Silvopasturing3-3-2011.pdf

http://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource004042_Rep5718.pdf

Chapter4:TheCoppiceForest:Fauna,Fodder,Fuel,and

Furniture

Law,Ben.TheWoodlandWay:APermacultureApproachtoSustainableWoodlandManagement,2nded.ChelseaGreenPublishing,2013.

———.TheWoodlandYear.PermanentPublications,2008.

Porter,Valerie.FieldcraftandFarmyard:GroundworkforBeginners.SwanHillPress,1992.

Chapter5:WoodlandStructures:FromLivingFencetoLiving

Barn

Damerow,Gail,andAlinaRice.DraftHorsesandMules:HarnessingEquinePowerforFarm&Show.StoreyPublishing,2008.

Garrett,H.E.,ed.NorthAmericanAgroforestry:AnIntegratedScienceandPractice,2nded.AmericanSocietyofAgronomy,2009.

Greaves,Valerie.HedgeLayingExplained.NationalHedgelayingSociety,1985.

Rigueiro-Rodriguez,Antonio,JimMcAdam,andMariaRosa

Mosquera-Losada,eds.AgroforestryinEurope:CurrentStatusandFutureProspects.SpringerPress,2009.

Sloane,Eric.AReverenceforWood.Dover,1965.

Chapter6:GivingTrees:Fruit,Honey,andSyrup

Farrell,Michael.TheSugarmaker’sCompanion:AnIntegratedApproachtoProducingSyrupfromMaple,Birch,andWalnutTrees.ChelseaGreenPublishing,2013.

Flottum,Kim.TheBackyardBeekeeper:AnAbsoluteBeginner’sGuidetoKeepingBeesinYourYardandGarden,3rded.QuarryBooks,2014.

Phillips,Michael.TheHolisticOrchard:TreeFruitsandBerriestheBiologicalWay.ChelseaGreenPublishing,2011.

Proulx,Annie,andLewNichols.Cider:Making,Using&EnjoyingSweet&HardCider,3rded.StoreyPublishing,2003.

Sinclair,WayneA.,andHowardH.Lyon.DiseasesofTreesandShrubs,2nded.CornellUniversityPress,2005.

Chapter7:Farming:Nuts,Berries,Mushrooms,andMore

Bowling,BarbaraL.TheBerryGrower’sCompanion.TimberPress,2000.

Hart,RobertA.deJ.ForestGardening:RediscoveringNatureandCommunityinaPost-IndustrialAge,rev.ed.ChelseaGreenPublishing,2009.

Morse,HarrietK.GardeningintheShade,rev.ed.TimberPress,1982.

Whitefield,Patrick.HowtoMakeaForestGarden,3rded.PermanentPublications,2002.

IndexPagenumbersinitalicindicateillustrations;pagenumbersinboldindicatecharts.

Aacceptablegrowingstock(AGS), ,acorn-raisedpork, ,acorns, –

foranimalfodder, –shellingandleaching,

adventitiousbuds,adze,agroforestry,all-terrainvehicles(ATVs), –64

skiddingarch, ,skiddingconesand, ,

amendmentsbare-roottreesand, –66bonemeal,soil,mulchand,

animalfodder.Seefodder,animal

animal husbandry, . See also livestock animals. See livestock;wildlife,guardanimals

apple(s).Seealsocidermakingharvesting,puttingup,

applemaggots,

15 11094 96

199 200199 200

199105

40132

6263 65

63 63

165156

155

24

176177176

applesawfly,appletrees.Seealsoorchard

harvestand,resilienceof,varieties/USDAzones,wild, , ,

ArnoldHomestead, –22AtlasHoofedItFarm,axe(s), –37.Seealsolimbinganatomyof,

broadaxe, –40double-bit, –28European,haft,replacementof, –31, , –37, ,handlesaverfor,head,replacementof,inspectionof, –30sharpening/honing, –35, ,forsplittingfirewood,foryourneeds,

axedrift, ,

Bbackcut,backfillingplantingholes,backstrap, ,barbedwire, , ,“barberchair,”bare-roottrees,planting, –66

173

176168

15715 19 182

2198

27 28392727

30 31 36 36 3757

3229

32 34 3557

2830 30

48166

53 53141 142 14251

164

amendmentsand, –66backfillingand,diggingplantinghole, ,keepingrootsmoist, –65stakingand,

barkforbaskets, –14, ,cambiumand,

barn.Seelivingbarnbartering, ,basalarea

calculationof, ,evaluatingoptions, –8injuriesto, –17

basalscars, ,baskets, –14, ,bastardfile,33bastardfilejig, ,

beef.Seecattlebees/beekeeping, –76

gettingstartedwith, –75honeybees,nativebees, –76,

beltgrinder, –33, ,benches

slabwoodfor, ,willowand, , , ,

bentwoodfurniture,berries, –98billhook,masteringthe, ,biodiversity

165166

165 165164

165

213 213 214109

176 207

7 77

11618 19

213 213 214

34 34

174174

174175 175

32 34 34

70 71127 127 128 128

127197

132 132

orchardand, –55standardsand,

biolubricants,birchbark, –14, ,birches, ,birds, –18.Seealsochickens;turkeyspredatorsofpoults,

succession,diversityand,woodpeckers/sapsuckers, –18

blackberries, –98blackberrybrambles,blackcherry, , , , ,black-knotdisease, , ,blacklocust, , , ,bonemeal,borecut, , ,bowls/bowlmaking, , , , , ,bowmaker,bowsaw, ,“boy’saxe,”bramblepatch,restorationof,branches

fordoorpulls,“entwining,”epicormic,notching/nicking,budgrowthand,shredded,training,fruittree, ,

branchwhorls, , , ,Breconhedgemethod,BritishForestryCommission, ,broadaxe,hewingwith, –40

154113

51213 213 214

109 109

117 89118117

197100

14 22 82 106 12122 106 112

42 145 146 163156

51 53 5322 106 126 211 213 213

12045 45

28198

126137

117172

121169 172

18 19 112 112136

103 10539

browse/browsingappletreesand,componentsof,coppicingand,deterrenceof, asfeedsupplement,fodderand,nutrientlossand,

brush,stumpsand, –82,BTUs, ,buckinglogs,

withachainsaw,defined,forfirewood,likeabeaver,

budgrowthdormantbudsand, ,notching/nickingand,

bumpertrees,Burke,DanandSara,burls, , , , ,bypasscut

buckinglogsand, ,notchcutand, –51

Ccalendar, –16cambium, , , ,

1599119105, 119

122122

9481 82

108 10845

5539

4540

105 172172

11698

22 126 211 213 213

55 5550

215105 109 118 172

canopylayer,“cants,” ,casestudies, –24

ArnoldHomestead, –22TuckerHomestead, –24

cattle, –99,breeds,miniature, –99ScottishHighland, , , , ,shelteringspotfor,

C-clamp, ,

cellar.Seerootcellarchaga(Inonotusobliquus),chainsaw, –55

anatomyof,“attackcorner,” , , ,biolubricantsand,borecut, ,buckingwith,fellingtreesand, –48,gettingstartedwith,limbingwith,personalprotectiveequipment(PPE), –47,portablesawmillversus, –68safetyfeaturesof, –47

chainsawwinch, ,Chamberlain,Jim,charcoal, –25

howtomake,124–25,124usesbysize,

16327 73

202123

96 9797

9879 81 98 99 122150

34 34

20946

4848 51 53 5351

53 5355

47 4747

5446 46

6746

61 61212

123

123

“chasing.”Seelimbingchestnuts, –3,chicken(s)

casestudyand,heritagebreeds,pestcontroland, ,

chickencoop, ,chickentractors, –87, , ,choppingwood.Seeaxe(s)cider,cidermaking

barteringand,blending/testing,bottling, ,fermenting,pressingapples, –suppliesfor,“sweating”theharvest,switcheland,washing/grindingapples,

ciderpress, ,ciderswitchel,clearwood,thinningfor, –12climaxforest,successionand, ,17closed-loopsilvopasturesequence

about, –82definingareafor, –80

colonycollapsedisorder(CCD),

compostingsystem.SeeHügelkulturconifers.Seealsopines

202 202

228786 86

86 8886 172 173 173

176

176180

182 182181

179 180179

179177

179180 180

177111

13

7878

174

livingbarnsand,“redknots”and,shelteringspotsand,treesperacreand,

cooking,charcoaland, ,125coop, , ,CooperativeExtensionService,coppicestools, , , , ,coppicing.Seealsostandards

BTUsand, ,forcharcoal,considerationswhen, –9defined,establishedtreesand, –5firewoodand, , , ,forfodder, –fourstepsin, ,gamebirdsand,historyof, ,layeringand,rootsuckeringand,treesfor, –7willow,furnitureand, ,

cordwoodbuildingwith, ,facecord, ,windbreakmadefrom,

Cornishhedgemethod,covercrop,craftmaterials,crosscutsaws,

152112

1506123

86 88 8911

104 114 114 118 119

108 108123

108101

104103 104 108 160

119 122105 108

118103 123

110110

106127 127

59 59109 109

150136

155211

47

crownfruittreesand,terminalforkand, ,

crucible,124,124,125

Ddairy

casestudyand,cattle, ,goatsand, –91

Dauerwald,DBH(diameteratbreastheight),“deadhedges,”deer,fruittreesand, –74dehesasystem,depthlines, ,Derbyshirehedgemethod,diameteratbreastheight(DBH),diversity,birdspeciesand,“doe’sfoot,” ,doorpulls,dormantbuds, ,draftanimals

choosing,skiddingwith, –65workingwith, –66

drainage,orchardand,dye,brownwool,

E

169171 171

2396 98

90181

10131

17396

41 41136

10118

28 31126

105 172

656465

154202

Eecotoneorchard

basicsof,lateralbranches,training,structureof,trainingcutand,trellis-training, –68whips,selectionof,

elevation,orchardand,envisioningthehomestead, ,epicormicbranches,escaperoute

buckinglogsand,open-facednotchand, –50,

espalieredfruittrees, –68,expertprofile

NorthBranchFarm,RampResearcher,

Ffacecord, ,Farrell,Michael,fauna.Seewildlifefeed

browsingassupplementto,pomace, , ,

feedseeding,

161168

168168

167167154

70 71117

5549 50

167 167

79212

109 109193

122179 180 18084

fellingtrees, –39.Seealsonotchwithanaxe, –39withachainsaw, –48,forforage,

fenceposts, –46.Seealsolivingfencepostspeeling/notpeeling,

woodchoicesfor,

fences/fencing.Seealsolivingfences;stonewallsespalieredfruittreesand, , ,psychologyof, –31silvopastureand,ofstumps,building, –48temporary,terminology,

fiddleheads, –10,

firewood.Seealsocordwood;splittingfirewoodbucking,coppicingand, , , ,sustainabilityand,walnuthullsas,

fixed-radiusplotsampling, –6data/decision-making,inventory,goalsand,plotlocationsand,results,tallying, –6size/numberofplotsneeded, –5

flitches,fodder,animal

acornsfor,199–browsingfor,collectionof, ,

38 3847 47

94

145146

145

167 167 168130

77147

143130

209 210

45103 104 108 160

24201

46

55

54

73

200122119 119

coppicingfor, –pollardingfor, ,shreddingand,

foodproduction, .Seealsospecificfoodforagecomponentsof,fellingyour,understory,

forbs,forestecosystem,grazingand,forestedibles,cultivationof, –forestfloor, ,

forestfurniture.Seefurnitureforestsuccession, –19, ,17

birdspeciesand,forestspeciesand,processof,signsof, , , ,

freethinning,froe, ,frostseeding,fruit.Seealsoapple(s);stonefruits

blackberries/raspberries, –98physicalbarriersfor,productionof,21puttingup,strawberries,

fruittrees.Seealsoappletrees;orchardclearingaround, –69deadwoodand,espaliered, –68,

119 122121 121121

7699

94160

9974

197 20618 19

13 1611814

1313 15 18 19111

42 4284

197173

177198

168170

167 167

lateralbranchesand,inlow-treelayer, –63old,resurrectionof, – ,watersproutsand, ,

fuel.Seecharcoal;firewoodfungi,cultivationof, –4furniture, –28

growingyourown,weeviledtopsand, –27,willowand,

Ggamebirds,garden,layeringfor, –63, ,ginseng,

about,bedpreparation,growing, –9harvesting,monitoring,mulching,planting, –9siteselection,

girdling, ,goats

about, –91asdraftanimals,heritagebreeds,

170162

168 172 171169 170

203126

127126 126

127

118162 162 163

208207

208208209209

209208

208118 118

896590

go-devilloggingsled, ,grafting,grasstoshrubsuccession, ,grazing

multispecies, –rotational, , ,unmanaged,

“greenmanure,”groundcover,

growingzones.Seehardinesszonesguardanimals,

Hhaft,replacementof, –31, , –37, ,

“hanginganaxe.”Seehaft,replacementofhardinesszones

applesfor,fruittreetypesand,orchardand,

Hart,Robert,harvest,ciderand,hatchet,hazards

draftanimalsand, –66fellingtreesand,limbingand,

“heatherings,”hedgelaying, –36,

64 64156

13 16

99 10079 92 9574155

162

92

30 31 36 36 37

157156

154162

17628

6549

54135134 135

hedges/hedgerows.Seealsoquickthornlaidhedgefillinggapsin,historyof, –32inosculation, – ,reinforcementof, –

Hügelkultur,buildingthebeds, –96designtips,theory, –97

herbaceousplants,heritagebreeds

chickens,goats,pigs,promotionof,turkeys,

hewingwithabroadaxe, –40depthlinesfor, ,

“hobbit-scalefarming,”homesteaderprofile

AtlasHoofedItFarm,RavenwoodHomestead,

honey.Seebees/beekeepinghoneysuckle,horses

pullingstumpswith, –47skiddingwith,

Huber,Tom,hullingpress,walnut, ,hungtrees, , ,

I

140131

137 140 137139 140

196195

197196

162

879095

7689

3941 41

207

98177

100

14665

207200 200

44 44 53

Iinosculationhedges, – ,invasiveplants

controlof,goatsand, ,sheepand,

inventorysizeoftreesand, –7“speciescomposition”and, –6woodlotmeasurement,

IsleofWighthedgemethod,

Jjewelweed,“Jroots,”juggles, ,juglone, –2

Kkaolinclayspray,kerf, , , , ,kickback

hingewoodand, ,topographyand,

137 140 137

7791 9192

63

3136

21116641 41201

17332 45 45 67 118

44 4454

Kilgore,BruceandNancy,

LLancashirehedgemethod,landusage,silvopastureand,layering,layinghens.Seechicken(s)leeks,wild,lianas,

light.Seesunlightlimbing

withanaxe, ,withachainsaw,

lingolivingfence,woodlot,

livestock.Seealsoheritagebreedsanimalhealthand,blackcherryleavesand, ,casestudyand,cattle, –99chickens, –87,draftanimals, –65goats, –91horses, –47palateand,porkpower, –85, ,sheep, –93

177

13676

110

210163

39 3954

130102

7782 121

2396

86 8664

89146

12282 83 85

92

turkeys, –89livingbarn, –52,

healthof,maintaining,pathwaymanagementand, –52

livingfenceposts, –6style,

barbedwireand, , ,pollardingfenceposts, , , –temporaryfencesand,

living fences, . See also hedges/hedgerows damage to,minimizing, – ,hedgelaying, –36,historyof, –32mythsand,quickthornlaidhedge, –34, –37securinghardwareto, – ,terminologyand,toolboxand,treesfor, ,

loggingsled,go-devil, ,

logs.Seealsoskiddinglogsedging,foreignobjectsin, –73millingcrooked,mushroomsand, , ,starpatternon, ,three-sided, ,unique,

low-bushblueberry(Vacciniumangustifolium),lowthinning,

87150 151

152151

140 44181 143

141 142 142141 141 142 43143

133143 44 144134 135

131145

133 136143 44 144

130134

138 13864 64

7372

73204 206 206

112 11270 71

72

81111

lumber.Seealsoportablesawmill;woodlogspertreeand,tapholemaple,

lumbercrayon, ,

Mmammals,

maplesyrup.Seesyrupmakingmath,woodlot, ,matureforest,successionand, ,maul,

meat.Seechickens;livestock;turkeysmedicinalplants, , .Seealsospecificplantmicro-orchard

competitionand,complementarycrops,gapsize,sunlightand, , ,height,lightand,soiland, –59

MidlandBullockhedgemethod,midstory,Milewski,Craig,mortar, ,mulch

Hügelkulturand,soil,amendmentsand,

mules,miniature,multiflorarose, ,multileadertreetops, ,

5193

41 41

119

52 5213 17

57

207 211158

160158 159 159

160158

136160

12059 59

195155

6591 100

126 126

multispeciesgrazing, –mushrooms, , –6

host/inoculationlogs,logs,cultivationon, ,reishi(Ganodermalucidum), –4

shiitake(Lentinulaedodes),site/speciesselection, –5stumps,cultivationand, ,treeoyster(Pleurotusostreatus), ,

mycorrhizalfungi, ,

NNearing,HelenandScott,nickingbranches, ,NorthBranchFarm,notch

conventional, –48,open-faced, –53,

notchingbranches, ,nutrients

“bleeding”of,percolationof,transportof,

nuts, – .Seealsowalnutsacorns, –chestnuts, –3,

nuttrees, –63

O

99 100161 203

204206 206

203

203204205 205

204 205155 161

177172 17279

47 4748 51

172 172

172116

118

199 203 199 200202 202

162

Oopen-facednotch, –53

backcut,making, ,escaperouteand, –50,hazardsand,leanoftreeand,notchcut,making, –51,stepsinmaking, –51,

orchard.Seealsoappletrees;micro-orchard,forestecotone,espalieredform,167–68,fruittreetypes,layeringfor, –63, ,oldfruittrees,resurrecting, , –pestmanagementin, –73pomes, ,purposesof,sitefor, –55sizeoftrees/rootstock,stonefruits, ,wildcider,

orchardfloor,edible,Orefice,Joe,Osageorange

fencepostsand,qualitiesof,slurryfence, ,

ostrichferns(Matteucciastruthiopteris), –10oxen,

P

4851 5349 50

4949

50 5149 53

161167

156162 162 163

24 168 172172

156 158153

154156

156 158182

16179

145133132 140

20965

Ppacing, ,parasitecontrol,pasture,silvopastureor, –76pasturepine,pasturetrees, ,peavey, –44,

modificationof,poorman’s, ,razorback, ,

Peavey,Joseph,pencils,charcoal,personalprotectiveequipment(PPE), –47,pestmanagement

chickensand, , , , ,dropapplesand,orchardand, –73

pHboosters,pHtests,pickaroon,pigs,

about, –96acorn-raisedpork, ,heritagebreeds,pig-o-tiller, –83, ,soil,stumpsand, –84,

pinchpoints, ,pine(s).Seealsoconifers

pasture,

4 4100

752415 19

43 4343

44 4443 4343123

46 46

86 86 172 173 173176

172159

1160

9594

94 9695

82 85 8582 83

54 66

24

pruning,“self-pruning,” ,shakesand,straw,

planning,calendarand, –16planting, art of, –68. See also bare-root trees, planting

containerizedtrees, –67sizeoftree,

pleachers, ,plumcurculio,pointsampling, ,poisonivy,“pollardhay,” ,pollarding

fodderand, ,livingfencepostsand, , , –

pollinating,nativebeesfor, –76polyculture,polywire,pomace, , ,

pomes, , .Seealsoapple(s)pork.Seepigsportablesawmill, –73,

amountofwoodand,chainsawversus, –68crookedlogsand,edgingand,lumberlotand, ,maintenanceand,selectionof, –69trailer-mounted, ,yield,maximizationof,

2218 112

42211

215

164166

164136 137

1739 9

91121 142

121 121141 141 142 43175

162139179 180 180

156 15867 68

676773

7369 72

7268

69 6973

posts.Seefencepostspoultry, . See also chickens; turkeys products, woodland

homestead,casestudiesand, –24

pruningforclearwood, –12,howmuchtoprune,otherreasonsfor,toolsfor,

prussicacid,

Qquickthornlaidhedge

basicsof, –34variationsof, –37

Rramialwoodchips, ,RampResearcher,

ramps(Alliumtricoccum), –10,raspberries, –98RavenwoodHomestead,“redknots,”RedRoostInn,releasetreatments, –12residualstanddamage,

992

20

111 112169

112169121

133136

166 196212

209 210197

17711288

11080

conventionalnotchand,tipsforreductionof,

reverseosmosis(R.O.),rhizosphere, , , , , ,Robertson,Al,rocktypes,rootcellar

applesand, ,earlyhomesteadersand,

rootstock,rootsuckering,rotationalgrazing, , ,rowcrops,ruleof ,rustremoval,

Ssafety. See escape route; hazards; personal protective equipment

(PPE)saplingtopolesuccession, ,sapsuckers, –18sawmill.Seeportablesawmillscaffoldlimbs,scarification,woodlot, –88,scions,seeding,shakes

homesteadand, ,

5380185

102 103 155 162 162 195181

12

176 1778

156110

79 92 95160

86 18332

13 16117

12187 88

15684

70 71

making, ,sheds

pig-o-tiller, ,stumpshed, , ,

sheepbreedsforsilvopasture,grazinginorchard,grazinginsilvopasture, –93ScottishBlackface, , , ,

shelterbelts, –cordwoodwindbreak,designtips,

shortrotationforestry(SRF),shrubs,“sidelean,” ,50

silvopasture, .Seealsoclosed-loopsilvopasturesequencebrush,stumpsand, –82,considerationof, –77defined,dehesasystem,grazingsheepin,grazingturkeysin,markingyour, –78pastureor, –76pre-thinningyour,requirementsfor,seeding,soiland, –84,thinningyour,

singletree,skiddingarch,

42 42

85 85149 149 150

93176

9281 93 93 122

148 150150

148103

16249

7581 82

7675

969289

7775

8177

8482 83

8065

65

chokerchainversuslogtongs, ,self-loadingversusmanual,two-versusfour-wheeledarch,

skiddinglogs, –67withanATV, –64basalscarsand, , ,chainsawwinch, ,withdraftanimals, –65people-poweredskidders, –62pickaroon, ,skiddingarch,hand-pulled, ,timbercarrier, ,tractorskidding, –67waterprotectionand,

skiddingpan/skiddingcone, ,smallholding, ,snags,nativebeesand, , ,snatchblock,soil

amendmentsand, ,compactionof,mulchand,nitrogendeficiencies,orchardand, –55, –59porkpowerand, –85,scarificationand, –88testing,types, ,

soilfoodweb,soiltypes,treecommunitiesand,10–12solarelectricenergizer,

63 6563

656062

18 19 1961 61

6460

60 6062 62

61 6166

11663 63

98 103175 175 176

61

155 159116

155100

154 15882 8387

1110 12

155

139

speciescomposition, –4splittingblock,building, ,splittingfirewood

axefor,how-to, –58,withamaul,

spottedknapweedCentaureamaculosa,Centaureastobe,

springpoles,squaredtimber.See“cants”squash, ,standards

benefitsof,future,selectionof,harvesting,laboroflove, –14long-termgoalsand,protectionof,“tellers”and, , , –17woodlotinventoryand,

standingblockchop,stemwood,stonefruits, ,stones, –13

patio, ,stonewalls, –13

stool(s)coppice, , , , , , , ,handmade, , , ,

strawberries,

356 56

5757 58

57

92

9954

161 161

113115

116113

115116114 114 116

11438

112156 158

1270 71

12

101 104 109 109 114 114 118 11918 24 126 127198

stump(s)buildingwith, –48forcampchairs, ,coppicingand, ,cuttinglow,expeditingrotof, –82,mushroomsand, ,nativebeesand, , ,removalof, –84, , –47squashgrownin, ,

stumpcoppicing, .Seealsocoppicingstumpshed, , ,

succession.Seeforestsuccessionsugarbush, – .Seealsosyrupmakingcroptreesand,

forestcropsand, ,futureand,health/vigoroftrees,multipleusesfor, –siteselection,sizingupyour, –89standstructure/health, –89sugaringcampand, –84tappabletrees, , –92tapping/nottapping,wildlifeand,

sugarmaples, , ,sunlight

micro-orchardand, ,thinningsilvopastureand,understoryand,

Swisssandwichmethod,

14670 71

101 10572

81 82205 205175 175 176

82 83 146161 161

110 149 149150

182 193 190210 210

190190

189 190188188

188183

183 191183

190160 188 189

158 16080

115160

switchel,syrupmaking, –88

about, –83bottlingsyrup, –88casestudyand,collecting/boilingsap, –87drillingtapholes, –88, ,evaporatorand, , , ,reverseosmosissystemsand,ruleof and,settingtaps,tappingguidelines,

Ttansy(Tanacetumvulgare),tapholemaplelumber,tappabletrees, , –92tasks,homestead,“tellers”

defined, ,injuryto, –17training,

terminalfork, ,terminology

livingfence,woodlotlingo,

thinning,thistle(Cirsiumspp.),

177184

18218722

186184 187 187185 185 187 187

18586 183

186186

92193

183 19126

114 114116115171 171

130102

111

99

three-pointhitch, –67“tillering,”timber,squared.See“cants”timbercarrier, ,tips,Todd,SerenoEdwards,

tools.Seealsospecifictoolforclearing/pruning,hedgelayer’s,homestead,“sandblasting”old,

topography, ,tractors,pullingstumpswith,tractorskidding, –67trailer,trailer-mountedportablesawmill, ,treecommunities,soiltypesand,10,treefortresses,orchardsand, –74

trees, –7, . See also apple trees; bare-root trees, planting;orchard;planting,artof;standards;“tellers”acceptablegrowingstock(AGS), ,BTUsand, ,bumper,compostingsystemand. - ,containerized,planting, –67forcoppicing, –7diameteratbreastheight(DBH),girdlingof, ,growthof,heightof, ,

66120

61 6126

156

169134

26201

18 19147

6665

69 6912

173

6 10

15 110108 108

116195 197 196166

10610

118 11814552 52

hung, , ,leanof,forlivingfences, ,metalobjectsin,multistemmed, ,peracre, –7,seedgerminationof, –88sizesof, –7,species/uses,tappable, , –92unacceptablegrowingstock(UGS), ,

treetops,multileader, ,TuckerHomestead, –24turkeys, –89

grazinginsilvopasture,heritagebreeds,woodlotscarificationand, –88

Uunacceptablegrowingstock(UGS)

asbumpertrees,described,

understory,grazingand,understoryforage,utilitytrailer,

V

44 44 5349

138 138145114 114

6 8087

6 614

183 19115 116

126 12623

8789

8987

11615

74160

65

Vvariable-radiuspointsampling, ,vegetables

productionof,soilstypesand,squash, ,trainedtoclimb,

verticalchop,vines,visualskills, –10

Wwalnuts, –

curing,harvesting, –hulling, , ,nutmeat,picking/storing,shelling,shells,using, –2

Washington,George, ,waterfiltration,waterprotection,waterquality,watersprouts, ,wedges, ,weeds, –weeviledtops, , –27,whetstone,33, ,

9 9

2110

161 161163

38163

8

200 202201

200 201200 200 201

201201

201131 137

123116

51169 170

53 5399 100

24 126 12635 35

“whips,”bare-roottreesand,whitepineweevil, –27whole-treecompostingsystem.SeeHügelkulturwidowmaker,wildapples, ,

wildlife, –19.Seealsobirdsdeterrenceof,mammals,sugarbushand,

willow,furnitureand,winching

chainsawwinch, ,tractorskiddingand,

wind,orchardand,windbreaks.Seeshelterbeltswindthrow

standards,coppicingand,treeheightand, ,

witchhobble(Viburnumlantanoides),wolftrees, , ,

wood.Seealsocordwood;lumberclear,pruningfor, –12stem,

woodlandeye, –10

woodlotinventory.Seealsofixed-radiusplotsamplingbasalareaand, ,evaluatingoptions, –8fieldnotes,measurement,speciescomposition, –4standardsand,

164126

4915 19

117 105119

190127

61 6167

154

117141 141

8115 15 19

111112

8

7 77

63

3114

woodlotlingo,woodlotmath, ,woodlotscarification, –88,woodlottending,creative

pruningforclearwood, –12releasetreatments, –12thinning,

woodpeckers, –18,woodshed, ,woodworkingmaterials,productionof,wovenwire, –

YYorkshirehedgemethod,young-farmermovement,youngforest,successionand, ,

Zzones,growing.Seehardinesszones

10252 52

87 88

111110

111117 118

70 7122

142 43

13679

13 16

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