The WesTern heriTage since 1300 - Pearson School · PDF file7 Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the ... Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival: The Late Medieval Church

The WesTern heriTage, since 1300

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Eleventh Edition


revised aP® edition

Donald KaganYale UniversitY

Steven OzmentHarvard UniversitY

Frank M. TurnerYale UniversitY

Alison FrankHarvard UniversitY

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BRIEF CONTENTSPART 1 Europe in Transition, 1300–1750 1 The Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown (1300–1453) 35 2 Renaissance and Discovery 59 3 The Age of Reformation 96 4 The Age of Religious Wars 134 5 European State Consolidation in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 167 6 New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 202 7 Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century 236 8 The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion 272

PART 2 Enlightenment and Revolution, 1700–1850 9 The Age of Enlightenment: Eighteenth-Century Thought 311 10 The French Revolution 353 11 The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism 392 12 The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815–1832) 428 13 Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830–1850) 462

PART 3 Toward the Modern World, 1850–1939 14 The Age of Nation-States 509 15 The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I 541 16 The Birth of Modern European Thought 580 17 The Age of Western Imperialism 614 18 Alliances, War, and a Troubled Peace 663 19 The Interwar Years: The Challenge of Dictators and Depression 703

PART 4 Global Conflict, Cold War, and New Directions, 1939–2012 20 World War II 743 21 The Cold War Era, Decolonization, and the Emergence of a New Europe 785 22 Social, Cultural, and Economic Challenges in the West through the Present 833

v

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Popular Remedies 36Social and Economic Consequences 41New Conflicts and Opportunities 41

The Hundred Years’ War and the Rise of National Sentiment 42

The Causes of the War 42Progress of the War 43

Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival: The Late Medieval Church 46

The Thirteenth-Century Papacy 46Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair 47The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) 49John Wycliffe and John Huss 52The Great Schism (1378–1417) and the

Conciliar Movement in the Church to 1449 53

Medieval Russia 56Politics and Society 56Mongol Rule (1243–1480) 56

In Perspective 57Key Terms 58Review Questions 58

L O O KA Closer A Buri Al Scene from the Bl Ack De Ath 39

Dealing with Death 40C O M P A R E

A N DC O N N E C T

Who r uns the World: Priests or Princes? 50

2 Renaissance and Discovery 59The Renaissance in Italy (1375–1527) 60

The Italian City-States 61Humanism 63High Renaissance Art 68Slavery in the Renaissance 73

Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494–1527) 75

Charles VIII’s March Through Italy 75Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family 76Pope Julius II 76Niccolò Machiavelli 77

Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe 78France 79Spain 80England 81The Holy Roman Empire 82

The Northern Renaissance 82The Printing Press 83Erasmus 84Humanism and Reform 85

Documents xixMaps xxiiiUsing The Western Heritage, Since 1300 AP®

Edition xxvCorrelation to the AP European History Curriculum

Framework xxxiiiWhat Is the Western Heritage? xxxix

InTRoducTIon

The West Before 1300 1Early Humans and Their Culture 2

The Paleolithic Age 2The Neolithic Age 2

Early Civilizations to about 1000 b.c.e. 3Mesopotamian Civilization 3Egyptian Civilization 4Palestine and the Religion of the Israelites 5

The Greeks 6The Polis 8Greek Political Philosophy and the Crisis of the Polis 10The Empire of Alexander the Great 12

Rome 14The Republic and Expansion in the Mediterranean 14From Republic to Empire 15The Principate and the Empire 16Christianity 19Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 20

Europe Enters the Middle Ages 22The Byzantine Empire 22The Rise of Islam 23New Importance of the Christian Church 23Charlemagne 24Feudal and Manorial Society 26

Church and State in the High Middle Ages 27The Division of Christendom 27The Rise of Towns 28The Crusades 29The Rise of New Monarchies 30Universities and Scholasticism 31


PART 1Europe in Transition, 1300–1750

1 The Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown (1300–1453) 35

The Black Death 36Preconditions and Causes of the Plague 36

CONTENTS

vii

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viii n Contents

Catholic Reform and Counter-Reformation 120Sources of Catholic Reform 120Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits 121The Council of Trent (1545–1563) 121

The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe 123

The Revolution in Religious Practices and Institutions 124

The Reformation and Education 125The Reformation and the Changing Role

of Women 126

Family Life in Early Modern Europe 127Later Marriages 127Arranged Marriages 128Family Size 128Birth Control 128Wet Nursing 128Loving Families? 128

Literary Imagination in Transition 130Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection

of Idealism 130William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age 131


L O O KA Closer A SAint At Pe Ace in the Gr ASP of t emPtAtion 99

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

A r aw Deal for the c ommon man, or Just Desserts? 108

Table Manners 129

4 The Age of Religious Wars 134Renewed Religious Struggle 135The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) 136

Appeal of Calvinism 138Catherine de Médicis and the Guises 138The Rise to Power of Henry of Navarre 140The Edict of Nantes 142

Imperial Spain and Philip II (r. 1556–1598) 143Pillars of Spanish Power 143The Revolt in the Netherlands 145

England and Spain (1553–1603) 149Mary I (r. 1553–1558) 149Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603) 152

The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) 156Preconditions for War 156Four Periods of War 159The Treaty of Westphalia 163

Voyages of Discovery and the New Empires in the West and East 87

The Portuguese Chart the Course 87The Spanish Voyages of Columbus 89The Spanish Empire in the New World 90The Church in Spanish America 91The Economy of Exploitation 92Mining 92The Impact on Europe 93


The Renaissance Garden 65

L O O KA Closer l eon Ar Do Plot S the Perfect mAn 69

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T is the “r enaissance man” a myth? 70

3 The Age of Reformation 96Society and Religion 97

Social and Political Conflict 97Popular Religious Movements and

Criticism of the Church 98

Martin Luther and the German Reformation to 1525 100

The Attack on Indulgences 101Election of Charles V 102Luther’s Excommunication and the Diet

of Worms 103Imperial Distractions: War with France

and the Turks 104How the Reformation Spread 104The Peasants’ Revolt 105

The Reformation Elsewhere 105Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation 106Anabaptists and Radical Protestants 110John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation 112

Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation 115

The Diet of Augsburg 115The Expansion of the Reformation 116Reaction Against Protestants 116The Peace of Augsburg 116

The English Reformation to 1553 117The Preconditions of Reform 117The King’s Affair 117The “Reformation Parliament” 118Wives of Henry VIII 119The King’s Religious Conservatism 119The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI 119

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Early Controversy Over Tobacco and Smoking 173

L O O KA Closer Ver SAille S 181

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t he Debate over the o rigin and c haracter of Political Authority 184

6 New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 202

The Scientific Revolution 203Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects an

Earth-Centered Universe 204Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make

New Scientific Observations 205Galileo Galilei Argues for a Universe

of Mathematical Laws 206Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws of Gravitation 207

Philosophy Responds to Changing Science 208Nature as Mechanism 208Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method 209René Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction 211Thomas Hobbes: Apologist for Absolute

Government 212John Locke: Defender of Moderate Liberty

and Toleration 213

The New Institutions of Expanding Natural Knowledge 215

Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution 218The New Science and Religious Faith 221

The Case of Galileo 221Blaise Pascal: Reason and Faith 224The English Approach to Science and Religion 227

Continuing Superstition 227Witch Hunts and Panic 228Village Origins 228Influence of the Clergy 228Who Were the Witches? 229End of the Witch Hunts 232

Baroque Art 232In Perspective 234Key Terms 234Review Questions 235

L O O KA Closer the Science S An D the Ar t S 217

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

Descartes and Swift Debate the Scientific enterprise 222

Midwives 231


L O O KA Closer BAroque An D Pl Ain c hurch: Architectur Al r eflection S of Belief 137

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t he Great Debate o ver r eligious t olerance 150

Going to the Theater 154

5 European State Consolidation in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 167

The Netherlands: Golden Age to Decline 168Urban Prosperity 169Economic Decline 169

Two Models of European Political Development 170

Constitutional Crisis and Settlement in Stuart England 171

James I 171Charles I 171The Long Parliament and Civil War 174Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Republic 175Charles II and the Restoration of the Monarchy 175The “Glorious Revolution” 177The Age of Walpole 178

Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France: The World of Louis XIV 179

Years of Personal Rule 179Versailles 180King by Divine Right 180Louis’s Early Wars 182Louis’s Repressive Religious Policies 183Louis’s Later Wars 187France After Louis XIV 187

Central and Eastern Europe 190Poland: Absence of Strong Central Authority 191The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic

Sanction 191Prussia and the Hohenzollerns 193

Russia Enters the European Political Arena 196The Romanov Dynasty 196Peter the Great 196Russian Expansion in the Baltic: The Great

Northern War 197


Contents n ix

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The Spanish Colonial System 277Colonial Government 277Trade Regulation 277Colonial Reform under the Spanish

Bourbon Monarchs 277

Black African Slavery, the Plantation System, and the Atlantic Economy 278

The African Presence in the Americas 281Slavery and the Transatlantic Economy 283The Experience of Slavery 286

Mid-Eighteenth-Century Wars 291The War of Jenkins’s Ear 291The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) 291The “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756 292The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) 293

The American Revolution and Europe 295Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue 295The Crisis and Independence 296American Political Ideas 297Events in Great Britain 298Broader Impact of the American Revolution 300


Sugar Enters the Western Diet 284

L O O KA Closer A SuGAr Pl Ant Ation in the We St in DieS 285

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T t he Atlantic Passage 288

THE WEST THE WORLD The Columbian Exchange: Disease, Animals, and Agriculture 303

Part 1 AP® Test Prep 306

PART 2Enlightenment and Revolution, 1700–1850

9 The Age of Enlightenment: Eighteenth-Century Thought 311

Formative Influences on the Enlightenment 312The Emergence of a Print Culture 313

The Philosophes 315Philosophes and Patrons 316

The Enlightenment and Religion 318Deism 319Toleration 319Radical Enlightenment Criticism of Christianity 320The Limits of Toleration 321The Jewish Enlightenment 323

7 Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century 236

Major Features of Life in the Old Regime 237Maintenance of Tradition 237Hierarchy and Privilege 238

The Aristocracy 238Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege 238Aristocratic Resurgence 241

The Land and Its Tillers 241Peasants and Serfs 241Aristocratic Domination of the Countryside:

The English Game Laws 243

Family Structures and the Family Economy 244Households 244The Family Economy 246Women and the Family Economy 247Children and the World of the Family Economy 248

The Revolution in Agriculture 249New Crops and New Methods 249Expansion of the Population 251

The Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century 254

A Revolution in Consumption 254Industrial Leadership of Great Britain 256New Methods of Textile Production 256The Steam Engine 258Iron Production 259The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial

Revolutions on Working Women 260

The Growth of Cities 263Patterns of Preindustrial Urbanization 263Urban Classes 264The Urban Riot 267

The Jewish Population: The Age of the Ghetto 268In Perspective 270Key Terms 271Review Questions 271

L O O KA Closer An Ari Stocr Atic c ou Ple 240

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t wo eighteenth-c entury Writers c ontemplate the effects of Different economic Structures 252

Water, Washing, and Bathing 266

8 The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion 272

Periods of European Overseas Empires 273Mercantile Empires 274

Mercantilist Goals 275French–British Rivalry 276

x n Contents

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The End of the Monarchy: A Second Revolution 373Emergence of the Jacobins 373The Convention and the Role of the Sans-culottes 374

Europe at War with the Revolution 376Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution 376Suppression of Reform in Britain 377The Second and Third Partitions of Poland,

1793, 1795 377

The Reign of Terror 379War with Europe 379The Republic Defended 379The “Republic of Virtue” and Robespierre’s

Justification of Terror 382Repression of the Society of Revolutionary

Republican Women 383De-Christianization 383Revolutionary Tribunals 384The End of the Terror 384

The Thermidorian Reaction 385Establishment of the Directory 388Removal of the Sans-culottes from Political Life 388


L O O KA Closer c h Allen Gin G the f rench Politic Al o r Der 363

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t he Declaration of the r ights of man and c itizen o pens the Door for Disadvantaged Groups to Demand equal c ivic r ights 368

The Metric System 371

11 The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism 392

The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte 393Early Military Victories 393The Constitution of the Year VIII 394

The Consulate in France (1799–1804) 394Suppressing Foreign Enemies and

Domestic Opposition 395Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church 395The Napoleonic Code 397Establishing a Dynasty 397

The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) 397Napoleon’s Empire (1804–1814) 398

Conquering an Empire 400The Continental System 401

European Response to the Empire 402German Nationalism and Prussian Reform 403The Wars of Liberation 405

The Enlightenment and Society 324The Encyclopedia: Freedom and Economic

Improvement 324Beccaria and Reform of Criminal Law 325The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom 325Adam Smith on Economic Growth

and Social Progress 325

Political Thought of the Philosophes 327Montesquieu and Spirit of the Laws 328Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society 328Enlightened Critics of European Empires 331

Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment 333

Rococo and Neoclassical Styles in Eighteenth-Century Art 336

Enlightened Absolutism 339Frederick the Great of Prussia 342Joseph II of Austria 343Catherine the Great of Russia 345The Partitions of Poland 349The End of the Eighteenth Century

in Central and Eastern Europe 350


Coffeehouses and Enlightenment 317

L O O KA Closer An eiGhteenth- c entur y Ar ti St A PPeAl S to the Ancient Worl D 340

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

maria t heresa and Joseph ii of Austria Debate t oleration 346

10 The French Revolution 353The Crisis of the French Monarchy 354

The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes 354Necker’s Report 355Calonne’s Reform Plan and the Assembly

of Notables 356Deadlock and the Calling of the Estates General 356

The Revolution of 1789 357The Estates General Becomes

the National Assembly 357Fall of the Bastille 360The “Great Fear” and the Night of August 4 361The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen 362The Parisian Women’s March on Versailles 364

The Reconstruction of France 365Political Reorganization 366Economic Policy 367The Civil Constitution of the Clergy 370Counterrevolutionary Activity 372

Contents n xi

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Bourbon Restoration in France 445The Spanish Revolution of 1820 446

The Conservative Order Shaken in Europe 447Revolt Against Ottoman Rule in the Balkans 447Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825 449Revolution in France (1830) 452Belgium Becomes Independent (1830) 454The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832) 454

The Wars of Independence in Latin America 456Wars of Independence on the South American

Continent 457Independence in New Spain 459Brazilian Independence 460


C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

mazzini and l ord Acton Debate the Political Principles of n ationalism 434

Gymnastics and German Nationalism 442

L O O KA Closer An un Succe SSful milit Ar y cou P in r uSSiA 450

13 Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830–1850) 462

Toward an Industrial Society 463Population and Migration 463Railways 464

The Labor Force 467The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force 467Working-Class Political Action: The Example

of British Chartism 470

Family Structures and the Industrial Revolution 471The Family in the Early Factory System 471

Women in the Early Industrial Revolution 474Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment 474Changing Expectations in the

Working-Class Marriage 475

Problems of Crime, Order, and Poverty 477New Police Forces 478Prison Reform 479Government Policies Based on Classical

Economics 480

Early Socialism 481Utopian Socialism 481Anarchism 483Marxism 484

1848: Year of Revolutions 486France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon 488The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted 491

The Invasion of Russia 406European Coalition 410

The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement 410

Territorial Adjustments 410The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance 411

The Romantic Movement 414Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy

of Reason 414Rousseau and Education 415Kant and Reason 415

Romantic Literature 415English Romantic Writers 416The German Romantic Writers 418

Romantic Art 419The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism 420Nature and the Sublime 421

Religion in the Romantic Period 422Methodism 422New Directions in Continental Religion 422

Romantic Views of Nationalism and History 423Herder and Culture 423Hegel and History 423Islam, the Middle East, and Romanticism 424


L O O KA Closer t he c oron Ation of nAP oleon 399

Sailors and Canned Food 404

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t he experience of War in the n apoleonic Age 408

12 The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815–1832) 428

The Conservative Order 429The Congress System 429The Domestic Political Order 429Conservative Outlooks 430

The Emergence of Nationalism and Liberalism 431Nationalism 431Early Nineteenth-Century Political Liberalism 433Classical Economics 438Relationship of Liberalism to Nationalism 439

Conservative Restoration in Europe 439Liberalism and Nationalism Resisted

in Austria and the Germanies 439Postwar Repression in Great Britain 444

xii n Contents

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In Perspective 539Key Term 539Review Questions 540

L O O KA Closer the Sue Z c An Al 513

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

n ineteenth-c entury n ationalism: t wo Sides 520

The Arrival of Penny Postage 537

15 The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I 541

Population Trends and Migration 542The Second Industrial Revolution 543

New Industries 544Economic Difficulties 545

The Middle Classes in Ascendancy 546Social Distinctions within the Middle

Classes 546

Late Nineteenth-Century Urban Life 547The Redesign of Cities 549Urban Sanitation 551Housing Reform and Middle-Class Values 554

Varieties of Late Nineteenth-Century Women’s Experiences 555

Women’s Social Disabilities 555New Employment Patterns for Women 557Working-Class Women 558Poverty and Prostitution 559Women of the Middle Class 559The Rise of Political Feminism 562

Jewish Emancipation 564Differing Degrees of Citizenship 564Broadened Opportunities 564

Labor, Socialism, and Politics to World War I 566Trade Unionism 566Democracy and Political Parties 567Karl Marx and the First International 567Great Britain: Fabianism and Early

Welfare Programs 568France: “Opportunism” Rejected 569Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism 570Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth

of Bolshevism 571


Italy: Republicanism Defeated 493The German Confederation: Liberalism Frustrated 495


The Potato and the Great Hunger in Ireland 466C O M P A R E

A N DC O N N E C T

Andrew u re and John r uskin Debate the c onditions of f actory Production 468

L O O KA Closer t he Gre At exhi Bition in l on Don 473

THE WEST THE WORLD The Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic Economy 498


PART 3Toward the Modern World, 1850–1939

14 The Age of Nation-States 509The Crimean War (1853–1856) 510

Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results 511

Reforms in the Ottoman Empire 512Italian Unification 515

Romantic Republicans 515Cavour’s Policy 515The New Italian State 518

German Unification 519Bismarck 522The Franco–Prussian War and the German

Empire (1870–1871) 524

France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic 526

The Paris Commune 526The Third Republic 527

The Habsburg Empire 527Formation of the Dual Monarchy 529Unrest of Nationalities 530

Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings 531

Reforms of Alexander II 532Revolutionaries 533

Great Britain: Toward Democracy 534The Second Reform Act (1867) 534Gladstone’s Great Ministry (1868–1874) 536Disraeli in Office (1874–1880) 536The Irish Question 538

Contents n xiii

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17 The Age of Western Imperialism 614The Close of the Age of Early Modern

Colonization 615The Age of British Imperial Dominance 617

The Imperialism of Free Trade 617British Settler Colonies 618

India—The Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire 618

The “New Imperialism,” 1870–1914 623Motives for the New Imperialism 624The Partition of Africa 628

Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Libya 628Egypt and British Strategic Concern

about the Upper Nile 629West Africa 634The Belgian Congo 636German Empire in Africa 637Southern Africa 638

Russian Expansion in Mainland Asia 640Western Powers in Asia 641

France in Asia 641The United States’s Actions in Asia,

the Pacific, and Latin America 642The Boxer Rebellion 643

Tools of Imperialism 645Steamboats 645Conquest of Tropical Diseases 647Firearms 647

The Missionary Factor 648Missionary Movements 648Tensions Between Missionaries and

Imperial Administrators 649Missionaries and Indigenous

Religious Movements 651

Science and Imperialism 652Botany 652Zoology 654Medicine 654Anthropology 655


L O O KA Closer t he f rench in morocco 627

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t wo Views of t urn-of-the-t wentieth- c entury imperial expansion 630

Submarine Cables 646

THE WEST THE WORLD Imperialism: Ancient and Modern 658

Bicycles: Transportation, Freedom, and Sport 548C O M P A R E

A N DC O N N E C T

Bernstein and l enin Debate the t actics of european Socialism 574

L O O KA Closer Bloo Dy Sun DAy, St. Peter SBur G, 1905 577

16 The Birth of Modern European Thought 580

The New Reading Public 581Advances in Primary Education 581Reading Material for the Mass Audience 581

Science at Midcentury 582Comte, Positivism, and the Prestige of Science 582New Theories of Evolution: Lamarck, Lyell,

Darwin, Wallace 582Science and Ethics: Social Darwinism 584

Christianity and the Church Under Siege 585Intellectual Skepticism 585Conflict Between Church and State 588Areas of Religious Revival 589The Roman Catholic Church

and the Modern World 589Islam and Late Nineteenth-Century

European Thought 590

Toward a Twentieth-Century Frame of Mind 592Science: The Revolution in Physics 592Literature: Realism and Naturalism 594Modernism in Literature 595The Coming of Modern Art 596Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt Against

Reason 600The Birth of Psychoanalysis 601Retreat from Rationalism in Politics 602Racism 603Anti-Semitism and the Birth of Zionism 604

Women and Modern Thought 608Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought 608New Directions in Feminism 609


The Birth of Science Fiction 583C O M P A R E

A N DC O N N E C T

t he Debate over Social Darwinism 586

L O O KA Closer Po Pul Ar r eli Gion An D Pil Grim AGe 591

xiv n Contents

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The Fascist Experiment in Italy 716The Rise of Mussolini 717The Fascists in Power 719

German Democracy and Dictatorship 720The Weimar Republic 720Depression and Political Deadlock 725Hitler Comes to Power 726Hitler’s Consolidation of Power 727Anti-Semitism and the Police State 729Racial Ideology and the Lives of Women 730Nazi Economic Policy 731

Trials of the Successor States in Eastern Europe 735

Economic and Ethnic Pressures 735Poland: Democracy to Military Rule 736Czechoslovakia: A Viable Democratic

Experiment 736Hungary: Turn to Authoritarianism 736Austria: Political Turmoil and Nazi

Occupation 737Southeastern Europe: Royal Dictatorships 737


Cinema of the Political Left and Right 728C O M P A R E

A N DC O N N E C T

t he Soviets and the n azis c onfront the issues of Women and the f amily 732

L O O KA Closer t he nAZ i PAr ty rA ll y 734


PART 4Global Conflict, Cold War, and New Directions, 1939–2012

20 World War II 743Again the Road to War (1933–1939) 744

Hitler’s Goals 744Italy Attacks Ethiopia 745Remilitarization of the Rhineland 745The Spanish Civil War 746Austria and Czechoslovakia 747Munich 749The Nazi–Soviet Pact 751

World War II (1939–1945) 751The German Conquest of Europe 754The Battle of Britain 755The German Attack on Russia 756Hitler’s Plans for Europe 758Japan and the United States Enter the War 758The Tide Turns 759

18 Alliances, War, and a Troubled Peace 663Emergence of the German Empire and the

Alliance Systems (1873–1890) 664Bismarck’s Leadership 664Forging the Triple Entente (1890–1907) 667

World War I 670The Road to War (1908–1914) 670Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War

(June–August 1914) 672Strategies and Stalemate: 1914–1917 675

The Russian Revolution 685The Provisional Government 686Lenin and the Bolsheviks 686The Communist Dictatorship 688

The End of World War I 689Germany’s Last Offensive 689The Armistice 690The End of the Ottoman Empire 692

The Settlement at Paris 693Obstacles the Peacemakers Faced 693The Peace 694World War I and Colonial Empires 699Evaluating the Peace 700


C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T t he o utbreak of World War i 676

L O O KA Closer t he De Velo Pment of the Armore D tAnk 683

War Propaganda and the Movies: Charlie Chaplin 695

19 The Interwar Years: The Challenge of Dictators and Depression 703

After Versailles: Demands for Revision and Enforcement 704

Toward the Great Depression in Europe 705Financial Tailspin 705Problems in Agricultural Commodities 706Depression and Government Policy

in Britain and France 707

The Soviet Experiment 708War Communism 709The New Economic Policy 710The Third International 710Stalin versus Trotsky 711The Decision for Rapid Industrialization 712The Collectivization of Agriculture 713The Purges 715

Contents n xv

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Decolonization: The European Retreat from Empire 803

Major Areas of Colonial Withdrawal 805India 805Further British Retreat from Empire 806

The Turmoil of French Decolonization 808France and Algeria 808France and Vietnam 809Vietnam Drawn into the Cold War 810Direct United States Involvement 811

The Collapse of European Communism 812Gorbachev Attempts to Reform the Soviet

Union 8121989: Revolution in Eastern Europe 815The Collapse of the Soviet Union 816The Yeltsin Decade 821

The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War 822Putin and the Resurgence of Russia 823The Rise of Radical Political Islamism 826

Arab Nationalism 827The Iranian Revolution 827Afghanistan and Radical Islamism 828

A Transformed West 829In Perspective 831Key Terms 832Review Questions 832

C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

t he Soviet union and the united States Draw the l ines of the c old War 790

Rock Music and Political Protest 814

L O O KA Closer c oll APSe of the Berlin W All 819

22 Social, Cultural, and Economic Challenges in the West through the Present 833

The Twentieth-Century Movement of Peoples 834Displacement Through War 834External and Internal Migration 835The New Muslim Population 835European Population Trends 837

Toward a Welfare State Society 840Christian Democratic Parties 840The Creation of Welfare States 840Resistance to the Expansion

of the Welfare State 841

The Defeat of Nazi Germany 764Fall of the Japanese Empire 764The Cost of War 766

Racism and the Holocaust 767The Destruction of the Polish Jewish Community 768Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars 769The Nazi Assault on the Jews of Poland 769Explanations of the Holocaust 771

The Domestic Fronts 773Germany: From Apparent Victory to Defeat 774France: Defeat, Collaboration, and Resistance 776Great Britain: Organization for Victory 778The Soviet Union: “The Great Patriotic War” 779

Preparations for Peace 780The Atlantic Charter 780Tehran: Agreement on a Second Front 781Yalta 782Potsdam 783


C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T t he munich Settlement 752

Rosie the Riveter and American Women in the War Effort 762

L O O KA Closer t he Vichy r eGime in f r Ance 777

21 The Cold War Era, Decolonization, and the Emergence of a New Europe 785

The Emergence of the Cold War 786Containment in American Foreign Policy 788Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe 789The Postwar Division of Germany 792NATO and the Warsaw Pact 793The Creation of the State of Israel 794The Korean War 795

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union 796Khrushchev’s Domestic Policies 796The Three Crises of 1956 797

Later Cold War Confrontations 798The Berlin Wall 799The Cuban Missile Crisis 799

The Brezhnev Era 8001968: The Invasion of Czechoslovakia 800The United States and Détente 800The Invasion of Afghanistan 802Communism and Solidarity in Poland 802Relations with the Reagan Administration 803

xvi n Contents

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Contents n xvii

The European Union 863Discord over the Union 863

New American Leadership and Financial Crisis 865European Debt Crisis 867


C O M P A R EA N D

C O N N E C T

muslim Women Debate f rance’s Ban on the Veil 838

Toys from Europe Conquer the United States 852

L O O KA Closer nA mele SS l iBr Ar y, Vienn A 856

THE WEST THE WORLD Energy and the Modern World 870


Glossary G-1Index I-1

New Patterns in Work and Expectations of Women 842

Feminism 842More Married Women in the Workforce 843New Work Patterns 845Women in the New Eastern Europe 846

Transformations in Knowledge and Culture 846Communism and Western Europe 846Existentialism 847Expansion of the University Population and

Student Rebellion 848The Americanization of Europe 849A Consumer Society 851Environmentalism 851

Art Since World War II 853Cultural Divisions and the Cold War 855

The Christian Heritage 857Neo-Orthodoxy 857Liberal Theology 858Roman Catholic Reform 858

Late Twentieth-Century Technology: The Arrival of the Computer 860

The Demand for Calculating Machines 860Early Computer Technology 860The Development of Desktop Computers 860

The Challenges of European Unification 862Postwar Cooperation 862The European Economic Community 862

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A01_KAGA0225_11_SE_A01.indd 18 18/02/15 10:29 am

C H A P T E R 4Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) 140*Theodore Beza Defends the Right to Resist

Tyranny 141The Edict of Nantes (France), 1598 142Venetian Observations on the Ottoman

Empire (late 16th c.) 144Acts of Uniformity, 1559 152Anonymous Government Agent: “Arrest of

Edmund Campion and His Associates,” 1581 152John Hawkins Reports on the Spanish Armada 155Thirty Years’ War (1618) Rushworth 156*The Destruction of Magdeburg, May 1631 163The Peace of Westphalia, 1648 165

C H A P T E R 5Jan van Linschoten on Dutch Business

in the Indian Ocean 169Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, Politics Drawn

from the Very Words of the Holy Scripture 170James I on the Divine Right of Kings (1598) 171*King James I Defends Popular Recreation

against the Puritans 172*An Account of the Execution of Charles I 176Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, Memoires 180*Louis XIV Revokes the Edict of Nantes 188*The Great Elector Welcomes Protestant

Refugees from France 195*Peter the Great Tells His Son to Acquire

Military Skills 200

C H A P T E R 6Nicolaus Copernicus: On the Revolution

of the Heavenly Spheres (1500s) 204Galileo, “Third Letter on Sunspots”

(Italian States), 1612 207Isaac Newton, from Opticks 208The Novum Organum (1620) 209Rene Descartes, The Discourse on Method 211Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan 212John Locke, Essay Concerning

Human Understanding 215*Margaret Cavendish Questions the Fascination

with Scientific Instruments 220Galileo Galilei, Letter to the Grand Duchess

Christina (1630s) 224*Galileo Discusses the Relationship of Science

to the Bible 225*Man: A Mean Between Nothing and Everything 226*Why More Women Than Men Are Witches 230

C H A P T E R 1University of Paris Medical Faculty, Writings

on the Plague 36Flagellants Attempt to Ward Off the Black

Death, 1349 38*Boccaccio Describes the Ravages of the Black

Death in Florence 38Peasant Revolt in England: The John Ball

Sermon, 1381 45Unam Sanctam (1302) Pope Boniface VIII 48The Lollard Conclusions, 1394 52*Propositions of John Wycliffe Condemned

at London, 1382, and at the Council of Constance, 1415 54

Vladimir of Kiev’s Acceptance of Christianity (989) 56

C H A P T E R 2Petrarch, Letter to Cicero (14th c.) 64Divine Comedy (1321) 64*Christine de Pisan Instructs Women on How

to Handle Their Husbands 67*Vasari’s Description of Leonardo da Vinci 72Giorgio Vasari on the Life of Michelangelo, 1550 73*Vasari’s Description of Raphael’s Personality 74Desiderius Erasmus, “Pope Julius Excluded

from Heaven,” 1513–1514 76The Prince (1519) Machiavelli 77*Machiavelli Discusses the Most Important

Trait for a Ruler 78Jean Bodin, Six Books of the Commonwealth 79Utopia (1516) 85*Erasmus Describes the Philosophy of Christ 86

C H A P T E R 3Martin Luther, “Ninety-Five Theses”

(Holy Roman Empire), 1517 102Martin Luther, Against the Murderous,

Thieving Hordes of Peasants (1525) 105*Zwingli Lists the Errors of the Roman Church 111John Calvin, “Ecclesiastical Ordinances”

(Geneva, Switzerland), 1533 113*Calvin on Predestination 114The Act of Supremacy (England), 1534 119Ignatius Loyola, Rules for Thinking

with the Church (1535) 121The Council of Trent (Italian states), 1545–1563 122*The Obedience and Power of the Jesuits 123Catherine Zell, “Letter to Ludwig Rabus,”

1556–1558 126Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote 130

DOCUMENTS

xix

*Documents preceded by an asterisk appear in the printed book. Documents without asterisks are referenced throughout the text by title and are available at MyHistoryLab.com.

A01_KAGA0225_11_SE_A01.indd 19 18/02/15 10:29 am

xx n DoCuments

C H A P T E R 7De Staël on the Ancien Regime (1789) 237Voltaire, on Social Conditions

in Eighteenth-Century France 241The Marquis de Mirabeau, The Friend of Men,

or Treatise on Population, 1756 241*Manchester’s Calico Printers Protest the Use

of New Machinery 258James Watt on Steam Engines (mid to late 1700s) 258Richard Guest, The Creation of the Steam Loom 259*Priscilla Wakefield Demands More Occupations

for Women 262Jacques-Louis Menetra, Journal of My Life 265*Belorussian Jews Petition Catherine the Great 269

C H A P T E R 8Jean Baptiste Colbert, “Mercantilism:

Dissertation on Alliances” 275*Buccaneers Prowl the High Seas 280“A Defense of the Slave Trade,” July 1740 290*Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” 297The Declaration of Independence (1776) 298

C H A P T E R 9Immanuel Kant Defines the Enlightenment, 1784 312Denis Diderot, Preliminary Discourse

from The Encyclopedia (France), 1751 313Voltaire, on Social Conditions

in Eighteenth-Century France 315Voltaire, Letters on England 316Voltaire, “On Universal Toleration” 320Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Letters:

(a) on Constantinople; (b) on Smallpox; (c) on Vaccination in Turkey 320

*Du Châtelet Explains Happiness Scientifically 322Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishments 325*Adam Smith Calls for Government Action

to Support the Education of the Poor 326Baron de Montesquieu, Excerpt from The Spirit

of the Laws 328*Denis Diderot Condemns European Empires 332*Rousseau Argues for Separate Spheres for Men

and Women 335Mary Wollstonecraft, Introduction to

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 336*Mary Wollstonecraft Criticizes Rousseau’s

View of Women 337Catherine the Great, “Instructions

for a New Law Code” 348

C H A P T E R 1 0Petition of Women of the Third Estate 357Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, What Is the

Third Estate? 357

French Peasants, Cahiers de doléances (Grievances) (France), 1789 358

*The Third Estate of a French City Petitions the King 359

*The National Assembly Decrees Civic Equality in France 365

Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen 366

*Burke Denounces the Extreme Measures of the French Revolution 378

The National Convention, Law on Suspects (1793), and Law of 22 Prairial Year II (1794) 379

*A Nation at Arms 380*The Paris Jacobin Club Alerts the Nation

to Internal Enemies of the Revolution 381Maximilien Robespierre, “Speech to National

Convention: The Terror Justified” 382*The Convention Establishes the Worship

of the Supreme Being 387

C H A P T E R 1 1Madame de Remusat on the Rise of Napoleon 393Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne,

Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte 394*Napoleon Announces His Seizure of Power 396Charles Parquin, “Napoleon’s Army” 401Carl von Clausewitz, On War, “Arming

the Nation” 403Napoleon’s Exile to St. Helena (1815) 411Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Émile 415*Madame de Staël Describes the New Romantic

Literature of Germany 417*Mary Shelley Remembers the Birth of a Monster 419Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Prometheus, 1773 419*Hegel Explains the Role of Great Men in History 425The Rubaiyat (11th c. c.e.) Omar Khayyam 425

C H A P T E R 1 2*John Stuart Mill Advocates Independence 437Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations 438Laws of Population Growth (1798) Malthus 438David Ricardo, Excerpt from Principles

of Political Economy and Taxation 439*The German Confederation Issues

the Carlsbad Decrees 443The Plan of Iguala 460

C H A P T E R 1 3Chartist Movement: The People’s Petition

of 1838 470British Parliament, “Inquiry: Child Labor” 472Industrial Society and Factory Conditions

(early 1800s) 475*Women Industrial Workers Explain Their

Economic Situation 476

A01_KAGA0225_11_SE_A01.indd 20 18/02/15 10:29 am

DoCuments n xxi

Werner Heisenberg, “Uncertainty” (Germany), 1927 593

Émile Zola, Nana 595Henrik Ibsen, from A Doll’s House, Act Three 595John Maynard Keynes, from The End

of Laissez-Faire 595Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil 600*Émile Zola Accuses the Enemies of Dreyfus

of Self-Interest and Illegal Actions 605*Herzl Advocates Jewish Nationalism 607Ellen Key, from The Century of the Child 610*Virginia Woolf Urges Women to Write 611Virginia Woolf, from A Room of One’s Own

(Great Britain), 1929 611

C H A P T E R 1 7Letter to Queen Victoria (1839) Lin Zexu 617*A Chinese Official Appeals to Queen Victoria

to Halt the Opium Trade 619Dadabhai Naoroji, The Benefits of British Rule

in India, 1871 620The Indian Revolt (1857) 621*Gandhi Questions the Value of English

Civilization 622Amrita Lal Roy, English Rule in India, 1886 623Karl Pearson, “Social Darwinism and Imperialism” 624Vladimir Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage

of Capitalism 625Arthur James Balfour, “Problems with Which

We Have to Deal in Egypt,” 1910 626*Winston Churchill Reports on the Power of

Modern Weaponry against an African Army 635Carl Peters, “A Manifesto for German

Colonization” 638*General von Trotha Demands that the Herero

People Leave Their Land 639*The Russian Foreign Minister Explains

the Imperatives of Expansion in Asia 642

C H A P T E R 1 8Borijove Jevtic, The Murder of Archduke Franz

Ferdinand at Sarajevo (28 June 1914) 672*The Austrian Ambassador Gets a “Blank

Check” from the Kaiser 674*The Outbreak of the Russian Revolution 687Bolshevik Seizure of Power, 1917 688Woodrow Wilson, The Fourteen Points (1918) 689*An Eyewitness Account of the Bolsheviks’

Seizure of Power 690The Covenant of the League of Nations 697

C H A P T E R 1 9Irish National Identity: (a) Irish Declaration of

Independence; (b) Ulster’s Solemn League and Covenant; (c) Eamon de Valera, radio broadcast 707

Leon Faucher, “Prison Rules” 479Robert Owen, Excerpt from Address

to the Workers of New Lanark, 1816 482Capitalism Challenged: The Communist

Manifesto (1848) 484*Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Describe

the Class Struggle 487Metternich on the Revolutions of 1848 492*A Czech Nationalist Defends the Austrian

Empire 494Giuseppe Mazzini, Life and Writings

of Giuseppe Mazzini, 1805–1872 494

C H A P T E R 1 4An Ottoman Government Decree Defines

the Official Notion of the “Modern” Citizen, June 19, 1870 512

A Letter from Bismarck (1866) 523Fustel de Coulanges, Letter to German

Historian Theodor Mommsen, 1870 526*Mark Twain Describes the Austrian Parliament 528Emancipation Manifesto (1861) 532*The People’s Will Issues a Revolutionary

Manifesto 535

C H A P T E R 1 5*Praise and Concerns Regarding Railway Travel 547*Paris Department Stores Expand Their Business 549Edwin Chadwick, Summary from the Poor

Law Commissioners 552*A Doctor Learns How to Prevent Childbed Fever 553Adelheid Popp, “Finding Work: Women

Factory Workers” 559George Bernard Shaw, Mrs. Warren’s Profession 559John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women 562“Freedom or Death” (1913) Emmeline Pankhurst 563*Emmeline Pankhurst Defends Militant

Suffragette Tactics 565Socialism: The Gotha Program (1875) 570M. I. Pokzovskaya, Working Conditions

of Women in the Factories 572

C H A P T E R 1 6Auguste Comte, “Course of Positive Philosophy”

(France), 1830–1842 582Origin of Species, Charles Darwin (1859) 584Herbert Spencer, Social Darwinism,

from The Data of Ethics (1857) 585Matthew Arnold, Excerpt from Dover Beach 585Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum (Of New

Things), 1891 590Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, “Lecture

on Teaching and Learning” 590*Leo XIII Considers the Social Question

in European Politics 593

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xxii n DoCuments

Gamal Abdel Nasser, Speech on the Suez Canal (Egypt), 1956 797

*Khrushchev Denounces the Crimes of Stalin: The Secret Speech 798

*Gandhi Explains His Doctrine of Nonviolence 807Frantz Fanon, from The Wretched of the Earth 809Mikhail Gorbachev on the Need for Economic

Reform (1987) 813*Vladimir Putin Outlines a Vision

of the Russian Future 825Statement from Chancellor Schröder

on the Iraq Crisis 830

C H A P T E R 2 2Justin Vaisse, from “Veiled Meaning”

(France) 2004 836Jörg Haider, from The Freedom I Mean

(Austria), 1995 836*Simone de Beauvoir Urges Economic

Freedom for Women 844*Sartre Discusses His Existentialism 850Towards a Green Europe, Towards

a Green World 851*Voices from Chernobyl 854Pope John Paul II, from Centesimus Annus 858A Common Market and European

Integration (1960) 863Treaty on European Union, 1992 863*An English Business Editor Calls for Europe

to Take Charge of Its Economic Future 866

*John Maynard Keynes Calls for Government Investment to Create Employment 708

Joseph Stalin, Five Year Plan 712Benito Mussolini, “The Political and Social

Doctrine of Fascism” 717*Mussolini Heaps Contempt on Political

Liberalism 718Heinrich Hauser, “With Germany’s

Unemployed” 721*Hitler Denounces the Versailles Treaty 723Adolf Hitler, Excerpt from Mein Kampf 723Heinrich Himmler, “Speech to SS Officers” 729Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, “Speech to the Nazi

Women’s Organization” (Germany), 1935 731

C H A P T E R 2 0Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf 744Speech to Spaniards (1936) Francisco Franco 746*Winston Churchill Warns of the Effects

of the Munich Agreement 750Adolf Hitler, “The Obersalzberg Speech” 751Marc Bloch, from Strange Defeat 754Winston Churchill, “Their Finest Hour”

(Great Britain), 1940 755An Eyewitness to Hiroshima (1945) 765*Mass Murder at Belsen 770Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill,

“The Atlantic Charter” 780

C H A P T E R 2 1Joseph Stalin, Excerpts from the “Soviet Victory”

Speech, 1946 788Winston Churchill, from the Iron Curtain

Speech, 1946 788

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15–2 European Industrialization, 1860–1913 544 17–1 British India, 1820 and 1856 620 17–2 Imperial Expansion in Africa to 1880 629 17–3 Partition of Africa, 1880–1914 632 17–4 Asia, 1880–1914 644 18–1 The Balkans, 1912–1913 671 18–2 The Schlieffen Plan of 1905 680 18–3 World War I in Europe 681 18–4 The Western Front, 1914–1918 682 18–5 World War I Peace Settlement in

Europe and the Middle East 696 19–1 Germany’s Western Frontier 725 20–1 The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 747 20–2 Partitions of Czechoslovakia and Poland,

1938–1939 749 20–3 Axis Europe, 1941 757 20–4 North African Campaigns, 1942–1945 761 20–5 Defeat of the Axis in Europe, 1942–1945 763 20–6 World War II in the Pacific 766 20–7 The Holocaust 768 20–8 Yalta to the Surrender 783 21–1 Territorial Changes in Europe

After World War II 787 21–2 Occupied Germany and Austria 792 21–3 Major Cold War European Alliance

Systems 793 21–4 Israel and Its Neighbors in 1949 795 21–5 Korea, 1950–1953 796 21–6 Decolonization Since World War II 804 21–7 Vietnam and Its Southeast Asian

Neighbors 812 21–8 The Borders of Germany in the

Twentieth Century 817 21–9 The Commonwealth of Independent

States 820 22–1 The Growth of the European Union 864

1–1 Spread of the Black Death 37 1–2 The Hundred Years’ War 44 2–1 Renaissance Italy 61 2–2 European Voyages of Discovery and the

Colonial Claims of Spain and Portugal in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 88

3–1 The Empire of Charles V 103 3–2 The Swiss Confederation 106 3–3 The Religious Situation about 1560 122 4–1 The Netherlands during the

Reformation 145 4–2 Germany in 1547 157 4–3 Religious Divisions about 1600 158 4–4 The Holy Roman Empire about 1618 160 4–5 Europe in 1648 164 5–1 The First Three Wars of Louis XIV 183 5–2 Europe in 1714 189 5–3 The Austrian Habsburg Empire, 1521–1772 192 5–4 Expansion of Brandenburg-Prussia 194 8–1 Viceroyalties in Latin America in 1780 279 8–2 The Slave Trade, 1400–1860 283 8–3 North America in 1763 296 9–1 Expansion of Russia, 1689–1796 350 9–2 Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, and 1795 351 10–1 French Provinces and the Republic 367 11–1 The Continental System, 1806–1810 403 11–2 Napoleonic Europe in Late 1812 407 11–3 The German States after 1815 411 11–4 Europe 1815, after the Congress of Vienna 413 12–1 Centers of Revolution, 1820–1831 448 12–2 Latin America in 1830 457 13–1 European Railroads in 1850 465 13–2 Centers of Revolution in 1848–1849 488 14–1 The Crimean War 510 14–2 The Unification of Italy 517 14–3 The Unification of Germany 519 15–1 Patterns of Global Migration, 1840–1900 543

MAPS

xxiii

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A01_KAGA0225_11_SE_A01.indd 24 18/02/15 10:29 am

When writing about history, historians use maps, tables, graphs, and visuals to help their readers understand the past. What follows is an explanation of how to use the historian’s tools that are contained in this book.

Reading the TextbookTextWhether it is a biography or an article, or a survey of European history such as this textbook, the text is the historian’s basic tool for discussing the past. Historians write about the past using narration and analysis. Nar-ration is the story line of history. It describes what hap-pened in the past, who did it, and where and when it occurred. Narration is also used to describe how people in the past lived, how they passed their daily lives and even, when the historical evidence makes it possible for us to know, what they thought, felt, feared, or desired. Using analysis, historians explain why they think events in the past happened the way they did and offer an expla-nation for the story of history.

MapsMaps are important historical tools. They show how geography has affected history and concisely summarize complex relationships and events. Knowing how to read and interpret a map is important to understanding his-tory. Map 5–1 shows the first three major wars of Louis XIV. It has three features to help you read it: a caption, a legend, and a scale. The caption explains the historical significance of the map: Between 1667 and 1697 Louis XIV engaged in three wars that resulted in territorial changes in Europe. The legend appears in the top left corner of the map. It provides a key to what the colors of the different territorial changes were after each war. The solid red line represents the French boundary in 1648 before the start of the first of the three wars. Cities are marked with a dot. Using the legend, the reader can see what territory became part of France and Spain at the conclusion of each war by the colors used. The scale tells us how to estimate the distance between points on the map easily. Some maps also show the topography of the region—its mountains, rivers, and lakes. This helps us understand how geography influenced history.

USING THE WESTERN HERITAGE, SINCE 1300

AP® EDITION

xxv

ChaPter 2 n rEnaissancE and discovEry 89

The Spanish Voyages of ColumbusThirty-three days after departing the Canary Islands, on October 12, 1492, Colum-bus landed in San Salvador (Watlings Island) in the eastern Bahamas. Thinking he was in the East Indies, he mistook his first landfall as an outer island of Japan. The error was understandable given the information he relied on, namely, Marco Polo’s thirteenth-century account of his years in China and Martin Behaim’s spherical map of the presumed world. That map showed only ocean and Cipangu (Japan) between the west coast of Europe and the east coast of Asia. (See Martin Behaim’s map, below.) Not until his third voyage to the Caribbean in 1498 did Columbus realize that Cuba was not Japan and South America was not China.

Naked, friendly natives met Columbus and his crew on the beaches of the New World. They were Taino Indians, who spoke a variant of a language known as Arawak. Believing the island on which he landed to be the East Indies, Columbus called these people Indians, a name that stuck with Europeans even after they realized he had actually discovered a new continent. The natives’ generosity amazed Columbus, as they freely gave his men all the corn, yams, and sexual favors they desired. “They never say no,” Columbus marveled. He also observed how easily the Spanish could enslave them.

On the heels of Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci (1451–1512), after whom Amer-ica is named, and Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521) explored the coastline of South America. Their travels proved that the new lands Columbus had discovered were an entirely unknown continent that opened on the still greater Pacific Ocean. Magellan, who was continuing the search for a westward route to the Indies, made it all the way around South America and across the Pacific to the Philippines, where he was killed in a skirmish with the inhabitants. The remnants of his squadron eventually sailed on to Spain, making them the first sailors to circumnavigate the globe.

Intended and unintended Consequences Columbus’s first voyage marked the beginning of more than three centuries of a vast Spanish empire in the Americas. What began as voyages of discovery became expeditions of conquest, not unlike the warfare Christian Aragon and Castile waged against Islamic Moors. Those wars had just ended in 1492, and their conclusion imbued the early Spanish explorers with a zeal for conquering and converting non-Christian peoples.

Much to the benefit of Spain, the voyages of discovery created Europe’s largest and longest surviv-ing trading bloc and spurred other European countries to undertake their own colonial ventures. The wealth extracted from its Ameri-can possessions financed Spain’s commanding role in the religious and political wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, while fueling a Europe-wide economic expansion.

European expansion also had a profound biological impact. Euro-peans introduced numerous new species of fruits, vegetables, and animals into the Americas and brought American species back to Europe. European expansion also spread European diseases. Vast

What Columbus knew of the world in 1492 was contained in a map by Nuremberg geogra-pher Martin Behaim, creator of the first spherical globe of the earth. Departing the Canary Islands, Columbus expected his first major landfall to be Japan. When he landed at San Salvador, he thought he was on the outer island of Japan. Thus, when he arrived in Cuba, he thought he was in Japan. © Mary Evans Picture Library/Alamy

M02_KAGA4751_11_SE_C02.indd 89 29/10/12 10:54 AM

ChaPter 5 n EuropEan sTaTE ConsolidaTion in ThE sEvEnTEEnTh and EighTEEnTh CEnTuriEs 183

Louis’s Repressive Religious PoliciesLike Richelieu before him, Louis believed that political unity and stability required religious conformity. To that end he carried out repressive actions against both Roman Catholics and Protestants.

Suppression of the Jansenists The French crown and the French Roman Catho-lic church had long jealously guarded their ecclesiastical independence or “Gallican Liberties” from papal authority in Rome. However, after the conversion to Roman Catholicism of Henry IV in 1593, the Jesuits, fiercely loyal to the authority of the Pope, had monopolized the education of French upper-class men, and their devout students promoted the religious reforms and doctrines of the Council of Trent. As a measure of their success, Jesuits served as confessors to Henry IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV.

Gallican Liberties The ecclesias-tical independence of the French crown and the French Roman Catholic church from papal authority in Rome.

Map 5–1 the first three Wars of louis xiV This map shows the territorial changes resulting from Louis XIV’s first three major wars (1667–1697).

100 KILOMETERS

100 MILES

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

N o r t h

S e a

F R A N C E SWITZERLAND

SPAIN

HOLY

ROMAN

EMPIRESPA

NISH

NETHERLANDS

Bayonne

Narbonne

Toulouse

Bordeaux

Marseilles

Lyons

Geneva

Basel

Nantes

Tours

Orléans

Paris

Rouen

Reims

Laôn

Verdun

Strasbourg

Philippsburg

Mainz

Frankfurt

Cologne

Aix-la-ChapelleLiège

Brussels

Utrecht

Amsterdam

The Hague

Garonne

R.

Dordogne R.

Loire

R.

Oise

R.

Seine R.

Seine R.

Rhô

ne

R.

Rhine R.

Rhine R

.

Weser R.

LOR

RA

INE

LILLE

FLANDERS

ARTOIS

LUXEMBOURGRHENISH

PALANTINATE

FRANCHE-COMTÉ

ALSACE

SAVOY

Milan

Avignon

NORMANDY

BRITTANY

To France

To Spain

Treaty of Nijmwegen, 1678–1679

To France

Treaty of Ryswick, 1697

Boundary of France, 1648

To France

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668

THE EARLY WARS OF LOUIS XIV, 1667–1697

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VisualsVisual images embedded throughout the text provide as much insight into European history as the written word. Within photographs and pieces of fine art lies emo-tional and historical meaning. Captions provide valu-able information, such as in the examples to the right. When studying the image, consider questions such as: “Who are these people?”; “How were they feeling?”; “What event motivated this photograph or painting?”; and “What can be learned from the backdrop surround-ing the focal point?” Such analysis allows for a fuller understanding of the people of the West.

Primary Source DocumentsLike maps and visuals, primary source documents are essential to the study of history. In each chapter, there are three to four primary sources that illuminate the time, events, or people being discussed in the chapter. The questions that are included with the documents provide an opportunity to learn to analyze and think critically about what these sources tell us about the past.

338 Part 2 n EnlightEnmEnt and REvolution, 1700–1850

Watteau (1684–1721) in whose Pilgrimage to Isle of Cithera young lovers embark to pay homage to the goddess Venus. Other artists such as Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) produced works filled with female nudes and with men and women in sexu-ally suggestive poses.

As the eighteenth century wore on, the way of life illustrated in Rococo paintings and of more popular prints produced from them convinced many people in France that the monarchy, the court, and the aristocracy were frivolous and decadent. In reality, as seen in Chapter 7, many French and European aristocrats were hard-working and disciplined, and Louis XVI, who succeeded Louis XV in 1774, was a well-intentioned, pious, and highly moral monarch. Nonetheless, the lighthearted carelessness of Rococo art increased hostility toward the political and social elites of the Old Regime.

Contemporaries, moreover, did not have to wait for the tumult of the French Revolution to view art that directly criticized the soci-ety Rococo art portrayed. The mid-eighteenth century witnessed a new admiration for the art of the ancient world. In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), a German archaeologist, pub-lished Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture, followed in 1764 by The History of Ancient Art. In both works he either directly or indirectly contrasted the superficiality of the Rococo with the seriousness of ancient art and architecture. His books and the simultaneous rediscovery and partial excavation of the ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum in southern Italy fostered the rise of Neoclassicism in art and architecture. This movement constituted a return to themes, topics, and styles drawn from antiquity itself and from the Renaissance appeal to antiquity.

The popularity of the city of Rome as a destination for artists and aristocratic tourists contributed to the rise of Neoclassicism. European aristocrats who came to Italy in the mid-eighteenth cen-tury on what was called “the Grand Tour” increasingly admired

both the ancient and Renaissance art that was on view there and the Neoclassical works that contemporary artists were pro-ducing there. Not only did these wealthy and influential travelers purchase paintings and statues to bring home with them, but they also commissioned architects to rebuild their own houses and public buildings in Neoclassical style.

Figures in Neoclassical paintings rarely suggest movement and often seem to stand still in a kind of tableau illustrating a moral theme. These paintings were didactic rather than emotional or playful. Their subject mat-ter was usually concerned with public life or public morals, rather than depicting intimate family life, daily routine, or the leisure activ-ity favored by Rococo painters.

Many Neoclassical painters used scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice from ancient history to draw contemporary moral and political lessons. Such scenes provided a sharp moral contrast to the works of Wat-teau or Boucher in which lovers seek only pleasure and escape from care.

In this 1756 portrait of Madame de Pompadour, painted by the French artist François Boucher, the opulence of her lifestyle is as prominent as the features of her face. bpk, Berlin/Alte Pinakothek, Bayerische Staatsgemaeldesam-

mlungen, Munich, Germany/Art Resource, NY

Jean-Antoine Watteau, The Music Party (1718). This oil painting portrays young French aristocrats enjoying a leisurely musical serenade. Men, women, children, and pets repose to the left, while an African servant—another sign of the party’s high status—cools champagne behind the musician’s back. © Peter Barritt/Alamy

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Art. 1. Know that we . . . with our certain knowl-edge, full power and royal authority, have by

this present, perpetual and irrevocable edict, sup-pressed and revoked the edict of the aforesaid king our grandfather, given at Nantes in the month of April, 1598, in all its extent . . . together with all the concessions made by [this] and other edicts, declarations, and decrees, to the people of the so-called Reformed religion, of whatever nature they be . . . and in consequence we desire . . . that all the temples of the people of the aforesaid so-called Reformed religion situated in our king-dom . . . should be demolished forthwith.

Art. 2. We forbid our subjects of the so-called Reformed religion to assemble any more for public worship of the above-mentioned religion. . . .

Art. 3. We likewise forbid all lords, of what-ever rank they may be, to carry out heretical ser-vices in houses and fiefs . . . the penalty for . . . the said worship being confiscation of their body and possessions.

Art. 4. We order all ministers of the aforesaid so-called Reformed religion who do not wish to be converted and to embrace the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, to depart from our kingdom and the lands subject to us within fifteen days from the publication of our present edict . . . on pain of the galleys.

Art. 5. We desire that those among the said [Reformed] ministers who shall be converted [to the Catholic religion] shall continue to enjoy dur-ing their life, and their wives shall enjoy after their death as long as they remain widows, the same exemptions from taxation and billeting of soldiers, which they enjoyed while they fulfilled the func-tion of ministers. . . .

Art. 8. With regard to children who shall be born to those of the aforesaid so-called Reformed reli-gion, we desire that they be baptized by their parish priests. We command the fathers and mothers to send them to the churches for that purpose, on pen-alty of a fine of 500 livres or more if they fail to do so; and afterwards, the children shall be brought up in the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion. . . .

Art. 10. All our subjects of the so-called Reformed religion, with their wives and children, are to be strongly and repeatedly prohibited from leaving our aforesaid kingdom . . . or of taking out . . . their pos-sessions and effects. . . .

The members of the so-called Reformed religion, while awaiting God’s pleasure to enlighten them like the others, can live in the towns and districts of our kingdom . . . and continue their occupation there, and enjoy their possessions . . . on condi-tion . . . that they do not make public profession of [their religion].

From S. Z. Ehler and John B. Morrall, eds. and trans., Church and State Through the Centuries: A Collection of Historic Documents (New York: Biblo & Tannen, 1967), pp. 209–213. Reprinted by permission of Biblo and Tannen Booksellers and Publishers.

l o u i s x i V r e V o K e s t h e e D i C t o f n a n t e s

Believing a country could not be governed by one king and one law unless it was also under one religious system, Louis XIV stunned much of Europe in October 1685 by revoking the Edict of Nantes, which had protected the religious freedoms and civil rights of French Protestants since 1598. Years of serious, often violent, persecution of French Protestants followed this revocation. Consequently, after 1685 in the minds of many Europeans political absolutism was associated with intolerance and religious persecution. Paradoxically, Pope Innocent XI (1676–1689) opposed Louis XIV’s revoca-tion of the Edict of Nantes because he understood that this act and other aspects of Louis’s ecclesiastical policy were intended as political measures to allow his govern-ment to dominate the Roman Catholic Church in France.

Compare this document to the one on page 195 in which the elector of Brandenburg welcomes displaced French Protestants into his domains.

What specific actions does this declaration order against Protestants? Does it offer any incentives for Protestants to convert to Catholicism? How does this declaration com-pare with the English Test Act?

Document

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Study AidsAn outline, learning objectives, and an introduction are included at the beginning of each chapter. Together these features provide a succinct overview of each chap-ter and a road map for study and review. Learning objec-tives are keyed to the main sections within the chapter and included in the margins throughout the chapter.

59

2Renaissance and Discovery▼ The Renaissance in Italy (1375–1527)The Italian City-States • Humanism • High Renaissance Art • Slavery in the Renaissance

▼ Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494–1527)Charles VIII’s March Through Italy • Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family • Pope Julius II • Niccolò Machiavelli

▼ Revival of Monarchy in Northern EuropeFrance • Spain • England • The Holy Roman Empire

▼ The Northern RenaissanceThe Printing Press • Erasmus • Humanism and Reform

▼ Voyages of Discovery and the New Empires in the West and EastThe Portuguese Chart the Course • The Spanish Voyages of Columbus • The Spanish Empire in the New World • The Church in Spanish America • The Economy of Exploitation • The Impact on Europe

▼ In Perspective

Learning Objectives

How did humanism affect culture and the arts in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Italy?What were the causes of Italy’s political decline?How were the powerful monar-chies of northern Europe differ-ent from their predecessors?How did the northern Renais-sance affect culture in Germany, England, France, and Spain?What were the motives for Euro-pean voyages of discovery, and what were the consequences?

IF THE LATE Middle Ages saw unprecedented chaos, it also witnessed a recovery that continued into the seventeenth century. There was both a waning and a har-

vest; much was dying away, while new fruit was being gathered and seed grain sown. The late Middle Ages were a time of creative fragmentation and new synthesis.

By the late fifteenth century, Europe was recovering from two of the three crises of the times: the demographic and the political. The great losses in population were being replenished, and able monarchs and rulers were imposing a new political order.

The Renaissance celebrated human beauty and dignity. Here Flemish painter Rogier van der Weyden (1400–1464) portrays an ordinary woman more perfectly on canvas than she could ever have appeared in real life. Rogier van der Weyden

(Netherlandish, 1399.1400–1464), “Portrait of a Lady.” 1460. .370 × .270 [141/16 × 105/8] framed:

.609 × .533 × .114 [24 × 21 × 4½]. Photo: Bob Grove. Andrew W. Mellon Collection. Photograph ©

Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Listen to the Chapter Audio on MyHistoryLab.com

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Chronologies in each chapter list significant events and their dates. 430 part 2 n enlighTenmenT and revoluTion, 1700–1850

of the Habsburg emperor had been, along with Britain’s Viscount Castlereagh (1769–1822), the chief architect of the Vienna settlement. It was Metternich who seemed to exercise chief control over the forces of European reaction and who, more than any other early-nineteenth-century statesman, epitomized conservatism.

Conservative OutlooksThe major pillars of nineteenth-century conservatism were legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and estab-lished churches. The institutions themselves were ancient, but the self-conscious alliance of throne, land, and altar was new. In the eighteenth century, these groups had often quarreled. Only the upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era transformed them into natural, if some-times reluctant, allies. In that sense, conservatism as an articulated outlook and set of cooperating institutions was as new a feature on the political landscape as nationalism and liberalism.

The more theoretical political and religious ideas of the conservative classes were associated with thinkers such as

Edmund Burke (see Chapter 10) and Friedrich Hegel (see Chapter 11). Conservatives shared other, less formal attitudes forged by the revolutionary experience. The execu-tion of Louis XVI at the hands of radical democrats convinced most monarchs they could trust only aristocratic governments or governments of aristocrats in alliance with the wealthiest middle-class and professional people. The European aristocracies believed that no form of genuinely representative government would protect their property and influence. All conservatives spurned the idea of a written constitution unless they were permitted to write the document themselves. Even then, some rejected the concept.

The churches equally distrusted popular movements, except their own revivals. Ecclesiastical leaders throughout the Continent regarded themselves as entrusted with the educational task of supporting the social and political status quo. They also feared and hated most of the ideas associated with the Enlightenment because those rational concepts and reformist writings enshrined the critical spirit and undermined revealed religion.

Conservative aristocrats retained their former arrogance, but not their former privileges or their old confidence. They saw themselves as surrounded by enemies and as standing permanently on the defensive against the forces of liberalism, national-ism, and popular sovereignty. They knew that political groups that hated them could topple them. They also understood that revolution in one country could spill over into another.

All of the nations of Europe in the years immediately after 1815 confronted prob-lems arising directly from their entering an era of peace after a quarter century of armed conflict. The war effort, with its loss of life and property and its need to organize people and resources, had distracted attention from other problems. The wartime footing had allowed all the belligerent governments to exercise firm con-trol over their populations. War had fueled economies and had furnished vast areas of employment in armies, navies, military industries, and agriculture. The onset of peace meant citizens could raise new political issues and that economies were no longer geared to supplying military needs. Soldiers and sailors came home and looked for jobs as civilians. The vast demands of the military effort on industries subsided and caused unemployment. The young were no longer growing up in a climate of war and could think about other issues. For all of these reasons, the conservative states-men who led every major government in 1815 confronted new pressures that would

conservatism Support for the established order in church and state. In the nineteenth century, it implied support for legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. Conser-vatives favored only gradual, or “organic,” change.

ThE PERIOd Of POLITICAL REACTION

1814 French monarchy restored1815 Russia, Austria, and Prussia

form Holy Alliance1815 Russia, Austria, Prussia,

and Britain renew Quadruple Alliance

1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle1819 (July) Carlsbad Decrees

1819 (August 16) Peterloo Massacre1819 (December) Great Britain passes Six Acts

1820 (January) Spanish revolution1820 (October) Congress of Troppau1821 (January) Congress of Laibach

1821 (February) Greek revolution1822 Congress of Verona1823 France helps crush Spanish

revolution

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GlossarySignificant historical terms are defined in the margin where they appear in the text and are included in an alphabetical glossary at the end of the book.

Chapter 4 n The Age of Religious WARs 135

Thirty Years’ War.” By the mid-seventeenth century, English Puritans success-fully revolted against both the Stuart monarchy and the Anglican Church. (See Chapter 5.)

▼ Renewed Religious StruggleIn the first half of the sixteenth century, religious conflict had been confined to cen-tral Europe and was primarily a struggle by Lutherans and Zwinglians to secure rights and freedoms for themselves. In the second half of the century, the focus shifted to Western Europe—to France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland—and became a struggle by Calvinists for recognition. After the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and accep-tance of the political principle that a region’s ruler determined its religion (cuius regio, eius religio), Lutheranism became a fully legal confession in the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Augsburg did not, however, extend recognition to non-Lutheran Protes-tants. Anabaptists and other sectarian separatists continued to be scorned as heretics and anarchists, while Calvinists were not strong enough to seize legal standing.

Outside the empire, the struggle for political and religious freedom had inten-sified in most lands. After the Council of Trent adjourned in 1563, Catholics organized a Jesuit-led international counteroffensive against Protestants. At the time of John Calvin’s death (1564), Geneva had become both a refuge for Europe’s persecuted Protestants and an international school for Protestant resistance, producing leaders equal to the new Catholic challenge.

Genevan Calvinism and Roman Catholicism, as revived by the Council of Trent, were two equally dogmatic, aggressive, and irreconcilable forces. Calvinists may have looked like “new papists” to their critics when they dominated cities like Geneva. But when, as minorities, they found their civil and religious rights denied, they became fire-brands and revolutionaries. Calvinists adopted a political organization that magnified regional and local authority. Boards of presbyters, or elders, represented and instructed the individual congregations that were directly shaping policies both sacred and secular.

By contrast, the Counter-Reformation sponsored a centralized episcopal church system hierarchically arranged from pope to parish priest, stressing obedience with-out question to the person at the top. The high clergy—the pope and his bishops—not the synods of local churches, were supreme. Calvinism proved attractive to propo-nents of political decentralization who opposed hierarchical rule, whereas the Roman Catholic Church, an institution also devoted to one head and one law, found absolute monarchy congenial.

The opposition between the two religions may be seen in their respective art and architecture. The Catholic Counter-Reformation found the baroque style congenial. A successor to mannerism, baroque art presented life in a grandiose, three-dimensional display of raw energy. The great baroque artists Peter Paul Rubens (1571–1640) and Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) were Catholics. By contrast, the works of prominent Protestant artists were restrained, as can be seen in the gentle, searching portraits of the Dutch Mennonite, Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669). (See the juxtaposition of Bavarian Catholic and Palatine Calvinist churches in “A Closer Look: Baroque and Plain Church: Architectural Reflections of Belief,” page 137.)

As the religious wars engulfed Europe, the intellectuals perceived the wisdom of religious pluralism and toleration more quickly than did the politicians. A new skep-ticism, relativism, and individualism became respectable in the sixteenth and seven-teenth centuries. (See Chapter 6.) Bold humanist Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563) had a pithy censure for John Calvin after his role in the execution of Anti-Trinitarian physician Michael Servetus. “To kill a man is not to defend a doctrine, but to kill a man.”1 French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) also asked in scorn of the

How did religious conflict in Europe evolve over the course of the second half of the sixteenth century?

presbyters (PRESS-bi-ters) Mean-ing “elder.” People who directed the affairs of early Christian congregations.

Counter-Reformation The sixteenth-century reform move-ment in the Roman Catholic Church in reaction to the Protes-tant Reformation.

baroque (bah-ROWK) A style of art marked by heavy and dramatic ornamentation and curved rather than straight lines that flourished between 1550 and 1750. It was especially associated with the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

1Contra libellum Calvini (N.P., 1562), p. E2a.

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Special FeaturesMyHistoryLab Media AssignmentsThroughout the chapter there are icons that identify documents, maps, images, videos, and interactive activ-ities that are available on the MyHistoryLab web site that relate to specific topics and events discussed in a chapter.

228 part 1 n europe iN traNsitioN, 1300–1750

Witch Hunts and PanicNowhere is the dark side of early modern thought and culture more strikingly vis-ible than in the witch hunts and panics that erupted in almost every Western land. Between 1400 and 1700, courts sentenced an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 people to death for harmful magic (maleficium) and diabolical witchcraft. In addition to inflict-ing harm on their neighbors, witches were said to attend mass meetings known as sabbats, to which they were also believed to fly. They were also believed to indulge in sexual orgies with the devil, who appeared in animal form, most often as a he-goat. Other imagined charges against them were cannibalism—particularly the devouring of small Christian children—and a variety of ritual acts and practices, often sexual in nature, that denied or perverted Christian beliefs.

Why did witch panics occur in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries? The disruptions created by religious division and warfare were major factors. The peak years of the religious wars were also those of the witch hunts. Some blame the Reformation for the panics by taking away the traditional defenses against the devil and demons, thereby compelling gullible believers to protect themselves by searching out and executing witches.

Village OriginsThe roots of belief in witches are found in both popular and elite culture. In vil-lage societies, respected “cunning folk” helped the simple folk cope with natural disasters and disabilities incurred by magical powers. For settled people, these were important services that kept village life moving forward in times of calamity. The alleged possession of magical powers, for good or ill, made one an important person within village society. Those who were most in need of security and influence, par-ticularly old, impoverished single or widowed women, often made claims to possess-ing such authority. Occult, village beliefs may also have been a way to defy urban Christian society’s attempts to impose its orthodox beliefs, laws, and institutions on the countryside. Under church persecution local fertility cults, whose semipagan practices were intended to ensure good harvests, acquired the features of diabolical witchcraft.

Influence of the ClergyPopular belief in magical power was the essential foundation of the witch hunts. Had ordinary people not believed that “gifted persons” could help or harm by magi-cal means, and had they not been willing to accuse them, the hunts would never have occurred; however, the contribution of Christian theologians was equally great. When the church expanded into areas where its power and influence were small, it encountered semi-pagan cultures rich in folkloric beliefs and practices that predated Christianity. There, it clashed with so-called cunning men and women, who were respected spiritual authorities in local communities, the folk equivalents of Christian priests. In the eyes of the simple folk, Christian clergy also practiced a kind of high magic. They could transform bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ (the sacrament of the Eucharist) and eternal penalties for sin into temporal ones (the sac-rament of Penance or Confession). They also claimed the power to cast out demons who possess the faithful.

In the late thirteenth century, the church declared its so-called magic to be not that of the occult, but the true powers invested in them by the Christian God. Since occult powers were not innate to humans, the theologians reasoned, they must come either from God or from the devil. Those from God were properly exercised within and by the church. Any who practiced magic outside and against the church did so on behalf of the devil. From such reasoning grew allegations of “pacts” between non-priestly magicians and Satan.

Watch the Video “Video Lectures: Witch Hunts” on MyHistoryLab.com

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A Closer LookIn this special feature one illustration per chapter is examined and analyzed using leader lines to point out important and historically significant details. These examples serve as a guide to analyzing and interpret-ing visual sources to more fully understand the Western heritage. An interactive version of this feature is avail-able on the MyHistoryLab web site (www.myhistorylab .com).

Encountering the PastEach chapter includes an essay on a significant issue of everyday life or popular culture. These essays explore a variety of subjects, such as smoking in early modern Europe and the politics of rock music in the late twen-tieth century. These twenty-two essays, each of which includes an illustration and study questions, expand The Western Heritage, Since 1300’s rich coverage of social and cultural history.

340 Part 2 n EnlightEnmEnt and REvolution, 1700–1850

AN EIghTEENTh-CENTuRy ARTIST APPEAlS To ThE ANCIENT WoRld

L O O KA Closer

j ACQUES-LOUIS DAVID completed The Oath of the Horatii in 1784. Like many of his other works, it used themes from the supposedly morally austere ancient Roman Republic to criticize the political life of his own day. David intended the painting to contrast ancient civic virtue with the luxurious aristocratic culture of contemporary France.

View the Closer Look on MyHistoryLab.com

What sort of social role did Enlightenment thinkers expect women to fulfill?What kind of education would be required for a viewer to understand the symbolism of this painting fully?

What sort of values does this painting uphold?

Jacques-Louis David, The Oath of the Horatii. 1784–1785. © Réunion des Musees Nationaux, Paris, France/Art

Resource, NY

The Horatii take an oath their father administers to protect the Roman Republic against enemies even if it means sacrificing their own lives. One of these enemies is romantically involved with one of their sisters in the right of the paint-ing. Patriotism must be upheld over other relationships.

The sharp division of the painting with a male world on the left and a female world on the right illustrates how eighteenth- century republican thinkers, such as Rousseau, excluded women from civic life and political participation.

The sisters and mother of the Horatii weep in a separate part of the scene. The emotion of the women and their uncertain political loyalty suggest that civic virtue pertains only to men.

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442

ENCOUNTERING

PastT H E

Conservatives were suspicious. They saw these early gymnastic clubs as a state within the vari-ous disunited German states. For a time Prussia banned gymnastics and sent Jahn to prison.

During the 1840s, however, the gymnastic movement revived. Germany soon had tens of thousands of adult gymnasts, and the clubs became increasingly nationalist, often exclud-ing Jews. After German unification in 1870, national festivals often featured gymnastic per-formances, and national monuments had areas for gymnastic display. Political figures from Bismarck to Hitler cultivated their links to the gymnastic societies. The connection between gymnastics and German nationalism was so strong that even liberal Germans who immi -grated to the United States founded Turnver-eins in their new homes.

Sources: Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 367–370; Matthew Levinger, Enlightened Nationalism: The Transforma-tion of Prussian Political Culture, 1806–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Ger-many from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (New York: New American Library, 1975), p. 128.

What factors turned Jahn to nationalism?Why did he associate nationalism with physi-cal strength?h ow could the Turnverein movement spread easily in the Germanies?

TODAY CITIZENS TAKE great pride in the performance of their nations’ athletes in the Olympics. This modern link between

athletics and nationalism originated in early nineteenth-century Germany with the Turnver-ein, or gymnastic movement.

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) was the father of the movement, which he described as “Love of the Fatherland through Gymnastics.” He was also an innovator in gymnastic equip -ment, credited with inventing the parallel bars and improving the pommel vault.

Jahn became a fervent patriot when he saw the German states and particularly Prus -sia humiliated by Napoleon. He attacked what he regarded as foreign influence on German life, including that of German Jews. Jahn was convinced that Germans must cultivate their bodily strength to overcome external enemies. In 1811, he established an open-air gymnasium in a meadow near Berlin. The young men who attended this gymnasium and others that he soon founded throughout the German states saw themselves as an advanced nationalist guard.

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, gym-nastic clubs spread across Germany, fostered nationalist sentiment, and challenged the social and political status quo. The clubs embodied social equality. All members wore plain gray exercise uniforms that Jahn had designed and addressed each other with the familiar “Du.”

GyMNASTICS ANd G ERMAN NATIONALISM

Jahn encouraged German gymnasts to use ath-letic equipment in their exercises. Here at a Bonn gymnastic festival in 1872 an athlete works out on a pommel horse, a piece of athletic equipment that predated Jahn, but the design of which he improved. Also note the athletic clothing, which emphasizes egalitarian social relations among the athletes. © Bettmann/CORBIS—All rights reserved

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Compare and ConnectThis engaging feature juxtaposes two or more docu-ments in which an important question is debated or a comparison between a document and an illustration is presented. Each feature contains three to five questions on each of the documents, one of which asks students to make connections between and among the viewpoints presented in the feature. These features are intended to encourage debate of different points of view in class, to enhance reading skills, to focus on evaluating differing viewpoints, and to analyze documentary and visual evi-dence. An interactive version of this feature is available on the MyHistoryLab web site (www.myhistorylab.com).

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C o m p a r ea n d

C o n n e C t

THE FACTORY WAS itself as much an invention of the Industrial Revolution as were the new machines the factory often housed. The factory required a new organization of labor. It also made possible the production of vast new quantities of manufactured goods. From its inception the factory system provoked both praise and criticism. Andrew Ure saw much positive good arising from factory production whereas John Ruskin became a vehement critic. How might the women of Todmorden (see page 476) have replied to both writers?

Read the Compare and Connect on MyHistoryLab.com

Andrew ure and John Ruskin debate the Conditions of Factory Production

QuESTIOnS 1. Why does ure emphasize the willingness of work-

ers to be employed in factories? 2. h ow does ure portray the factory system as creat-

ing the possibility of new abundance? 3. h ow does Ruskin see the use of machinery reduc-

ing workers to a machine?

4. Is Ruskin’s criticism of the division of labor a cor-rect analysis or simply a well-crafted metaphorical criticism?

5. h ow might ure have replied to Ruskin?

I. Andrew Ure Praises the Factory SystemAndrew Ure (1778–1857) was a Scottisch physician and a great proponent of the benefits of the factory system. In 1835 he published The Philosophy of Manufactures, which went through many editions from then until late in the century. He saw factories as increasing productivity and also providing a healthier environment than agricultural work or mining.

The term Factory, in technology, designates the com-bined operation of many orders of work—people, adult and young, in tending with assiduous skill a system of productive machines continuously impelled by a cen-tral power. This definition includes such organizations as cotton-mills, flax-mills, silk-mills, woolen-mills, and certain engineering works. . . . I conceive that this title, in its strictest sense, involves the idea of a vast automa-ton, composed of various mechanical and intellectual organs, acting in uninterrupted concert for the produc-tion of a common object, all of them being subordinated to a self-regulated moving force. . . .

In its precise acceptation, the Factory system is of recent origin, and may claim England for its birthplace. . . .

When the first water-frames for spinning cotton were erected at Cromford, in the romantic valley of the Der-went, about sixty years ago, mankind were little aware of the mighty revolution which the new system of labor was destined by Providence to achieve, not only in the structure of British society, but in the fortunes of the world at large.

Arkwright alone had the sagacity to discern, and the boldness to predict in glowing language, how vastly pro-ductive human industry would become, when no longer

proportioned in its results to muscular effort, which is by its nature fitful and capricious, but when made to consist in the task of guiding the work of mechanical fingers and arms, regularly impelled with great velocity by some indefatigable physical power. . . .

In my recent tour, continued during several months, through the manufacturing districts, I have seen tens of thousands of old, young, and middle-aged of both sexes, many of them too feeble to get their daily bread by any of the former modes of industry, earning abundant food, rai-ment, and domestic accommodation, without perspiring at a single pore, screened meanwhile from the summer’s sun and the winter’s frost, in apartments more airy and salubrious than those of the metropolis, in which our leg-islative and fashionable aristocracies assemble. In those spacious halls the benignant power of steam summons around him his myriads of willing menials, and assigns to each the regulated task, substituting for painful muscular effort on their part, the energies of his own gigantic arm, and demanding in return only attention and dexterity to correct such little aberrations as casually occur in his workmanship. . . . Such is the factory system, replete with prodigies in mechanics and political economy, which promises, in its future growth, to become the great minister of civilization to the terraqueous globe, enabling this country, as its heart, to diffuse along with its com-merce, the life-blood of science and religion to myriads of people still lying “in the region and shadow of death.” n

Sources: Andrew Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures; or, An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral, and Commercial Economy of the Factory System (London, 1835), pp. 13 ff., as quoted in Mack Walker, ed., Metternich’s Europe (New York: Walker and Company, 1968), pp. 275–276, 278–279.

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The West & The WorldThis feature, found at the end of each part, focuses on subjects that compare Western institutions with those in other parts of the world or discuss how developments in the West have influenced other cultures.

498

Eventually slavery provided the means to resolve this labor shortage.

The establishment and maintenance of slavery in the transatlantic economy drew Europeans and Americans into various relationships with Africa. About the same time as the encounter with America, Europeans made contact with areas of West Africa where slavery already existed. This region became the chief source of slaves imported into the Americas. Four centuries later, during the antislavery movement, Europeans used their com-mitment to ending the African economy’s dependence on the slave trade to justify imperialist intervention in the continent. Those efforts led to the penetration of Africa by European traders, missionaries, and finally colonial forces and administrators.

Although at one time or another slaves labored throughout the Americas, the system of slavery became primarily identified with the plantation economy stretch-ing from Maryland south to Brazil, where tropical prod-ucts, initially primarily sugar, were produced by slave labor. This plantation economy existed from approxi-mately the late sixteenth through the late nineteenth centuries. The slaves on whose labor this economy was based included Native Americans enslaved within both the Spanish Empire and North America, and Africans forcibly imported into the Americas. Slaves were virtu-ally always defined by their masters as belonging to a dif-ferent race, even if one of their parents was a slaveholder. Race itself soon became part of the justification for the social hierarchy of the plantation world. In and of itself, the fact of slavery in the Americas was not unusual to the Western experience or to that of other societies in Africa or Asia. Slavery had existed at most times and places in human history. Far more unusual in the his-tory of the West, and for that matter in the experience of all other societies that had held and continued to hold slaves, was the emergence after 1760 of an international movement to abolish chattel slavery in the transatlantic economy.

The Crusade Against SlaveryThe eighteenth-century crusade against slavery origi-nated in a profound change in the religious and intel-lectual outlooks on slavery among small but influential

The Abolition of Slavery in the Transatlantic EconomyONE OF THE most important developments during the age of Enlightenment and revolution was the opening of a crusade to abolish chattel slavery in the transatlantic economy. The antislavery movement constituted the great-est and most extensive achievement of liberal reformers during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Indeed, it marked the first time in the history of the world that a society actually tried to abolish slavery. This achievement came as the result of the impact of Christian ethics, Enlight-enment ideals, slave revolts, revolutionary wars in America and Europe, civil war in the United States, and economic dislocation in the slave economies themselves. In 1750, almost no one seriously questioned the existence of slav -ery, but, by 1888, the institution no longer existed in the transatlantic economy.

Chattel slavery—the ownership of one human being by another—had existed in the West as well as elsewhere in the world since ancient times and had received intel-lectual and religious justification throughout the history of the West. Both Plato and Aristotle provided arguments for slavery based on the assertion that persons in bondage were intended by nature to be slaves. Christian writers similarly accommodated themselves to the institution. They contended that the most harmful form of slavery was the enslavement of the soul to sin rather than the enslavement of the physical body. They also argued that genuine freedom was realized through one’s relationship to God and that problems relating to the injustices of inequality would be solved in the hereafter. Christian scholastic thinkers in the Middle Ages portrayed slav-ery as part of the natural and necessary hierarchy of the universe.

Slavery Spreads to the AmericasA vast slave trade existed throughout the Mediterranean world through the end of the Middle Ages, but—to the extent that serfdom can be distinguished from slav-ery—slavery was no longer a dominant institution on the European continent or within the European econ-omy. The European encounter with America at the end of the fifteenth century radically transformed this situation. The American continent and the West Indies presented opportunities for achieving great wealth, but a major labor shortage existed in these regions.

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xxx n using The WesTern heriTage, since 1300 AP® eDition

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AP® Test PrepAt the end of each part there is an AP® practice test in the format of the new AP exam. Using document excerpts and images, each test provides 20–25 multiple-choice questions, short and long answer questions, and a document-based question that cover concepts outlined in the AP European History Curriculum Framework.

504

PART 2: AP® Test Prep

Section i Multiple-choice QueStionS

2.1. Based on the excerpt, it can be inferred that the growth of a European-dominated worldwide trading network(A) led to the degradation of the natural environ-

ment in Asia.(B) increased the agricultural productivity of inland

Africa.(C) resulted in the decline of industry on islands in

the West Indies.(D) contributed to the development of a consumer

culture in Europe.

2.2. The economic theory of mercantilism assumed which of the following?(A) Piracy and smuggling were desirable aspects of

overseas trade since individual freedom was an important part of commerce.

(B) Free trade and open international markets would promote the most prosperity for the greatest number of people.

(C) National monopolies on trade were essential since colonies existed to provide commodities and markets to enrich the home country.

(D) Imperialist goals should always take second place to the self-determination of the indig-enous inhabitants of a country.

2.3. According to the excerpt, the development of a worldwide economic network was(A) fueled by commercial rivalries between African

nations.(B) hindered by the Asian governments’ laws

against exporting goods.(C) fueled by commercial rivalries between Euro-

pean states.(D) hindered by the European governments’ laws

against importing goods.

Questions 2.1–2.3 refer to the following excerpt.

“Trade with the Near East, which used to include trade with the Far East until the Portuguese sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, was long in the hands of the Vene-tians. The French and the English enjoyed but a minimal portion of that trade. Subsequently, through exploration and military victories on the coast of Africa, through their business ventures and military successes through-out Asia, not excluding China, the Portuguese have won the biggest part of this trade away from the Venetians and have increased the supply of imported goods. Con-sequently, consumption is greater and prices have been reduced. Following the example of the Portuguese, the Spaniards have discovered the West Indies which have such an abundance of wealth that there is room for all investors to profit from it. . . . [T]he self-discipline, the moderation and the zeal of the Dutch attracted world trade to Amsterdam and to the other cities of Hol-land. But they were not satisfied with being the cen-tral exchange mart for all Europe and especially for the North. They decided to gain control of foreign trade at its very source. To this end they ruined the Portuguese in the East Indies. They inhibited or disturbed in every pos-sible way the business ventures which the English had established there. They employed and are still employing every means, are exerting every effort, are applying their full resources to assume full control of world trade and to keep it out of the hands of all other nations. . . . They know that as long as they maintain their commercial superiority, their power on both land and sea will keep on increasing and will make them so powerful that they will become the arbiters of peace and war in Europe.”

—Jean Baptiste Colbert, Mercantilism: Dissertation on Alliances, 1669

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using The WesTern heriTage, since 1300 AP® eDition n xxxi

MyHistoryLabMyHistoryLab with Pearson eText is a dynamic Web site that provides a wealth of resources geared to meet the diverse needs of today’s AP students. MyHistoryLab’s many accessible tools will encourage students to read their text, help improve their learning in their course, and prepare for success on the AP exam. MyHistoryLab deliv-ers proven results in helping individual students succeed.

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CORRELATION OF THE WESTERN HERITAGE,

SINCE 1300 AP® EDITION TO THE AP EUROPEAN HISTORY CURRICULUM

FRAMEWORK

xxxiii

Perio DS, key c once Pt S DeScri Ption c hapter and Page

r eferences

Period 1 c. 1450–c. 1648

c hapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

key c oncept 1.1t he worldview of european intellectuals shifted from one based on ecclesiastical and classical authority to one based primarily on inquiry and observation of the natural world.

c hapters 2, 4, 6

I. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in both society and religion. pp. 60–68, 70, 77–78, 82

II. The invention of printing promoted the dissemination of new ideas. pp. 83–86, 130–132

III. The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals. pp. 68–74, 135, 137, 232–234

IV. New ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body, though folk traditions of knowledge and the uni-verse persisted.

pp. 203–211, 215–219, 221–227

key c oncept 1.2 t he struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization. c hapters 2, 3, 4, 5

I. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

pp. 75–82, 115–120, 140–149, 163–165, 170–179

II. The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new forms of warfare.

pp. 143–145, 162–165, 170–172, 174

III. The competition for power between monarchs and corporate groups produced different distributions of governmental authority in European states.

pp. 170–172, 174–177

key c oncept 1.3 r eligious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified europe. c hapters 2, 3, 4, 5I. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations fundamentally changed

theology, religious institutions, and culture.pp. 84–86, 98–107, 110–115, 117, 119–127

II. Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority.

pp. 113–123, 136, 138, 149–153, 154–156

III. Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and eco-nomic competition within and among states.

pp. 102–105, 110–112, 116, 134–149, 156–165, 169–170

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key c oncept 1.4 europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous populations. c hapters 2, 4, 8

I. European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to explore overseas territories and establish colonies.

pp. 87–94

II. Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology allowed Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires.

pp. 87, 90, 93

III. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through coercion and negotiation. pp. 87–94

IV. Europe’s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in the destruction of some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward European dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.

pp. 89–94, 143–145, 303–305

key c oncept 1.5european society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic structures.

c hapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

I. Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status persisted. pp. 97–98, 144

II. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and ori-ented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.

pp. 105, 108–109

III. Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of cities, which often found their traditional political and social struc-tures stressed by the growth.

pp. 154, 169

IV. The family remained the primary social and economic institution of early modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear family.

pp. 126–130, 231, 244–249

V. Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reflecting the persis-tence of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties and norms.

pp. 227–230, 232

Period 2 c. 1648–c. 1815

c hapters 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

key c oncept 2.1 Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals. c hapters 5, 8, 9, 10

I. In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries.

pp. 170–174, 179–184, 186–188, 190–191, 196–200, 237–244, 339–351, 376–377

II. Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems. pp. 168–169, 174–177, 190

III. After 1648, dynastic and state interests, along with Europe’s expanding colonial empires, influenced the diplomacy of European states and frequently led to war.

pp. 178, 182–183, 187, 189, 192–196, 273–274, 295–301

IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s existing political and social order. pp. 353–390

V. Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent that eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.

pp. 393–397, 398–403, 405–413, 426

key c oncept 2.2 t he expansion of european commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network. c hapters 7, 8, 12

I. Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the foundation for its global role. pp. 252–253

xxxiv n CorrelAtion

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II. The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe.

pp. 254–260, 273–290, 456–459

III. Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among Euro-pean states in the early modern era.

pp. 189–190, 273–274, 276, 291–295

key c oncept 2.3t he popularization and dissemination of the Scientific r evolution and the application of its methods to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged, emphasis on reason in european culture.

c hapters 5, 6, 7, 9, 11

I. Rational and empirical thought challenged traditional values and ideas. pp. 185, 219–221, 311–313, 315–316, 325–331, 333–337, 366

II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas. pp. 313–315, 317, 324–325

III. New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.

pp. 212–215, 325–327, 331–333

IV. During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.

pp. 268–270, 318–324, 422–423

V. The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power to an emphasis on private life and the public good. pp. 233–234, 336–339

VI. While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas, they were challenged by the revival of public sentiment and feeling. pp. 414–427

key c oncept 2.4 t he experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes. c hapter 7

I. In the 17th century, small landholdings, low-productivity agricultural practices, poor transportation, and adverse weather limited and disrupted the food supply, causing periodic famines. By the 18th century, Europeans began to escape from the Malthusian imbalance between population and the food supply, resulting in steady population growth.

pp. 249–254, 404

II. The consumer revolution of the 18th century was shaped by a new concern for privacy, encouraged the purchase of new goods for homes, and created new venues for leisure activities.

pp. 254–255, 266

III. By the 18th century, family and private life reflected new demo-graphic patterns and the effects of the Commercial Revolution. pp. 260–262

IV. Cities offered economic opportunities, which attracted increasing migration from rural areas, transforming urban life and creating chal-lenges for the new urbanites and their families.

pp. 263–265, 267–268

Period 3 c. 1815–c. 1914

c hapters 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18

key c oncept 3.1 t he industrial r evolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry. c hapters 7, 13, 15

I. Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mecha-nization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems.

pp. 256–260, 462–463

II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continen-tal Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship. pp. 463–465

III. During the Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity.

pp. 541–547

key c oncept 3.2t he experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location.

c hapters 13, 14, 15

I. Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe. pp. 467–470, 546, 566

II. Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, lead-ing to social dislocations.

pp. 463–464, 542–543, 547, 549

CorrelAtion n xxxv

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xxxvi n CorrelAtion

III. Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.

pp. 471–472, 474–477, 548, 561

IV. A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the Second Industrial Revolution. 473, 549

V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industri-alization, while facing famine, debt, and land shortages.

466, 532–533

key c oncept 3.3 t he problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses. c hapters 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions.

pp. 431–439, 442, 446, 456–460, 470–471, 480–487, 566–579, 604–608

II. Governments responded to the problems created or exacerbated by industrialization by expanding their functions and creating modern bureaucratic states.

pp. 438–441, 443–447, 477–480, 537, 549–553, 581–582

III. Political movements and social organizations responded to the problems of industrialization.

pp. 443–445, 498–503, 534–536, 538–539, 554–566, 589–590, 593, 609–612

key c oncept 3.4 european states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions. c hapters 12, 13, 14, 15, 18

I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to main-tain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.

pp. 428–431, 439–441, 443–451, 486, 488

II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for move-ments of national unification in Italy and Germany, as well as liberal reforms elsewhere.

pp. 452–456, 488–493, 510–512, 514, 526–535, 576–578

III. The unification of Italy and Germany transformed the European bal-ance of power and led to efforts to construct a new diplomatic order.

pp. 493–497, 515–526, 530–531, 663–672

key c oncept 3.5A variety of motives and methods led to the intensification of european global control and increased tensions among the Great Powers.


I. European nations were driven by economic, political, and cultural motivations in their new imperial ventures in Asia and Africa.

pp. 585, 587, 615–618, 620–621, 623–634, 636–644, 648–656

II. Industrial and technological developments (i.e., the Second Industrial Revolution) facilitated European control of global empires.

pp. 513, 633–635, 645–648, 652–655

III. Imperial endeavors significantly affected society, diplomacy, and culture in Europe and created resistance to foreign control abroad.

pp. 583, 619, 621–625, 628–633, 636–643, 649–652, 658–662

key c oncept 3.6european ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity and scientific realism on one hand, and subjectivity and individual expression on the other.

c hapters 11, 16

I. Romanticism broke with neoclassical forms of artistic representation and with rationalism, placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion. pp. 415–421, 423–426, 591

II. Following the revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a realist and materialist worldview.

pp. 582, 584–590, 592, 608–609

III. A new relativism in values and the loss of confidence in the objectivity of knowledge led to modernism in intellectual and cultural life. pp. 592–604

Period 4 c. 1914 to the Present c hapters 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

key c oncept 4.1total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the c old War, and even-tually to efforts at transnational union.

c hapters 18, 19, 20, 21

I. World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and vanquished.

pp. 672–685, 689, 695

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CorrelAtion n xxxvii

II. The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplo-matic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satisfied few.

pp. 690–691, 693–694, 696–702, 704–705, 720, 723

III. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideolo-gies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.

pp. 743–746, 748–761, 763–780

IV. As World War II ended, a Cold War between the liberal democratic West and the communist East began, lasting nearly half a century.

pp. 780–783, 786–803, 810–812, 815–819, 822–823

V. In response to the destructive impact of two world wars, European nations began to set aside nationalism in favor of economic and political integration, forming a series of transnational unions that grew in size and scope over the second half of the 20th century.

pp. 862–868

VI. Nationalist and separatist movements, along with ethnic conflict and ethnic cleansing, periodically disrupted the post–World War II peace. pp. 823–829

VII. The process of decolonization occurred over the course of the century with varying degrees of cooperation, interference, or resis-tance from European imperialist states.

pp. 692–693, 699–700, 803–810

key c oncept 4.2

t he stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered inter-nal conḀicts within european states and created conḀicting concep-tions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle among liberal democracy, communism, and fascism.

c hapters 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

I. The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist–Leninist theory. pp. 685–691, 708–716

II. The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre–World War I era, gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of commu-nism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic instability.

pp. 716–730, 734–738, 746–747

III. The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade and monetary theories and practices, undermined Western European democracies and fomented radical political responses throughout Europe.

pp. 705–709, 731, 734–735

IV. Postwar economic growth supported an increase in welfare benefits; however, subsequent economic stagnation led to criticism and limi-tation of the welfare state.

840–842

V. Eastern European nations were defined by their relationship with the Soviet Union, which oscillated between repression and limited reform, until Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies led to the collapse of com-munist governments in Eastern Europe and the fall of the Soviet Union.

pp. 793, 796–798, 800, 812–813, 815–823

key c oncept 4.3During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural move-ments questioned the existence of objective knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining moral standards.


I. The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century thought began to break down before World War I; the expe-rience of war intensified a sense of anxiety that permeated many facets of thought and culture, giving way by the century’s end to a plurality of intellectual frameworks.

pp. 826–832, 854

II. Science and technology yielded impressive material benefits but also caused immense destruction and posed challenges to objective knowledge.

pp. 765–766, 860–862, 870–875

III. Organized religion continued to play a role in European social and cultural life, despite the challenges of military and ideological con-flict, modern secularism, and rapid social changes.

pp. 802–803, 857–859

IV. During the 20th century, the arts were defined by experimentation, self-expression, subjectivity, and the increasing influence of the United States in both elite and popular culture.

pp. 847–857

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xxxviii n CorrelAtion

key c oncept 4.4Demographic changes, economic growth, total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing definitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of everyday life.


I. The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suffering brought on by warfare and genocide as well as tremendous improvements in the standard of living.

pp. 730, 766–773, 834–835, 862

II. The lives of women were defined by family and work responsibilities, economic changes, and feminism.

pp. 730–734, 762, 837–839, 842–846

III. New voices gained prominence in political, intellectual, and social discourse.

pp. 814, 835–837, 846–848, 851, 853

Upon publication, this text was correlated to the College Board’s European History Curriculum Framework 2015–2016. We continually monitor the College Board’s AP Course Description for updates. For the most current correlation for this textbook, visit PearsonSchool.com/AdvancedCorrelations.

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Chapter n xxxix

living in ancient Palestine. With the ministry of Jesus of Nazareth and the spread of his teachings by the Apostle Paul, Christianity had established itself as one of many religions in the empire. Because Christianity was mono-theistic, Constantine’s official embrace of it led to the eradication of pagan polytheism. Thereafter, the West became more or less coterminous with Latin Christian-ity, or that portion of the Christian Church acknowledg-ing the Bishop of Rome as its head.

As the emperors’ rule broke down, bishops became the effective political rulers in many parts of Western Europe. But the Christian Church in the West never gov-erned without negotiation or conflict with secular rul-ers, and religious law never replaced secular law. Nor could secular rulers govern if they ignored the influence of the church. Hence from the fourth century c.e. to the present day, rival claims to political and moral authority between ecclesiastical and political officials have char-acterized the West.

In the seventh century the Christian West faced a new challenge from the rise of Islam. This new monothe-istic religion originating in the teachings of the prophet Muhammad arose on the Arabian Peninsula and spread through rapid conquests across North Africa and eventu-ally into Spain, turning the Mediterranean into what one historian has termed “a Muslim lake.” Between the elev-enth and the thirteenth centuries, Christians attempted to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control in church-inspired military crusades that still resonate negatively in the Islamic world.

It was, however, in the Muslim world that most of the texts of ancient Greek and Latin learning survived and were studied, while intellectual life languished in the West. Commencing in the twelfth century, knowl-edge of those texts began to work its way back into West-ern Europe. By the fourteenth century, European thinkers redefined themselves and their intellectual ambitions by recovering the literature and science from the ancient world, reuniting Europe with its Graeco-Roman past.

From the twelfth through the eighteenth centuries, a new European political system slowly arose based on centralized monarchies characterized by large armies, navies, and bureaucracies loyal to the monarch, and by the capacity to raise revenues. Whatever the personal ambitions of individual rulers, for the most part these monarchies recognized both the political role of local or national assemblies drawn from the propertied elites and the binding power of constitutional law on themselves. Also, in each of these monarchies, church officials and church law played important roles in public life. The monarchies, their military, and their expanding com-mercial economies became the basis for the extension of European and Western influence around the globe.

This book invites students and instructors to explore the Western Heritage. What is that heritage? The West-ern Heritage emerges from an evolved and evolving story of human actions and interactions, peaceful and violent, that arose in the eastern Mediterranean, then spread across the western Mediterranean into northern Europe, and eventually to the American continents, and in their broadest impact, to the peoples of Africa and Asia as well.

The Western Heritage as a distinct portion of world history descends from the ancient Greeks. They saw their own political life based on open discussion of law and policy as different from that of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt, where kings ruled without regard to public opinion. The Greeks invented the concept of citizenship, defining it as engagement in some form of self-govern-ment. Furthermore, through their literature and phi-losophy, the Greeks established the conviction, which became characteristic of the West, that reason can shape and analyze physical nature, politics, and morality.

The city of Rome, spreading its authority through military conquest across the Mediterranean world, embraced Greek literature and philosophy. Through their conquests and imposition of their law, the Romans created the Western world as a vast empire stretching from Egypt and Syria in the east to Britain in the west. Although the Roman Republic, governed by a Senate and popular political institutions, gave way after civil wars to the autocratic rule of the Roman Empire, the idea of a free republic of engaged citizens governed by public law and constitutional arrangements limiting political authority survived centuries of arbitrary rule by emper-ors. As in the rest of the world, the Greeks, the Romans, and virtually all other ancient peoples excluded women and slaves from political life and tolerated considerable social inequality.

In the early fourth century c.e., the Emperor Con-stantine reorganized the Roman Empire in two funda-mental ways that reshaped the West. First, he moved the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople (Istan-bul), establishing separate emperors in the East and West. Thereafter, large portions of the Western empire became subject to the rulers of Germanic tribes. In the confusion of these times, most of the texts embodying ancient phi-losophy, literature, and history became lost in the West, and for centuries Western Europeans were intellectually severed from that ancient heritage, which would later be recovered in a series of renaissances, or cultural rebirths, beginning in the eighth century.

Constantine’s second fateful major reshaping of the West was his recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the empire. Christianity had grown out of the ancient monotheistic religion of the Hebrew people

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Roman Catholics dominating Latin America and English Protestants most of North America.

By the late eighteenth century, the idea of the West denoted a culture increasingly dominated by two new forces. First, science arising from a new understanding of nature achieved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries persuaded growing numbers of the educated elite that human beings can rationally master nature for ever-expanding productive purposes improving the health and well-being of humankind. From this era to the present, the West has been associated with advances in technology, medicine, and scientific research. Sec-ond, during the eighteenth century, a drive for economic improvement that vastly increased agricultural produc-tion and then industrial manufacturing transformed eco-nomic life, especially in Western Europe and later the United States. Both of these economic developments went hand in hand with urbanization and the movement of the industrial economy into cities where the new urban populations experienced major social dislocation.

In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, two transforming events occurred. The first was the European discovery and conquest of the American continents, thus opening the Americas to Western institutions, religion, and economic exploitation. Over time the labor shortages of the Americas led to the forced migration of millions of Africans as slaves to the “New World.” By the mid- seventeenth century, the West consequently embraced the entire transatlantic world and its multiracial societies.

Second, shortly after the American encounter, a reli-gious schism erupted within Latin Christianity. Reform-ers rejecting both many medieval Christian doctrines as unbiblical and the primacy of the Pope in Rome established Protestant churches across much of northern Europe. As a consequence, for almost two centuries religious warfare between Protestants and Roman Catholics overwhelmed the continent as monarchies chose to defend one side or the other. This religious turmoil meant that the Europeans who conquered and settled the Americas carried with them particularly energized religious convictions, with

In his painting The School of Athens, the great Italian Renaissance painter Raphael portrayed the ancient Greek philosopher Plato and his student, Aristotle, engaged in debate. Plato, who points to the heavens, believed in a set of ideal truths that exist in their own realm distinct from the earth. Aristotle urged that all philosophy must be in touch with lived reality and confirms this posi-tion by pointing to the earth. Such debate has characterized the intellectual, political, and social experience of the West. Indeed, the very concept of “Western Civilization” has itself been subject to debate, criticism, and change over the centuries.© Scala/Art Resource, NY

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a Nazi Party took control of Germany. In response to these new authoritarian regimes, West European powers and the United States identified themselves with liberal democratic constitutionalism, individual freedom, com-mercial capitalism, science and learning freely pursued, and religious liberty, all of which they defined as the Western Heritage. During the Cold War, conceived of as an East-West, democratic versus communist struggle that concluded with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Western Powers led by the United States con-tinued to embrace those values in conscious opposition to the Soviet government, which since 1945 had also dominated much of Eastern Europe.

Since 1991 the West has again become redefined in the minds of many people as a world political and eco-nomic order dominated by the United States. Europe clearly remains the West, but political leadership has moved to North America. That American domination and recent American foreign policy have led throughout the West and elsewhere to much criticism of the United States.

Such self-criticism itself embodies one of the most important and persistent parts of the Western Heritage. From the Hebrew prophets and Socrates to the critics of European imperialism, American foreign policy, social inequality, and environmental devastation, voices in the West have again and again been raised to criticize often in the most strident manner the policies of Western gov-ernments and the thought, values, social conditions, and inequalities of Western societies.

Consequently, we study the Western Heritage not because the subject always or even primarily presents an admirable picture, but because the study of the Western Heritage like the study of all history calls us to an integ-rity of research, observation, and analysis that clarifies our minds and challenges our moral sensibilities. The challenge of history is the challenge of thinking, and it is to that challenge that this book invites its readers.

QueStiOnS

1. How have people in the West defined themselves in contrast with civilizations of the ancient East, and later in contrast with Islamic civilization, and still later in contrast with less economically developed regions of the world? Have people in the West his-torically viewed their own civilization to be supe-rior to civilizations in other parts of the world? Why or why not?

2. How did the Emperor Constantine’s adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire change the concept of the West? Is the pres-ence of Christianity still a determining characteris-tic of the West?

3. How has the geographical location of what has been understood as the West changed over the centuries?

During these decades certain West European elites came to regard advances in agricultural and manufac-turing economies that were based on science and tied to commercial expansion as “civilized” in contrast to cultures that lacked those characteristics. From these ideas emerged the concept of Western Civilization defined to suggest that peoples dwelling outside Europe or inside Europe east of the Elbe River were less than civilized. Whereas Europeans had once defined them-selves against the rest of the world as free citizens and then later as Christians, they now defined themselves as “civilized.” Europeans would carry this self-assured superiority into their nineteenth- and early twentieth-century encounters with the peoples of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.

During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, political revolution erupted across the transatlantic world. The British colonies of North America revolted. Then revolution occurred in France and spread across much of Europe. From 1791 through 1830, the Wars of Independence liberated Latin America from its European conquerors. These revolutions created bold new modes of political life, rooting the legitimacy of the state in some form of popular government and generally written con-stitutions. Thereafter, despite the presence of authoritar-ian governments on the European continent, the idea of the West, now including the new republics of the United States and Latin America, became associated with liberal democratic governments.

Furthermore, during the nineteenth century, most major European states came to identify themselves in terms of nationality—language, history, and ethnicity—rather than loyalty to a monarch. Nationalism eventually inflamed popular opinion and unloosed unprecedented political ambition by European governments.

These ambitions led to imperialism and the creation of new overseas European empires in the late nineteenth century. For the peoples living in European-administered Asian and African colonies, the idea and reality of the West embodied foreign domination and often disad-vantageous involvement in a world economy. When in 1945 the close of World War II led to a sharp decline in European imperial authority, colonial peoples around the globe challenged that authority and gained indepen-dence. These former colonial peoples, however, often still suspected the West of seeking to control them. Hence, anticolonialism like colonialism before it rede-fined definitions of the West far from its borders.

Late nineteenth-century nationalism and imperial-ism also unleashed with World War I in 1914 unprec-edented military hostilities among European nations that spread around the globe, followed a quarter century later by an even greater world war. As one result of World War I, revolution occurred in Russia with the estab-lishment of the communist Soviet Union. During the interwar years a Fascist Party seized power in Italy and

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the idea of Western civilization synonymous with the concept of modern civilization? Do you think the concept of the West will once again be redefined ten years from now?

To view a video of the authors discussing the Western heritage, go to www.myhistorylab.com

4. In the past two centuries Western nations estab-lished empires around the globe. How did these imperial ventures and the local resistance to them give rise to critical definitions of the West that con-trasted with the definitions that had developed in Europe and the United States? How have those non-Western definitions of the West contributed to self-criticism within Western nations?

5. How useful is the concept of Western civilization in understanding today’s global economy and global communications made possible by the Internet? Is

MyHistoryLabTM

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