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Features of the regional system
Ethnic and linguistic diversity, geographic
distribution
Features contributing to establishing and
maintaining multilingualism:
Language-identity link
Shared cultural practices
Essentialist language ideology
East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani
Arapaso† Baniwa Nheengatú/Língua GeralBarasana Baré†Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5)
Desano Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana SanumaKubeo Werekena YanomamiMakuna Yukuna YanomamMiriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ
Wa’ikhana/Piratapuyo Nadahup (Makú) (4)
Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2)Retuarã HupSiriano YuhupTaiwano/Eduuria Nadëb NationalTatuyo PortugueseTukano/Ye’pa masa SpanishTuyukaKotiria/WananoYuruti
Ethnolinguistic groups and languages
(Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB)
East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani
Arapaso† Baniwa (part) Nheengatú/Língua GeralBarasana Baré†Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5)
Desano Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana SanumaKubeo Warekena YanomamiMakuna Yukuna YanomamMiriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ
Wa’ikhana Nadahup (Makú) (4)
Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2)Retuarã HupSiriano YuhupTaiwano/Eduuria Nadëb NationalTatuyo PortugueseTukano/Ye’pa masa SpanishTuyukaKotiriaYuruti
Major Shifts
(Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB)
East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani
Arapaso† Baniwa (part) Nheengatú/Língua GeralBarasana Baré†Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5)
Desano (part) Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana SanumaKubeo Warekena YanomamiMakuna Yukuna YanomamMiriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ
Wa’ikhana (part) Nadahup (Makú) (4)
Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2)Retuarã HupSiriano YuhupTaiwano/Eduuria Nadëb NationalTatuyo PortugueseTukano SpanishTuyukaKotiriaYuruti
Major Shifts
(Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB)
Types of contact and interaction
General:
Frequent interaction in ritual/ceremonial activities
Institutionalized exchange of material
goods, with trade specializations:
(Ribeiro 1995)
East Tukano and (AR) Tariana, Baniwa:
Intermarriage via linguistic exogamy
Nadahup
BaniwaTukano
Tuyuka
Language - ‘badge’ of social identity
Individual affiliated to a language group by
patrilineal descent;
Reinforced by social practices:
Virilocality
Group – territory association
Exogamic marriage (group=phratry)
Agnates (proscribed) / Affins (cross-cousins preferred)
Principle of ‘sister exchange’
Importance of geographic proximity - formation of ‘in-
law’ groups and local linguistic ‘repertoires’
(Sorensen 1967; Jackson 1974, 1976, 1983; C. Hugh-Jones 1979; Chernela 1993; Cabalzar 2000; Stenzel 2005, many others)
Linguistic Exogamy
kotiria
tariana
tukano
desano
masc fem
baniwa
FATHER’S
SISTER’S
DAUGHTER
MOTHER’S
BROTHER’S
DAUGHTER
Multilingual Community
Multilingual
Individual
SISTER EXCHANGE
CROSS-COUSIN MARRIAGE
REINFORCEMENT OF MOTHER’S LANGUAGE
PATRILINEAL DESCENT
Essentialist language ideology
Speaking=being patrilect ‘loyalty’
Hierarchization of individual’s repertoire:
patrilect “language I speak”
> matrilect, alterlects “languages I imitate”
Norms of ‘Language etiquette’:
avoidance and repression of ‘imperfect’ (learner) /
‘mixed’ speech (code-switching, lexical borrowing)
pure ‘monolingual’ speech as ideal
(Chernela 1989, 2003, 2004, 2013; Chernela & Shulist 2014; Aikhenvald 2002; Gomez-
Imbert 1991, 1993, 1996)
Essentialist language ideology
System maintenance (Gomez-Imbert 1991):
In a context of intense contact that promotes
convergence, speakers make “explicit and
conscious efforts” to keep linguistic codes distinct
and ‘pure’.
What do we think we know
and what do we really know?
Traditional ‘simultaneous’ multilingualism (ET, AR) (Chernela & Shulist 2014)
Non-reciprocal bilingualism (NA, KN) (Epps 2008, 2016;
Bolaños 2016)
Permitted code-switching (Gomez-Imbert XX; Aikhenvald 2002)
Use of national languages
Special circumstances: quotation, imitation,
Anything else?
Dynamics of ‘small-scale’
multilingual systems(Singer & Harris 2016; Lüpke 2016)
“Ongoing, balanced multilingualism practiced in regionally
confined societies.”
“[Systems] found in areas with little or only recent exposure
to Western language ideologies, but are highly vulnerable
to external pressures that can quickly undermine local
multilingual patterns”
“[Systems in which] mismatches between language
ideologies - [what speakers say/believe they do] - and actual
communicative practices are systematic, necessitating
“studies of actual language use in naturalistic (not self-
censored) settings”
The next big challenge. . .
Documentation of everyday interaction, CA/IL
methodology in conjunction with micro-level
grammatical analysis & socioling interviews.
Implications:
better understanding of range of speech
modalities: monolingual multilingual
Role of multilingual elements in social interaction
Language contact, language change
References
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