The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of

The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use SurveysJacques Charmes

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Copyright © International Labour Organization 2019 First published (2019) Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation, application should be made to ILO Publications (Rights and Licensing), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email: [email protected]. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications.

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The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World

Compilation of Time-use Surveys Jacques Charmes

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Preface

In the coming years, the need for care work is likely to increase due to demographic, socio-

economic and environmental transformations. Across the world, unpaid carers, especially

women, meet the large majority of care needs. For an analysis of unpaid care work, time-

use data are one of the most important data sources to look at, especially considering the

important gender dimension of its work. How much time do people spend on doing paid

and unpaid care work? How do women and men spend their time differently on unpaid

care work? Are there any differences in time use among the regions? How do socio-

economic factors influence people’s choices to do paid and unpaid care work?

To address these questions, the Unpaid Care Work and Labour Market: An Analysis of

Time Use Data on the Latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys provides a

comprehensive overview of the extent, characteristics and historical trends of unpaid

care work based on the analysis of the most recent time-use surveys carried out at the

national level across the world. By discussing the concepts and methodological

approaches which underlie the analysis of time-use data, this research paper shows the

differences in time spent on unpaid care work between women and men and among

people with different socioeconomic characteristics: geographical location, age group,

educational level, activity status, employment status, income group, marital status and

presence and age of children in the household.

Through examining the trends in time spent on paid and unpaid care work over the last

twenty years, this paper shows that women have unequal accesses to the labour market

due to a significant extent to the disproportionate amount of time they spend on unpaid

care work. Across the world, without exception, women carry out three-quarters of

unpaid care work, or more than 75 per cent of the total hours provided. Women dedicate

on average 3.2 times more time than men to unpaid care work. There is no country where

women and men perform an equal share of unpaid care work. As a result, women are

constantly time poor, which constrains their participation in the labour market. The

paper highlights the importance of collecting and publishing sex-disaggregated data and

calls for more robust methodologies to harmonize and improve the comparability of time-

use survey data across countries.

The Unpaid Care Work and Labour Market: An Analysis of Time Use Data on the Latest

World Compilation of Time-use Surveys is part of a series of papers that was

commissioned as background research for the major ILO report Care work and care jobs

for the future of decent work. This major report and related research build a compelling

and evidence-based case for placing good quality care work as a priority in

macroeconomic, social protection, labour and migration policy agendas. These

publications represent an important contribution to the ILO’s women at work centenary

initiative, which has been examining why progress in closing the gender gaps in the world

of work has been so slow and what needs to be done for real transformation. It has also

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been identifying innovative action to guide work on gender equality and non-

discrimination as the ILO enters its second centenary.

Shauna Olney Chief Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS Branch Conditions of Work and Equality Department

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Acknowledgements This research paper was authored by Jacques Charmes. Inputs were provided by Laura

Addati (GED&ILOAIDS), Umberto Cattaneo (GED&ILOAIDS), Valeria Esquivel (EMPLAB),

Monica Castillo (STATISTICS), Elisa Benes (STATISTICS), Kieran Walsh (STATISTICS). We

would like to thank Nancy Folbre for her kind review and valuable inputs. We are also

grateful to Mai Hattori (GED&ILOAIDS) for her support in the publication of this paper.

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Table of contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7 Section 1: Concepts and methodologies……………………………………………………………………..…8 1) Concepts…………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………8 2) Methodologies…………………………………………………………………………………...…………………13 Section 2: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work by country in the various regions of the world…………………………………………………………………………………...……………..17 Section 3: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work in the various regions of the world: global averages…………………………………………………………………………………..…….47 1) World estimates…………………………………………………………………………………..…………..…...47 2) Estimates by regions defined by income group………………………………………………………49 3) Estimates by regions and sub-regions……………………………………………………………………54 Section 4: Unpaid care work according to various socioeconomic characteristics…………72 1) Paid work and unpaid care work by geographical location………………………………………72 2) Paid work and unpaid care work by age group………………….…………………………………….88 3) Paid work and unpaid care work by educational level………………….…………………………97 4) Paid work and unpaid care work by activity status………………….……………………….……101 5) Paid work and unpaid care work by employment status………………….……………………102 6) Paid work and unpaid care work by income group………………….…………………………….106 7) Paid work and unpaid care work by marital status………………….…………………………….110 8) Paid work and unpaid care work by presence and age of children in the household…113 Section 5: Trends in paid work and unpaid care work by regions………………………………..116 Conclusion………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………137 References of time use surveys…………………………………………………………………………….….138

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Introduction The present exercise is a tentative compilation of data on unpaid work and more specifically on unpaid care work based on the systematic analysis of the most recent time-use surveys carried out at national level across the various regions of the world. It has not been attempted to gather micro data of all surveys – a too long-standing and lasting task ending with a too little number of countries – but rather to rely on existing official publications from the National Statistical Offices or Technical Departments, currently available on the websites of these institutions. While our previous work for the 2015 Human Development Report (Time use across the world. Findings of a world compilation of time-use surveys, Working paper for the Human Development report 2015, New York, UNDP-HDRO, 90p. http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/time-use-across-world-findings-world-compilation-time-use-surveys) focussed on unpaid care work analysed globally and by sex at national and regional levels, the present report attempts to analyse unpaid care work by sex and by socio-economic characteristics: geographical location (urban-rural), age groups, marital status, education level, activity status, employment status, income group, and presence and age of children in the household. It also attempts to analyse trends over time, as many countries have repeated their time-use surveys, sometimes on more than 5 decades. These are the main socio-economic characteristics that are the most significant for labour market analyses and that are the most widely available in the publications. There are many other characteristics that would be of interest for the analysis of unpaid care work. Yet, one of the findings of the present compilation is to highlight the fact that many countries have carried out such surveys without having the sense of the necessity of engendering time-use statistics: for example, the time-use tabulations are not systematically disaggregated by sex. Sex remains a variable like the others – one of many analytical dimensions – instead of being cross-tabulated with all other dimensions. The short list of variables selected for this report (geographical location, age group, educational level, marital status, activity status, employment status, income group, presence and age of children), was tentatively gathered. The number of countries varies depending on the variable. Still they are far from being easily comparable, because the harmonisation process seems to have not yet started, a supplementary evidence of the underutilisation of time-use data. The present work intends to be a step toward a better sensitisation of users as well as producers towards a more complete utilisation of time-use data. In a first section we will first recall the concepts and methodologies on which the analysis of time use is based. A second and third section will show the gender variations in paid and unpaid work in the various regions of the world and the global estimates. The fourth section will proceed to the analysis of unpaid work according to various socio-economic characteristics across regions. Finally, section five will present trends over the last twenty years.

http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/time-use-across-world-findings-world-compilation-time-use-surveys

http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/time-use-across-world-findings-world-compilation-time-use-surveys

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Section 1: Concepts and methodologies 1) Concepts The present study measures the unpaid care work as captured by time-use surveys. The unpaid care work is based on the definition of the Non-SNA work in the System of National Accounts (SNA) in its 1993 and 2008 revisions. Work is a generic term covering all activities said to be productive and as such falling within the “general production boundary”. The productive activities satisfy the “third-party criterion” (or “third person criterion”) that was firstly defined by Alfred Marshall in its “Economics of Industry” in 1879 where he pointed out “all other services which one person may be hired to perform for another”, then put into discussion among the economists by Margaret Reid in her “Economics of Household Production” in 1934 where she states that “if an activity is of such character that it might be delegated to a paid worker, then that activity shall be deemed productive”. The SNA production boundary is more restrictive and includes “all production actually destined for the market, whether for sale or barter. It also includes all goods or services provided free to individual households or collectively to the community by government units or Non-Profit Institutions serving households. (…). The SNA therefore includes all production of goods for own use within its production boundary, as the decision whether goods are to be sold or retained for own use can be made even after they have been produced, but it excludes all production of services for own final consumption within households (except for the services produced by employing paid domestic staff and the own-account production of housing services by owner-occupiers).” (SNA, 2008, §§ 1.40-1.42). Therefore the unpaid care work includes all non-SNA productive activities falling within the general production boundary. Following the Guide to Producing Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work (United Nations Statistical Division, 2004)1 and the International Classification of Activities for Time-Use Statistics (ICATUS)2 unpaid care work and paid work can be defined as follows:

Unpaid care work (or non-SNA work activities) consists in the three categories of the classification: - Providing unpaid domestic services for own final use within households (06); - Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members (07); - Providing community services and help to other households (08).

Paid work (or SNA work activities) is defined as comprising:

1 https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/SeriesF/SeriesF_93E.pdf 2 The new ICATUS 2016 (https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/) now distinguishes, in accordance with the 19th ICLS : Unpaid domestic services for household and family members (3); Unpaid caregiving services for household and family members (4); Unpaid volunteer, trainee and other unpaid work (5). And for SNA work: employment and related activities (1); production of goods for own final use (2). However this new classification has not been applied yet

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/SeriesF/SeriesF_93E.pdf

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/

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- Work for corporations/quasi-corporations, non-profit institutions and government (formal sector work) (01) - Work for household in primary production activities (02) - Work for household in non-primary production activities (03) - Work for household in construction activities (04) - Work for household providing services for income (05)

Reference to the SNA plays a major role in time-use statistics because one of the objectives of such data collection is to build satellite accounts of household production that come and complement the central framework of the national accounts. Reference to the labour force concepts is not less important as time-use surveys collect data on time spent in employment. Since their conception, there has been a close link between the concepts of labour force and employment on one hand, and the scope of production activities as measured by the National Accounts on the other. From 1982 to 2013, the "employed" was defined by international statistics standards adopted by the International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) as comprising all persons above a specified age who during a specified brief period were either in paid employment or in self-employment. Prior to 2013 there was a one-to-one correspondence between the productive activities of the employed and the production boundary as defined by the United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA). Currently, employment is a much narrower concept capturing work for pay or profit only, as per Resolution 1 of 19th ICLS in 2013. Yet, it should be noted that the definitions adopted in the TUS this report is based on in all cases utilize the pre-19th ICLS definition of employment. As a matter of fact, before the adoption of the new standards in 2013, measurement of employment was intended to include work for pay or profit as well as some forms of unpaid work (included in SNA work activities). However, the unpaid forms of work that were included as part of employment prior to 2013 such as own-use production of goods, where the production was intended for own use (e.g. subsistence farming), could be excluded from measurement if they were not deemed to represent an important contribution to household consumption. As a result, these activities were poorly captured or not at all measured to estimate employment in labour force surveys. This meant that workers engaged in subsistence farming were not well-identified or monitored for policy purposes. Attempts to use the results of time-use surveys for a better capture of women’s SNA activities in countries where female labour force participation rates are low have turned short. Similarly, until 2013 there were no international statistical standards to define work in own-use provision of services or volunteer work, so that work such as unpaid care work in one’s own household or volunteer care work for other households even when captured was not measured in any consistent way. And as the SNA (2008) puts it: “The location of the production boundary in the SNA is a compromise, but a deliberate one that takes account of the needs of most users. In this context it may be noted that in labour force statistics economically active persons are defined as those engaged in productive activities as defined in the SNA. If the production boundary were extended to include the production of personal and domestic services by members of households for their own

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final consumption, all persons engaged in such activities would become self-employed, making unemployment virtually impossible by definition. This illustrates the need to confine the production boundary in the SNA and other related statistical systems to market activities or fairly close substitutes for market activities”. Although water and wood fetching have long been considered as production of goods by the System of National Accounts and thus an economic activity, most labour force surveys did not count them as part of the activities to identify the employed. The 2006 Integrated Labour Force Survey of the United Republic of Tanzania was one exception 3 . More common has been for countries to measure these activities separately from employment or to not measure them at all. In this report these activities - where measured - have been included in “paid work” as part of SNA productive activities. In an attempt to reconcile these various conceptions and definitions, the 19th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS 2013) recognised “the need to revise and broaden the existing standards in order to enable better statistical measurement of participation of all persons in all forms of work and in all sectors of the economy (…) in particular (…) to estimate volume of work or labour input for national production accounts, including existing ‘satellite’ accounts, and the contribution of all forms of work to economic development, to household livelihoods and to the well-being of individuals and society”. Resolution I adopted by the Conference identifies – for separate measurement- “five mutually exclusive forms of work:

(a) own-use production work comprising production of goods and services for

own final use;

(b) employment work comprising work performed for others in exchange for pay

or profit;

(c) unpaid trainee work comprising work performed for others without pay to

acquire workplace experience or skills;

(d) volunteer work comprising non-compulsory work performed for others

without pay;

(e) other work activities (not defined in this resolution)".

Chart 1 below presents the position of these various forms of work in relation with the

production boundaries of the System of National Accounts.

3 See section 5.7 of the national report of ILFS 2006, p.39: “As explained above, employment in the private sector was divided into four sub-sectors namely; agriculture, informal sector, household-related economic work and other private. Other household chores were excluded, but fetching water and collecting firewood activities were included in the category household-related economic work in line with the SNA.”

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Chart 1: Forms of work and the System of National Accounts 2008

Source: Resolution 1 concerning statistics of work, employment and labour underutilization, 19th ICLS,

ILO Geneva, 2013.

‘Unpaid care work’ which is referred to in this report corresponds to the own-use production work of services and to the volunteer work in households producing services (in light grey on the chart), all activities inside the general production boundary of the SNA, but outside the strict SNA production boundary. Important note about the concept of unpaid care work used in this report In this report unpaid care work is limited to the unpaid services that are not taken into account in the compilation of GDP. It is neither comprised of the work undertaken by contributing family workers nor of activities such as fetching water and firewood that are not considered as services but as primary activities (in the sense of extractive or picking industries) by the System of National Accounts. Although these activities are part of the problem of women’s work invisibility, there are several reasons why this report does not include them within unpaid care work. Firstly the compilation of time spent by contributing family workers would require to have the data disaggregated by employment status and furthermore by detailed employment status (whereas many countries only disaggregate their data between paid employment and self-employment). Secondly, subsistence agriculture and other production of goods for own final use can hardly be considered as being care work. And thirdly in most developing countries agricultural production is measured by crop areas and yield per acre rather than by the output of the farming economic units and therefore data on agricultural employment are only used for the distribution between market and non market agriculture, or subsistence and market agriculture, as well as for the distribution of value added between compensation of employees and mixed income. As a wage is imputed to “contributing” family workers in national accounts, time measurement of unpaid work extended to family workers would introduce an obstacle to the comparison between total GDP and domestic production valued on the basis of time spent in unpaid care work. Despite these difficulties, it is clear that the estimation of total unpaid work including the production of goods and services for the market by unpaid ‘contributing’ family workers is an important indicator that could be calculated and compared to unpaid care work in a selected set of developing countries.

Box 1 below is an extract from the resolution of the 19th ICLS highlighting the definitions of the components of ‘unpaid care work’. Although these new definitions have been adopted, and because of the extensive and numerous works that have referred to the concept, we will continue to use in this report the notion of ‘unpaid care work’ for convenience and clarity.

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Box 1: Definitions of the components of ‘unpaid care work’ by the Resolution concerning statistics of work, employment and labour utilization adopted by the 19th ICLS in 2013 Persons in own-use production work are defined as all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use, where: (a) “any activity” refers to work performed in the various activities under paragraph 22(b) and (c) for a cumulative total of at least one hour; (b) production of “goods” (within the 2008 SNA production boundary) covers: (i) producing and/or processing for storage agricultural, fishing, hunting and gathering products; (ii) collecting and/or processing for storage mining and forestry products, including firewood and other fuels; (iii) fetching water from natural and other sources; (iv) manufacturing household goods (such as furniture, textiles, clothing, footwear, pottery or other durables, including boats and canoes); (v) building, or effecting major repairs to, one’s own dwelling, farm buildings, etc.; (c) provision of “services” (beyond the 2008 SNA production boundary but inside the General production boundary) covers: (i) household accounting and management, purchasing and/or transporting goods; (ii) preparing and/or serving meals, household waste disposal and recycling; (iii) cleaning, decorating and maintaining one’s own dwelling or premises, durables and other goods, and gardening; (iv) childcare and instruction, transporting and caring for elderly, dependent or other household members, etc.; (d) “for own final use” is interpreted as production where the intended destination of the output is mainly for final use by the producer in the form of capital formation, or final consumption by household members, or by family members living in other households: (i) the intended destination of the output is established in reference to the specific goods produced or services provided, as self-declared (i.e. mainly for own final use); (ii) in the case of agricultural, fishing, hunting or gathering goods intended mainly for own consumption, a part or surplus may nevertheless be sold or bartered. Persons in volunteer work are defined as all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others, where: (a) “any activity” refers to work for at least one hour; (b) “unpaid” is interpreted as the absence of remuneration in cash or in kind for work done or hours worked; nevertheless, volunteer workers may receive some small form of support or stipend in cash, when below one third of local market wages (e.g. for out-of-pocket expenses or to cover living expenses incurred for the activity), or in kind (e.g. meals, transportation, symbolic gifts); (c) “non-compulsory” is interpreted as work carried out without civil, legal or administrative requirement, that are different from the fulfilment of social responsibilities of a communal, cultural or religious nature; (d) production “for others” refers to work performed: (i) through, or for organizations comprising market and non-market units (i.e. organization- based volunteering) including through or for self-help, mutual aid or community-based groups of which the volunteer is a member; (ii) for households other than the household of the volunteer worker or of related family members (i.e. direct volunteering).

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2) Methodologies Sources Time-use surveys are the main sources of data for the measurement of “unpaid care work”, comprised by own-use production work and volunteer work as defined above. Data collection on time spent in paid and unpaid work is still a challenge although the experience of time-use surveys is now rather long, especially in Europe. But the harmonisation of the methods of data collection is far from being achieved. Today, the most reliable and robust data on time-use are based on diaries (that is, the complete enumeration of activities during a 24-hour lapse time) and international classifications of time-use activities rather than on methodologies based on a set of various stylised questions on a reference period of a week. Recently, many household surveys have added short sections or modules on time-use that follow synthetic methodologies (short tasks surveys, stylized diaries) that are not 24-hour diaries. The present compilation relies on time-use surveys that were either stand-alone or full-fledged diaries as modules of regular household surveys. More specifically, this report is based on the compilation of a hundred and thirty three (133) time-use surveys carried out in 76 countries through diaries, and at national level (Table 1 hereafter). The compilation excludes the household surveys collecting time use data through a short list of stylised questions (for instance the Living Standards Measurement Study LSMS-type of surveys). The only exception to this rule is for Latin America where, in the absence of time-use surveys based on diaries, the method used was a long and detailed set of questions on a week reference period. In this respect, the comparison of the findings for Latin America with the other regions is highlighting and must be interpreted with caution in the sense that it shows the tendency of stylised questions to overestimate the time dedicated to unpaid activities, one of the reasons for that being that it mixes simultaneous activities. Cabo Verde in Africa has also used the same method. Several surveys used the technique of diaries in Latin America: Cuba in 2001 (but the results were only published by region), Argentina (for the city of Buenos Aires that was added to the compilation), Chile for Gran Santiago in 2008 (not added to this review because a national survey was carried out more recently, Brazil in 2010 and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in 2012 (but no publications followed for these two countries, this is why they are not mentioned in this review)4. The list of surveys, publications and url links are provided in references and a summary of metadata is provided in Annex (Table A1).5

4 For more details, see : Esquivel, Valeria (2017), Time-use Surveys in Latin America : 2005-15, in : Hirway, Indira ed. (2017), Mainstreaming Unpaid Work, Time-use Data in Developing Countries, New Delhi, Oxford University Press. 5 The time-use survey of Cameroon (2015) is under print (but not yet official), the survey for the United Kingdom UK (2015) has not provided results yet, but the required indicators were kindly provided from the microdata base by Dr. Jooyeoun Suh, at the Centre for Time Use Research, Oxford University and the detailed results of the time use survey for China (2008) were kindly provided by Pr. Xiao-Yuan Dong from the University of Winnipeg because the official publication of the survey was out of print.

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Table 1: List of time-use surveys by year and region

North Africa (3 countries /3 surveys)

Arab countries

(4 countries /5 surveys)

Sub-Saharan Africa


Eastern Asia (5 countries /12 surveys)

South-Eastern Asia

and the Pacific


Southern Asia


Central and Western

Asia (5 countries /6 surveys)

Latin America


Northern, Western and

Southern Europe (22 countries /42 surveys)

Eastern Europe (6 countries/7 surveys)

Northern America


Algeria (2012) Iraq

(2007) Benin (1998)

(2015) China (2008)

Australia (1992) (1997) (2006)

India (1998-99) Armenia (2008) Argentina (Buenos

Aires) (2005) Albania

(2010-11) Belarus

(2014-15)

Canada (1992) (1998) (2005) (2010) (2015)

Morocco (2011-12)

Oman (2007-08)

Cameroon (2014) Japan (2001) (2006)

(2011) (2016) Cambodia (2004)

Iran, Islamic Republic of

(2009)

Azerbaijan (2008) (2012)

Chile (2015) Austria

(2008-09) Bulgaria

(2009-10) United States (2003) (2004) (2005) (2006) (2007) (2008) (2009) (2010) (2011) (2012)

(2013) (2014) (2015) (2016)

Tunisia (2005-06)

Occupied Palestinian Territory

(1999-2000) (2012-13)

Cabo Verde (2012)

Korea, Republic of (1999) (2004)

(2009) (2014)

New Zealand (1998-99) (2009-10)

Pakistan (2007) Kazakhstan

(2012) Colombia (2012-13)

Belgium (1999) (2005) (2013) Hungary

(1999-2000) (2009-10)

Denmark (2001) Estonia

(1999-2000) (2009-10)

Qatar

(2012-13) Ethiopia (2013)

Mongolia (2007) (2011)

Thailand (2004) (2009) (2014-15)

Kyrgyzstan (2010) Costa Rica (2004) Finland (1979) (1987)

(1999) (2009)

Moldova, Republic of (2011-12)

Ghana (2009) Taiwan, China

(2004)

Turkey (2006) (2014-15)

Cuba (2001) France (1974)

(1986) (1999) (2010) Poland

(2003-04)

Madagascar (2001) Ecuador (2012) Germany (2001-02)

(2012) Romania

(2011-12)

Mali (2008) El Salvador (2010) Greece (2013-14)

Mauritius

(2003)

Mexico (2002) (2009) (2014)

Ireland (2005)

Italy (1988-89)

(2002-03) (2008-09) (2013-14)

South Africa (2000)

(2010) Panama (2011) Latvia (2003)

Tanzania, United

Republic of (2006) (2014)

Paraguay (2016)

Lithuania (2003)

Macedonia, the Former

Yugoslav Republic of (2014-15)

Peru (2010) Netherlands (2005-06)

Uruguay (2007)

(2013) Norway (1970) (1980) (1990) (2000) (2010)

Portugal (1999) Serbia (2010-11)

Slovenia (2000-01)

Spain

(2002-03) (2009-10)

Sweden (2000-01)

(2010-11)

United Kingdom (2000)

(2005) (2015)

15

Classifications One of the difficulties in the international comparison of time use statistics is related to the absence of use of a system of harmonized classifications of time-use activities. A trial International Classification of Activities for Time Use Statistics (ICATUS) was published in 2005 by the United Nations, as part of the Guide to Producing Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work. This classification has been used in time-use surveys conducted in many developing countries. The Harmonized European Time-Use Survey (HETUS) classification is used in Europe including Eastern Europe as well as in North Africa and in some transition countries. In Latin America the Classification of activities for time-use for Latin America and the Caribbean (CAUTAL) 6 is used. In addition, many countries, for example, Australia, New Zealand and the United States have developed their own classifications for time-use statistics. Many countries still use classifications that do not distinguish child care from adult care, meaning that adult care is then captured through other household chores. Depending on the classification, volunteer work and help to other households is detailed in a specific digit of the classification or split between care-work and community services, and sometimes includes other activities (such as participating in meetings or religious activities). The last difficulty is due to the treatment of travel related to a given activity. In principle, related travel time should be added to each activity. For childcare, related travel is clearly part of the time dedicated to this activity. However in some surveys, travel is measured in a single separate indicator and cannot be imputed to any specific activity. A recent development which promises to improve international harmonization and comparison in time use statistics is the first non-trial version of the International Classification of Activities for Time Use Statistics (ICATUS 2016)7 which was adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 48th Session in 2017. This new classification was developed under the guidance of an Expert Group on Time Use Statistics whose members had experience in the use of the trial ICATUS, HETUS, CAUTAL and various national time use activity classifications. The purpose of ICATUS 2016 is to provide a framework that can be used to produce meaningful and comparable statistics on time use across countries and over time. Its categories are aligned with the 19th ICLS definition of work and forms of work as well as with the SNA production boundaries. A correspondence between the 2008 version of the HETUS activity coding list has been developed and is available as part of the published ICATUS 2008. With certain limitations this would make it possible to map data coded to HETUS to an aggregate level of ICATUS 2016. Over time it is to be hoped that countries will increasingly adopt ICATUS 2016 in their national time use surveys, or develop mappings to national and regional classifications so as allow statistics on time use to be compiled according to the new international standard. In summary, the comparability of data is not strictly respected, but at this stage of the harmonisation process of such types of surveys, it is a necessary requirement to accept a certain degree of uncertainty.

6 Clasificación de Actividades de Uso del Tiempo para América Latina y el Caribe 7 https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/

16

Indicators of time use There are three basic indicators for time use: time use for participants, participation rate and time use for total population (also called social time in some surveys). Except for physiological needs (sleeping, eating), not all the population is involved in the various activities: time use for participants is an approach of the reality experienced by the population, for instance a workday is approximately of 8 hours for a worker, and a care-work day is of 7 hours for a young mother, but all the population is not at work during the reference period and not all women are young mothers entirely dedicating their time to care. Participation rates indicate the proportion of population, of workers, of mothers, etc., who, during the period of reference, participate in a precise activity. And time use for total population in a given activity is the ratio of the total time recorded in the survey by the total population or also the multiplication of time use for participants by participation rates. Time use for total population is an indicator that allows reconstituting a complete 24-hour day (or 1440 minutes). The average time spent in the activity by the total covered population is the indicator used in this report: in order to compute an annual value, the simple multiplication by 365 is enough, provided that the survey methodologies take the weekly and the seasonal variations into account. However the published reports of time-use surveys across the world are not always clear about the indicators highlighted in the tables. In some countries, especially in Latin America, the indicator on time use for participants is privileged and the indicator on time use for total population cannot always be computed. Furthermore the published results emphasise the measurement of unpaid care work and do not always provide the data for paid work (and sometimes for personal activities). Many countries present tables with the three indicators, while others prefer tables with the sum at 1440 minutes. Another difficulty is that many published tables mix paid (SNA) work with learning activities so that where the detailed tables are not available, it has not been possible to compare time spent in unpaid care work with time spent in paid work. Finally a general remark must be made about the availability of data in the published reports: Although time-use surveys are – or should be – centered on gender, it is surprising to note that the variable ‘sex’ is often treated as any other socio-economic variable. In other words, not all the tables are disaggregated by sex, and many of the socio-economic characteristics sought for this report are available (for instance educational level, income groups, or activity status) but not disaggregated by sex.

17

Section 2: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work by country in the various regions of the world Across the globe and with no exception, women dedicate more time than men to unpaid care work. Chart 2 hereafter shows the importance of time (in number of minutes per day) dedicated by women to the three forms of unpaid care work (domestic services, care services, and community services or volunteering 8) across the world. It can be noted that in countries where caregiving services are not distinguished, they are included in domestic services. Globally, women’s unpaid care work ranges from a maximum of 490 minutes (8 hours and 10 minutes or 34 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Cabo Verde (2012) to a minimum of 168 minutes (2 hours and 48 minutes or 11.7 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Taiwan, China (2004) and 178 minutes (2 hours and 58 minutes or 12.4 per cent of a day) in Thailand (2014)9. However we must keep in mind that the five countries at the top (4 Latin American countries and Cabo Verde, the only African country to have followed the same methodology) have not applied the diary data collection method, which explains the overestimation of time spent in these unpaid activities. This is because it includes simultaneous activities and because the total time cannot be checked against the total number of hours per day. If we don’t take these 5 countries in consideration, then time spent in unpaid care work ranges from the maximum of 345 minutes (5 hours and 45 minutes or 24 per cent of a 24-hour day) for Iraq (2007) to the minimum of 11.7 per cent in Taiwan, China. That means that depending on countries, time devoted to unpaid care work can vary from single to double. This is why a regional analysis is so important. The average time devoted to unpaid care work for women at the global level (including 75 countries) is 277 minutes (4 hours and 37 minutes or 19.7 per cent of a 24-hour day). The median value for 75 countries is represented by Ecuador (2012) with 273 minutes (4 hours and 33 minutes or 19.0 per cent of a 24-hour day). Looking now at men’s unpaid work (Chart 3), it ranges from a maximum of 246 minutes (4 hours and 6 minutes or 17.1 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Cabo Verde again to a minimum of 18 minutes in Cambodia (1.2 per cent). Here again the country (Cabo Verde) at the top is characterised by a difference in methodology. Without it, the maximum is at 200 minutes (3 hours and 20 minutes or 13.9 per cent of a 24-hour day) for the Republic of Moldova (2011-12), with a gap between the maximum and the minimum reaching a factor of 11. The world average is 111 minutes (1 hour and 51 minutes: 7.7 per cent of a 24-hour day) and the median value is represented by Kazakhstan (2012) with exactly the same value as the average.

8 The three categories of unpaid care work have been defined in section 1 above. 9 In this section average numbers are unweighted: each country has the same weight. Weighted averages will be calculated in section 3. Unweighted averages provide a general profile, avoiding giving too strong importance to the most populated countries.

18

Chart 2: Time spent by women in the various categories of unpaid care work. Country averages. 75 countries

168139146

188199

178170186

144155

189187201

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1925

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Taiwan, ChinaThailand

Korea, Republic ofCambodia

QatarFinland

CameroonBelgium

ParaguayGhanaBenin

MadagascarMacedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

El SalvadorSouth Africa

NorwayUnited Kingdom

FranceChina

Tanzania, United Republic ofSweden

MaliDenmark

KazakhstanNew ZealandNetherlands

JapanArgentina (BA)

CanadaEstonia

SpainUnited States

RomaniaHungary

AustriaGermanyEcuador

OmanKyrgyzstan

GreeceMauritius

LatviaIreland

SloveniaPakistan

MongoliaBelarus

EthiopiaOccupied Palestinian Territory

PolandIndia

BulgariaMorocco

Panama urbanSerbia

PortugalItaly

Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban averageLithuania

UruguayAustraliaArmenia

AlgeriaAlbaniaTunisiaTurkey

Moldova, Republic ofPeruIraq

AzerbaijanChile

Costa RicaColombia

MexicoCabo Verde

Minutes per day

Providing unpaid domesticservices for own final use withinhousehold

Providing unpaid caregivingservices to household members

Providing community servicesand help to other households

19

Chart 3: Time spent by men in the various categories of unpaid care work. Country averages. 75 countries

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0 50 100 150 200 250 300

CambodiaMali

PakistanIndia

Korea, Republic ofTaiwan, China

BeninEl Salvador

MoroccoMadagascar

AlbaniaAlgeriaTunisia

Occupied Palestinian TerritoryThailand

IraqArmenia

Tanzania, United Republic ofParaguay

GhanaMauritius

CameroonPortugal

JapanIran, Islamic Republic of, urban average

EcuadorMacedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

TurkeyArgentina (BA)

ChinaSouth AfricaKyrgyzstan

Costa RicaGreece

ItalyQatar

KazakhstanOman

AzerbaijanColombia

EthiopiaRomania

SpainHungary

Panama urbanIreland

United KingdomBelgiumUruguay

NetherlandsPeru

MongoliaFinland

New ZealandLatvia

MexicoAustria

SerbiaFranceBelarus

ChilePoland

GermanyBulgaria

LithuaniaSlovenia

United StatesEstoniaCanada

AustraliaNorway

DenmarkSweden

Moldova, Republic ofCabo Verde

Minutes per day




20

Chart 4 summarises the existing gaps in the relative contributions of women and men to unpaid care work making visible the remaining path to reach parity (when women and men share an equal part of the unpaid care work burden at 50 per cent). Women’s share is the complement to 100 per cent for this indicator. Countries are ranked by increasing share of women’s contribution to unpaid care work. None of the countries reaches parity (at 50 per cent) as regards men’s contribution to total unpaid care work. But as expected Northern European countries come close to it, with Sweden, Norway and Denmark above 40 per cent (respectively 44.7, 43.9 and 43.4 per cent), followed by Canada, Finland and Estonia (above 39 per cent). At the other extreme we find Mali, Cambodia, Pakistan and India with fewer than 10 per cent (respectively 8.0, 8.7, 8.9 and 9.5 per cent). The world average is 27.5 per cent (corresponding to the situation in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 2014-15) and the median value is slightly higher, at 28.4 per cent (for China 2008). Thus in average at world level, men’s contribution to total unpaid care work hardly exceeds one fourth of the total burden. The series of Charts that follows (Charts 5 to 33) present time (in minutes per day) spent by women and men in unpaid care work and men’s share of total unpaid care work, for the various regions and sub-regions of the world according to the ILO regional, country groupings, as well as (charts 27 to 33) for the income groupings (developed-high income, emerging-middle income and developing-low income countries). On these Charts, countries are ranked by increasing order of women’s time spent in unpaid care work or by decreasing order of women’ s share of total unpaid care work. Charts show that there is no direct relationship between women and men’s allocations of time in unpaid care work: in other words, countries characterised by high levels of time allocated by women to domestic and care-work are not always simultaneously characterised by higher levels of time allocated by men to these tasks. As a matter of fact, it is the share of men (or of women) in the fulfilment of the burden of domestic work that reflects the relative status of women across the countries and better accounts for target 5.4 of the SDGs monitoring framework (proportion of time spent in unpaid domestic and care work by sex). In this regard, the ranking of countries within each region or sub-region according to this indicator is significant. Chart 24 for example shows that, in Northern, Southern and Western European countries, as expected, the countries that perform better (situated on the right-hand side of the Chart and highlighted in red) are the Northern European, with men contributing for more than 39 per cent of total unpaid care work whereas Southern European countries (highlighted in yellow) are clearly on the left-hand side with men’s shares below 30 per cent (Albania, Portugal, Italy, FYR of Macedonia, Greece) and Western European countries (highlighted in blue) in between. The same observations can be made for developed (high income) countries on Charts 27 and 28 where again the Northern European countries perform the best on the right-hand side, together with Canada (above 40 per cent), while Southern European countries share the left-hand side with the Republic of Korea, Taiwan China (below 20 per cent), Japan and Oman.

21

Eastern Europe (Charts 25 and 26) is the only region where the longer the time dedicated by women to unpaid care work, the longer is also the time dedicated by men to these tasks. In these countries, men’ share of total unpaid care work represents one third of the total (with the minimum in Romania: 32.1 per cent and the maximum in the Republic of Moldova: 37.7 per cent). In emerging (middle income) countries (Charts 29 and 30), Eastern European countries (Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania) perform the better with men’s share of total unpaid care work higher than 30 per cent, together with one Latin American country (Chile), two Central Asian countries (Mongolia, Kazakhstan) and one African country (South Africa). At the other end with men’ share of total unpaid care work below 20 per cent, Asian countries (Cambodia, Pakistan, India) with a low share (less than 10 per cent), followed by Northern African countries (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria), Arab countries (Iraq, Occupied Palestinian Territory) and also one country from Southern Europe (Albania), one Latin American country (El Salvador) and one Central Asian country (Armenia). Finally Chart 33 summarises the situation for the three categories of countries, on the same scale. It shows that the emerging countries (36 countries) are generally situated below the developed countries (33 countries) as regards the remaining distance to parity, and the developing countries below the emerging countries (although the number of developing countries remains small in the sample (6). Disparities between countries within each group are not very different between groups.

22

Chart 4: Women’s and men’s share of total unpaid care work (75 countries)

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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

MaliCambodia

PakistanIndia

MoroccoIraq

AlbaniaTunisiaAlgeria

Occupied Palestinian TerritoryEl Salvador

BeninArmenia

Korea, Republic ofMadagascar

Taiwan, ChinaIran, Islamic Republic of, urban average

PortugalCosta RicaMauritius

TurkeyTanzania, United Republic of

EcuadorParaguay

JapanColombia

GhanaThailand

AzerbaijanMexico

CameroonItaly

Argentina (BA)Kyrgyzstan

Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic ofGreece

ChinaPeru

OmanPanama urban

South AfricaEthiopiaUruguay

ChileIreland

KazakhstanRomaniaHungary

SpainMongolia

SerbiaCabo Verde

LatviaBelarus

NetherlandsPoland

LithuaniaAustria

BulgariaQatar

AustraliaUnited Kingdom

New ZealandSlovenia

Moldova, Republic ofGermanyBelgium

FranceUnited States

EstoniaFinlandCanada

DenmarkNorwaySweden

23

Chart 5: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern Africa. 3 countries

Chart 6: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern Africa. 3 countries

300

43

282

42

288

42

30

12

32

8

6

4

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Women Men Women Men Women Men

Morocco 2011-12 Algeria 2012 Tunisia 2005-06

Min

ute

s p

er d

ay

Providingcommunityservices and help toother households

Providing unpaidcaregiving servicesto householdmembers

Providing unpaiddomestic servicesfor own final usewithin household

87.5% 85.8% 85.2%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

Morocco 2011-12 Tunisia 2005-06 Algeria 2012

24

Chart 7: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 countries

Chart 8: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Sub-Saharan Africa. 10 countries

170

53

155

40

189

39

187

36

195

88

196

52

241

21

229

56

231

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392

204

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7

5

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1

3

4

4

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30

25

20

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M

Cameroon Ghana Benin Madagascar South Africa Tanzania,United

Republic of

Mali Mauritius Ethiopia Cabo Verde

Min

ute

s p

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da

y

Providing community services and help to other households

Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members

92.0 84.0 81.3 79.1 78.8 76.4 74.1 70.0 70.0 66.6

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Mali Benin Madagascar Mauritius Tanzania,United

Republic of

Ghana Cameroon South Africa Ethiopia Cabo Verde

25

Chart 9: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern America

Chart 10: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern America

194

131187

122

39

18

42

19

24

21

35

27

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Women Men Women Men

Canada 2010 USA 2015

Providing communityservices and help to otherhouseholds

Providing unpaidcaregiving services tohousehold members

Providing unpaid domesticservices for own final usewithin household

61.1% 60.2%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

USA 2015 Canada 2010

26

Chart 11: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Latin America and the Caribbean. 11 countries

Chart 12: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Latin America and the Caribbean. 11 countries

144

33

136

4

183

66

273

78

201

97

222

88

258

101

224

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312

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195

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10

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9

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M

Paraguay El Salvador Argentina(BA)

Ecuador Panamaurban

Uruguay Peru Chile Costa Rica Colombia Mexico

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Providing community services and help to otherhouseholds

Providing unpaid caregiving services tohousehold members

Providing unpaid domestic services for own finaluse within household

84.1 79.2 77.8 77.0 76.6 74.3 73.4 71.4 70.2 69.9 69.2

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

El Salvador Costa Rica Ecuador Paraguay Colombia Mexico Argentina(BA)

Peru Panamaurban

Uruguay Chile

27

Chart 13: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Arab countries. 4 countries

Chart 14: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Arab countries

199

110

274

115

217

35

300

52

59

9

45

4

17

11

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

W M W M W M W M

Qatar Oman OccupiedPalestinianTerritory

Iraq

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Providing communityservices and help toother households


Providing unpaiddomestic services forown final use withinhousehold

86.0 84.270.4 64.4

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Iraq Occupied PalestinianTerritory

Oman Qatar

28

Chart 15: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Eastern Asia. 5 countries

Chart 16: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Eastern Asia

168

41

146

27

203

80

222

63

232

111

40

10

31

11

27

8

54

20

2

2

3

3

5

6

4

8

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

W M W M W M W M W M

Taiwan, China Korea, Republicof

China Japan Mongolia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y




82.8 80.4 76.7 71.6 67.6

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Korea, Republicof

Taiwan, China Japan China Mongolia

29

Chart 17: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific. 4 countries

Chart 18: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific

139

44

188

18

199

122

239

130

31

10

48

19

64

27

3

2

8

15

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

W M W M W M W M

Thailand Cambodia New Zealand Australia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y




91.3

75.564.4 63.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Cambodia Thailand Australia New Zealand

30

Chart 19: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Southern Asia. 3 countries

Chart 20: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Southern Asia

231

17

297

31

305

75

55

9

1

2

2

2

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

W M W M W M

Pakistan India Iran, Islamic Republic of,urban average

Providing communityservices and help toother households



91.1 90.579.9

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Pakistan India Iran, Islamic Republic of,urban average

31

Chart 21: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Central and Western Asia. 5 countries

Chart 22: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Central and Western Asia

246

111

250

82

266

54

234

45

316

103

20

9

46

9

41

5

29

10

5

9

55

37

2

3

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

W M W M W M W M W M

Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Armenia Turkey Azerbaijan

Providingcommunity servicesand help to otherhouseholds

Providing unpaidcaregiving servicesto householdmembers


83.2 79.1 74.9 73.3 68.9

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Armenia Turkey Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan

32

Chart 23: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern, Southern and Western Europe. 22 countries

178

121

186

117

201

71

188

149

201

130

203

168197

151180

101

191

95

217

144

211

93

222

118

227

137

229

81

239

126

185

91

251

145

266

126

258

61

286

97

267

141

270

45

27

11

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15

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31

31

14

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26

35

20

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19

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11

36

21

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5

94

29

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11

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10

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6

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5

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7

1

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2

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15

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19

13

14

16

12

8

9

15

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20

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14

12

7

9

5

10

10

12

21

10

19

11

15

17

1

2

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M

Finland Belgium Macedonia,the Former

YugoslavRepublic of

Norway France Sweden Denmark UnitedKingdom

Netherlands Estonia Spain Austria Germany Greece Latvia Ireland Slovenia Serbia Portugal Italy Lithuania Albania

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y




33

Chart 24: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern (in red), Southern (in yellow) and Western (in blue) Europe

85.879.7

73.8 72.5 72.1 68.9 67.6 67.0 66.0 65.8 65.6 65.0 64.8 63.3 62.1 61.8 61.3 60.7 60.3 56.6 56.1 55.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

34

Chart 25: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Eastern Europe. 6 countries

Chart 26: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Eastern Europe

264

125

240

114

242

124

243

127

267

142

270

169

28

12

34

13

39

15

16

6

34

8

0

1

15

14

13

15

15

16

26

23

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

W M W M W M W M W M W M

Romania Hungary Belarus Poland Bulgaria Moldova,Republic of

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Providing community services and help to other households

Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members

Providing unpaid domestic services for own final use within household

67.9 67.8 65.8 65.3 64.5 62.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Romania Hungary Belarus Poland Bulgaria Moldova,Republic of

35

Chart 27: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Developed countries (high income). 33 countries

36

Chart 28: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Developed countries (high income). 33 countries

82.8

80.479.7

76.773.8

73.472.1

70.4

69.9

69.268.9

67.867.6

66.065.6

65.365.0

64.864.4

64.4

63.9

63.7

63.3

62.1

61.8

61.3

61.1

60.760.3

60.256.6

56.1

55.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

37

Chart 29: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Emerging countries (middle income). 36 countries

139

44

188

18

170

53

144

33

155

40

201

71

136

4

195

88

203

80

246

111

264

125

273

78

250

82

229

56

231

17

232

111

242

124

217

35

297

31

267

142

300

43

201

97

266

126

305

75

282

42

266

54

270

45

288

42

270

169

234

45

258

101

300

52

316

103

312

82

195

51

251

79

31

10

38

14

63

28

53

11

22

8

49

11

29

5

31

11

20

9

44

13

55

9

54

20

34

13

59

9

16

6

85

23

25

10

30

12

46

9

43

5

32

8

34

8

41

5

68

26

45

4

29

10

68

19

192

66

153

58

3

2

4

7

7

3

12

17

1

6

43

28

5

5

3

3

5

9

4

4

1

2

4

8

15

14

17

11

15

16

15

8

10

12

2

2

1

2

6

4

26

23

55

37

13

9

2

3

5 6

3

19

9

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M

ThailandCambodiaCameroonParaguayGhanaMacedoniaEl SalvadorSouth AfricaChinaKazakhstanRomaniaEcuadorKyrgyzstanMauritiusPakistanMongoliaBelarusOcc Palestinian Ter.India BulgariaMoroccoPanama urbanSerbia Iran AlgeriaArmeniaAlbaniaTunisiaMoldovaTurkey Peru IraqAzerbaijanCosta RicaColombiaMexico

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y


Providing unpaid caregiving services to householdmembers


38

Chart 30: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Emerging countries (middle income). 36 countries.

91.3

91.1

90.587.5

86.0

85.8

85.8

85.2

84.2

84.1

83.279.9

79.279.1

79.177.8

77.0

76.6

76.4

75.5

74.974.3

74.173.3

72.571.6

71.470.2

70.068.9

67.967.6

67.0

65.8

64.562.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

39

Chart 31: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Developing countries (low income). 6 countries

Chart 32: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Developing countries (low income). 6 countries

189

39

187

36

196

52

241

21

231

87

392

204

32

3

28

8

41

9

47

8

73

227

7

1

3

13

30

25

20

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Wo

me

n

Me

n

Benin Madagascar Tanzania,United

Mali Ethiopia Cabo Verde

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Providing community services and helpto other households

Providing unpaid caregiving servicesto household members

Providing unpaid domestic services forown final use within household

92.084.0 81.3 78.8

70.0 66.6

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Mali Benin Madagascar Tanzania,United

Republic of

Ethiopia Cabo Verde

40

Charts 33: Share of women and men in total unpaid care work-Summary by region

55.3% Sweden

82.8 Korea, Rep of

44.7% Sweden 17.2 Korea,

Rep of

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Developed countries

Share of women in total unpaidwork

Share of men

62.3 % Moldova,

Rep of

91.3% Cambodia

37.7% Moldova,

Rep of

8.7 % Cambodia0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Emerging countries


Share of men

66.6% Cabo Verde

92.0% Mali

33.4% Cabo Verde 8.0%

Mali0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Developing countries


Share of men

41

Looking now at the share of unpaid care work in total work (paid and unpaid), Chart 34 shows that for women this indicator ranges from a maximum of 91.8 per cent in Iraq (2007) to a minimum of 41 per cent in Cambodia (2004). Very high levels of this indicator (above 74 per cent) characterise Arab countries such as Iraq, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman, Northern African countries (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), Central and Western Asia (Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan), Southern Asia (Iran, Pakistan), and also Greece and Italy, as well as Costa Rica. Most of these countries are known for their very low female labour force participation rates: women devote almost all their working time to household duties and care. At the bottom of the Chart, on the contrary, women dedicate more than half of their working time to paid work in Asian countries such as Cambodia, Thailand and China, and also in Sub-Saharan countries such as Madagascar and Ghana. Northern European countries that we have already pointed out for their high share of men’s contribution to unpaid care work are situated just above the 50 per cent line (with 54.4 per cent for Sweden, 56 per cent for Norway and 56.6 per cent for Finland). Three Latin American countries also belong to this category: Paraguay (48.3 per cent), Chile (51.9 per cent) and El Salvador (54.3 per cent). The world average is 65.0 per cent (represented by France) where women devote a little bit less than two thirds of their working time to household duties and care for a labour force participation rate of 51.2 per cent in 2014) and the median value is 63.3 per cent (represented by New Zealand where the female labour force participation rate reaches 63.4 per cent in 2014). As to men (Chart 35) the share of unpaid care work in their total work time is everywhere below 50 per cent. Minimums (less than 12 per cent) are observed in India (7.9 per cent), Pakistan (8 per cent), El Salvador (11.1 per cent), Mali (11.4 per cent) and Morocco (11.7 per cent), as well as Thailand and Taiwan China. Such cases reflect very different situations: Thailand and El Salvador, for example, are countries where women dedicate less than 50 per cent of their working time to household chores and care (and respectively 62.5 and 49.3 per cent for their participation to the labour force in 2013-14), whereas in Morocco and Pakistan they dedicate more than 78 per cent of their working time to unpaid care work (and respectively 25.2 and 23.2 per cent for their participation to the labour force in 2014). More generally in countries where women find obstacles to enter the labour market because of their status and the fact that their access to public space is limited by social or religious norms, their contribution to unpaid care work is the highest (top of Chart 34 and bottom of Chart 35) and it is exactly the reverse for countries where women are naturally and socially present on the labour market (bottom of Chart 34 and top of Chart 35). Countries where men devote the larger part of their working time to unpaid care work are the Republic of Moldova (48 per cent) and other Eastern European countries (such as Bulgaria and Romania) or Northern-Western European countries (Denmark, Estonia, Belgium, Sweden), with more than 43 per cent. For men, the world average and the median value are the same with 29.1 per cent (represented by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).

42

Finally Charts 36 and 37 present the number of minutes per day women and men spend in unpaid care work and paid work (excluding Uruguay, Slovenia, Cape Verde for which time spent in paid work is not provided by the surveys). The maximum for women for Latin American countries that did not use the diaries in their surveys is observed in Chile (670 minutes or 11 hours and 10 minutes) and the minimum in Paraguay (373 minutes or 6 hours and 13 minutes) whereas the maximum for women for countries that used the diaries is observed in Lithuania (2003) where the total daily working time amounts to 539 minutes (or 8 hours and 59 minutes: 37.4 per cent of a 24-hour day), followed by Mongolia (2011). And the minimum is in Belgium (2013) where the daily working time amounts 313 minutes (or 5 hours and 13 minutes: 21.7 per cent of a 24-hour day). Other countries at the bottom are Arab countries (Qatar, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman), as well as the Republic of Korea and Mali. The world average (including Latin American countries) is 425 minutes (or 7 hours and 5 minutes: 19.2 per cent of a 24-hour day, represented by Latvia 2003) and the median value is 420 minutes (for El Salvador 2010). As for men, again for countries that used the diaries, the maximum is observed in Mongolia with 487 minutes (or 8 hours and 7 minutes: 33.8 per cent of a 24-hour day), followed by Thailand, Latvia, Lithuania and China, and the minimum in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (with 143 minutes or 2 hours and 23 minutes: 9.9 per cent of a day), Mali (184 minutes) and Algeria (252 minutes). For countries that did not use the diaries, the maximum for men is observed in Chile (555 minutes or 9 hours and 15 minutes) and the minimum in Paraguay (373 minutes or 6 hours and 13 minutes). The average working day for men (including Latin America) amounts to 375 minutes (or 6 hours and 15 minutes: 26.0 per cent of a day) represented by Serbia (2010-11) while the median value is 373 minutes (Paraguay 2016). Women’s working time is therefore equivalent to 113 per cent of men’s total working time. Table 2 summarises the findings for world averages: Women devote 2.51 times more time to unpaid care work than men, a little bit more than half (0.57) the time men spend in paid work, and 1.13 more time than men in total work. Table 2: Average time spent by women and men in paid, unpaid and total work 75 countries

In minutes per day Average time of

unpaid work Average time of

paid work Average time of

total work Women 276 152 425

Men 110 266 375 Women/Men 2.51 0.57 1.13

Note: Unweighted averages. Three countries have not collected data on paid work in their time-use surveys: Cabo Verde, Slovenia, Uruguay

More detailed results at world and regional levels will be presented in section 3 below where countries are weighted according to their population.

43

Chart 34: Women’s share of unpaid care work in total women’s work. 72 countries

41.042.643.2

47.448.148.349.151.151.954.254.354.454.655.056.056.456.556.657.158.859.560.060.160.260.660.961.061.561.862.362.462.462.762.862.963.363.564.064.564.764.965.065.066.366.766.867.368.468.468.569.970.070.670.871.172.272.572.974.674.875.576.478.078.678.780.981.382.5

88.589.191.291.8

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0

CambodiaThailand

Taiwan, ChinaChina

MadagascarParaguay

GhanaCameroon

ChileLatvia

El SalvadorSweden

MongoliaTanzania, United Republic of

NorwayBenin

Korea, Republic ofFinland

LithuaniaCanada

EthiopiaPanama urban

United StatesBelarus

JapanArgentina (BA)

HungaryUnited Kingdom

EstoniaDenmark

QatarMacedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

AustriaKyrgyzstan

PortugalNew ZealandNetherlandsSouth Africa

EcuadorKazakhstan

PeruIndia

FranceMoldova, Republic of

GermanyIreland

SpainBelgium

PolandBulgaria

MauritiusSerbia

MexicoAustralia

MaliColombiaRomania

AlbaniaTunisia

ItalyArmenia

Costa RicaGreece

PakistanMorocco

AzerbaijanTurkey

OmanIran, Islamic Republic of, urban average

Occupied Palestinian TerritoryAlgeria

Iraq

44

Chart 35: Men’s share of unpaid care work in total men’s work. 72 countries

7.98.011.111.411.511.712.013.714.815.315.816.817.217.517.818.518.919.119.820.320.520.720.721.421.422.322.924.626.327.227.427.827.928.528.529.129.329.831.431.532.332.432.432.632.734.735.235.435.635.736.038.138.138.539.540.040.140.240.840.841.341.341.942.542.743.444.245.746.246.346.948.0

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

IndiaPakistan

El SalvadorMali

ThailandMorocco

Taiwan, ChinaKorea, Republic of

BeninTunisia

Tanzania, United Republic ofAlbania

ParaguayMadagascar

ArmeniaIraq

JapanGhana

MauritiusEcuadorPortugal

CameroonChina

Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban averageAlgeria

Costa RicaArgentina (BA)

TurkeyPanama urban

KyrgyzstanPeru

ColombiaChile

MexicoMongolia

Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic ofEthiopia

LatviaSouth Africa

IrelandNetherlands

AzerbaijanQatar

ItalyHungary

LithuaniaBelarus

KazakhstanAustria

New ZealandUnited Kingdom

SpainOman

Occupied Palestinian TerritorySerbia

CanadaUnited States

PolandAustralia

FinlandSlovenia

GreeceNorway

GermanyFrance

RomaniaSweden

BelgiumEstonia

BulgariaDenmark

Moldova, Republic of

45

Chart 36: Time devoted by women to unpaid care work and paid work (in minutes per day), countries ranked by decreasing time devoted to total work. 72 countries

490286309

214199

293274

188241

312307

277229224234

264287

211345

232246

300168

243247263

221277

254269

173330

305230

312212

254228

257261273286

269347

301295314

238298

257326

275264268

311240

214220

297188

222302290291

330237

301385

277339

290308

393423

348

99120

3658

14598

3040

78129135126

10078

16231

145134

81221

147143128

171119

146134

23376

103181

101203

165192

165161150142

16082

129136117

195137

180111

163175171

128201

229228

160270

240178192198

168263

201119

234183

241231

151176322

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Cabo VerdeSloveniaUruguayBelgium

QatarOccupied Palestinian Territory

OmanKorea, Republic of

MaliAlgeria

Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban averageGreece

South AfricaMacedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

FranceRomaniaPakistan

FinlandIraq

United KingdomKazakhstan

MoroccoTaiwan, China

DenmarkNew Zealand

SpainBenin

MauritiusNetherlands

GermanyThailand

TurkeyItaly

NorwayArmenia

CameroonJapan

El SalvadorArgentina (BA)

EstoniaEcuadorIrelandAustria

AzerbaijanSerbia

PolandAlbania

Tanzania, United Republic ofBulgaria

CanadaTunisia

KyrgyzstanUnited States

HungaryAustralia

SwedenParaguay

GhanaIndia

CambodiaMadagascar

PortugalBelarus

EthiopiaMoldova, Republic of

ChinaPanama urban

Costa RicaLatvia

PeruMongoliaLithuaniaColombia

MexicoChile

Minutes per day

Unpaid care work

Paid work

46

Chart 37: Time devoted by men to unpaid care work and paid work (in minutes per day), countries ranked by decreasing time devoted to total work. 72 countries

18246

13355

2154

1074239

125132

5185

56115

5298111108126

110139

41148

285463

87164

6874

11677

131169

10043

736477

14878

164127

4331

157141

186166

647793129146

133200

168172170

125151

180120

19410194

166143

56128139136146155

88163

198152

241246

163157

240207

246187

257214203223205229

202303

199322

299291

267190

288284

242283

233197

267325

296309298

227306

222261

346360

234254

211236

341330314

280264

279217

251250255

301278

250311

245352360

313337

430359348361

367400

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

CambodiaCabo Verde

UruguayOccupied Palestinian Territory

MaliAlgeriaGreece

BeninKorea, Republic of

RomaniaBelgium

MadagascarMacedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

IraqOman

AlbaniaSouth Africa

KazakhstanItaly

SpainQatar

FinlandTaiwan, China

FrancePakistan

TunisiaArmenia

TurkeyBulgaria

GhanaCameroonAzerbaijan

Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban averageUnited Kingdom

EstoniaKyrgyzstan

MoroccoMauritiusParaguayPortugal

SerbiaEcuador

GermanyHungary

El SalvadorIndia

PolandNew Zealand

DenmarkSlovenia

Tanzania, United Republic ofJapan

Argentina (BA)IrelandAustria

NetherlandsMoldova, Republic of

United StatesAustralia

CanadaEthiopia

BelarusNorway

ColombiaSweden

Costa RicaChina

LithuaniaLatvia

ThailandPanama urban

MongoliaPeru

MexicoChile

Minutes per day

Unpaid care work

Paid work

47

Section 3: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work in the various regions of the world: global averages In Section 2, we presented the results on paid work and unpaid care work by country regrouped by regions. Global averages presented there were simple (unweighted) averages that provide a general profile by region (each country having the same weight). In this section, the global averages and the averages by countries grouped by income levels, and by region, are calculated using weighted averages. Each of the 75 countries we have data for (there is no national data for Cuba) is weighted by its population in 2015, as provided by the most recent revision of the World Population Prospects of the United Nations Population Division. The 75 countries represent 67.8% of world total population. Consequently, the world and regional averages presented in this section are impacted by the weight of two countries: China and India that represent more than 53.6 per cent of the population of the 75 countries with data on time-use. 1) World estimates Charts 38 show that at world level, women dedicate 3.2 times more time than men to unpaid care work: 4 hours and 32 minutes (272 minutes) per day against 1 hour and 24 minutes for men (84 minutes), or more than three-fourths (76.4 per cent) of the total amount of unpaid care work. On the contrary, women devote a little bit more than 1/3 (36.1 per cent) of the total amount of paid work, or 0.3 time the time dedicated by men: 3 hours and 1 minute (181 minutes) against 5 hours and 21 minutes (321 minutes) for men. As to total work obtained by adding up unpaid care work and paid work, it appears that the women’s burden is heavier than men’s by 5.8 percentage points (2.9 percentage point above parity): 7 hours and 33 minutes per day (453 minutes), against 6 hours and 44 minutes for men (404 minutes). But gender inequality mostly resides in the unequal distribution of roles between paid work and unpaid care work.

48

Charts 38: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: world average, 75 countries

272181

453

84321

404

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

76.4

36.1

52.9

23.6

63.9

47.1

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

49

2) Estimates by regions defined by income groups Looking now at the same patterns in developed, emerging and developing countries (Charts 39, 40 and 41) it is clear that there are substantial differences between regions. Chart 42 helps to visualise those differences by ranking the regions by income groups according to the decreasing burden of unpaid work, of paid work and of total work. Charts 39: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 33 developed countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan China, United Kingdom, Uruguay, United States.

260154

413

137251

387

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

65.5

38.051.6

34.5

62.048.4

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

50

Charts 40: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 36 emerging countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cameroon, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ghana, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, Mauritius, Mexico, Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, Morocco, Pakistan, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Romania, Serbia, South Africa, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey.

276189

465

68343

411

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

80.2

35.5

53.1

19.8

64.5

46.9

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

51

Charts 41: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 6 developing countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Benin, Cabo Verde, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mali, the United Republic of Tanzania.

262192

453

88289

376

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

74.9

39.9

54.6

25.1

60.1

45.4

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

52

Chart 42: Regions by income group ranked by decreasing order of women’s burden of unpaid care work, paid work and total work, 75 countries

276 272 262 260

192 189 181154

465 453 453413

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Emerging World Developing Developed Developing Emerging World Developed Emerging World Developing Developed


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

53

Chart 43: Regions by income group ranked by increasing order of men’s burden of unpaid care work, paid work and total work, 75 countries

68 84 88

137

251289

321343

376 387404 411

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Emerging World Developing Developed Developed Developing World Emerging Developing Developed World Emerging


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

54

It is in the emerging countries that women spend the longest hours in unpaid care work (4 hours and 36 minutes) and in the developed countries that they spend the shortest (4 hours and 20 minutes). But there is a very little difference: only 16 minutes, even when in developed countries the household chores are much more capital intensive and therefore less time-demanding. It is interesting to note (Chart 43) that in these two regions, men are the least contributing to household chores (emerging countries: only 1 hour and 8 minutes) or the most (developed countries: 2 hours and 17 minutes), highlighting the variations in gender disparities in these two regions. In the developing economies (represented by only 6 African countries), women’s unpaid care work is higher than in developed countries by only 2 minutes but the gender gap is of 49 minutes, men dedicating only 88 minutes to domestic work. The contribution of women to paid work is the highest in developing countries (3 hours and 12 minutes), followed by emerging countries (3 hours and 9 minutes) and developed countries are lagging behind with only 2 hours and 34 minutes. The difference however is that, in developed countries, women are mostly wage and salaried workers whereas in developing and emerging countries a high proportion is self-employed and (unpaid) contributing family workers in their family’s farms. In emerging countries, time spent by men in paid work is as high as 5 hours and 43 minutes or 1.8 times the time spent by women against 1.6 times in developed countries. Regarding total work, the emerging countries come first with the heaviest women’s burden (7 hours and 45 minutes), and the developed countries come last with 6 hours and 53 minutes (the difference between the two groups being 52 minutes). It is in developing countries however that the difference is the most striking between women and men: women work 77 minutes more than men, against 54 minutes in emerging countries and only 26 minutes in developed countries. 3) Estimates by regions and sub-regions Northern Africa (Charts 44) and Arab countries (Charts 45) are the two sub-regions, which are characterised by a very low participation of women to paid work (respectively 18.8 per cent and 14.5 per cent) and a very low participation of men to unpaid care work (respectively 13.9 per cent and 16.4 per cent). On the latter aspect, only men in Southern Asia (and specifically India) do worse (with only 10 per cent), as shown on Charts 46 hereafter. Except for these latter regions as well as for Western and Central Asia, the patterns are quite similar in the various regions with Northern America (Charts 52) performing the best at the extreme with a contribution of women to paid work reaching 41.2 per cent and a contribution of men to unpaid care work at 39 per cent. In Sub-Saharan Africa (Charts 46), women contribute much more to paid work (40.1 per cent) and men to ¼ of unpaid work (24.9 per cent). In Latin America (Charts 47), women’s contribution to paid work hardly reaches 1/3 of the total (33.3 per cent) whereas men contribute to a little bit more than ¼ of unpaid work (25.9 per cent).

55

Charts 44: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Northern Africa, 3 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia.

309

61

370

50

263

312

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

86.1

18.8

54.3

13.9

81.2

45.7

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

56

Charts 45: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Arab countries, 4 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Iraq, Oman, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Qatar

326

38

365

64

224

288

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

83.6

14.5

55.9

16.4

85.5

44.1

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

57

Charts 46: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Benin, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, Mali Mauritius, South Africa, United Republic of Tanzania.

249184

432

87275

361

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

74.1

40.1

54.5

25.9

59.9

45.5

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

58

Charts 47: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Latin America, 11 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay.

371

171

543

130

342

473

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

74.1

33.3

53.4

25.9

66.7

46.6

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

59

Charts 48: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Eastern Asia, 5 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan China.

236 251

48790

353

443

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

72.4

41.652.4

27.6

58.447.6

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

60

Charts 49: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific, 4 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Australia, Cambodia, New Zealand, Thailand.

208 212

42079

325

401

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

72.5

39.551.2

27.5

60.548.8

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

61

Charts 50: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Southern Asia, 3 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan.

296

144

440

33 352

385

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

90.0

29.0

53.3

10.0

71.0

46.7

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

62

Charts 51: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Central and Western Asia, 5 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey.

309

96

406

95

257

353

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

76.5

27.2

53.5

23.5

72.8

46.5

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

63

Charts 52: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Northern America, 2 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Canada, United States.

263176

439

168251

420

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

86.1

18.8

54.3

13.9

81.2

45.7

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

64

Charts 53: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Northern, Southern and Western Europe, 22 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Albania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom

261

132

391

138

222

360

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

65.4

37.3

52.1

34.6

62.7

47.9

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

65

Charts 54: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Eastern Europe, 6 countries

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Republic of Moldova, Poland, Romania.

285

140

425

147

222

369

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900


Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

66.0

38.7

53.5

34.0

61.3

46.5

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Men

Women

66

Charts 55 shows a cross regional comparison of gender gaps in unpaid, paid and total work. As regards unpaid work, women spend more time than men in all regions, ranging from 1.57 time more in Northern America, 1.89 time more in Northern, Southern and Western Europe, to 2.85 times in Latin America and 2.86 times in sub-Saharan Africa, up to 3.25 times in Western and Central Asia, 5.09 in Arab countries, 6.18 in Northern Africa and 8.97 in Southern Asia. In all regions, women dedicate less time than men to paid work: the ratio ranges from 17 per cent in Arab countries, 23 per cent in Northern Africa, 37 per cent in Western and Central Asia and 41 per cent in Southern Asia, up to 70 per cent in Northern America and 71 per cent in Eastern Asia. In all regions, women are working more than men when we add up unpaid work and paid work. The women-to-men ratio for total work ranges from 1.05 in Northern America and South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific, up to 1.19 in Northern Africa, 1.2 in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.27 in the Arab countries.

67

Charts 55: Ratio Women to Men of unpaid care work, paid work and total work by regions, 75 countries

1.57 1.89 1.94 2.62 2.63 2.85 2.86 3.255.09

6.18

8.97

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

No

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No

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So

uth

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Asi

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Unpaid care work

0.170.23

0.37 0.410.50

0.59 0.63 0.65 0.67 0.70 0.71

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

Ara

b c

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ntr

ies

No

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Ce

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ah

ara

n A

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No

rth

ern

Am

eri

ca

Ea

ste

rn A

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Paid work

68

Charts 55 (continued): Ratio Women to Men of unpaid care work, paid work and total work by regions

Charts 56, 57 and 58 rank the regions according to women’s time spent in unpaid care work, to gender gap in unpaid care work, and to women’s time spent in total work. Latin America comes in the first place for women’s time in unpaid care work and total work (Charts 56 and 58), because of the survey methodology, as already explained. The region gains a better rank when it comes to the gender gap in unpaid care work due to the role of men in sharing unpaid care work (Chart 57).

1.05 1.05 1.09 1.10 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.19 1.20 1.27

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40N

ort

he

rn A

me

rica

So

uth

Ea

ste

rn A

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an

dth

e P

aci

fic

No

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, So

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Eu

rop

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So

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Asi

a

La

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Am

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Ea

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rn E

uro

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Ce

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No

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ern

Afr

ica

Su

b-S

ah

ara

n A

fric

a

Ara

b c

ou

ntr

ies

Total work

69

Chart 56: Regions ranked by decreasing order of women's time in unpaid care work

0

100

200

300

400

500

600W

om

en

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

LatinAmerica

Arabcountries

Central andWestern Asia

NorthernAfrica

SouthernAsia

EasternEurope

NorthernAmerica

Northern,Southern and

WesternEurope

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Eastern Asia SouthEastern Asia

and thePacific

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Unpaid carework

Paid work

Total work

70

Chart 57: Regions ranked by decreasing order of gender gap in unpaid care work

0

100

200

300

400

500

600W

om

en

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

SouthernAsia

Arabcountries

NorthernAfrica

LatinAmerica


Sub-SaharanAfrica

Eastern Asia EasternEurope

SouthEastern Asia

and thePacific

Northern,Southern and

WesternEurope

NorthernAmerica

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Unpaid care work

Paid work

Total work

71

Chart 58: Regions ranked by decreasing order of women's time in total work

0

100

200

300

400

500

600W

om

en

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

Wo

men

Men

LatinAmerica

Eastern Asia SouthernAsia

NorthernAmerica

Sub-SaharanAfrica

SouthEastern Asia

and thePacific

EasternEurope


Northern,Southern

and WesternEurope

NorthernAfrica

Arabcountries

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

UnpaidcareworkPaidwork

Totalwork

72

Section 4: Unpaid care work according to various socioeconomic characteristics The gaps and variations between women and men observed in time use across regions and countries can even be amplified depending on geographical location (urban or rural areas), age group, education level, activity status, employment status, income group, marital status and presence of children in the household. 1) Paid work and unpaid care work by geographical location Although the definition of urban and rural may vary from region to region and from country to country the main difficulty in the present comparative work has been that some surveys provide an excess of details without allowing aggregation: geographical areas may distinguish the capital city, another major city (the economic capital for instance), secondary urban areas, semi-urban areas and finally rural areas. For comparison purposes and in order to avoid very complex tables, only two areas per country were retained: rural and urban. The limited cases in which the urban areas were only represented by the capital city, and aggregation was not possible, were taken into account in the narrative. Charts 59 to 62 below present time spent by women and men in paid work and unpaid care work by urban and rural areas. Countries were ranked by increasing order of time spent in urban areas. The results show that two different categories of countries can be distinguished: a first category where women spend less time in paid (or unpaid care) work in rural areas, compared with urban areas, and a second category where it is exactly the reverse. Therefore, we tried to isolate each category of countries. Most of the 14 countries where time spent by women in paid work is longer in rural areas than in urban areas are characterised by a vast agricultural population and include: Mali, India, China, Madagascar, Ethiopia, Mongolia, Benin, Ghana (with rural populations ranging from 46 per cent in Ghana, up to 80 per cent in Ethiopia), and also Armenia, Albania. Tunisia, much more urbanised (with 66 per cent of urban population), looks like an exception in the group. On the other hand, the 10 countries where women spend more time in paid work in urban areas than in rural areas are Latin American countries, as well as South Africa (note that in South Africa, urban formal areas are opposed to tribal areas), Thailand, Belgium (Brussels as opposed to Wallonie), and Greece. A striking feature is that in almost all countries women dedicate more time to unpaid care work in rural areas than in urban areas. The reason is that unpaid care work is usually less time consuming in urban areas, because these types of unpaid activities may become more capital intensive, there is better access to basic infrastructure, labour-saving devices and processed food, whereas in rural areas lot of time can be devoted to the processing of food products (pounding of grains for example and also water and wood fetching). There are however three exceptions: India, Madagascar and China, where women’s unpaid care work is more time-consuming in urban areas than in rural areas. These three countries belong to the category where women spend more time in paid work in rural areas compared with urban areas.

73

Interestingly, the countries where men spend more time in unpaid care work in rural areas do not coincide with the countries where women dedicate less time to these activities in these same areas. In China and Madagascar, similar to women, men also devote less time to unpaid care work in rural areas than they do in urban areas, due to their higher engagement into paid work.

74

Chart 59: Time spent by women in paid work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 31 countries

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

30 36 42 4272 79 92 96 108 116 133 136 138 144 145 146 152 162 165 166 168 177 184 192 197 214 217

239 246 254

337

30 40

9856

193155

114 12685

5988

262

9978 70

146180

214236

206

133 145

277320

272 254 270

216

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Miu

tes

pe

r d

ay

Women

Urban

Rural

75

Chart 60: Time spent by women in unpaid care work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 35 countries

100158180189190203216217225225235237246252257257268272273275277282293299306312312322322330331349

380405476

104

186186

263225215226

247236211

245230

305301302324

295317

355322316

356363330315

291

382362

417

457458

505

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Urban Rural

76

Chart 61: Time spent by men in paid work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas), 30 countries


135169174185

235236245246263278279282283288289290297298298302306314316318320345352354363

412

148143

210

177

247

153

226

266281

255

200

322

443

340329320

278

415

312293

324

296294

342363

390375

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Urban

Rural

77

Chart 62: Time spent by men in unpaid care work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 34 countries

24 27 27 29 42 43 45 48 50 54 56 56 56 66 70 72 76 77 80 88 89 90 93 94 111117122122131141151152

229

18 18 28 32 44 5640 52

88

48 5838

58

141

8667

166

71104110112 104

70

132113109

188

134 131

254

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y Urban Rural

78

Charts 63 to 70 show the respective shares of women and men in paid work and in unpaid care work, in urban and rural areas, in absolute terms (number of minutes) and in relative terms (share of the total burden). As regards paid work in urban areas, women contribute from a minimum of 11-14 per cent of the total amount of paid work in Pakistan, Iran, Iraq or Algeria to a maximum of 42-45 per cent in China, Macedonia, Thailand and Ghana (Chart 64). Only in eight countries out of 28), including India and Tunisia, the share of women’s paid work in urban areas is below 30 per cent of the total. As regards rural paid work, women’s contribution ranges from 12-15 per cent in Algeria and Iraq up to 42-45 per cent in China, Benin, Thailand, Ghana and Mali. Again, eight countries (not the same as in urban paid work), including Pakistan and Mexico, are below 30 per cent. Chart 67 on unpaid care work in urban areas shows that women contributes from a minimum of 62 per cent of the total daily burden in Belgium to a maximum of 90-92 per cent in Mali, Pakistan and India. In rural areas (Chart 66), the distribution is approximately the same (from 62 up to 92 per cent) for the same countries.

79

Charts 63: Time spent by women and men in paid work in urban areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 31 countries


30 36 42 42 72 79 92 96108116133133136138144145146152162165166168177184192197214217239246254337

174245

298316

135

352290297246169

279279345

282236185

263302

235314288306318278

363277

283298289354320

412

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

80

Chart 64: Time spent by women and men in unpaid care work in urban areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 35 countries

100158180189190203216217225225235237246252257257268272273275277282293299306312312322322330331349380405

476

48

56 24

70

11772 45

94 8056

27

11166

89 90 93

141

27

122

43 55

144

5088

54 42 29

76 77 56

131151122

152

229

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

81

Charts 65: Time spent by women and men in paid work in rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 28 countries


30 40 56 59 70 78 85 88 98 99114126133145146155178180193206214216236254262270272320

210226148

200281

177143

342324

153

278266255

375312320281247

363296340294293

329322390415

443

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men

Women

82

Charts 66: Time spent by women and men in unpaid care work in rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 32 countries

104186186205211215225226230245247263291295301302305315316317322324330355356362363382417457458505

52

18 5871 38 67

13240 70 18

104 86 32 28110112141

44

172109

40134

4856 88 58 104

166188113131

254

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y Men Women

83

Chart 67: Share of women and men in paid work in urban areas, 31 countries


11.712.412.814.718.324.124.4

28.330.532.332.933.534.434.634.835.435.735.836.637.939.840.740.841.041.642.143.143.944.345.045.3

88.387.687.285.381.775.975.6

71.769.567.767.166.565.665.465.264.664.364.263.462.160.259.359.259.058.457.956.956.155.755.054.7

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Men

Women

84

Chart 68: Share of women and men in paid work in rural areas, 28 countries


12.5 15.019.9 20.5 22.8 23.2

27.5 27.9 29.1 30.6 31.9 32.1 32.6 34.3 34.7 37.3 38.6 38.8 39.3 39.6 40.9 41.0 41.9 42.2 42.4 43.6 44.6 44.9

87.5 85.080.1 79.5 77.2 76.8

72.5 72.1 70.9 69.4 68.1 67.9 67.4 65.7 65.3 62.7 61.4 61.2 60.7 60.4 59.1 59.0 58.1 57.8 57.6 56.4 55.4 55.1

0%

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85

Chart 69: Share of women and men in unpaid care work in urban areas, 35 countries

61.965.566.267.567.668.169.169.869.871.672.773.073.473.873.873.873.974.175.777.378.880.180.780.982.883.485.085.485.586.588.188.289.791.091.5

38.134.533.832.532.431.930.930.230.228.427.327.026.626.226.226.226.125.924.322.721.219.919.319.117.216.615.014.614.513.511.911.810.3 9.0 8.5

0%

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Men

Women

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Chart 70: Share of women and men in unpaid care work in rural areas, 32 countries

63.0 64.8 66.5 66.7 68.4 68.9 69.7 70.4 70.7 72.9 73.2 74.3 74.4 75.4 76.2 76.2 76.7 77.7 77.8 80.2 80.284.7 85.0 86.2 86.4 87.3 87.7 89.0 90.1 91.2 91.3 93.2

37.0 35.2 33.5 33.3 31.6 31.1 30.3 29.6 29.3 27.1 26.8 25.7 25.6 24.6 23.8 23.8 23.3 22.3 22.2 19.8 19.815.3 15.0 13.8 13.6 12.7 12.3 11.0 9.9 8.8 8.7 6.8

0%

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80%

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Men Women

87

2) Paid and unpaid care work by age group Defining youth, adults and the elderly by age groups is not easy. The age group of 15-24 or 15-29 is commonly used in high-income countries, whereas in Africa youth is defined (for instance, by the African Union) as comprising the whole range from 15 to 35 years. The 65+ age group most commonly defines the elderly, but in high-income countries the age group 75+ is sometimes used. The adult group is in between. Still the age groups used for tabulating the time-use surveys vary extremely so that it would be impossible to build a homogeneous table for comparative purposes unless we accept some discrepancies. The range for youth varies from 10-15, 10-17 or 10-19 (in Cameroon, South Africa and Mauritius respectively) to 18-29 (in Uruguay or in the Occupied Palestinian Territory) or 20-24 (in Greece or in the USA) or 15-24 (in China). The age groups for the elderly range from 45+ in South Africa, 50-74 in Tunisia, 55+ in Turkey, up to 65+ for a majority of countries, and 66+ in Chile. Age groups for adults vary accordingly, but due to the impossibility of aggregating sub-groups, the age group 25-44 or 35-44, or even 25-34 represents adults in a non-negligible number of countries. For one country (Albania), the age group 15-64 stands for adults (without any youth category). Charts 71 and 72 show that, as expected, adult women and men spend more time than youth or the elderly in paid work. The United Kingdom and the United States are two exceptions regarding women: in these two countries, young women spend more time than adult women in paid work. In the case of the United States, the age groups concerned possibly explain the difference (20-24 and 25-34 cannot allow a clear differentiation between generations). Charts 72 are more differentiated (heterogeneous?) showing that young women generally spend less time than adults in unpaid care work, except in China (due to the specificity of the age group) and in the United Republic of Tanzania where they spend more time, and in Ghana and Ethiopia where they spend almost as much time. Still among women, the elderly spend less time in unpaid care work than the adults, but their contribution remains quite high and even almost equivalent in some countries (e.g. Norway, Argentina, Greece). In three countries women in old age spend more time in unpaid care work than their adult counterparts: Japan, Belgium (two countries where the age group for the elderly is capped at 75) and Italy. Ageing populations are part of the explanation. Moreover it is a common practice in these countries (and others) that grandparents increase their contribution to childcare, especially where such public or private services are lacking or are unable to meet the demand. As regards men’s unpaid care work, the most striking feature emerging from Chart 72 is that men strongly increase their time in unpaid care work when getting older: in 21 countries among 28, men spend more time in unpaid care work than the adults or the youth. The same explanations as for women remain valid for men. The exceptions are for Latin American countries (Chile, Colombia, Argentina), Cabo Verde, and also Ethiopia and Benin. Charts 73 to 78 summarise the patterns described above and show more clearly the general opposite trends: in all regions, the number of hours spent by women in unpaid care work declines in old age, whereas the time spent by men in these activities increases during this transition.

88

Charts 71: Time spent by women and men in paid work by age group (countries ranked by increasing order of adults’ time), 31 countries

Note : The surveys of Cabo Verde and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

0

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min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Women Youth

Women Adults

Women Elderly

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Men Youth

Men Adults

Men Elderly

89

Charts 72: Time spent in unpaid care work by age group (countries ranked by increasing order of adults’ time), 33 countries

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100

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Women Youth

Women Adults

Women Elderly

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Men Adults

Men Elderly

90

Chart 73: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Northern Africa, 2 countries

Women Algeria

Women Tunisia

Men Algeria

Men Tunisia

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Youth Adults Elderly

Min

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91

Charts 74: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Sub-Saharan Africa, 8 countries

Women Benin Women Cameroon

Women Cabo Verde

Women Ethiopia

Women Ghana

Women Mauritius

Women South Africa

Women Tanzania, United Rep. of

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Min

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Men Benin

Men Cameroon

Men Cabo Verde

Men Ethiopia

Men Ghana

Men Mauritius

Men South Africa

Men Tanzania, United Rep. of

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92

Charts 75: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Asia, 5 countries

Note: Indian adults stand at 104 minutes

Note: Indian adults stand at 54 minutes. No data on Iranian men by age group

Women China

Women Iran, Islamic Rep. of

Women Turkey

Women Japan

Women New Zealand

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Men China

Men Turkey

Men Japan

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93

Charts 76: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid work by age group: Latin America, 5 countries

Women Argentina

Women Chile

Women Colombia

Women Costa RicaWomen Uruguay

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Men Argentina

Men Chile

Men Colombia

Men Costa Rica

Men Uruguay

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94

Charts 77: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Europe, 10 countries

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Women Youth Women Adults Women Elderly

Min

ute

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y

Belgium 2013

Finland 2009-10

Greece 2013-14

Italy 2008-09

Norway 2010

UK 2005

Albania 2010-11

Macedonia 2014-15

Romania 2011-12

Serbia 2010-11

0

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Men Youth Men Adults Men Elderly

Min

ute

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Belgium 2013

Finland 2009-10

Greece 2013-14

Italy 2008-09

Norway 2010

UK 2005

Albania 2010-11

Macedonia 2014-15

Romania 2011-12

Serbia 2010-11

95

Chart 78: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: United States

Women United States

Men United States

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96

3) Paid work and unpaid care work by educational level Classifications by educational level are also far from being harmonised. In some countries secondary education is split into lower and higher education levels. In such cases, we have opted for the higher level. Pre-schooling is sometimes included in primary education and finally some countries distinguish between university level and other post-secondary levels. In order to make comparisons possible, the university level was retained. Another type of classification includes the following categories: “secondary incomplete”, ”secondary complete + tertiary incomplete” and “tertiary complete”. Some discrepancies may be explained by the specificities of classifications used. However, and despite such heterogeneity in the categories, it is possible to identify some patterns. In Charts 79 and 80 below, countries have been classified by region and within regions, by increasing order of time spent by tertiary level educated women and men (whether in paid work or in unpaid care work). The general pattern that emerges from the Charts is that women dedicate more and more time to paid work as their educational level increases: in 14 countries out of 18, such as Turkey, Cambodia and Costa Rica, women with tertiary level spend more time in paid work than their counterparts with secondary level and primary level. Exceptions are Benin and Cameroon where the non-educated and the primary-level educated women are spending more time in paid work than their counterparts with secondary and tertiary levels of education. The same observation is valid in India and to a lesser extent in China. The European exception is Greece, which could be explained by the specificity of the classification used, namely the following three educational levels: “up to lower secondary”, “upper secondary and post secondary” and “tertiary”. More generally the explanation for this drop in paid work when the educational level increases could be that in the countries concerned, women strongly participate to the labour force, mainly in informal employment and therefore by necessity. When this necessity is lacking, in more well off households, women may prefer to dedicate more time to household care. The pattern for men in paid work is different: in 11 countries, men with tertiary level of education spend less time in paid work than their counterparts in secondary or primary levels. Three categories of countries emerge. In the first group, men’s time spent in paid work clearly declines with the increase in the educational level: India, China, Cameroon, Benin. Similar patterns are found in Algeria and Tunisia, which also stand out since men with no education spend less time in unpaid care work than those with higher levels of education. In the second category, the pattern is exactly the reverse: men’s time spent in unpaid care work increases with the level of education: South Africa, the United Republic of Tanzania, Ghana (in which non-educated men spend more time in paid work than each of the other categories), Argentina, Turkey, and Belgium. Finally, the third category includes countries in which the maximum of time spent by men in paid work is reached at secondary level and declines afterwards: Costa Rica, Serbia, Albania, Greece. Regarding the patterns of time use for unpaid care work, Charts 80 shows that in 14 countries out of 21, women’s time spent in unpaid care work declines with the increase in educational level. In some countries, such as the United Republic of Tanzania and Colombia, time spent by women in unpaid care work increases with the educational level up to the secondary level and then declines. And in other countries, for example Argentina

97

or India, the time dedicated to unpaid care work is nearly the same at all educational levels. As to the time spent in unpaid care work by men, the expected or desirable increase with the educational level is observed only in 6 countries: Benin, Cabo Verde, China, Colombia, Albania, Belgium. Costa Rica, Cameroon and Tunisia can be added to the list, if the non-educated (or those with primary level for Costa Rica) are not taken into account. In Ethiopia, Argentina, Uruguay, Greece and Serbia the reverse pattern can be observed: the more educated men are, the less time they devote to unpaid care work. Finally, in Algeria, Turkey, India, behaviours do not change with the level of education: these are countries where patriarchal attitudes remain widespread and strong.

98

Charts 79: Time spent in paid work by educational level (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by tertiary educated women), 18 countries

0

100

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300

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600

Min

ute

s p

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da

y

WOMEN

None

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Secondary

Tertiary

0

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400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

None

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

99

Charts 80: Time spent in unpaid care work by educational level (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by tertiary educated women), 21 countries

0

100

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600

Min

ute

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da

y

WOMEN

None

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

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600

Min

ute

s p

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da

y

MEN

None

Primary

100

4) Paid work and unpaid care work by activity status The activity status distinguishes between the active and the inactive, and among the active, the employed and the unemployed. Challenges to comparisons come from the fact that in many countries several categories of inactive are distinguished, mainly including the “female housekeepers”, the “male retirees”. In other cases, the divide is between those “working” and “not working” or the “employed” and the “not employed,” the latter category including the “unemployed”. In addition, among the “employed”, the employed “full-time” and “part-time” are sometimes distinguished. As published data do not make possible the aggregation of several sub-categories, we have opted for the most representative (and aggregated) categories in this report. On average (Charts 81), in the 24 countries with available data, employed women spend 5 hours per day in paid work. Although the unemployed and the inactive are not supposed (by definition) to work for pay or profit, as shown on Charts 55, non-employed women were respectively working for an average of 27 and 20 minutes per day: especially in Benin (89 minutes for the inactive), Ghana (69 minutes for the inactive) and Argentina (56 minutes for the unemployed)10. Employed men spend on average approximately 6 hours and 30 minutes per day in paid work, and the unemployed and the inactive respectively 49 and 26 minutes. The difference between employed men and employed women is 1 hour and 30 minutes, highlighting the fact that women are – more often than men - involved in part-time jobs. In three countries, Japan, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, men spend more than 7 hours and 30 minutes in paid work. In Kazakhstan and Belgium, they spend less than 5 hours. In all countries but one (Cabo Verde), employed women dedicate less time to unpaid care work than their unemployed or inactive counterparts (Charts 82) – something that is expected given their different time availability. In the 27 countries for which data were gathered, the average time spent in unpaid care work by employed women is 4 hours per day, as compared with 5 hours and 9 minutes for the unemployed and 5 hours and 14 minutes for the inactive. In general, in Asia and the Pacific inactive women spend more time in unpaid care work than unemployed women, as well as in Northern Africa and in Europe, with exceptions for Finland, France, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and the United Kingdom. In Africa, the reverse pattern is observed as well as in Chile and Argentina: inactive women spend less time than unemployed women in unpaid care work, and most often more than the employed themselves. As to employed men, they spend an average of 1 hour 30 minutes per day in unpaid care work, against 2 hours and 11 minutes for the unemployed and 2 hours and 5 minutes for the inactive. In all countries (again with the exception of Cabo Verde), men increase their involvement in domestic work and care when they are unemployed or inactive. Similar to women, in many countries in all regions, including Argentina, France, Pakistan and South

10 Among the reasons of such a paradox, there is the difficulty for respondents of household’s surveys to understand the concept of economic activity and employment, a source of underestimation especially among women. Another reason is that the economic activity may be split into many episodes in a day or a week so that the question: “have you work for pay or profit at least one hour during the day or the week?” is not so easy to respond whereas the diary is an easier way of capture the activity without presuming whether this activity is productive or not in the sense of the SNA.

101

Africa, unemployed men dedicate more time to unpaid care work than their inactive counterparts. The reason is that the elderly represent a large share of the inactive. Charts 81: Time spent in paid work by activity status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the employed), 24 countries

0

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Min

ute

s p

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da

y

WOMEN

Employed

Unemployed

Inactive

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500

Min

ute

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da

y

MEN

Employed

Unemployed

Inactive

102

Charts 82: Time spent in unpaid care work by activity status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the employed women/men), 27 countries

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

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s p

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da

y

WOMEN

Employed

Unemployed

Inactive

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

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s p

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da

y

MEN

Employed

Unemployed

Inactive

103

5) Paid work and unpaid care work by employment status Data on employment status disaggregated by sex were available only in 6 countries. In three countries, Tunisia, China and Finland, wage and salaried women spend more time in paid work than their self-employed counterparts (Charts 83). The time gap is more pronounced (75 minutes) in Tunisia where women’s labour force participation rate is low and the composition of female employment is dominated by wage and salaried employment in the formal economy. In China, Finland and to a lesser extent in France, women self-employed dedicate more time to paid work than wage and salaried women. As to men and except in Benin, those in self-employment generally spend more time in paid work than wage and salaried men, with important time differences in France, Finland and China. Charts 84 show that in all six countries wage and salaried women spend less time in unpaid care work than the self-employed, with important time differences, ranging from 164 minutes in Turkey and 102 minutes in Tunisia to 33 minutes in Benin, but only one minute in France. It is exactly the opposite as regards the time spent by men in unpaid care work: in four countries, except Tunisia, self-employed men dedicate more time to unpaid care work than the paid employed: the broader gap is observed in France (39 minutes). For women, as well as for men, self-employment makes it easier to conciliate paid work with household and care duties, because the place of work is often close to the place of living, if not the same; young children can play and prepare their homework in the next room, etc.

104

Charts 83: Time spent in paid work by employment status, 6 countries

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Tunisia China France Finland Benin Turkey

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

Paid employees

Self-employed

All employed

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500


Min

ute

s p

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da

y

MEN

Paid employees

Self-employed

All employed

105

Charts 84: Time spent in unpaid care work by employment status, 6 countries

0

50

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250

300

350

400


Min

ute

s p

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da

y

WOMEN

Paid employees

Self-employed

All employed

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Min

ute

s p

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da

y

MEN

Paid employees

Self-employed

All employed

106

6) Paid work and unpaid care work by income groups Income groups may refer to household expenditures or to household income and therefore being classified by expenditures or income groups, or by quintiles, quartiles (such as in China) or in three income categories in South Africa. Charts 85 show that time devoted by women to paid work is clearly increasing with the income group in South Africa and Argentina. The more women work for pay or profit, the more the household income grows up. It means that women’s work is a determinant factor of the household’s standard of living and also that women’s work is more socially accepted in well-off households. China and Ghana show a different picture: women’s paid work seems to decline with the rise in income brackets. Men’s paid work follows the same trends, upwards oriented for South Africa, for Argentina (but only for the three first quintiles), and also for Ethiopia, and downward oriented for Ghana and China, and less clearly for Tunisia. Women’s unpaid care work (Charts 86) is obviously downward oriented in all countries except in Ghana where the decline is more pronounced for intermediary income groups. As to men’s unpaid care work, Charts 86 highlight two different patterns. In countries such as Ethiopia, South Africa and Argentina, men reduce their time dedicated to unpaid care work as the household progresses through the income brackets. Whereas the contrary occurs - though not regularly - in Tunisia, Ghana, China and Uruguay, showing slow changes in cultural habits among higher-income groups. Such findings do not imply that unpaid care work does not improve living standards, but simply mean that resorting to unpaid care work decreases as the households can access to these services through the market and dedicate more hours to paid work.

107

Charts 85: Time spent in paid work by income group, 6 countries

Note: No data available on paid work in Uruguay

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

1st quintile

2nd quintile

3rd quintile

4th quintile

5th quintile

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

1st quintile

2nd quintile

3rd quintile

4th quintile

5th quintile

108

Charts 86: Time spent in unpaid care work by income group, 7 countries

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina Uruguay

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

1st quintile

2nd quintile

3rd quintile

4th quintile

5th quintile

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina Uruguay

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

1st quintile

2nd quintile

3rd quintile

4th quintile

5th quintile

109

7) Paid work and unpaid care work by marital status Classifications of marital status are also very different by the details they provide. Married/non married or single is a divide, which is rarely presented as such in the survey reports. Generally many sub-categories are used: officially married/living together, married monogamous/married polygamous, and on the other hand divorced, separated, widowed are often distinguished. Here again where aggregation revealed not to be possible, we have chosen the most numerous categories. Chart 87 points out that in general divorced women increase their time devoted to paid work. Whereas married women lessen their time dedicated to paid work in countries such as Algeria and Tunisia, where they leave the labour market at marriage or at first birth. The same trend is observed in the United Republic of Tanzania, Ethiopia, Turkey and Costa Rica. On the contrary, married women sharply increase their working time for pay or profit in Benin, South Africa, Cameroon and Ghana as well as in India and China, and also Belgium: a possible explanation (except for Belgium) is that in these countries women mostly perform their economic activities in the informal economy, which allows them to conciliate their care duties with an increase in paid work destined to satisfy increased needs and expenditures. In the case of men, the increase of time spent in paid work is general for the married, while overall there is a decrease in paid work among the divorced (except in Ethiopia where the involvement remains at the same level) and the widowed, presumably due to old age and retirement. As regards unpaid work (Charts 88), married women see a dramatic increase of their unpaid care work burden. Women’s burden doubles for married women compared with singles in Algeria and Tunisia (from 3 hours and 30 minutes per day up to 6 hours and 40 minutes and more) as well as in China (from 2 hours and 13 minutes to 4 hours and 9 minutes). Unpaid care work triples in Turkey (from 2 hours and 25 minutes up to 6 hours and 34 minutes). The increase is also quite high in Uruguay and Costa Rica (between double and triple). Men’s burden increases when married as well but not so dramatically in Northern Africa and Turkey, and in Ethiopia, as well as in Latin America and in Belgium. But in other African countries their unpaid care work declines when married and rises up when divorced.

110

Charts 87: Time spent in paid work by marital status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the married), 13 countries

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

111

Charts 88: Time spent in unpaid care work by marital status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the married), 15 countries

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

0

100

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400

500

600

700

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

112

8) Paid work and unpaid care work by presence of children in the household and their age group Maternity and care of children are major determinants of the increase of time spent in unpaid care work within the household. In order to capture changes in time-use due to childcare, survey reports use different methodologies. They adjust for age (for instance, 25+ years in Algeria or less than 45 years in Finland) or categorise households in sub-groups depending on the presence or not of children under a certain age or within an age bracket. It should be noted that these types of classification are not harmonised, therefore the age groups and classifications used in our tabulations and figures are not homogeneous. Four categories have been defined: no children in the household; presence of children under 5 years of age; presence of children aged between 5 and 11 years; presence of children aged between 11 to 17 years. However, some countries use different age brackets, including 6 and 18 years (Ethiopia and Ghana, China); or 7 and 18 years (South Africa); 7 and 17 years (Belgium, Finland, Serbia, Albania), and 3, 6 and 12 (Uruguay). Sometimes, countries such as Ethiopia, Ghana, Uruguay include the precision: “at least one child aged less than…”. As expected (Charts 89), women’s time dedicated to paid work declines with the presence of a young child and increases when the child gets older: from 4 hours and 18 minutes down to 1 hour and 37 minutes in the United Kingdom (2005), or from 3 hours and 30 minutes down to 2 hours and 32 minutes in Finland (2009-10) or from 4 hours and 41 minutes down to 3 hours and 56 minutes in China (2008). There are exceptions however: time spent by women in paid work increases with the presence of a young child as if the latter required the mother to work for pay or profit in South Africa and in Belgium (respectively from 1 hour and 38 minutes up to 2 hours and 26 minutes, and from 1 hour and 15 minutes up to 2 hours and 24 minutes). Regarding men’s time in paid work, it substantially increases with the presence of children in most countries highlighting the transition from youth (or study) to work that corresponds to marriage and paternity, for instance from 1 hour and 55 minutes up to 4 hours and 25 minutes in Belgium (2013), or from 2 hours and 33 minutes up to 5 hours and 46 minutes in South Africa (2010), with the exception of Ghana where it declines (from 6 hours and 28 minutes down to 5 hours and 27 minutes). Time dedicated to unpaid care work noticeably increases with the presence of children, and in particular of children less than 5 years old, in all reviewed countries (Charts 90). It more than doubles in Finland and it triples in the United Kingdom. The overload ranges from 1 hour and 24 minutes in Belgium up to 3 hours and 30 minutes in Finland and even 4 hours and 6 minutes in the United Kingdom. In these two countries, men also dramatically increase their unpaid care work (by one hour and 39 or 41 minutes respectively). The increase is more modest in the other countries, from 0 minute in South Africa, 3 minutes in Ghana, 6 minutes in Algeria, up to 35 minutes in Ethiopia and 36 minutes in China. Men’s unpaid care work even declines in Albania with the presence of a young child.

113

Charts 89: Time spent in paid work by presence and age of children in the household (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the households with no children), 11 countries

0

50

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250

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500

Min

ute

s p

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da

y

WOMEN

No children

Less than 5

5 to 10

11 to 17

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

No children

Less than 5

5 to 10

11 to 17

114

Charts 90: Time spent in unpaid care work by presence and age of children in the household (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by the households with no children), 12 countries

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

No children

Less than 5

5 to 10

11 to 17

0

100

200

300

400

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600

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

No children

Less than 5

5 to 10

11 to 17

115

Section 5: Trends in paid work and unpaid care work by regions Among the 75 countries having carried out a time-use survey, only 27 have repeated the survey at least once. The periodicity of time-use surveys is generally irregular. The United States is the only country that has carried out such a survey regularly on a yearly basis since 2003. Norway conducts a time-use survey every ten years since 1970. For most countries, only two points (or three points) in time are available. Assessing trends is therefore difficult. Charts 91 below clearly indicates that for the United States, trends in unpaid care work are downward oriented for women as well as for men, with a more rapid decline for women, so that in the country where the gender gap in unpaid care work is the least extended, it is still declining. Similarly trends in paid work are also downward oriented, less rapidly for women than for men. In terms of proportion of total work, the share of unpaid care work remained remarkably stable around 59 per cent for women, against 38 per cent for men. The trends in time spent in paid work clearly illustrate the impact of the financial crisis, showing a dramatic drop between 2008 and 2010 among men (from 271 minutes per day or 4 hours and 31 minutes down to 245 minutes or 4 hours and 5 minutes), a drop that is interestingly preceded by a similar pattern among women from 2007 to 2009 (from 188 minutes or 3 hours and 8 minutes down to 171 minutes or 2 hours and 51 minutes). In other words women were the first to be impacted and they were also the first to recover in 2010. A similar shifted drop is observed between 2012 and 2013 for women and 2014 and 2015 for men. It is also interesting to note that similar drops – though less marked and ahead of paid work – are observed for unpaid care work, especially among men, as if just before the crisis men (and women) tended to reduce their unpaid care work (due to more intensive paid work ?). In Canada (Charts 92), women and men’s unpaid care work is downward oriented (more rapidly for women, so that the gap is reducing) and dropped below the levels of the USA. Regarding paid work the trends are downward oriented, more rapidly for men compared with women. The impact of the 2008 financial crisis is again clearly visible: time spent by men in paid work is reduced by 27 minutes between 2005 and 2010 and by 60 minutes between 2005 and 2015. For women, the drop is less marked but still reduced by 6 minutes between 2005 and 2010, and by 24 minutes between 2005 and 2015. Interestingly an increase in unpaid care work is observed among women (+ 5 minutes) and especially among men (+ 14 minutes) between 2005 and 2010. Then after 2010, the downward trend in unpaid care work resumes even more strongly, especially among women.

116

Charts 91: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in the USA

268 268262 263 263 259 258

252 249 249 252246

251251

168 165 163 164169

162 166 167 165156

163 159 158162

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

USA

Women Unpaid care work

Men Unpaid care work

173178 180 181

188179

171176 177 176

166176 175 173

274265 266

272 271 271

256

245254 250 252

257251 253

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y Women Paid work

Men Paid work

117

Charts 92: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Canada

270264

252257

216

156162

156

170

144

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

1992 1998 2005 2010 2015

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Canada

Women Unpaid care work

Men Unpaid care work

162168

186180

162

270 270

282

255

222

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

1992 1998 2005 2010 2015

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Women Paid work

Men Paid work

118

Charts 93 and 94 highlight the trends in women and men’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe. In all countries, time spent by women in unpaid work has rapidly declined since the 1970s, in most countries, especially where unpaid care work was taking longer hours. In the recent period six countries have come down from 6 or 5 hours per day under the limit of 4 hours per day (240 minutes). In three other countries (Italy, Spain and Estonia), unpaid care work is still above 4 hours, but they are rapidly re-joining the other group. Regarding men, the trends are unclear. While Norway and Sweden are characterised by an increased contribution of men to unpaid work (up to more than 3 hours per day), as well as Finland and Belgium (above two hours) but at a lower level, and also a very rapid increase in Spain (starting from a very low point), all the other countries have seen a recent decline of men’s contribution to unpaid work: the United Kingdom, Italy (after a very strong increase), Estonia, and more slowly: France. Simultaneously, Charts 95 and 96 show that the contribution of men to paid work has been on the decline in all countries (except Belgium) of Northern, Western and Southern Europe whereas the contribution of women was rather on the increase (except in Estonia, Finland and Italy for the most recent period). From these time-use data it is clear that women continue to bear the bulk of unpaid care work, while men’s participation to these activities has increased over time. These findings are in line with the conclusions of Oriel Sullivan (2000) and Man Yee Kan, Oriel Sullivan, Jonathan Gershuny (2011)11 who show that cross national trends over the last 40 years reveal a slow and incomplete convergence of women’s and men’s work patterns: beyond the trends, “gender segregation in domestic work is quite persistent over time. Women still do the bulk of routine housework and caring for family members while men have increased their contributions disproportionately to non-routine domestic work”. Charts 97 to 104 show the trends in the few countries in the other regions. In some regions, women’s unpaid work is still on the rise, whereas in other regions it is declining. And at the same time, men’s unpaid work is declining in some regions whereas it is increasing in other regions. However, Charts 105 to 110 summarize the global trends that emerge from our database by providing a general view for the 25 countries.

11 Oriel Sullivan (2000), The Division of Domestic Labour: Twenty Years of Change? Sociology, 34(3), 437-456. Man Yee Kan, Oriel Sullivan, Jonathan Gershuny (2011), Gender Convergence in Domestic Work: Discerning the Effects of Interactional and Institutional Barriers from Large-scale Data, in Sociology 45 (2), 234-251.

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Man+Yee+Kan

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Sullivan%2C+Oriel

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Gershuny%2C+Jonathan

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Man+Yee+Kan

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Sullivan%2C+Oriel

http://journals.sagepub.com/author/Gershuny%2C+Jonathan

119

Chart 93: Trends in women’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

Table 3 : Time spent by women in unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015

Belgium 224 214 214

Estonia 302 282 261

Finland 226 222 221 216 211

France 332 320 307 267 251 234

Germany 282 267 253

Italy 350 349 347 286

Norway 355 286 262 236 233 230

Spain 280 263

Sweden 254 247 240 United

Kingdom 261 232 229

Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

Belgium

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Italy

Norway

Spain

Sweden

United Kingdom

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

1970 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

120

Chart 94: Trends in men’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

Table 4: Time spent by men in unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015

Belgium 128 128 132

Estonia 179 174 169

Finland 120 128 130 135 139

France 123 125 127 151 150 148

Germany 177 171 166

Italy 78 102 126 97

Norway 133 146 156 161 171 180

Spain 101 126

Sweden 183 189 194

United Kingdom

153 131 133


Belgium

Estonia

FinlandFrance

Germany

Italy

Norway

Spain

Sweden

United Kingdom

70

90

110

130

150

170

190

210

1970-74 1979 1987 1999 2005 2009-2015

Min

tes

pe

r d

ay

121

Chart 95: Trends in women’s paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

Table 5: Time spent by women in paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

Paid work 1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2013

Belgium 96 94 99

Estonia 167 164 161

Finland 173 182 167 157 147

France 139 132 196 120 123 126

Germany 114 126 138

Italy 92 100 108 103

Norway 107 130 152 161 162 162

Spain 119 128

Sweden 163 172 181

United Kingdom

127 132 129


Belgium

EstoniaFinland

France

Germany

Italy

Norway

Spain

Sweden

United Kingdom

70

90

110

130

150

170

190

1970-74 1979 1987 1999 2005 2009-2015

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

122

Chart 96: Trends in men’s paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

Table 6: Time spent by men in paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2013

Belgium 167 155 157

Estonia 234 216 197

Finland 240 249 248 218 187

France 279 251 223 207 203 199

Germany 212 214 216

Italy 212 214 216

Norway 241 247 252 223

Spain 302 257 246 249 237 224

Sweden 243 205 United

Kingdom 239 230 221 Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

Belgium

EstoniaFinland

France

Germany

Italy

Norway

SpainSweden

United Kingdom

100

150

200

250

300

350

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2002 2005 2009-2015

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

123

Charts 97: Trends in unpaid care work in sub-Saharan Africa, 3 countries

Benin

South Africa

Tanzania, United

Republic

190

200

210

220

230

240

250

1998-2000 2006 2010-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

Benin

South AfricaTanzania,

United Republic

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1998-2000 2006 2010-15

Min

ute

s p

erd

ay

MEN

124

Charts 98: Trends in paid work in sub-Saharan Africa, 3 countries

Benin

South Africa

Tanzania, United

Republic

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1998-2000 2006 2010-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

WOMEN

Benin

South Africa

Tanzania, United

Republic

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1998-2000 2006 2010-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

MEN

125

Chart 99: Trends in unpaid care work in Thailand, Australia and New Zealand

Chart 100: Trends in paid work in Thailand, Australia and New Zealand

Thailand Women

New Zealand Women

Australia Women

Thailand Men

New Zealand Men

Australia Men

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1992 1998-99 2006-10 2014-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Unpaid care work

Thailand Women

New Zealand WomenAustralia

women

Thailand Men

New Zealand Men

Australia Men

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1992 1998-99 2006-10 2014-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

PAID WORK

126

Charts 101: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Eastern Asia, 3 countries

Korea Women

Korea Men

Japan Women

Japan Men

Mongolia Women

Mongolia Men

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1999 2004-07 2009 2011-14

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Unpaid care work

Korea Women

Korea Men

Japan Women

Japan Men

Mongolia Women

Mongolia Men

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1999 2004-07 2009 2011-14

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Paid work

127

Chart 102: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Mexico

Chart 103: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in the Occupied Palestinian Territory

Chart 104: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Azerbaijan and Turkey

385 394423

88114

146122

172 176

327

381367

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2002 2009 2014

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Mexico

Women unpaid work

Men unpaid work

Women paid work

Men paid work

300276

52 4432 34

307

203

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1999-2000 2012-13

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y


Women unpaid work

Men unpaid work

Women paid work

Men paid work

Turkey women unpaid care work

Turkey men unpaid care workTurkey women

paid work

Turkey men paid work

Azerbaijan women unpaid care work

Azerbaijan men unpaid care work

Azerbaijan women paid work

Azerbaijan men paid work

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

2006-08 2014-15

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

128

Charts 105 to 108 have selected for the 25 countries for which several observations over time are available, the earliest year and the latest. In all 4 charts the earliest year is green-coloured, and the latest is yellow-coloured whether the trend is upward-oriented, blue-coloured whether the trend is downward-oriented, and green in case of stability. In sixteen countries (out of 25) of Northern America, Northern-Southern-Western Europe, South-Eastern Asia and Pacific (except in New Zealand), Arab countries and Western Asia (Chart 105), time spent by women in unpaid care work has declined (more dramatically in Norway, France, Italy, Canada, Turkey and much less in Thailand, New Zealand, Belgium and Spain). In nine countries (out of 25) of Africa, Eastern Asia, Western Asia and Latin America, women’s unpaid care work has increased (especially in Japan and Mexico). As to men (Chart 106), progress is more mixed. During the same periods, men’s unpaid care work has increased in twelve countries (more dramatically in Norway and Mexico, and much less in Mexico, Japan, Belgium, United Kingdom) whereas it declined in eleven countries (more dramatically in France and Thailand and much less in Turkey, Germany and Estonia) and remained stable in two more countries (Canada and United States). In eighteen countries (out of 25) (Chart 107), women’s paid work has increased (more dramatically in Mexico, Norway, Japan and Spain), whereas it declined in six countries (more dramatically in Benin and United Kingdom) and remained stable in one country (Azerbaijan). In the mean time, men’s paid work (Chart 108) has increased in 7 countries (more dramatically in the United Republic of Tanzania, Thailand and Mexico), remained stable in two countries (Japan and Turkey) and declined in seventeen countries (more dramatically in France, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Norway, Finland, Canada). Charts 109 and 110 summarize the global trends in unpaid care work and in paid work for the period. The average year for the earliest period is 1998 and for the latest 2012. For this set of 25 countries, weighed and unweighted averages are quite similar. The following charts present the weighted averages. Whereas women’s unpaid care work decreased from 276 minutes (4 hours and 36 minutes) down to 266 minutes (4 hours and 26 minutes) or 10 minutes in total over 15 years, men’s unpaid care work increased by 1 minute (from 115 minutes or 1 hour and 55 minutes, up to 128 minutes). In proportion the share of women in total unpaid work has dropped from 70.6 per cent down to 67.5 per cent (or 3.1 percentage points) in 15 years. During the same period, women’s paid work has decreased from 151 minutes down to 149 minutes (a drop of 2 minutes) whereas men lost 11 minutes (Charts 110). Proportionally in 2012 women contribute for 35.6 per cent of total paid work (a gain of 0.6 percentage points). Finally women reduced by 11 minutes their contribution to total work over the 15 years, while men increased theirs by 2 minutes. Women still contribute to 51.1 per cent of total work in 2012 against 51.9 per cent in 1998.

129

Chart 105: Trends in women’s unpaid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase) and in blue where decrease

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

19

98

20

15

20

00

20

10

20

06

20

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19

92

20

15

20

03

20

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20

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20

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-15

19

98

-99

20

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-10

19

92

20

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01

20

11

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07

20

11

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-20

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-10

19

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20

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86

20

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01

-02

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-89

20

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-14

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70

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00

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-15

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08

20

12

Benin SouthAfrica

Tanzania Canada US Thailand NewZealand

Australia Korea Japan Mongolia Mexico Belgium Estonia Finland France Germany Italy Norway Spain Sweden UK Palestinianter.

Turkey Azerbaijan

Sub-Saharan Africa Northern America South-Eastern Asia & Pacific Eastern Asia LatinAmerica

Europe Arabcountries

Western Asia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Women Unpaid work

130

Chart 106: Trends in men’s unpaid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase), in blue where decrease, in green where stable

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

19

98

20

15

20

00

20

10

20

06

20

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19

92

20

15

20

03

20

16

20

04

20

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-15

19

98

-99

20

09

-10

19

92

20

06

19

99

20

14

20

01

20

11

20

07

20

11

20

02

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99

20

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-20

00

20

09

-10

19

79

20

09

19

86

20

10

20

01

-02

20

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19

88

-89

20

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19

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20

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-03

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09

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-01

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99

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00

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06

20

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-15

20

08

20

12

Benin SouthAfrica



Turkey Azerbaijan



Western Asia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men unpaid work

131

Chart 107: Trends in women’s paid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries


0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

19

98

20

15

20

00

20

10

20

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20

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-89

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20

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-15

20

08

20

12

Benin SouthAfrica



Turkey Azerbaijan



Western Asia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Women paid work

132

Chart 108: Trends in men’s paid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries


0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

19

98

20

15

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00

20

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06

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20

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Benin SouthAfrica



Turkey Azerbaijan



Western Asia

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men paid work

133

Charts 109: Global trends in unpaid care work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

276 266

115 128

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1998 2012

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men unpaid care work

Women unpaid care work

70.6% 67.5%

29.4% 32.5%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1998 2012

Men unpaid care work

Women unpaid care work

134

Charts 110: Global trends in paid work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

151 149

281 270

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1998 2012

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men paid work

Women paid work

35.0% 35.6%

65.0% 64.4%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1998 2012

Men paid work

Women paid work

135

Chart 111: Global trends in total work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

427 416

396 398

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1998 2012

Min

ute

s p

er

da

y

Men total work

Women total work

51.9% 51.1%

48.1% 48.9%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1998 2012

Men total work

Women total work

136

Conclusion One of the most striking conclusions of the attempted exercise is methodological: the lack of harmonisation in the most basic classifications used for categorising the population in time-use surveys. Efforts concentrate on the classification of time-use activities, which is of course a priority and on the recommended use of diaries rather than stylised questions, but this is not enough for allowing robust international comparisons. It is too often taken for granted that the generalisation of micro-data analyses makes it unnecessary to sensitise governments and statisticians about minimum standards in basic classifications. But this generalisation makes such an issue even more acute, because individual users may generate their own classifications and make international comparisons even more difficult. However worldwide comparisons cannot be done through micro-data analyses and the present exercise show that efforts in harmonisation would need to be strengthened. The major issue with national reports of time-use surveys (and this is also true for other types of surveys) is that the analysts in charge of these reports are not aware or have not been sensitised enough to understand that gender is not a variable like others (such as educational level, or activity status). All variables should be cross-classified by sex and gender should not be kept in a stand-alone chapter. It is amazing to note that among the number of time-use surveys collated for this work, only a few of them have produced Tables on activity and employment status disaggregated by sex, whereas this is a major dimension to understand the constraints women face on the labour market. Notwithstanding these difficulties and obstacles, the present work is an attempt to demonstrate the magnitude of unpaid work across the various regions and sub-regions of the world and of the share incumbent on women. Although more puzzling, the more detailed analyses by urban-rural location, age groups, educational levels, activity and employment status, income groups, marital status, and number of children clearly show the challenges that women face in their access to the labour market: their double burden is hardly alleviated by their male counterparts. In this respect, trends must be assessed that could highlight whether, over the past two decades, all the efforts towards raising awareness about the obstacle that unpaid care work represents for women’s participation to the economy and society have been successful. This report is a tentative contribution to this aim.

137

References of time use surveys

AFRICA Northern Africa Algeria Office National des Statistiques (2013), Enquête Nationale Emploi du Temps ENET 2012, Alger, 90p. Morocco Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2014), Le Budget temps ou l’Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi du Temps au Maroc 2011-12, Principaux résultats, Rabat, 44p. Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2014), Le Budget temps ou l’Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi du Temps au Maroc 2011-12, Presentation des premiers resultats par Monsieur Ahmed LAHLIMI ALAMI, Haut-Commissaire au Plan, Rabat, 10p. Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2016), La Femme marocaine en chiffres. Tendances d’évolution des caractéristiques démographiques et socioprofessionnelles 2016, Rabat. Tunisia République Tunisienne, Ministère des Affaires de la Femme (2011), Budget temps des femmes et des hommes en Tunisie, 2005-06, Tunis, 189p.

Sub-Saharan Africa Benin INSAE/PNUD (1998), Enquête emploi du temps au Bénin, Méthodologie et résultats, Cotonou, 32p. + 156 p. annexes. INSAE (2017), Enquête Modulaire Intégrée sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages 2ème edition (EMICoV-2015), Rapport d’analyse du volet emploi du temps, INSAE-GIZ. Cameroon INS (2017), Enquête sur l’emploi du temps au Cameroun en 2014, Rapport d’analyse, Yaoundé.

138

Cabo Verde Instituto Nacional de Estatística (2014), Inquérito Multi-objectivo Contínuo, Relatório do módulo uso do tempo e trabalho não remunerado em Cabo Verde (2012), Praia, 110p. Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (2014), How Women and Men Spend Their Time, Ethiopian Time Use Survey 2013, Main Report, Addis Ababa, 104p. Ghana Ghana Statistical Service (2012), How Ghanaian women and men spend their time, Ghana Time-Use Survey 2009, Main Report, Accra, GSS-UNECA, 121p. Madagascar INSTAT (2001), EPM 2001- Module Emploi du Temps, Antananarivo, INSTAT-DSM/PNUD-MAG/97/007. Mali INSTAT (2009), Rapport de l’enquête malienne sur l’utilisation du temps (EMUT 2008), Bamako, 54p. Mauritius Republic of Mauritius, Central Statistics Office (2004), Continuous Multi-Purpose Household Survey 2003, Main results of the time-use study, 14p. South Africa Statistics South Africa (2001), How South African Women and Men spend their time, A survey of time use, Pretoria, 118p. Statistics South Africa (2013), A survey of time use 2010, Pretoria, 67p.+43p. Tanzania, United Republic of Fontana Marzia and Luisa Natali (2008), Gendered Patterns of Time Use in Tanzania: Public Investment in Infrastructure Can Help, Paper prepared for the IFPRI Project on ‘Evaluating the Long-Term Impact of Gender-focussed Policy Interventions’, December 2008, 53p.

United Republic of Tanzania, National Bureau of Statistics, (2007), Analytical Report for Integrated Labour Force Survey ILFS 2006, Dar es Salam, 124p. United Republic of Tanzania, National Bureau of Statistics, (2015), Analytical Report for Integrated Labour Force Survey 2014, Tanzania mainland, Dar es Salam, 152p.

139

AMERICAS Latin America Argentina Esquivel, Valeria (2009), Uso del tiempo en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Los Polvorines : Univ. Nacional de General Sarmiento, 126 p. Brazil IBGE (2014), First Results of the Brazilian Pilot Time Use Survey 2009, Presented at the 5th Forum on gender Statistics, Aguascalientes, Mexico 3-5 November 2014, 29p. Chile INE (2016), Encuesta Nacional Sobre Uso del Tiempo, Documento de Principales Resultados ENUT 2015, Santiago, 69p. Colombia DANE (2015), Investigas, Siete estudios realizados a partir de la encuest nacional de uso del tiempo, Colombia 2012-2013, DANE (2014), Medición de la Economía del Cuidado, Bogota, 32p. DANE (2013), Encuesta nacional de uso del tiempo (ENUT), Año 2012-2013 Datos definitivos, Diciembre 5 de 2013, Boletin de Prensa, Bogota, 15p.

Data available at : http://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-sociales/encuesta-nacional-del-uso-del-tiempo-enut Costa Rica Comisión Técnica Interinstitucional de Contabilización del Trabajo Femenino (2008), ¿2 + 2 = 6? El trabajo que hacen mujeres y hombres en Costa Rica no se cuenta igual. Principales Resultados del Módulo de Uso del Tiempo 2004, San José, 115p.

Cuba

Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas (2002), Encuesta sobre el uso del tiempo, La Habana, 106p.

Ecuador INEC (2014), Encuesta de Uso del Tiempo, Quito, 37p. INEC (2013), Metodologia de la Encuesta Especefica de Uso del Tiempo 2013, Quito, 53p.

http://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-sociales/encuesta-nacional-del-uso-del-tiempo-enut

http://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-sociales/encuesta-nacional-del-uso-del-tiempo-enut

140

INEC (2013), Plan de tabulados EUT, available at : http://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/uso-del-tiempo-2/ El Salvador Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (2012), Principales Resultados de Encuesta del Uso del Tiempo, El Salvador, 76p.

Mexico INEGI (2010), Encuesta Nacional sobre el Uso del Tiempo ENUT 2009, Metodología y tabulados básicos, Aguascalientes, 264p. INEGI (2010), Clasificación mexicana de actividades de uso del tiempo CMAUT, Aguascalientes, 151p. INEGI (2005), Encuesta Nacional sobre el Uso del Tiempo ENUT 2002, Tabulados básicos definitivos, Aguascalientes, 71p. Tables available at : http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/tabuladosbasicos/tabgeneral.aspx?s=est&c=27602 Panama INEC (2013), Informe Sobre La Planificación Y Ejecución De La Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, 45p.

INEC (2013), Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, Commentarios, 16p.

INEC (2013), Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, Sintesis metodologica y indicadores generados, 40p.

Tables available at :

http://www.contraloria.gob.pa/INEC/Publicaciones/Publicaciones.aspx?ID_SUBCATEGORIA=63&ID_PUBLICACION=515&ID_IDIOMA=1&ID_CATEGORIA=5

Paraguay Direccion General de Estadistica, Encuestas y Censos (2017), Encuesta sobre actividades remuneradas y no remuneradas, EUT 2016, Fernando de la Mora 98p. Peru INEI (2011), Encuesta Nacional De Uso Del Tiempo 2010, Principales Resultados, Lima, 242p.

http://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/uso-del-tiempo-2/

http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/tabuladosbasicos/tabgeneral.aspx?s=est&c=27602



141

Uruguay INE (2014), Uso Del Tiempo Y TrabajoNo Remunerado En Uruguay 2013, 6p.

INE (2008), Uso del tiempo y trabajo no remunerado en el Uruguay, Módulo de la Encuesta Continua de Hogares, Septiembre 2007, Montevideo, 53p.

Northern America Canada Statistics Canada (2011), General Social Survey – 2010, Overview of theTime Use of Canadians, Ottawa, 31p.

http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SurvId=62269&InstaId=56441#a2

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016), American time use survey - 2015 results, News Release, various years, 24p. www.bls.gov/tus

Bureau of Labor Statistics and US Census Bureau (2014), American time use survey user’s guide, 113p.



http://www.bls.gov/tus

142

ARAB STATES Iraq Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology (COSIT) of Iraq, Kurdistan Region Statistics Organization (KRSO), and World Bank (2008), Iraq Household Socio-Economic Survey IHSES 2007, COSIT, Baghdad, 986p. Volume I: Objectives, Methodology, and Highlights. Volume II: Data Tables. Volume III: Annexes. UNESCWA and Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology (COSIT) (2010), Time use in gender statistics in Iraq, (in Arabic), Amman, 71p. http://www.escwa.un.org/divisions/projects/tus/main.asp?menuNum=5 Occupied Palestinian Territory Palestinian Bureau of Statistics (2014), Main Findings of Time Use Survey 2012/13, Ramallah, 51p. Palestinian Bureau of Statistics (2000), Time Use in the Palestinian Territory: Main Findings of Survey 1999-2000, Ramallah, 145p. Oman Sultanate of Oman (2011), Time use survey for the period 20/05/2007-19/05/2008, 15p. Presented at the Arab Time Use statistics workshop in Amman 25-28 April 2011.

http://www.escwa.un.org/divisions/projects/tus/main.asp?menuNum=5

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ASIA AND THE PACIFIC Eastern Asia

China

Liu Wei (2010a), Unpaid Housework, Women Burden More, Global Forum on Gender Statistics, Manila, Philippines, 11-13 October 2010, 15p.

Liu Wei (2010b), 2008 Time use survey in China, International Workshop on Social Statistics, Beijing, China, 22-24 November 2010, 13p.

National Bureau of Statistics (2009), Time Use Patterns in China: Abstract of the 2008 Time Use Survey, China Statistics Press. Xiao-Yuan Dong and Xinli An (2012), Gender Patterns and Value of Unpaid Work, Findings from China’s First Large-Scale Time Use Survey, UNRISD Research Paper, Geneva, 22p. Japan http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/index.htm http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2011/h23kekka.htm

Korea, Republic of

Jonghee Choi (2009), New approaches of the 2009 Korean Time Use Survey, Paper presented at the IATUR Conference, 31p.

Tables for TUS 2001, 2004 and 2009 available at : http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1TM1011Z&language=en&conn_path=I3 Mongolia

National Statistical Office of Mongolia (2009), Report of the time-use survey 2007, NSO, UNDP, Ulanbaatar, 96p.

National Statistical Office (2014), Time use survey Mongolia, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 12p.

http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/index.htm

http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1TM1011Z&language=en&conn_path=I3

http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1TM1011Z&language=en&conn_path=I3

144

South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific Australia http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ViewContent?readform&view=ProductsbyTopic&Action=Expand&Num=5.6.16 Cambodia Hang Lina (2013), 2004 Time use survey in Cambodia, International seminar on gender statistics, Incheon, Republic of Korea, 12-14 November 2013, 19p.

Uy Bossadine (2005), Time Use Profile of Cambodia 2004, Workshop of final statistical analyses of CSES 2003-04, Phnom Penh Hotel, 16-17 June 2005, 14p.

New Zealand Statistics New Zealand (2011), Time Use Survey 2009/10, Wellington, 47p. Tables available at: http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/time_use.aspx Thailand

National Statistical Office (2014), The time use survey in Thailand, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 25p.

Tables for TUS 2001, 2004, 2009, 2015 available at : http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nso_center/project/search_center/23project-en.htm General references OECD (2012), “How do People in the Asia/Pacific Region Spend their Time?”, in Society at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2011, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264106154-4-en

OECD Gender data portal (2014), Time use across the world, available at : www.oecd.org/gender/data/OECD_1564_TUSupdateportal.xls

http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ViewContent?readform&view=ProductsbyTopic&Action=Expand&Num=5.6.16

http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ViewContent?readform&view=ProductsbyTopic&Action=Expand&Num=5.6.16

http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/time_use.aspx

http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nso_center/project/search_center/23project-en.htm

http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264106154-4-en

http://www.oecd.org/gender/data/OECD_1564_TUSupdateportal.xls

145

Southern Asia

India

Gupta Pratima (2007), Time Use Survey in India, 15p.

Ministry Of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI)(2000), Report of the India Time use Survey 1998, New Delhi, 118p.

Narasimhan R. L. and R. N. Pandey (1999), Some main results of the pilot time use survey in India and their policy implications, New Delhi, 18p. Pandey R. N. (1999), Operational Issues in Conducting the Pilot Time Use Survey in India, Delhi, 7p.

Rajivan Anuradha Khati (1999), Policy Implication for Gender Equity : The India Time Use Survey 1998-1999, International Seminar on Time-use surveys 7-10 December 1999, Ahmedabad, 31p.

Iran, Islamic Republic of Statistical Centre of Iran (2012a), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Autumn 2008 (23 September 2008-22 December 2008), 19p. Statistical Centre of Iran (2012b), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Summer 2009 (22 June-22 September), 20p. Statistical Centre of Iran (2012c), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Winter 2009 (22 December 2008-20 March 2009), 20p.

Pakistan

Federal Bureau of Statistics (2009), Time use Survey 2007, Islamabad, 180p.

146

EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

Northern, Southern and Western Europe Several countries offer the opportunity for creating tables on their website (or give access to a list of downloadable tables). Below are the links for this service, as well as some other important links. CREATE TABLES Belgium : http://www.time-use.be/tostat/config.php?lang=fr&easy Estonia : http://www.stat.ee/66481 Finland : http://193.166.171.75/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=010_akay_tau_101&ti=Time+Use+%2826+categories%29+in+autumn+1979%2C+1987+1999+and+2009&path=../Database/StatFin/eli/akay/&lang=1&multilang=en Netherlands : http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLEN&PA=37881eng&D1=0-3,28-29,31,35,37-38,69-70,72,76,78-79&D2=0&D3=a&D4=a&LA=EN&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2,G3&VW=T Norway : https://www.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selecttable/hovedtabellHjem.asp?KortNavnWeb=tidsbruk&CMSSubjectArea=kultur-og-fritid&PLanguage=1&checked=true Portugal : http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_boui=138463&PUBLICACOESmodo=2&xlang=en Spain : http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=%2Ft25/e447&file=inebase&L=1 Sweden : http://www.scb.se/en_/Finding-statistics/Publishing-calendar/Show-detailed-information/?publobjid=18561+

http://www.time-use.be/tostat/config.php?lang=fr&easy

http://www.stat.ee/66481

http://193.166.171.75/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=010_akay_tau_101&ti=Time+Use+%2826+categories%29+in+autumn+1979%2C+1987+1999+and+2009&path=../Database/StatFin/eli/akay/&lang=1&multilang=en



http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLEN&PA=37881eng&D1=0-3,28-29,31,35,37-38,69-70,72,76,78-79&D2=0&D3=a&D4=a&LA=EN&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2,G3&VW=T



https://www.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selecttable/hovedtabellHjem.asp?KortNavnWeb=tidsbruk&CMSSubjectArea=kultur-og-fritid&PLanguage=1&checked=true


http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_boui=138463&PUBLICACOESmodo=2&xlang=en

http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpub_boui=138463&PUBLICACOESmodo=2&xlang=en

http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=%2Ft25/e447&file=inebase&L=1

http://www.scb.se/en_/Finding-statistics/Publishing-calendar/Show-detailed-information/?publobjid=18561

http://www.scb.se/en_/Finding-statistics/Publishing-calendar/Show-detailed-information/?publobjid=18561

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Albania Institute of Statistics (2011), Albania Time Use Survey 2010-2011, Tirana, 144p.

Austria Statistik Austria (2009), Zeitverwendung 2008/09, Ein Überblick über geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede, Wien, 177p.

Belgium Glorieux I. Minnen J. and van Tienoven T.P. (2008), Une semaine en Belgique. Résultats de l’enquête 2005 sur l’emploi du temps en Belgique EET’05, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, 13p. Institut pour l’Egalité des Femmes et des Hommes (2009), Genre et Emploi du temps, Différences et évolution dans l’emploi du temps des femmes et des hommes belges (2005, 1999 et 1966), Bruxelles, 101p. Estonia CREATE TABLES: http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=Ti011&ti=AVERAGE+TIME+USE+IN+A+DAY+BY+PRIMARY+ACTIVITY+AND+SEX&path=../I_Databas/Social_life/17Time_use/&lang=1 Finland Tables available at: http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__eli__akay/ France Ricroch Layla et Benoît Roumier (2011), Depuis 11 ans, moins de tâches ménagères, plus d’Internet, INSEE Première, N°1377, 4p.

Tables available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2118047?sommaire=2118074

Dumontier F. et Pan Ké Shon J-L. (2000), Enquête emploi du temps 1998-99, Description des activités quotidiennes, INSEE Résultats, Paris, 324p. Germany Destatis (2015), Zeitverwendungserhebung Aktivitäten in Stunden und Minuten für ausgewählte Personengruppen 2012/2013, Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, 162p. Destatis (2016), Wie die Zeit vergeht. Analysen zur Zeitverwendung in Deutschland, Beiträge zur Ergebniskonferenz der Zeitverwendungserhebung 2012/2013 am 5/6 Oktober 2016 in Wiesbaden, 400p.

http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=Ti011&ti=AVERAGE+TIME+USE+IN+A+DAY+BY+PRIMARY+ACTIVITY+AND+SEX&path=../I_Databas/Social_life/17Time_use/&lang=1



http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__eli__akay/

148

Tables available at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/EinkommenKonsumLebensbedingungen/Zeitverwendung/Zeitverwendung.html#Tabellen Greece ELSTAT (2014), Time Use Survey 2013-14, Press Release, Athens, 15p. Ireland Mc Ginnity Frances, Russell Helen, Williams James and Blackwell Sylvia (2005), Time Use in Ireland 2005, Survey Report, Dublin, 68p.

Italy

Istat (2007), L'uso del tempo, Indagine multiscopo sulle famiglie "Uso del tempo"Anni 2002-2003, 264p.

Tables and survey 2008-09 available at : http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/52079 Tables and survey 2013 at: http://dati.istat.it/?lang=en Select topic “Communication, Culture, Trips ad Time-use” Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Државен завод за статистика - State Statistical Office (2015), АНКЕТА за користење на времето, 2014/2015 година = Time use survey, 2014/2015. – Скопје, Статистички преглед / Државен завод за статистика. Население и социјални статистики – Skopje, Statistical review / State statistical office, Population and social statistics. 118 стр, 118p. Netherlands

Cloïn Mariëlle (2012), A day with the Dutch, Time use in the Netherlands and fifteen other countries, The Netherlands Institute for Social Research/SCP, The Hague, 57p.

Norway

https://www.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selecttable/hovedtabellHjem.asp?KortNavnWeb=tidsbruk&CMSSubjectArea=kultur-og-fritid&PLanguage=1&checked=true Portugal

Instituto National de Estatistica (2001), Inquérito à Ocupação do Tempo, Principais Resultados 1999, Lisboa, 175p.

Serbia Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (2012), Time Use in the Republic of Serbia 2010-11, Belgrad, 86p.

https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/EinkommenKonsumLebensbedingungen/Zeitverwendung/Zeitverwendung.html#Tabellen

https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/EinkommenKonsumLebensbedingungen/Zeitverwendung/Zeitverwendung.html#Tabellen

http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/52079

http://dati.istat.it/?lang=en



149

Spain

Instituto Nacional de Estadistica (2004), Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo 2002-2003, Tomo I.Resultados Nacionales, Madrid, 378p.

Sweden

Statistics Sweden (2012), Nu för tiden, En undersökning om svenska folkets tidsanvändning år 2010/11, (Swedish Time Use Survey 2010/11), Living Conditions Report 123, 294p.

Statistics Sweden (2003), Tid förvardagsliv, Kvinnors och mäns tidsanvändning 1990/91 och 2000/01 (Time for everyday life,Women s and men s time use 1990/91 and 2000/01), Living Conditions, Report no 99, 223p.

United Kingdom

Lader Deborah, Short Sandra and Gershuny Jonathan (2006), The Time Use Survey 2000, How we spend our time, Office for National Statistics, London, 82p.

Centre for Time Use Research (2016),- United Kingdom Time Use Survey, 2014-2015, UK Data Archive Study Number 8128, University of Oxford, Oxford, 22p. www.timeuse.org Sarah Morris, Alun Humphrey, Pablo Cabrera Alvarez, Olivia D’Lima (2016), The UK Time Diary Study 2014 – 2015, Technical report, UK Data Archive Study Number 8128 - United Kingdom Time Use Survey, 2014-2015, University of Oxford, NatCen Social Research, London, 226p.

General EU, EUROSTAT (2004), How Europeans spend their time, Everyday life of women and men 1998-2002, Luxemburg, 132p.

http://www.timeuse.org/

150

Eastern Europe Belarus National Statistical Committee (2016) How we use our time, Minsk, 15p. Bulgaria National Statistical Institute (2011), 2009-2010 Time Use Survey, Basic Results, Sofia, 13p. Tables available at: http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/pageen2.php?p2=167&sp2=168 Moldova, Republic of Biroul Naţional de Statistică (2013), Utilizarea timpului în Republica Moldova, Sinteză, Chişinău, 2013, 43p. Statistica Moldovei (2013), Utilizarea timpului în Republica Moldova, Principalele rezultate ale cercetării „Utilizarea timpului” http://www.statistica.md/newsview.php?l=ro&idc=168&id=4055 Romania National Institute of Statistics (2013), Time use in Romania, Press Release No. 307 of December 20, 2013, Bucharest, 7p.

http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/pageen2.php?p2=167&sp2=168

http://www.statistica.md/newsview.php?l=ro&idc=168&id=4055

151

Central and Western Asia Armenia National Statistical Service of the Republic of Armenia (2005), Armenia time use pilot survey, 2004 July 1-31, Yerevan, 14p.

National Statistical Service of the Republic of Armenia (2009), Report on Time Use Sample Survey in the Republic of Armenia, 2008 October 1-31, Yerevan, 36p.

Azerbaijan

State Statistical Committee (2017), Women and Men in Azerbaijan, Statistical Yearbook 2016, Baku, 191p.

State Statistical Committee (2016?), Main Results of Time use survey of Azerbaijan, 2007-08, Statistical Bulletin, Baku, 62p.

Kazakhstan

Committee of Statistics of the Ministry of National Economy (sd), The experience of Kazakhstan in conducting time-use surveys,

Kyrgyzstan

National Statistics Committee (2014), Results of the time use survey in Kyrgyzstan, 2010, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 5p.

Turkey Turkstat (2007), Results of the Time Use Survey 2006, Press Release N°119, July 25, 2007, Ankara, 3p. Tables available on http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1068 Turkstat (2016), Time Use Survey 2014-15, Press Release N°18627, December 4, 2015, Ankara, 2p. Tables available on http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1009

http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1068

http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1009

152

Other multinational websites Time use and lifestyle : http://www.timeuse.ase.ro/english/despre_proiect.php.htm HETUS : https://www.h2.scb.se/tus/tus/Statistics.html OECD http://www.oecd.org/social/family/database.htm OECD Gender data portal http://www.oecd.org/gender Centre for Time Use Research, University of Oxford http://www.timeuse.org/information/access-data

UN statistics division http://www.unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sconcerns/tuse/default.aspx

http://www.timeuse.ase.ro/english/despre_proiect.php.htm

https://www.h2.scb.se/tus/tus/Statistics.html

http://www.oecd.org/social/family/database.htm

http://www.oecd.org/gender

http://www.timeuse.org/information/access-data

http://www.unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sconcerns/tuse/default.aspx

153

Table A 1: Overview of TUS main characteristics across regions and countries

AFRICA

Year Period Type of survey Minimum

age Sample size (individuals)

Type of sample

Survey instrument

Mode of data collection

Classification used

Northern Africa

Algeria 2012 2 months Stand alone 12+ 22,138 All eligible One diary Interview HETUS

Morocco 2011-

12 Year Stand alone 7+

9,200 households

Random selection One diary Mixed HETUS

Tunisia 2005-

06 Year

Stand alone, sub sample of household

survey 15+ 11,594 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

Sub-Saharan Africa

Benin 1998 2015

2 months 1 month

Module of household survey

6-65 6+

12,604 4,920hh, 13,026

individuals All eligible One diary Interview

Pre-listing (63 activities)

(84 activities)

Cameroon 2014 1 month Module of household

survey 10+

4,988 households

Household head, spouse, random

men/women among others aged

10-14 and 15+

One diary Interview ICATUS

Cabo Verde 2012 Module of household

survey 10+ Interview Ad-hoc detailed

Ethiopia 2013 One month Stand alone 10+ 52,262 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS Ghana 2009 2 months Stand alone 10+ 9,297 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS

Madagascar 2001 2 months Stand alone, sub

sample of household survey

6-65 7,749 All eligible One diary Interview Pre-listing (77 activities)

Mali 2008 2 months Stand alone 6-65 2,249 Random selection One diary Interview Pre-listing (63 activities)

Mauritius 2003 2 months Module of household

survey 10+

6,480 households

All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS

South Africa 2000 2010

3 rounds 4th quarter

Stand alone 10+ 14,553 30,897

Random selection One diary Interview ICATUS

Tanzania, United Republic of

2006 2014

4 quarters Module of household

survey 5+ 10,553 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS

154

AMERICAS

Year Period Type of survey Mini-

mum age Sample size

(individuals) Type of sample

Survey instrument


Classification used

Latin America and the Caribbean

Argentina (Buenos Aires)

2005 1 month Module of

household survey 15-74 1,408 individuals All eligible Diary Interview ICATUS

Chile 2015 3 months 12+ 10,502

households All eligible

Weekday/weekend day on one

week Interview CAUTAL

Colombia 2012-13 Year Stand alone 10+ 148,492 All eligible Yesterday Interview Ad hoc detailed

Costa Rica 2004 One

month Module of

household survey 12+ 32,437 All eligible Yesterday Interview Ad hoc detailed

Cuba 2001

Ecuador 2012 2 months Stand alone 12+ 20,767

households All eligible Weekday/week

end day Interview CAUTAL

El Salvador 2010 Year Module of

household survey 10+ 3,305

households All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed

Mexico 2002 2009 2014

One month

2 months 4th

quarter

Module of hh survey.

Stand alone 12+

5,445 hh 17,000 hh

18,996 households

All eligible Weekday/weekend day

Interview Ad hoc detailed

Panama 2011 One

month Stand alone 15+ 6,907 All eligible Weekday/week

end day Interview Ad hoc detailed

Paraguay 2016 One

quarter 14+ 4,272 hh

One able to respond for all

eligible Past week

Interview of one able to

respond for all CAUTAL

Peru 2010 Stand alone 12+ 4,580 hh All eligible Weekday/weekend day


Uruguay 2007 2013

One quarter (May-

August)


14+ 3,391

households, 7,447 individuals

All eligible Weekday/week

end day Interview Ad hoc detailed

155

Year Period Type of survey Mini-

mum age Sample size


Survey instrument


Classification used

Northern America

Canada 1992 1998 2005 2010

2015 Year


15+ 25,000 One diary Computer assisted

telephone interview

United States

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Year Stand alone 15+

3,375 households per month in 2003 2,190 households per month since

2004

Random selection (one

person) One diary

Computer assisted

telephone interview

ATUS

ARAB STATES


age Sample size (individuals)

Type of sample

Survey instrument


Classification used

Arab States

Iraq 2007 2 months Module of household

survey 10+

6,048 households

All eligible One diary Interview Pre-listing (27

activities)

Oman 2007-08 Year Stand alone, sub

sample of household survey

15+ 9,063 One diary Pre-listing (23

activities)


1999-2000 2012-13

Year Stand alone 10+ 8,038 4,605

Random selection One diary Interview ICATUS

Qatar 2012-13 Year 15+ 16,754 One diary Pre-listing

156

ASIA and the PACIFIC


age Sample size


Survey instrument


Classification used

Eastern Asia

China 2008 One month Stand alone 15-74 37,142 All eligible Two diaries Interview Mixed HETUS/ICATUS

Japan 2001, 2006 2011 2016

One month

Stand alone 10+ 19,982 One diary Mixed

Korea, Republic of

1999 2004 2009 2014

One month One month

2 rounds Stand alone

10+

46,109 21,000 20,657

All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Mongolia 2007 2011

Quarterly Stand alone 12+ 3,135 (7,136)

4,000 All eligible who were at home One diary Interview ICATUS

Taiwan, China

2004

South Eastern Asia and the Pacific

Australia 1992 1997

2006 Four 13-

day period 15+

Cambodia 2004 3 months Module of

household survey 5+ (15-64) 15,000 households All eligible One diary Interview Pre-listing (22

activities)

New Zealand

1998-99 2009-10


9,159

Random selection (two

persons)

Two diaries

Mixed

ACTUS

Thailand 2004 2009

2014-15

One month One quarter

Stand alone 10+ 79,560 hh 83,880 hh

Random selection

One diary Mixed ICATUS

Southern Asia India 1998-99 4 rounds Stand alone 6+ 77,593 All eligible Three diaries Interview Ad hoc list Iran 2009 3 quarters 15+ One diary Mixed ICATUS

Pakistan 2007 2 months Stand alone 10+ 19,380 households Random selection

One diary Interview ICATUS

157

EUROPE and CENTRAL ASIA


age Sample size


Survey instrument

Mode of data

collection

Classification used

Northern, Southern and Western Europe Albania 2010-11 Year Stand alone 10+ 10,333 diaries All eligible Two diaries HETUS Austria 2008-09 Year 10+ 8,200 All eligible One diary Mixed HETUS

Belgium 1999 2005 2013

Year Module of

household survey 12+

8,382 6,400


Denmark 2001 All eligible Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Estonia 1999-2000

2009-10 Year

Stand alone 10+ 7,225 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

Finland

1979 1987 1999 2009

Year Stand alone 10+ 3,795 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed

France

1974 1986 1999 2010

Year Stand alone

15+ 11+ (15+)

15,441 17,383


Germany 2001-02

2012 Year Stand alone 10+

12,655 5,000 households, 11,000 individuals

All eligible Three diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Greece 2013-14 Year Stand alone 10+ All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Ireland 2005 Stand alone 18+ 1,023 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Italy

1988-89 2002-03 2008-09 2013-14

Year Stand alone 3+ (15+)

50,968 All eligible One diary Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Latvia 2003 8 months Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 3,804 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Lithuania 2003 Year Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 4,768 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

Macedonia, the Former

Yugoslav Republic of

2014-15 Year Stand alone 10+ 2,080 households All eligible All eligible HETUS

Netherlands 2005-06 12+ All eligible Mixed Ad hoc detailed

158


age Sample size


Survey instrument

Mode of data

collection

Classification used

Norway

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year Stand alone

16-74 16-74 16-79 9-79 9-79

4,000 All eligible Diaries for two

consecutive days

Mixed Ad hoc detailed

Portugal 1999 2 months Stand alone 15+ 10,013 All eligible One diary Interview Ad hoc detailed Serbia 2010-11 Year Stand alone 15+ 2,340 households All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

Slovenia 2000-01 Year Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 2,364 households All eligible Two diaries HETUS

Spain 2002-03 2009-10


19,295 All eligible One diary Mixed HETUS

Sweden 2000-01 2010-11

Year Stand alone 20-84 7,955 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed

United Kingdom

2000 2005 2015

Year 4 months over the

year Year

Stand alone Module of

household survey Stand alone

8+ 16+ 8+

21,000 diaries 5,000 diaries

9,388 individuals in 4,238

households provided 16,553

diary days

All eligible Random selection

All eligible

Two diaries Mixed


Eastern Europe Belarus 2014-15 Year Stand alone 10+ 6,000 households Bulgaria 2009-10 Year Stand alone 10+ 5,503 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

Hungary 1999-2000

2009-10

Stand alone 15-74 15-84

HETUS

Moldova, Republic of

2011-12 Year Stand alone 10+ 10,642 households All eligible All eligible HETUS

Poland 2003-04 Stand alone 15-64 HETUS Romania 2011-12 Year Stand alone 10+ 18,720 households All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

159


age Sample size


Survey instrument

Mode of data

collection

Classification used

Central and Western Asia Armenia 2004 One month Stand alone 15-80 1,342 All eligible Two diaries Interview HETUS

Azerbaijan 2008 2012

Year Module of the

household budget survey

15+ 3910

households, 9633 individuals

All eligible Two diaries Interview HETUS

Kazakhstan 2012 Module of a living standard survey

10+

12,000 households

33,830 individuals

All eligible Two diaries Interview ICATUS

Kyrgyzstan 2010 Year Stand alone 12+ 4,929

households All eligible One diary Interview

Turkey 2006

2014-15 Year Stand alone 15+

10+

5,070 households

11,815 individuals

11,440 households

All eligible Two diaries Interview

Mixed

HETUS

Notes: Blanks mean that no information was found in the methodological documents or that the survey results were obtained from an international database (OECD for example). The mixed mode of data collection means that diaries are self-recorded by the interviewees and individual/household questionnaires are filled by interviewers.

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Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS BranchConditions of Work and Equality Department

International Labour Office (ILO)4, Route des MorillonsCH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerlandtel. +41 22 799 [email protected]/ged

Documents

The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of