''The Unholy War''

by Raphael Harris c 2001

Chapter 1- background

On July 26th 1099 Crusaders gathered all the Jewish residents of Jerusalem, hundreds

of men, women, and children and forced them into a synagogue which was then set on

fire killing everyone inside.

On May 20th 1970 the PLO attacked a bus carrying children from Moshav Avivim to

school. Nine children and three teachers were killed and nineteen children wounded.

It seems that everyone would agree that these events were atrocities. The perpetrators

carry out their mission in the name of religion, of so called 'holy war'. Were these

incidents isolated? Is the first case an example of a recent phenomena and the second

case an example ancient history? Or are they both typical examples of a long chain of

events which began at the dawn of civilization?

While working in England in 1982 I was befriended by what I felt at the time was a

typical Englishman. We discussed many interesting subjects, contrasted the English and

American mentality and debated the pros and cons of our respective pop cultures. At

some point in our dialogues I brought up the subject of religion in general and belief in

G-d in particular. He related to me that he had decided long ago not to be religious for as

he put it, ''all the millions of people killed in the name of religion have put me off about

G-d."

Indeed, murder in the name of G-d is certainly a desecration. But is it more a

reflection of what or who G-d is, or of what man is?

If I believe in G-d, then someone comes along and commits an atrocity in the name of

his religion or his understanding of what G-d wants, should that effect my relationship

with my Creat-or? Of course not. Yet millions of people are put off of G-d and religion

because of all the people who have committed murder in the name of Jesus or

Mohammed and other self-proclaimed prophets. Is it possible to separate G-d from

religion? May we find G-d on our own, or do we need a system of rites and rituals to

follow in order to be spiritual? If religions contradict each other, does it mean that they

are all wrong, or is it possible to objectively analyze each on its own and choose the

correct one? If a man feels he has discovered the true path does he have an obligation to

teach it to others? Does he have a right to force it upon others? If he attempts to force it

upon others is that a reflection on himself and his own insecurities or is it a proof of the

inadequacy of the teachings his religion to influence others on its own merit?

In 1357 the church officials of Strasbourg offered the Jews the choice of baptism or

death. 1000 Jews refused to abandon their faith and were burnt to death. Did the church

think that they were setting so fine an example that it would be irresistible to embrace

their high values? Were they proud of themselves. Did they think they were doing G-d's

will? Or did they just do as they pleased and look for any excuse to justify their actions?

Will their behavior turn others away from

G-d? Should it?

In 1972 Arabs from Jordan, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq attacked Israel on Yom

Kippur, the Holiest day of the year, when the entire Jewish nation spends their day in

prayer, fasting, and meditation. The Arabs called it a "Jihad", or holy war.

Until 1965 the episcol Church still officially blamed the Jews for killing Jesus.

Yet my friend and many like him don't blame corrupt individuals or a tainted religious

bureaucracy for these crimes. The casual observer blames G-d.

"If G-d didn't exist these things wouldn't happen. Therefore the world would be

better off without G-d. I'm against religion because it sets people against each other."

Yes, wars and crimes committed in the name of G-d do cause a desecration of

G-d's name. While it is written in the Torah, "Love thy neighbor as thyself" (Leviticus

18:19), it is also written in the New Testament, "I come not to bring peace to the world,

but the sword" (Matthew 10:34). Thus, many gather all the teachings of all religions into

one basket and toss the whole package.

In 1964 Yasar Arafat forded the Jordan River, climbed an hill near Nebulas, fired a

single shot and declared to his followers, "the Jihad ('holy' war) has begun."

On May 15th 1975 the PLO attack a school in Maalot in Northern Israel and 24 people,

mostly school children were killed, 62 wounded. Can anyone really think this is an 'holy'

war? Are some people's definition of 'holy' so different from others?

How did it all begin? When will it end? Is there a qualitative difference between a so

called 'holy' war and a secular war, one which is fought over, say economics or conceit?

A quote from the Talmud states, "maseh l'avoth siman l'bunim" (sota 34a) which

means, "the deeds of the fathers are a sign for the sons", or less literally, "the ancestors

set the pattern for their descendants." This idea has been echoed in such commonly

quoted proverbs as, "History repeats itself," and "Those who cannot remember the past

are condemned to repeat it.

Thus we see in the book of Genesis a number of conflicts which have been repeated

throughout history. Cain verses Able (jealousy, brother against brother), Abraham vs.

Nimrod (monotheism vs. idolatry). Isaac vs. Ishmael (the Jews vs. the Arabs over who

inherits the land of Israel from Abraham). Jacob vs. Esau (the Jews vs. the Christians

over who receives the blessing from Isaac). Moses vs. Pharaoh (spirituality and humility

over hedonism and conceit). Moses vs. Bilaam (logic vs. anti-Semitism). Moses vs.

Korach (traditional Judaism vs. reform, Rabbinical authority vs. politics).

Their are numerous other examples. Some have led to bitter debate. Others have led

to bloody conflict. Some are between the Jews and the other nations. Others are between

the nations and themselves. Some are between the Jews amongst themselves.

After the Romans, descendants of Esau, exiled the Jews from their homeland, the

land lay barren and desolate for many generations. While there was always a small

Jewish presents in the Holyland the main communities were flourishing in first

Babalonia, then later Spain, Northern Africa, Germany, Russia, Poland, and eventually

to the four corners of the earth. The land was annexed to one empire after another. The

Romans, then in 324 CE the Byzantines. In 614 the Persians. In 638 the early Arab

Moslems. 1099 to 1250 the Crusaders. 1250 to 1517 the Mamelukes (North African

Berbers). 1517 to 1917 the Ottoman Turks. 1917 to 1948 the British. 1948 the modern

state of Israel.

When the early Arab Moslems arrived in Israel it meant little to them. It was another

place along the way in their conquest of land which they subsequently lost to other

empires along the way. When they arrived in Jerusalem, the city meant nothing to them.

It was mentioned no where in their Koran nor was it even worth fighting for. The

Byzantine patriarch Sofhronios informed Omar, commander of the Arab forces that he

could take Jerusalem if he wouldn't destroy the churches.

Omar agreed. While the loss of countless other lands and cities meant little more to

the Arab leaders then a loss of dignity and revenue, the loss of Jerusalem and Israel did

mean something. At first it meant no more to them than the lose of Barcelona or Toledo

or any of the other lands they had conquered and lost. But when the country was recently

regained by the Jews they began their fanatical fight. The loss of Israel to the Jews

becomes an eternal issue which they are willing to kill themselves and anyone in their

way to regain. That's when the bus bombings, Olympic murders, wars, lynchings, and

suicide attacks begins. Why? Because no one cares when something that's not theirs

anyway is lost. But when something you think is yours, erroneously or otherwise, is lost

to your main rival, you will not stand for it. So when they lost Barcelona they didn't mind

so much. And when they lost Israel to the British, so who cares? But when brother Isaac

gains the inheritance of father Abraham, Ishmael goes rabid because it means that Isaac

is the continuation of the royal line of Abraham, not Ishmael. Not Ishmael, the older

brother but son of a concubine, but Isaac, younger but firstborn of the wife, Queen Sara.

When Isaac, still a child, is challenged by Ishmael, he is defended by his mother

Sara who insists that Isaac be banished, be sent to other lands where he can inherit all he

wants. Abraham, the paradigm of kindness is loathe to send his own flesh and blood to an

unsure fate, he hopes a compromise can be worked out. But Sara's intuition is correct,

with Ishmael no compromise can be worked out. He only wants it all. So he must lose it

all.

"Sara saw that the son that Hagar had born to Abraham was a scoffer. She said to

Abraham. "Drive away this slave together with her son. The son of this slave will not

share the inheritance with my son Isaac." (Genesis 21:9-10)

It is only after Ishmael is banished that peace reigns. Both brothers go on to flourish,

to father great nations.

Isaac inherits the land. But Isaac's son's Yacov and Esau have a conflict of their own.

Esau's descendants were the founders of the Roman Empire. Let us examine how the

conflict of Yacov and Esau foreshadows the conflict of Rome and Judea, between the

Jews and what evolved into the Christian church.

The conflict of twins Yacov and Esau is who will be Isaac's spiritual heir. Who will

receive his blessing, the blessing which carries with it great responsibilities and great

rewards. The blessing which states, "Nations shall serve you, and who that blesses you

shall be blessed, and who that curses you shall be cursed". (Genesis 27:29). But does not

the blessing rightfully belong to the firstborn? Indeed the blessing would have been

Esau's if not for the fact that he sold it to Yacov. The birthright which included not only

the blessing, but the right to receive the Torah, build the Temple in Jerusalem and

become the Nation of Priests and Light amongst the Nations. However, after Esau sold

his birthright for a mess of beans (which indicated that he was not worthy of it) he

regretted his decision.

The descendants of Esau became the Roman Empire. The conflict between the

Romans and the Jews intensified when the Jews, unlike other peoples whom the Romans

had conquered, refused to embrace their many gods. Thus it was not enouph to subdue

the ancient Judeans, they had to be totally wiped out. Jerusalem was razed and its people

sent into exile. No other nation was treated so cruelly, it became illegal for any Jew to

settle in Jerusalem. The name Jerusalem was changed to Aelia Capitolina in 135 CE by

the Emperor Hadrian. A temple to Jupiter was built on the former site of the Beit

HaMikdash. The name of the country was changed to Philistisa (named after the coastal

peoples who had established a merchant class) in an attempt to wipe out the memory of

the once mighty Jewish kingdom. A victory arch was erected in Rome, the Arch of Titus

to commemorate the destruction of the Jewish nation.

But the Jews survived in exile.

In 324 CE the Emperor Constantine changed the once outlawed Christian religion to

the official religion of the Roman Empire. The early Christians were a sect of Jews, and

thus persecuted as vigorously as other Jews. But some hundreds of years later

Christianity was no longer a Jewish religion. Those few Jews who had thought Jesus was

Messiah had died out and the remaining Jews realized that Messiah had not yet come,

the world was far from at peace, they had not been redeemed, the temple remained

destroyed. Jesus was just one more in a long line of false messiahs beginning with Bar

Kochba and continuing with such personalities as David Reuvani and Shabtai Tzvi. But

to the many pagan peoples who were disillusioned with the performance of their false

gods of marble and gold, Christianity was a welcomed change. And with its doctrine of

blaming the Jews for the death of their deity it was ideally situated for the Romans to

embrace. It was what they had been waiting for all these years. The Jews had lost their

right to be called the 'Nation of God'. Now whomsoever embraces Jesus will be called the

Chosen of G-d. And who that doesn't will be doomed and damned for all eternity.

Constantine moved his capital from pagan Rome (which was later reestablished as a

'holy' city and the seat of Christianity returned to the section known as Vatican City) to

Byzantine, renamed it Constantinople after himself (now Istanbul) and made

Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. He vigorously persecuted all Jews

in the Empire. His mother, a religious fanatic, visited Jerusalem and set up churches in

every corner. For every event in the life of Jesus, she chose a spot, said it took place there,

and built a church on it.

In 325 CE the Church Council of Nicaea was convened by Constantine to deal with the

fact that Christianity was too 'Jewish'. What had once been a Jewish faction was now

changed to a new religion. Numerous changes were made, for example Easter was

changed from coinciding with Passover and therefore being dependent on it, to the

Sunday after the first full moon of spring. Many of its customs were derived by spring

fertility rites of pagan practitioners such as gathering eggs which were a pagan fertility

symbol. But the most controversial change perhaps being the change of the Sabbath from

Saturday to Sunday. The Sabbath was changed from the seventh day of the week as was

written in the Biblical account of creation, to the first day of the week which was clearly

not the Sabbath nor had it ever been.

Christianity was being taught differently by different people and having made it the

Official state religion the Emperor was responsible to put a stop to this and unify the

various groups. To gain popularity and acceptance among what was left of the Roman

Empire the Council called for the 'seclusion and humiliation' of the Jews. The death

penalty would be incurred by Christians who converted to Judaism, and by Jews who

obstructed the conversion of other Jews to Christianity. Intermarriage was outlawed.

Jews could not hold public office. They were not allowed to own Christian nor pagan

slaves, a serious economic blow, since slave labor was the only available manpower for

agriculture or industry. From 529 to 553 Emperor Justinian published his legal codes

'Corpus Juris Civiles', and 'Novella'. The legal status of the Jews was fixed for the next

seven hundred years. For the first time a Christian ruler had interfered in the internal

religious practices of his Jewish subjects. Jews were forbidden to read the Torah in

synagogue in Hebrew. The Mishna and Rabbinical literature was banned.

The church claimed that the Jews had not just rejected Jesus but were collectively

responsible for his death, blame being shifted from the Roman authority. The Jews had

ceased to be G-d's Chosen People, the church had become 'Israel according to the Spirit'.

When asked, 'what about the verses in Deuteronomy (26:15-18) which state, ''Look

down from heaven and bless Your people Israel, and the land you have given that you

pledged to the forefathers. G-d has declared allegiance to you today making you his

special nation."'

The Council responded, 'this now refers to the Christians. Since the Romans are now

Christians that means us.'

'What about the verse in Deuteronomy in which G-d states explicitly, "Israel is my son,

my firstborn son."'

"This also refers to us."

Thus the controversy between Yacov and Esau was repeated. The spiritual and

physical descendants of Esau, the Romans, having regretted the loss of the status of

'Firstborn' to the spiritual and physical descendants of Yacov, the Jews.

Chapter 2- History

Religious wars have been around for as long as religion. They have occurred in all parts

of the world. The Zoroastrian persecutions. The Crusades. The Spanish Inquisition. The

Hussite Dispute (1480) The St. Bartholomew massacre (1572). The Thirty Years War

(1618-1648) The Yom Kippur War. The conflict in Northern Ireland. The Indonesian

Church bombings. The Indian-Pakistani hostilities. The list is endless.

In the Book of Ruth we see the fragile yet determined Ruth imploring to her beloved

mother-in-law Naomi, "where you go, I will go... your people are my people, your G-d is

my G-d."

Naomi however tries to dissuade her, "your sister-in-law has returned to her people,

to her god; go follow your sister-in-law." Ruth says, "do not urge me to leave you, to

turn back and not follow you!"

Naomi sees she is sincere in her resolve. "When she saw that she was determined to

go on with her she stopped arguing." (Ruth 1:16-18)

Thus we see the proper path to influence our fellow man, to enlighten the fallacious.

Naomi is so pious and wise, so loving and amiable that Ruth clings to her like an infant to

its mothers breast. She will not leave her mentor, she wants too much to be near her, to

be like her. She wants to know what Naomi has done to become so spiritual. She wants to

do it herself.

Naomi for her part tests her student's sincerity. By trying to discourage Ruth it

crystallizes her resolve. She forces Ruth to chose, hoping she will choose wisely. She is

rewarded with a deserving disciple.

The talmudic rabbis saw this as the paradigm for dealing with potential converts to

Judaism. Set the example for others. Discourage them at first to test their sincerity.

Lovingly accept when convinced of it. This, they taught was why the land of Israel was

strategically placed on the map at the juncture between three continents, Europe, Africa,

and Asia. Anyone travailing the spice route, the silk route, or any other route would

naturally traverse the holy land, and while there could not help but be impressed with its

enlightened, spiritual inhabitants, and thus the message of the Jewish people, the lessons

of monotheism, of creativity, and of charity, would be spread throughout the world.

This in stark contrast to the pagan peoples of the world. To the insecure and violent

creeds of the nations of mankind.

This then becomes one of the reasons for religious wars.

When a

member of certain religion is unsure of himself, the thought of others

practicing

another faith threatens him. If he has invested much time and energy in

his religion or if he is in a position of power, his investment or

position become threatened. If he perceives the two religions as

contradicting each other, so that only one can be the correct

path, he must then either convert to the other religion and lose

his

investment and position, or convince the others to convert. When they

wont convert

willingly, he must use force. The Zoroastrian, Christians, and Muslims

were highly successful using this method of conversions on the

pagan peoples. For what did

those people have to give up? But when they came across the Jews "If

your religion makes so much sense to you, then convince me",

says the truly spiritual man. "If not, then why can't you do your

thing and let me do mine? If you threaten

to kill someone who won't convert to your faith, than what kind of faith

do you

have? Who would want to belong to it? Or are you just a violent person

in general and using your faith conveniently as an excuse to do

as you please. Or is that why

you chose that faith? Because it sanctions such behavior?"

Zoroastrian Persecutions

In the early 6th century BCE Zoroaster a 30-year-old Persian began to preach a new

religion based on his personal drug induced revelations. He eventually converted King

Vishtaspa of eastern Iran, after which the religion spread rapidly. Since the religion was

based solely on the divinity of its originator, its growth was severely retarded when the

Turanians invaded Bactria and slew most of its inhabitants including Zoroaster who was

powerless to stop them.

Zoroastrianism stagnated until the advent of the Sassanid dynasty. It then grew until

it was abolished as a state religion during the Islamic conquest in the 7th century. It is

still practiced by small groups of Ghebers in Iran and Parsis in India who have believed

all these years that Zoroaster will return to prepare the coming of the final judgment.

During the Sassanid's rule over Babylonia from 226 CE until the Arab conquest in 642

the attitude of the regime to its Jewish subjects was benign. The internal affairs of the

Jewish community was left to itself and it flourished.

However at the outset of the Sassanid's conquest Zoroastrianism became the state

religion and its zealous 'magi' (priests) tried to force those of other faiths to convert.

The Jewish community not only found their neighbor's fire-worshipping rituals

offensive, but their proscribed method of disposal of the dead to be singularly repulsive.

The Zoroastrians would apparently expose the corpses to the elements where they would

be devoured by vultures and wild animals (outlawed in Iran but still practiced in India).

The magi succeeded in outlawing many Jewish rituals, including burying the dead

which they perceived as 'old-fashioned'. They forcibly converted Jewish children and

even went so far as to exhume bodies from cemeteries and allow them to be consumed by

beasts. It soon became apparent that the magi were the beasts and they lost much

popularity even among the noble and royal class. When Shapur I ascended to power he

abolished the powers of the magi and returned the Jews to autonomy. His decision also

was no doubt influenced by his close relationship to his advisor Shmule bar Abba

(180-275 CE), who was head of the Rabbinical Academy at Nehardea. A great Talmudic

scholar, Shmuel was also the world authority on medicine and astronomy. Shapur I who

reigned from 241 to 272 CE, also consulted with the Rabbi on military matters and

thanked him for his greatest victory over the Roman Legions at the battle for Edessa in

Asia Minor (site of modern Urfa in Turkey, near the Syrian border). Shmuel for his part

always used his influence in the royal court, not for personal gain, but to better the lot of

his people. His influence was felt for many years to come in the Babylonian community.

He is also quoted extensively in the Talmud so that his influence has extended for over

seventeen centuries.

The Islamic Conquests

In the Sixth Century the Arabian peninsula was a mostly ignored, inhospitable, and

unappealing piece of real estate inhabited by a conglomeration of scattered tribes. While

the oasis towns of Mecca and Medina held a sizable merchant class due to their incidental

location along the spice route, the vast majority of the inhabitants were much given to

robbing and murdering each other in fierce family and tribal feuds. A major profession

was staging raids on caravans travailing east to India or west to Europe along the spice

route and robbing the merchants and selling them into slavery.

For a religion the peoples had slipped back from the monotheism they had once

inherited from their ancestor Abraham and were now worshipping crude pagan gods

and idols. The influence of the monotheistic Jewish community in Mecca was minimal

and the attempt of early Christian missionaries from Ethiopia to find converts had failed.

In 570 Mohammed was born. His father had died shortly before his birth and he was

raised mostly by his uncle. The roving desert Bedouins became his companions and his

ability to stage raids on caravans impressed them. However the inherent dangers of such

raids frightened young Mohammed and after a last successful raid he decided take the

advice of his uncle and to go into business. Although illiterate it soon became apparent

that he had a sense of the game and soon found success. It became obvious that in the

hierarchical society in which he was a part that the 'haves' were treated with respect and

authority and the 'have nots' were largely ignored. Mohammed learned that those with

wealth were considered wise and respected weather they had wisdom or respectability or

not. When Mohammed was introduced by his uncle to a wealthy widow he took the

opportunity to make himself wise and respectable and married her in 595.

Around 610 Mohammed began to claim that he was having dreams which he claimed

were messages from G-d. While he was ignored or viewed suspiciously by his neighbors

he began to piece together and organized system of precepts which eventually became the

new religion of Islam. His experiences with Bedouins taught him that thievery was so

ingrained into the Arab culture that to curb it he would have to punish thieves severely.

He called for the guilty to hand-amputated.

The fact that his elderly bride was hideously ugly also figured into the religion that

Mohammed was soon to found. He ordered Khadija to keep her face veiled not only

during sand storms, as was the custom at the time but at all times. To avoid

embarrassment he proscribed the veiling of all women, even those who were neither his

wife nor ugly. He also declared the Islamic preferred method of birth control to be coitus

interuptus. This was also practiced by Mohammed, the thought of bringing another like

Khadija into the world so repulsed him. Apparently he practiced this a bit too religiously

as he left no heir upon his death in 632.

The Crusades

The First Crusade

From 1096 to 1291 the European Popes and Kings led a series of wars which were

collectively known as the "Crusades." In 1095 Pope Urban II in Clermont in southern

France proclaimed an expedition to win the Holy Land back from the 'infidel' Arabs.

The cry, 'G-d wills it!' went up from his French knights and Urban cut crosses for them

to carry on banners. Crosses were also the sign used to decorate swords and shields. Thus

these soldiers were dubbed the title, cruce signati, "Signed with the Cross" and finally,

"Crusaders". There thus began two centuries of continuous bloodshed, tragedy, violence and

massacres which ended in no strategic, religious, nor military victory for its instigators.

In the years prior to the First Crusade there had been acute power struggles between

the Popes and Kings. The Pope was largely to blame for the constant state of war

between warrior classes, standing armies known as knights. European population

centers were expanding inward and each group of local knights, trained in the art of

killing were left with nobody to kill except each other.

"This land which you inhabit", declared pope Urban to his knights, "is too narrow for

your large numbers. Thus you devour each other, wage war, and kill each other, dying of

mutual wounds."

They were then sent east to return the European continent to the tenuous state of

stability it had once known and rid itself of those annoying, energetic, violent, trouble

makers, the knights.

In order to popularize the cause and increase the numbers of the fighting force the

Pope also granted "indulgences" to any man who would take up arms against anyone

who was considered an enemy of the church, which at first meant the infidel Turks but

soon came to include all non-christens, i.e. the Jews.

In order to gain the support of the illiterate masses the church invented the concept

of "granting Indulgences." They reasoned as follows: since the saints of bygone days had

amassed so many merits in their favor, many more merits than they needed to gain

entrance to heaven, it must be that their surplus of merits were available to those left

back on earth. Thus the church, the ultimate spiritual authority could calculate the

number of available merits, and distribute them as they saw fit.

So, for example, if a certain Bartholomew had amassed one thousand merits in his

lifetime, yet needed only two hundred and fifty to enter heaven, that left seven hundred

and fifty extra which the church could distribute to its members. So if a certain ignorant

peasant would agree to go to Jerusalem and kill as many people living there as he could,

he would be granted two hundred and fifty indulgences, which would surely be enouph to

gain access to heaven.

Urban's goal in the First Crusade was not only to liberate the Holy Land but to rid

themselves of unchristian influence. So that the enemy became not only the infidel in far

off Israel but the Jew in your own backyard. The influence and profile of the Jews in

Europe was great, their presence ubiquitous, their financial prowess annoying , and their

refusal to convert infuriating. Being financialy dependent on someone who, according to

your religion shouldn't even exist was more than the average peasant could bear.

The existence of the Jew was a theological puzzle for the Christians. The illiterate

peasants were confused by the questions the Jews in their midst posed.

If Jesus was the messiah, then why didn't the Jews ever accept him as such, in

ancient times or now? Wasn't the messiah meant to redeem the Jews? Wasn't the

messiah meant to bring peace? What do the Jews have that we don't? Why are they

willing to die for it? What's in those books they're always carrying around? Why are

they so smart?

The more literate clergy and nobles were even more annoyed at their own inability

to answer the same questions. The answer, they finally decided, was in the teachings of

Jesus. "Take my enemies who would not have me rule over them, bring them here and

kill them before me." (Luke 19:27 ) The Crusades were the answer.

This, together with the granting of indulgences spelt disaster for the Jews.

The Pope was more or less saying, "kill anyone who's not Christian and you get a

free ticket to heaven." If, dear reader you are nonplused at this statement, you'll be

happy to know, you should be. I have studied the Crusades all my life, visited many of the

sites of Crusader battles, lived in a Crusader castle for over a year, and discussed the

III and ascended the throne of an empire financially exhausted and surrounded by

aggressive enemies. By instigating the Crusades he was able to unite the Pope and the

European kings under his own banner and recover western Asia Minor. At the time of

his death the empire was again an important power.

Unity of purpose served the over 130,000 soldiers well. On June 18th the city of

Nicaea surrendered. On July 1st victory at Dorylaeum broke Turkish resistance in Asia

Minor. Nine months of siege followed at the walls of Antioch in northern Syria. Finally

the city was delivered by treason to Bohemund. As soon as the Crusaders entered the city

a new Turkish army under Karbuqa, Atabeg of Mozul arrived too late. The former

besiegers were now themselves besieged. Having entered a city bereft of all supplies

thanks to themselves they had no choice but to exit and do battle. Surrounded by hostile

enemies and far from home and with no hope of recruiting new troops or being aided by

fresh troops from home or allies, the Crusaders fought desperately. At last on June 28th

1098 they overpowered the Turks in the most decisive victory of the First Crusade.

During the next year the generals plundered and carved up their conquests. Baldwin

I seized Edessa in upper Mesopotamia. Bohemund against the protests of Alexius and

Raymond kept Antioch. Raymond took Tripoli. The Papal Legate accompanying the

Crusade, Adhemar of Le Puy died at Antioch and Jerusalem was conveniently forgotten.

Finally word arrived from the Pope in effect saying, "Hey, you guys, what about

capturing Jerusalem? Isn't that what its all about?"

A year of rest and relaxation (read plunder and looting) seemed enouph after their

harrowing experience at Antioch. They were by now feared and experienced warriors

and their bloodlust was up again. They regrouped and marched toward Jerusalem which

they first sighted June 7th 1099. Having planed to build siege machinery from local trees,

their engineers were shocked to discover that unlike the European countryside, the Holy

Land had had no trees for over a thousand years. The Romans had destroyed them. No

water was also an unwelcome surprise. A Genoese fleet arrived at the port of Jaffa and

supplied the by now flummoxed Crusaders with enouph wood to lay siege to the Holy

City. On July 15th the soldiers burst into the gates of Jerusalem and vented all their pent

up fury on the defenseless inhabitants. The vast majority of the population, Jew, Turk,

and Arab, was massacred in eight days of frenzied blood-letting. The few survivors were

sold into slavery or forced to rebuild the city's fortifications.

Godfrey became ruler, choosing for himself the title, "Protector of the Holy

Sepulcher" but was succeeded a year later by his brother Baldwin I who named himself

King. He reigned until 1118. Thus ended the First Crusade with the massacre of tens of

thousands of innocent Jews in Europe, the death of thousands of Turkish, Arab, and

Christian soldiers, and the slaughter of about 7000 Jews, Arabs and Turks in Jerusalem.

The church publicized the conquest of Jerusalem as 'proof' of the superiority and truth

of Christianity. They were to enjoy their victory for less than ninety years. By 1187

Jerusalem was lost to them forever.

The Second and Third Crusades

Almost as soon as the Crusaders established the kingdom of Jerusalem in the Holy

Land, they began to lose it. The vast majority of soldiers returned home to their families,

heroic victors, their booty sacks full of gold, gems, and miscellaneous plunder. This of

course left their conquered territories highly vulnerable.

The Arabs in effect relinquished and forgot Jerusalem and the Holy Land.

Jerusalem was not mentioned in their Koran and anyway they had not fought for it in the

first place (it had been given by the Byzantine Patriarch Sophronios to Omar, leader of

the Omayyad Dynasty in 638), nor had they fought for it against the Crusaders, (after a

month of siege the Crusaders had found no resistance).

But the Turks began a long, sustained, powerful, and eventually successful offensive

against the invaders.

In 1144, Zangi, Atabeg of Mosul, attacked and recaptured Edessa, destroying the

major Crusader principality.

The new church authorities and kings realized that the rest of their conquests would

soon follow including Jerusalem and in 1145 Pope Eugenius III declared the Second

Crusade. Louis II of France and Conrad III of Germany mustered their troops and

traveled overland to Constantinople.

Rather than leave his young queen Eleanor of Aquitaine at home where she was not

to be trusted, Louis brought her along with. This caused an almost constant distraction to

Louis as scandal followed scandal. The promiscuous queen and her entourage were

delighted to be surrounded by so many young, fit, fighting Frenchmen, and did much to

instill a sense of purpose in her husband's troops. Unfortunately for Louis it was not the

purpose he intended.

The breakdown in discipline in the French ranks caused constant friction with the

German troops. That and the fact that the new recruits had little or no battle experience

made for a rather ineffective army.

The soldiers fearing the might of the Turkish power at Edessa turned instead to

Damascus which had been sympathetic to the Latin cause. This political blunder slowed

the Crusaders progress and strengthened the Turks, the only serious contender for the

continent.

In 1153 The Crusaders attacked Egypt and by 1168 Cairo was under siege.

Zangi's son and successor as Atabeg of Mosul was Nur al-Din who continued the war

against the Crusaders and allied Egypt as well. Nur al-Din's lieutenant in Egypt was the

famous Saladin (Salah-al-Din ibn Ayyub) who was of Kurdish blood. He became ruler

of Egypt in 1174 and later succeeded Nur al-Din. Saladin gained support of numerous

allies in the adjacent regions and led a unified front, the first ever assembled, against the

Crusaders. Not only were the Crusaders never able to enter Cairo, but they were now on

the defensive.

In 1182 Saladin attacked the Crusaders and the hunters now became the hunted. In

1187 he amassed an army of 12,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. They left Egypt

and marched toward the Holy Land. The Crusaders were smashed in one battle after

another as the army approached Jerusalem and on September 17th, 1187 Jerusalem fell

to Saladin.

Unlike the Crusaders, who had never allowed even a token Jewish presence in

Jerusalem, Saladin who had been impressed with the noble behavior of the Jewish

community in his native Cairo and who was on cordial terms with their leaders, allowed

the Jews to return to Jerusalem. Also unlike the "Christian" Crusaders, Saladin also

allowed the Crusader's prisoners of war to buy their own freedom which they did, after

which they returned to Europe or other places which still maintained Crusader presence

such as Antioch and Tyre. He also allowed Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem. But since

Christian pilgrimages had been allowed before the First Crusade, the Christian world

was now back where it had started one hundred years before!

The failure of the Crusades in general and the murder of so many Jews during the

First Crusade in particular shocked the world. While there had been numerous pogroms,

blood libels, expulsions, and massacres prior to the First Crusade, this had been the

greatest number of civilian deaths in Diaspora history. It would not be superseded as the

greatest single massacre of Jews until the Spanish Pogroms of 1391 (50,000 dead), which

would remain the worst blood bath in Jewish history until the Chmielnicki Cossack

massacres in Ukraine and Poland in 1648 and 1649 (300,000 mercilessly slaughtered),

which itself would not be superseded until the German Holocaust of 1939 to 1945

(6,000,000 tortured, starved, gassed, and shot to death).

One of the leaders of the Second Crusade was Bernard of Clairvoux, a Cistercian

monk. He declared that the target of the Crusades from now on must be non-christen

control of the Holy Land in particular, and not non-christens in general, including Jews.

The lives of the thousands of Jews who had survived the First Crusade or returned to, or

settled in, or were born in France and Germany since then, were hinging upon his words.

The wide scale murders of the First Crusade were thus not repeated, but the

precedent of guiltless persecutions set a dangerous precedent which was to hound the

people of the book for the next ten centuries.

In 1146 a mob forced their way into the house of the leader of western European

Jewry's home, Rabbi Yacov ben Meir, the Rabbeinu Tam. A grandson of Rashi,

Rabbeinu Tam was head of the Academy at Ramerupt France where the most illustrious

scholars of the world flocked to hear his penetrating discourses. With his encyclopedic

knowledge he was able to examine any verse in scripture or legal enactment in the

Talmud and compare it to any other verse or law and resolve any apparent contradiction.

No subject was off limits, no question too basic or complex, his teachings and

methodology were the basis of the Tosafos commentary on the Talmud which today is

published in all modern editions.

His secular knowledge and financial expertise as a wine merchant and financier

brought him in contact with all of the most influential nobles and royalty of his day, all of

whom admired him greatly. His large staff of Jewish and non-Jewish workers, his large

family, and his refined manor was the target of the rampaging hordes on their way to the

Second Crusades. His home was looted, his Torah scroll and library desecrated, and he

himself was taken outside to be hacked to death. After five chops to the head a prominent

nobleman miraculously happened by and was drawn to the commotion. He recognized

the Rabbenu Tam and at a risk to his own life mollified the crowd and administered

medical attention saving the sage's life. But Rabbenu Tam and French Jewry's troubles

were far from over. The Jews' role as scapegoat had been firmly established by the

Crusaders. In 1171 the community of Bloise was massacred in a baseless blood libel claim,

and in 1182 the Jews of Paris and Ile de France were expelled by King Philip II, who then

confiscated their property, again as a result of a baseless blood libel.

The Church's response to the loss of Jerusalem was to call for a third Crusade. This

most international Crusade was spearheaded by Richard I of England, the first English

king to join the Crusades, an indication of England's growing wealth and power. With

him were Philip II Augustus of France and Frederick I Barbarossa of Germany. By 1191

one hundred thousand troops were on the march. On June 10th 1191 Frederick was

crossing a river near Tarsus in Asia Minor. The king fell from his horse into the raging

waters and cried out to the heavens, "Save me, lord, I am after all a servant of the

church!"

After the drowning of their leader the German army disbanded and returned home.

The French and English marched on and after a short pause on the part of Richard to

capture Cyprus, the two armies met in the land of Israel at Acre.

Saladin's forced were up to the task and bitter battles raged, some won by the

christens including Richard's decisive victory against Saladin at Arsuf (1191), some won

by the Moslems. Philip pleading illness left Richard to finish the task alone. Richard, left

with a fraction of the number with whom which he had started, realized that Jerusalem

was beyond his grasp. In 1192 he fell ill. That and the fact that his crown was being

usurped back home by his younger brother John, convinced him that he must return to

England at once. In a last ditch effort to save face he offered Saladin a peace treaty.

Saladin agreed to allow Christians, unarmed and in small groups, visitation rights to

Jerusalem, which they had of course had before the Crusades began.

When Richard returned to England all was not well. Born in 1157 to Henry II and

Eleanor of Aquitaine, he was made Duke of Aquitaine at age 15 in 1172 by his father the

king. A year later he showed his appreciation by joining his mother and brothers Henry

and John in a rebellion against his father. During the next 16 years he was at war against

his father and his older brother Prince Henry. His rivals were shocked when in order to

strengthen himself against them, he allied himself with the French king Philip II.

Richard's two older brothers died under mysterious circumstances and Richard

ascended the throne in 1189 at 32 years of age. He immediately broke treaty with France

and prepared for war against Philip but the Second Crusade ironically allied them.

Philip would get his revenge for Richard's treachery by abandoning him in the Holy

Land. Richard never forgot his old rival and later launched a campaign against him but

Philip would have the last laugh.

Of his ten year reign until his death in 1199 Richard spent only six months in England.

Every opportunity to fight was taken up at any cost. His country was no more than a

treasure chest to be rifled through to pay for his foreign exploits. To finance the Third

Crusade he sold everything he could including suzerainty (political control) over

Scotland which his father had exacted.

His need for an unlimited expense account put him in close contact with the Jews of

England, relative new-comers who had crossed the English Channel after the Norman

Conquest (1066) and still held close contact with the wealthy Jews of France. The English

Jews showed their own prowess at finance and Richard admired and consulted them,

and borrowed from, taxed and protected them in a symbiotic relationship. When the

celebrations at his coronation at Westminster Hall in London went out of control, and a

pogrom against the Jews ensued, Richard quickly took measures to protect them. A

number of Jews were killed and their homes looted and Richard took steps to punish the

perpetrators.

Shortly after his coronation (1189) Richard was off to the Crusades (1191). A year

later it became obvious that the cause was lost and he was on his way home.

While crossing the European continent he was captured by an old rival, Leopold of

Austria, who turned him over to Henry VI, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire which at

that time included Germany, Northern Italy, parts of southern Italy, and the Kingdom of

Burgundy. (Richard got the last laugh when Henry VI was preparing for a later crusade

of his own in 1197 in Sicily and suddenly caught cold and died).

The ransom paid for Richard's release was borrowed from English Jews.

When Richard returned to England he was shocked to discover that not only had his

brother John laid claim to the throne (the Robin Hood legend takes place at this point)

but his Jewish subjects had been mercilessly persecuted in his absence including the Jews

of York the entire community of which had perished.

Richard summarily forced John to submit and then proceeded to compensate the Jews.

Richard instituted a system in which an official registry of Jewish loans was kept in each

of the larger English towns. In White hall an 'Exchequer of the Jews' was hired to

organize the offices, keep records dealings in twenty-six towns, and collect the king's

share of the interest. He also set up the appointment of a Jewish Archpresbyter, held by a

leading member of the Jewish community. The Archpresbyter served as liaison between

the palace and the Jews in England.

A few weeks after his return to England, Richard crossed the English Channel to

protect his interests in France. He had inherited large sections of Western France from

his father, and his old rival Philip was trying to annex them. While laying siege to Chalus

on April 6th 1199 a stray arrow cut him down and at 42 years of age the "Lion Hearted"

breathed his last.

He was succeeded by his younger brother John who proved to be the most

tyrannical, cruel and incompetent of England's kings and who's first act of treachery was

to murder his 12 year old nephew Arthur of Brittany who was a rival claimant to his

French possessions. In 1290 the Jews were expelled from England by Edward

(Longshanks) the First, and the expulsion order was not rescinded until 1656 by Oliver

Cromwell.

The Forth Crusade

The military and political disaster known as the Forth Crusade had an enormous impact

on the church and the direction and face of Christianity.

By now Crusading was becoming a popular way of uniting forces under your banner

for the kings and popes, and a sort of fun way to get away from the cold boring poverty of

Europe for the peasants. Crusaders returned home as heroes with bags of booty,

fascinating stories of exotic lands. They could now take up positions of power in their

local principalities and marry into the better (read wealthier) families. If you hadn't been

out Crusading you were branded coward or worse, a heretic. The fact that Jerusalem

was in the hands of infidels and the risk of life did nothing to dampen the spirits of the

training hopefuls. The fact that the infidels were more educated, sophisticated and polite

than the Christians didn't seem to dampen anyone's resolve. The masses must be

converted to Christianity in order to save them and ourselves whether they liked it or not.

The fact that non of the conquered peoples had converted to Christianity was their fault

not ours. We were doing our part, now it was up to them to see the light.

Life in medieval Europe was to short and anyway too dangerous to worry about

such possibilities as getting killed or sold into slavery. So you could either stay in Europe

working on the farm and probably die of some illness or you could go off and kill and

plunder and travel. And gain indulgences for a free ticket to heaven to boot. Most people

opted for the latter.

In 1203 Pope Innocent III called for a new Crusade and another large group of

Crusaders set out for the Holy Land ostensibly to recapture Jerusalem. Unable to pay

their ticket to the Venetian sailors the Crusaders agreed that in return for transport to

Egypt they would capture the Christian city of Zara on the Dalmatian coast in

Yugoslavia. Dalmatia had been part of the Roman province of Illyria but was overrun

and depopulated in the 5th century CE by the Ostrogoths, then acquired in the 6th

century by Byzantium. The original population was assimilated by the Slavs migrating

into Dalmatia in the 7th century. Between the 9th and 12th centuries Venice wrested the

coastal areas from Byzantium.

When the Pope heard that the Crusaders had captured Dalmatia and handed it over

to his rivals in Venice he was furious. Outraged at their treachery he excommunicated

his own soldiers. But if he thought this would stop them from continuing on to

somewhere they could conquer for their own, he was sadly mistaken. They continued on

to Egypt. At Corfu the disposed Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelus asked their help in

recovering his father's throne. The leaders of the Crusades Boniface III of Montferrat

and Philip of Swabia agreed. Philip was also related to the deposed Isaac by marriage. In

1203 Isaac was restored as Emperor in Constantinople but died soon

after. .

Who would be the next Emperor was hotly contested and in 1204 in the midst of the

flared tempers and confusion the Crusaders attacked, captured, and sacked

Constantinople. The plunder and massacres that followed on the capital of the Christian

Greek Orthodox ended any hope of reconciling the Latin and Greek church authorities.

The Crusaders forgot about Jerusalem and instead shamelessly partitioned the

Greek empire. It was thus that the crusading idea was finally discredited

Excommunicated soldiers, slaughter of innocent civilians, abuse of indulgences, military

failure, and finally the destruction of a Christian city. The axioms of Christianity were

questioned. What happened to our divine protection? What happened to the infallibility

of the Pope? If our mission was to enlighten the infidels why did they seem more

enlightened than we? How could so many Crusaders have fallen to the infidel's sword, so

many be sold into slavery if they were blessed by the church and the pope? Why was the

church's blessing ignored? If the Crusades were blessed and sanctioned by the church

how could so many Christians fall in Constantinople at the hands of other Christians?

Until now the church had succeeded in recruiting new members of the faith by

offering prospective members tickets to heaven, and by tempting them with material

rewards such as joining the holy battles. The direction of the church would slowly change

after the Forth Crusades. The clergy would now be forced to threaten eternal hell fire for

heretics and non-believers. Their was no longer much to offer materially, so the

authority was forced to use fear. At the same time the image of Jesus as an appealing

mighty sword wielding victorious warrior would have to change since the troops had

failed so dismally. Jesus would from now on have to represent a loving father figure who

loved his flock when no one else could. After the Forth Crusade, the image of Jesus in art

and literature would change from strong and tough to gentle and mild. The victim with

whom you could identify.

The conflict and enmity, between the Eastern Greek Church based in Constantinople

(recaptured by the Greeks in 1266) and the Latin Church based in Rome was never

resolved, and the masses discontent with the excesses of the Popes and clergy severely

diminished the church's authority and eventually led to the violence of the 30 Years War

and the Reformation.

Later Crusades and the Children's Crusade

The Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Crusades, collectively known as the "Later

Crusades" or often as the "Other Crusades" or sometimes just as the "Stupid Crusades"

took place between 1212 and 1272. The Moslems continued their assault against the

invaders and by 1290 all the major Crusader enclaves but one were abandoned, the

exception being the Fortress at Arwad on the Lebanese coast which also fell in 1302.

The catastrophic failure of the Forth Crusade, especially after the legendary heroism

and accomplishments of the earlier crusaders (which had by then already been glorified,

legendized, and sugar-coated, a trend which continued to modern times), shook the

medieval Europeans to the core. In order to reclaim some of their hurt pride they

decided to give it another shot.

In 1212 the disillusioned peasants decided that the Crusading idea was a good one but

that the sinful behavior of the Popes and soldiers had spoiled their chances by forfeiting

their blessings. They had lost Divine assistance thanks to their tendency to murder,

plunder, rape, and torture their victims, instead of just heading straight to Jerusalem

and claiming it for themselves and allowing the infidels to come to the realization of the

truth of their purpose and be converted on their own. Only the sinless pure of heart could

succeed. A French shepherd boy Stephen of Vendome preached a "Children's Crusade"

a crusade led and carried out by the only available 'pure of heart' the children of Europe.

He and his friends marched southward through France with no real plan of action,

hoping to be guided by Jesus. They were joined by other children along the way and the

entire project gained wide attention and sympathy. The hope and hearts of all Europe

were with the scruffy band of preadolescents on their way to Jerusalem and those they

met along the way fed and encouraged them, many donating one or more of their own

children to the cause until their numbers swelled to tens of thousands.

They reached the Mediterranean coast at Marseilles where they expected the

waters to divide before them as it had for the ancient Israelites. Instead they were greeted

by a fleet of pirates who captured them, brought them to Egypt and sold them into

slavery. They never saw their parents again.

Taking a lesson from this debacle, a group of German children soon afterwards

decided to have a "Children's Crusade" of their own. Led by Nicholas of Cologne they

moved down into Italy where they eventually met up with the Pope. Innocent III took

one look at the pitiful 'army' and with the recent French disaster fresh in mind told them

to all go home.

In the words of noted historian David Herlihy (Bryn Mawr College), "These pathetic

efforts by children to free the Holy Land highlighted the growing reluctance of adults to

participate in the crusades and illustrated the considerable and general decline in

Europe of crusading fervor."

The Fifth Crusade (1218) struck at Egypt, failed, and didn't even attempt to take

Jerusalem.

In 1228 the Sixth crusade was on led by Frederick II of Germany. A political

opponent of the pope, the church tried to dissuade him and finally ordered him to stop.

When he ignored their orders the pope excommunicated him. In spite of these political

setbacks in 1229 he actually succeeded in leading an army to the Holy Land and,

preferring to chat than fight, managed to negotiate a settlement to the Pope's surprise

and chagrin. This further weakened the Pope's authority and power. The little he could

do, that is to threaten then finally to excommunicate an opponent, had little or no effect.

The Crusades had set out to strengthen the church and had at last weakened it.

The settlement which Fred had obtained included free access for pilgrims to

Jerusalem and the right to garrison certain fortresses in the city. However rebellion at

home forced him to return to Germany and by 1244 the last of his troops were on the

march back to Germany. Jerusalem was Crusader-free again.

The last two Crusades were led by Louis the Ninth of France, infamous in Jewish

history as being the one who ordered all copies of the Talmud burned before the

Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Furious at his own inability to vanquish his religious

opponents through logical means, debate, or rhetoric, he destroyed twenty-four

wagon-loads of Talmud and Rabbinical literature, all in manuscript form, precipitating

the end of the illustrious Tosafos academy. His book burnings won him acclaim by the

church and he was later canonized by the church authority. The American city St. Louis

is named after him.

In 1249 he led the Seventh Crusade, traveled with his army by sea, landing in

Cyprus and continuing on to Mansura in Egypt where in 1250 his army was routed by

the Mameluke forces. Louis was captured and had to be ransomed. He was released after

giving his solemn oath never to lead another crusade. The fortress where he was

imprisoned still stands.

In 1270 Louis led another crusade. In this Eighth and final crusade he sailed with his

army due south from southern France directly to the ancient city of Tunis (in modern

Tunisia) in North Africa. While laying siege outside the walls of Tunis there was an

outbreak of plague. Louis succumbed and died on August 25th.

By now the futility of the Crusades was obvious to even the most stubborn. In 1302

their last outpost was evacuated. The Crusades were over.

The Spanish Inquisition and the Disputation

With the establishment by the Christian popes of the Inquisition the war against

heretics was on. The Inquisition may have started in the hope of enlightening the

ignorant and protecting the vulnerable, but it soon decayed into a violent, malignant

form of heresy itself. When it became established that the possessions of those sentenced

to death would be confiscated by the church, government, or Inquisitors, the forces of

avarice completely corrupted and consumed an already abused and abusive system of

authority.

If the inquisitors thought that their victims would renounce their erroneous

theological beliefs as a result of their penal methods they were diluting only themselves,

and most likely deliberately at that. During, for example the notorious heyday of The

Spanish Inquisition it was not uncommon for a man or woman to be asked, while in the

process of being tortured to death, whether he would not now accept the religion of the

one doing the torturing. It became clear that the Inquisitors were less interested in the

welfare of the accused in particular, or the community in general, than with their own

sadistic hunger.

The Spanish Inquisition was a relative late-comer to the European scene, following

on the heals of the French and Germans and Italians. The public burning of heretics by

Christian kings or clergy was known as far back as 1022 when King Robert of France

publicly burned 13 heretics in the name of "Public Welfare". Emperor Henry III burned

approximately ten in his domain between the years 1051 and 1052. These executions

kicked off a series of mob lynchings of those accused of heresy. The need became

apparent for more legal ways of dealing with heretics. Frederick Barbarossa's Verona

decree of 1184 prescribed penalties of exile, confiscation of property, demolition of

houses, and loss of personal rights. Pedro II of Aragon decreed in 1197 banishment.

Emperor Frederick III enacted the death penalty for heresy.

Pope Innocent III in 1215 instructed bishops in methods of determining guilt. The

agents of the Inquisition were Dominican friars, Franciscans or local clergy. Those

denounced by informers were placed on trial. Trials were secret. The inquisitors were

both prosecutors and judges, the accused had no right to counsel. or rights to call defense

witnesses

In 1252 Pope Innocent IV authorized the use of torture to extract confessions.

Thus the main elements of the Inquisition were in place. Trials of those suspected or

accused, and confessions exacted after torture and finally punishment.

Those found guilty were burned at the stake. The inquisitors themselves did not

execute anyone. Secular authorities carried out the sentences. The Inquisitors enjoyed a

wide discretion in imposing sentence. The Dominican, Robert le Bougre, within one week

judged and caused to be burned 183 people. He was later imprisoned for life for his

fanaticism.

Bernard Gui found 930 people guilty between 1308 and 1323. Of these 89 were

already dead, 42 were executed, 307 were given long prison terms, and the rest were

given other punishments.

Innocent III theorized that heresy was the equivalent to treason against G-d, and

should be dealt with as severely as treason against civil authorities.

But it was the confiscation of heretics property which offered an incentive to

unscrupulous rulers and was a source of abuse . It also explains the trials of dead men.

The Pope sometimes gave authority to local tribunals, as in the case of Joan of Arc,

burned to death by the Bishop of Beauvais. Spain did not catch up until the 14th century.

By the 15th century they were leading the way. In 1480 King Ferdnand of Aragon

nationalized and authorized the notorious Spanish Inquisition which was beyond the

control of the Pope.

From 711 to 1100 Jewish life flourished in Moslem Spain. The Jewish community

was very ancient dating back to the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans.

When Roman Catholicism became dominant in the sixth and seventh centuries the

situation for the Jews deteriorated rapidly. But in 711 the Arabs of North Africa or

'Moors' crossed into Spain from the Straits of Gibraltar in the South and by 715 most of

Spain was under Moslem rule. The Moors were tolerant of the Jews, even granting them

limited autonomy and for the next four centuries the "Golden Age of Spanish Jewry"

gave us such illustrious scholars, poets, statesmen, philosophers, and scientists as Shmuel

HaNagid and Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides).

When the Christian Reconquest of Spain began the Jewish community was at its

zenith. Toward the beginning of the Reconquest the Jews were more often than not put to

the sword. They were not easily distinguished from their Moorish neighbors, the

Christian's enemies, and they were treated in a similar fashion. From the tenth century

however this situation began to change. It was realized that the Jews constituted an

important minority and that their success and support was beneficial to the conquering

forces' tenuous hold on their recently acquired lands.

They were physicians, financiers, diplomats, and interpreters.

Alfonso X of Castile captured Toledo in 1085 and in 1212 at the battle of Las Navas

de Tolosa the Moor's power was finally crushed. The last hope of a permanent Moslem

Spain was ended. The Moors maintained control over Granada in the south for a few

more years and thus ended the Reconquest for the Christians. By now there were

hundreds of thousands of wealthy, flourishing Jews all over Spain in all sections of

society, from government to pest control.

The threat of the Moors diminished and importance of placating the Jews diminished

with it. When a struggle for the throne took place between Pedro the Cruel and his

half-brother Henry II of Trastamara, the Jews were caught in the middle. When Henry

was at last made king he began to enforce hitherto ignored anti-Jewish legislation

including the wearing of the Jewish badge of shame.

In October 1390, Juan I of Castile died and was succeeded by his son Henry II

(1390-1406). Being less than one year old at the time, administration fell to the Queen

Mother, Leonora. Her confessor was Ferrand Martinez, Archdeacon of Ecija, a rabid

anti-Semite. His constant demands to tear down synagogues and expel Jews from

townships, which could be ignored by the previous king, could no longer be silenced. His

message spread to all of Spain and was preached by other clerics as well. The Spaniards

began to view their Jewish neighbors with whom they had coexisted peacefully since the

eighth century, with distrust. Distrust turned soon enouph to jealousy and loathing.

On Ash Wednesday, March 15th, 1391 Martinez instigated a crowd which broke

into the Jewish quarter bent on destruction. The authorities were able to arrest the

vanguard marauders and the crowd backed off in frustration. But on June 9th the mobs

bloodlust was up again and this time they could no longer be stopped. A pogrom ensued

in the Jewish neighborhood And four thousand victims were slaughtered. The killing

spree spread to all of Spain. In Cordova the large Jewish community was destroyed and

the thousands of affluent Jews of Toledo were massacred. Seventy towns in Castile saw

pogroms and the ancient community of Barcelona was decimated. In Valencia, and

Palma the destruction was total. The death toll was over fifty thousand.

While the destruction of Jewish communities was not a new phenomena, especially

coming so soon on the heals of the Crusade massacres, the results of

this particular destruction was entirely different. The surviving Jews of the Crusade

massacres were strengthened in their faith, their revulsion of the Christian ideal total.

Most of the hundreds of thousands of surviving Spanish Jews however reacted however

by becoming 'crypto-Jews', Jews who accepted Christianity publicly in order to save

their lives, but who practiced Judaism in secret.

However if they thought that ostensibly accepting Christianity would solve their

problems they were sadly mistaken. The church did not profess to authority over Jewish

citizens in its domain, but it held total authority over Christians in its domain. Thus as

soon as a person was baptized his spiritual welfare was now legally in the hands of the

church. Therefore, if he was discovered to be acting not in accordance with the rules of

the church by say, practicing Jewish rituals, he could then be considered a heretic and

burned at the stake. A Jew could not be burned for acting Jewish, that was his religion.

He could perhaps be burned for proselytizing and converting Christians to Judaism, a

very real danger. But if a Christian was known to be acting Jewish or 'Judaising' in any

way whatever, it was the churches responsibility to have him punished for heresy.

The church, delighted at first at the wholesale conversions of Jews in their land, soon

began to realize that they now had a much worse problem than before.

The converts or "conversios" had been converted under duress. Such a conversion is

seldom sincere, but the converts must now be treated as any other Christian, with all the

rights and privileges that entailed. If a Jew was forbidden from certain occupations, or

from marrying certain people, the convert was not. If a Jew was forced to pay a special

tax or wear a special badge, the convert was not.

Before the mass conversions the church was able to recognize the strangers in their

midst and take steps to confine and weaken them. It soon became obvious that the

converts were not sincere at all and now their society was replete with, not infidels

outside, but heretic inside. Heretics everywhere, in all walks of life, in all parts of the

country, in each city and town, neighborhood and building, in all professions from

government to artisan, from physicians to clergy, yes clergy, and they were coming for

you next.

The Spaniard became confused and paranoid. Why doesn't the boss eat pig? Why

does the governor's wife instruct the maid to change the linen each Friday? Where do the

merchants disappear to on Friday nights? Why do the chandler's children have biblical

names? The conversos for their part became expert at hiding their true religion in order

not to be caught, the results of which could mean being burned to death in public. Large

cellars were refurbished in affluent homes as synagogues. Passover seders were held in

secret. People stopped eating bread all year long in order to not attract suspicion by

refraining on Passover. Conductors instructed musicians to blow shofars at public

concerts on Rosh Hashanah as part of the orchestra.

It became increasingly clear that to force such a multitude into accepting baptism

under duress had been a mistake. They had never had any intention on faithfully

adhering to Christianity. They had intended on remaining Jewish from the outset. Yet to

allow the conversos, by now disdainfully known to the Spaniards as "marranoes" (from

the Spanish for 'swine'), or to the faithful Jews as "anusim" (from the Hebrew for

'forced') to return to the faith of their fathers was out of the question. Firstly, they had

been baptized, an irreversible process, and secondly, if the church admitted they were

wrong about this it would cast doubt on the fundamentals of Christianity in its entirety.

Before the Jews had converted it could be argued that once they get a taste of the true

religion they would see the error of their ways. Now however it seemed that the more

Christianity they got the less they wanted. This coming on the heals of the famous

'Disputation' would surely weaken Christianity, perhaps even causing it to revert back to

the local cult it had started off as. The Popes and Bishops stood to lose all their wealth

and power.

The 'Disputation' was a public debate in Barcelona under the auspices of the King

James I of Aragon in 1263 between the illustrious scholar Nachmanides (Rabbi Moshe

ben Nachman a.k.a. the Ramban -not to be confused with the earlier Rabbi Moshe ben

Maimon, Maimonides, the Rambam), and Pablo Chrisanti, an apostate friar. Chrisanti

was a powerful and influential orator. He convinced the Church authority that he could

win the debate, a great victory in its own right for him.

His opponent Nachmanides was a local hero, leader of the Jewish community, Rabbi

of Barcelona, and head of the talmudic academy at Gerona, and a true renaissance man,

centuries before the term even existed. An expert in many areas of Jewish and secular

learning, he was a physician, linguist, talmudist, and kabbalist. His Biblical commentary

remains one of the most popular in yeshivoth to this day, and his legal 'milchmeth

Hashem' are printed in most volumes of Talmud.

Before the debate began the Rabbi insisted that he be able to speak his mind freely,

and not be forbidden to answer or asked as he pleased. This seemingly obvious and

fundamental right was considered radical in its time. There had been debates of this

nature before but the church always insisted that the Jewish protagonists be forbidden to

bring up certain subjects, forbidden to utter what they considered blasphemy, forbidden

to attack the Christian religion or the Christian savior. It was often futile to debate under

these circumstances, the results decided before the debate began, it having only been an

excuse for more persecutions, an excuse to be able to say, 'we beat you in a debate."

King James promised the Ramban, whom he greatly admired, that the debate would

be fair and equal and he was as good as his word. The brilliant scholar immediately took

an offensive position, the friar unable to defend himself against the onslaught. Instead of

being able to answer the Ramban's questions his responses consisted mostly of saying

that to ask such questions were blasphemy.

The Rambam pointed out that Jesus was rejected by all but a small handful of the

Jewish nation in his time. In the biblical descriptions of messiah it is written, "Out of you

shall one come forth unto Me, to be a ruler in Israel (Michah 5:1). Jesus was never a king,

never accepted as ruler in Israel. If he wasn't accept in his time why should he be

accepted thousands of years later?

The friar's response to this was to point out that to ask such questions about the savior

constituted blasphemy and that the Rabbi should be punished (Ramban was in fact later

fined by the Dominicans).

The scripture went on to say, the Rabbi argued, that messiah shall bring peace to the

world as in, "there shall then be peace"(Michah 5:4), and, "they shall beat their spears

into pruning hooks. Nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn

war any more," (Isaiah 2:4) and, "how beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of the

messenger who announces peace" (Isaiah 52:7). Not only had Jesus not brought peace,

but his followers had waged more war than any other peoples in history, with wars going

on non-stop from the time of Jesus until then (and until today).

Furthermore the belief in the 'trinity', a three part god, was contradictory to the

Jewish concept of One G-d, as in "Hear oh Israel, the Etern-al our G-d, the Etern-al is

One (Deuteronomy 6:4). The worship of a three part god was an improvement for

Christians who prior to this worshipped many gods, but for a Jew a three part god

constituted idolatry. The Christian belief in the trinity as in, "baptize them in the name

of the father, the son, and the holy ghost"(Matthew 28:19), and in the belief that Jesus

was also god, as in "I and the father are one" (John 10:30) contradicted Jewish concept

of one G-d as in, "Know this day and place it upon your heart, the Etern-al is G-d, in the

heavens above and on the earth below, there is none other" (Deuteronomy 4:13).

But Jesus performed miracles, argued the friar.

He was answered that even if that was true, G-d warned us about this in the Bible,

"If there arise among you a prophet, or a dreamer, and he gives you a sign or a miracle,

and the sign or miracle comes to pass, and he calls on you , saying, Let us go after other

gods, whom you have not known, and let us worship them. You shall not listen to that

prophet or dreamer. For G-d is testing you , to see whether you love the Etern-al you G-d

with all your heart and with all your soul" (Deuteronomy 13:2).

In fact, he went on, how do we know that any miracles were in fact performed? If

Jesus wanted his teachings to be known why didn't he perform miracles in public for all

to see? Why only for a small handful of disciples? This in contrast to Moses who

performed miracles for the entire nation, such as the splitting of the Red Sea, and the ten

plagues of Egypt. When G-d revealed himself on Mt. Sinai he did it for the entire nation

of Israel. Thus it can be proven logically that the words of Moses and the Torah were

truth. How could Moses convince his people to accept the Torah which clearly states

these events happened before the entire nation, had they not happened? The people

would not have accepted it, saying, "hey, it says we saw these events, but we never saw

them." They accepted it because they saw it. But Jesus asked to be accepted for

performing miracles which no one saw. Why didn't he perform them in public? The

Torah had been given to the multitudes. If it were to now be abrogated as the Christians

said it was, why wasn't it revealed to the multitudes?

The debate took place on four days between the 20th and 31st of July 1263.

Meanwhile the local populous was infuriated at the sound thrashing that their champion

was receiving. The unrest threatened to get out of control. The Ramban was meanwhile

receiving death threats yet refused to discontinue. Finally in order to maintain order the

king ordered the proceeding to be temporarily halted.

When it became clear that the Rabbi had decisively won the debate yet had only

just gotten warmed up and intended to bring out the big guns for the next stage, the friar

agreed to discontinue. The King awarded the Ramban with 300 gold pieces for his

trouble, and stated, " I have never seen any one who, in spite of not being a legal advocate,

could make so excellent a presentation of his position". The king then visited the

synagogue on the following Sabbath and greeted the congregation, an unprecedented

gesture.

The Ramban's book, "Sefer Havituach", or "The Book of the Debate" was a

published account of the debate. It has been translated into English and published under

the title, "The Disputation."

The church's response was to persecute the Ramban and his family mercilessly, and

to fine him for blasphemy. The Ramban moved to Jerusalem where he rejuvenated the

Jewish community there. He built a yeshiva and synagogue there and the building which

housed it stood until 1948 when it was destroyed by the Jordanian army. In 1967 after

the Israeli forces captured the old city of Jerusalem they rebuilt the synagogue where it is

in constant use to this day. I daven there myself often.

The church's response to the aftermath of the Disputation, that is when finding itself

in a defensive position was to redouble its efforts on a offensive front, was the same at the

establishment of the inquisition.

The conversoes were threatening the stability of the church authority. They were

raising embarrassing questions about christen dogma. They weren't behaving as was

expected of those who had been exposed to Christianity. Having experienced both

Judaism and Christianity, how could they now revert back to their Jewish ways? They

had to be stopped.

On March 18th, 1478 a young Spaniard escorted home a beautiful young converso girl

with whom he had become infatuated. Upon entering her father's exquisite residence he

was surprised to find a gathering of Jews and conversoes for what purpose he could not

imagine. As he knew nothing about the ritual of Passover Seder which was taking place

he immediately assumed, evidenced by the look of shock and surprise on the faces of the

participants at the sight of him, that they had gathered to blaspheme the savior, it

concurring with the Christian holiday of Holy Week. The youth fled, convinced that they

would soon murder him and use his blood for ritual purposes as he had been taught by

his beloved bishop.

When the news reached the king and queen they instructed the ambassadors to

the pope to immediately grant permission to set up an inquisition. Pope Sextus granted

authority to appoint three bishops with complete jurisdiction over heretics and their

accomplices. The red tape involved and the reluctance of the pope to relegate some of his

authority delayed matters at first, but at the earliest possible moment the inquisition had

completed its legal proceedings and began its pious activities. On February 6th, 1481 the

first group of conversoes were found guilty of heresy and the accused, six men and

women, were burned to death.

The decision to burn those sentenced to death was based on the teachings of Jesus,

"He who does not abide in me is thrown away like a withered branch. Such branches are

gathered together, cast into the fire, and burned"(John 15:6).

The inquisition accelerated its work with all speed. By November 4th, 1481 298

people had been burned and 98 condemned to life imprisonment. Not a day went by

where at least one person wasn't burnt to death in public and the screams of the victims

and their loved one's wails were echoed throughout the kingdom to the delight of the

sadistic sovereigns and their henchmen.

The inquisition's brutality became infamous and word spread to France and from

there to all parts of the globe. The pope was dismayed at the severity of the inquisition

and the bad name it was giving the church and wrote to Ferdnand and Isabella

expressing his disapproval. He was ignored which was a challenge to his authority which

was exactly what he had originally feared. It was to late to renege, popes are not known

for admitting they are wrong, especially as the 'infallibility of the pope' was axiomatic to

Christian dogma.

The tribunal at Seville soon became overloaded with work and on February 11th 1482

seven new Inquisitors were elected, among them the Dominican monk Thomas de

Torquemada, queen Isabella's fanatical confessor who later became Inquisitor General.

When Granada, the last stronghold of the moors was at last captured in 1492, ending

seven centuries of Reconquest, the last restrictions to the Spanish sovereigns fell to the

wayside. They were now in full control of Spain. War against the Moors was over. They

could devote their full attention to the war against the Jews and heretics.

On March 31 1492 Ferdnand and Isabella consented to the Church and

Torquemada's demands to sign an order expelling all the remaining Jews in Spain. The

Jews were given four months to convert or leave. July 1492 on tisha b'av the last of the

openly practicing Jews, 200,000 by number, left Spain, their home for over eight

hundred years. They were forced to abandon their property or sell it for a pittance. Vast

estates fell into the hands of their gloating neighbors. The old, and sick, the wealthiest,

and the poorest were not exempt, each took to the streets carrying his meager belongings

on his back. Thousands would die on land or on sea on their journey to find a new home.

The crypto-Jews remaining continued their charade with a sense of dread and

impending doom. New tribunals soon followed in all parts of the kingdom, including

Toledo in 1485, Barcelona in 1488, and Huesca in 1489. No one was safe regardless of his

position in society, the government or even the clergy. Informers were everywhere, the

entire country was suspect, arrests were constant. Those arrested were not informed as

to whom had denounced them, no defense council was allowed. Anyone could accuse

anyone else and remain blameless, a personal grudge, debt, or jealous love sufficient

reason for the unscrupulous to disappear his or her rival. The church found any excuse

for finding someone guilty to their advantage as the victim's property would then be

confiscated. The cupidity of the inquisitors

soon became apparent as their personal excesses and splendid living conditions became

impossible to conceal.

At Cordova the mistress of the Treasurer of the Cordova Cathedral was burnt to

death. The following year the Treasurer himself fell victim. Large numbers of friars,

nuns, and church administrators were tried and found guilty as well. Paranoia and fear

reigned supreme. It became impossible for even the most innocent to carry on with their

daily activities without constantly glancing behind their back, certain that the inquisitors

were about to pounce. Torquemada's murderous rule lasted for twelve full years.

The next Inquisitor General was Diego Deza. The hopes of the conversoes that the

terror would cease or let up was dashed when it became apparent that he was as vicious

as his predecessor. It should have come as no surprise considering that the chief

prerequisites for the job was unmitigated ruthlessness and fanaticism.

On February of 1501 a converso woman was found guilty of comforting her friends by

speaking of the immanent arrival of the messiah, who would alleviate their suffering. She

and 105 of her friends, all women, were burnt to death in two days.

Some time later, for the crime of listening to a sermon of Membreque, a Bachelor of

Divinity who was accused of presenting Jewish values in a positive light, 107 people were

burned to death. Amongst the victims of the inquisition during Deza's tenure were the

Archdeacon De Castro who's mother was of old Christian blood but who's father was a

high ranking converso. His high position in the church hierarchy could not save him nor

prevent his humongous estate from being confiscated.

Another victim was the illustrious Archbishop of Granada who had been confessor

to Isabella the Catholic. One of his early ancestors had been a converso and Deza found

that enouph to accuse him of "heresy by thought".

Meanwhile the King and Queen were hearing numerous complaints from the

military and clergy that the inquisitors were abusing their power, confiscating property

and burning victims indiscriminately, torturing victims who had not even been accused,

arresting then raping young women then threatening to accuse them of heresy for which

they would be burnt if found guilty which they would since they were also the judges and

jury, threatening even the most honorable families, frightening pedestrians, and

generally dishonoring the Christianity and Spain.

The stench of burning flesh filled the air and the death of the Archbishop was the

last straw. Ferdnand dismissed Deza. The next inquisitor General was Cardinal Ximenes

who took office in 1507. If the crypto-Jews thought that the situation would grow more

tolerable they were soon to discover that Deza had been positively mild in comparison.

During Ximenes' rule 2500 victims were burnt.

When Charles V became the next king (1516-1556) the converso community offered

him an enormous bribe to restrict the inquisitions activities but he refused. His successor,

Philip III (1598-1621) did attempt to restrict the inquisitions authority but by then it was

too late. They were a law unto themselves and feared in all circles. During the reign of the

next king, Philip IV (1621-1665) the Inquisition reached the height of its powers.

Meanwhile with the previous generations of conversoes making way for the next, a

new phenomena began to manifest. The conversoes had infiltrated in every walk of life,

every strata of society. They were often the wealthiest merchants, physicians and

professionals, and admired if not envied by all. Their high integrity, physical beauty,

talent, and social positions made them desirable matches for young availables.

Intermarriage was inevitable.

However if they thought that by marrying out their children would be less

susceptible they were in for a big surprise. When ever anyone would apply for a position

in the military, clergy, or for marriage, their lineage was clearly recorded. The populous

became obsessed with family records which were kept meticulously. Those families of

"old Christians" who were able to do so would not marry one of their daughters or sons

off to one of "one quarter converso on the father's side", or "eighth part converso on the

mother's side." A pure blood old Christian was less likely to be accused by the inquisition,

more likely to obtain a position in the military or marry into a noble or royal family.

This problem was exacerbated by the numerous shouts of people from the pyre

who's last words might be "Shma Yisroel" even after four or five generations of life as

crypto-Jews. The disgraceful example set by the Popes and Inquisitors had only

succeeded in strengthening their resolve, which remained unshaken even when their only

connection to their Jewish roots was the defiance of the hated oppressors. At his trial in

1486 Father Andre Gonzalez, a parish priest confessed that for fourteen years he had

been a Jew at heart. He was burnt to death.

Numerous families took the first opportunity to escape to other lands, to openly

proclaim their dedication to the religion of their fathers. On occasion the Inquisition

followed. They were arrested and convicted in far off Italy, England and later even the

New World including Peru, Mexico and Brazil. As late as the nineteenth century

Marranoes were being tried and sentenced to death in the Americas.

The Inquisition lasted from November 1st, 1478 to July 15th 1834 when it

Inquisition was finally abolished by Spain's Queen Mother Maria Christina.

In those years three and a half centuries 30,000 of its victims lost their lives on the pyres,

and countless others lost their lives in the prisons and torture chambers. Many others fell

victim in other ways, loosing their homes, possessions (ranging from a few meager

belongings to fabulously wealthy manors and estates), others losing their jobs or

reputations.

The Inquisition would ultimately go the same route as the Ancient Egyptians,

Babylonians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans before them. They would become extinct

while their target, the Jews would survive.

The Reformation and the Thirty Years War

The Great Schism

How did the Church go from its status as ultimate law and authority with the ability

to execute individuals, or wage war, to its present position of titular advisor? The process

took many centuries.

The separation of the Eastern Greek Church and Western Latin Church in 1054 laid

the groundwork. The Church was thus strengthening itself and weakening itself at the

same time. The two Churches had been growing apart since the third century. Their

differing religious practices, historical evolution, and cultural diversity had caused each

to view the other with suspicion and animosity, each claiming to be the "real" church. In

1053 Greek Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople published an attacked on

Latin practices and closed and desecrated Latin Chapels in his domain. The infuriated

Latin Pope Leo IX sent Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople but the Greek refused to

see him. Humbert reacted by excommunicating the Greek Patriarch on July 16th 1054.

Pope Leo concurred.

Greek Patriarch Michael Cerularius, in an attempt to reconcile their differences

and set an example of humility and compromise and mutual respect, sacrificed his own

honor and admitted that his rival the head of the Latin Church was an agent of the devil

and excommunicated Pope Leo. Both leaders refused to relent and went to their graves

"unrepentant."

The church was further weakened when the Crusaders (Forth Crusade 1203)

attacked and sacked Constantinople. The masses had never considered the Church

exemplary, nor the Church leaders noble, but these and other atrocities and immoral

acts had further weakened their esteem. But not yet their power. The church attempted

to reestablish its primacy and the authority of the Pope. However this only served to

ignite the rivalry between the Pope and the Emperor. King Philip the Fair (hair, not

share) accused Pope Boniface VIII of heresy. A pope accused by the king of France of

heresy is as credible as a warlock with a thumb-tip, egg bag, and dove pan. He was

removed from office. In his stead was placed Clement V, who for the privilege of running

the church was to remain subservient to the king.

In order to keep an eye on the pious, the king ordered the seat of the papacy moved

from Rome to the palace at Avignon in Provence in 1309. The office of the pope remained

in Provence until 1377 when the new pope, Gregory XI moved it back to Rome to remove

himself from the watchful eye of the hegemonious French. When he died in 1378 the

question of who would be the next pope was debated hotly, the Roman cardinals

demanding an Italian pope and the French cardinals demanding a French one.

Each side insisted that their candidate was superior based not so much on the

virtues he possessed but rather on the lack of virtues of his opponent. This immature

mudslinging match was taken up in turn by the masses until an unruly Roman mob

almost lynched the Italian cardinals demanding that the Roman candidate be sanctified

immediately. The cardinals caved in and elected Urban VI. The French cardinals

declared the election invalid and set up their own candidate, Clement VII. He set up his

office back in Avignon, far from unruly mobs and hostile elements. Meanwhile Urban set

up his office in Rome. Two popes! Neither recognized the other, each sold indulgences

and excommunicated its perceived detractors at will insisting that the authority of the

other was void. Nothing could have weakened the church further. Did I say nothing?

The offices of two popes continued until 1409 when a group of cardinals realized they

had to do something. Two popes is really no popes, they argued and so they met in Pisa

and declared both popes invalid and set up a third man of their own. Neither the French

nor Italian recognized his authority so now their were three popes.

By the time the matter was straightened out by the Council of Constance in 1418, and

the seat returned to Rome, the office of pope and the authority of the church was

irrevocably damaged.

The more the church tried to crush its detractors the more damage it did to itself. The

masses began to view it not as an authority but as an oppressor. It was based on religion

but was itself greedy selfish and violent. It crushed its critics rather than answering them.

The more it did this the more critics it encouraged.

The critics or 'heretics' as they were called by the church became more powerful and

popular until at last they could no longer be removed. The critics who were the

predecessors to the reformation were Jan Huss and John Wyclif. English Wyclif

(1329-1384), priest and Oxford philosopher was called the "morning star of the

Reformation." For the crime of criticizing the church he was condemned by Pope

Gregory XI. His teachings based on his understanding of scriptures was that it was sinful

for the clergy to hold property. Though loved by the common people he was despised by

church administrators who were denied the pleasure of burning him at the stake by his

natural death. Hoping that his ideas would die with him the church took no action for

thirty years. By then it became clear that his teachings were being promulgated at all

speed. His bones were then dug up and cast out of consecrated ground.

The Bohemian Jan Huss (1369-1415) took up the fight and advanced Wyclif's ideas.

He was a lecturer in theology at the University of Prague from 1398, and was ordained a

priest in 1400. Eventually he became rector of the University in 1403 Huss became a

national hero by criticizing the German clergy. He criticized not only the clergy's greed

but also their immorality. He was branded a traitor and heretic. He was

excommunicated in 1411. At this point he expanded his criticism of the clergy to include

the Pope. He insisted that it was the duty of honest men to refuse obedience to priests who

were corrupt.

When the church authority came to arrest him his huge following of Czech citizens

protected him and refused to turn him over to the gendarmes. It was at this point that his

followers realized that only through force, not by reason, could they get their way with

the church. The teacher was slower then the students in this area. The Emperor

Sigismund invited him to the council of Constance in 1414. Hoping to reform the church

he agreed to attend to defend his cause provided that he would be promised safe passage.

The emperor who fancied himself the protector of the church gave him letters of

safe-conduct and solemn promise to protect him.

As soon as he arrived at Constance he was arrested. The Council of Constance in

1414 condemned him and his ideas. He refused to recant. He was not as lucky as Wyclif.

He was sentenced to death by the council and was burned at the stake with the consent of

the Emperor.

Having created a martyr the church had to now contend with his numerous and

furious followers. He was a hero to the Czechs and they now viewed the church as their

enemy. Where ever possible the nobles of the Czechs replaced Roman Catholic priests on

their estates with followers of Huss. The King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus (I'm not making

this up) decided that his authority was being challenged and that the church was being

treated disrespectfully. He insisted that Roman Catholic orders be restored. The Hussites

now formed an order and community of their own. These "Taborites" as they were

called turned to violence and attacked churches and cloisters. Pope Martin V ignored the

fact that the King's edicts further prodded the Hussites into action and he called for a

crusade against them. Again the pattern of church criticized-church on the

offense-church further weakened, repeated itself. In 1420 the Pope sent troops to stamp

out the Hussites promising them victory for defending the cause of righteousness. The

Hussites rose to the challenge and met the churches forces with a decisive counter attack

and crushed the Pope's men. They now took up the offensive and their new leaders, Zizka

and Procopius waged war on countries bordering Bohemia.

The Hussites soon divided over differences among themselves, the more moderate

nobles forming the Ultraquists and the more violent peasant Taborites becoming more

apocalyptic, condemning to death those guilty of such sins as envy and avarice. The

persecuted had at last become the persecutors.

The conflict between the Hussites and the church raged on until 1485 when the

church saw that they could not prevail against them. A statute of toleration was issued in

1485 and confirmed in 1512.

The stage was now set for the reformation to continue in Germany.

In 1517 a 34 year old monk of peasant stock by the name of Marten Luther nailed a list of

95 complaints against the church to the door of the Castle church in Wittenberg. His

ideas were copied and printed and spread throughout Germany (this was one of

numerous examples of how the invention of the printing press and the education of the

masses was instrumental in the weakening of the church). By 1520 Luther was

excommunicated by Pope Leo X.

The "95 Theses" were the result of a pilgrimage to Rome that he had made which

opened his eyes to the widespread corruption of the Papal court. The pope and his

entourage were spending vast fortunes on wine, women, and song (mostly wine and

women), adorning themselves with the costliest finery, and using every opportunity to

wage war and collect the booty.

In 1517 a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel came to Wittenberg to sell

indulgences to raise funds for the rebuilding of St. Peter's in Rome. Indulgences were

church sponsored tickets to heaven (see The First Crusade). Luther considered

indulgences a scandalous abuse of church authority. Tetzel himself received a large share

of all he sold. Luther called him a corrupt and greedy hypocrite. Tetzel replied that if he

was than so was the church. Luther shocked Tetzel by agreeing. Tetzel reported Luther's

blasphemy to the Pope.

Shortly thereafter Luther nailed the '95 Theses' to the church door and the

Reformation quickly spread. Luther recruited converts to his new faith one at a time.

When he came across the Jewish community living in his vicinity he was impressed by

their piety and sincerity. Here, he thought was what he had been talking about. It was

indeed possible to lead honest and sincerely spiritual lives, without the influence of the

church. He had found living proof of his own ideas! He understood why the Jews had

rejected the church all these years, he had rejected it himself. The Jews didn't just

preach truth, justice, and charity, and honesty, they practiced it as well. And their

leaders didn't sell bogus tickets to heaven either. They led their flock and implored them

to turn their hearts toward their Creator in Heaven and to act in accordance with the

teachings of the holy Torah. And they set an example for their people to follow. They

attracted students through love and wisdom, not by threats and cruelty. Luther stated

that the Jews were, "of the best blood on earth, children of G-d, while we Christians are

the guests and strangers"(Luther's Sammitleche Werke).

As Luther gained popularity and power he realized that he could be "the one" to

convert the Jews to Christianity. They had rejected the church thanks to its own

corruption, but now that he had reformed the church surely the Jews would follow so

exalted a leader as himself, a man who the planet had not seen the likes of since the time

of Moses. His enthusiasm was crushed however when the Jews refused to abandon the

faith of their fathers. Luther reacted violently against them, instigating numerous

pogroms and sustained persecutions against those whom he felt had rejected him. He

later wrote about the Jews, "...they will all burn in hell, their existence is a hopeless,

wicked, and devilish thing. They are our pest, torment, and misfortune."(Luther's Juden

und jren Lugen 1543).

He also rekindled arcane prejudices by accusing them of blood libels and

well-poisonings, and insisted that their synagogues and schools be burnt to the ground.

He proudly proclaimed that he could solve many of the problems of the German peoples

by being allowed to burn Jewish books and confiscate their possessions. As a result, the

Germans of Saxony and Hesse mercilessly persecuted the Jews there and finally expelled

them. The full implementation of his plans however lay dormant until the 20th century

when Hitler began his public propaganda campaign by quoting Luther, "the Jews are

our misfortune".

Lutheranism spread throughout Germany. In 1526 Emperor Charles V allowed

each prince the right to decide for himself in matters of religion, thinking that the vast

majority would choose Roman Catholicism and the new 'fad' would quickly die out.

In 1529 he decided the Lutherans were gaining to much power and revoked the

privileges. Against this action the evangelical princes issued a vigorous Protestation. It

was from this that the name "Protestant" derived. In 1545 Luther continued his assault

on the Pope and church and published a tract entitled, "Of the Papacy in Rome Founded

by the Devil." He died of heart failure a year later.

Conflict raged on until 1555 when the Emperor allowed rulers of various states into

which Germany was divided to decide whether their particular subjects should be

Roman Catholics of Lutherans. The princes and nobles of each state decided which

religion was allowed for their peasants. Nobody seemed to see anything wrong with that

and it became policy. In the end the South adhered to Rome, the North established the

Lutheran Church. From thence the new doctrines spread over Denmark, Norway and

Sweden.

In Switzerland, Ulrich Zwingli, and French exile John Calvin adopted Luther's

ideas and the Presbyterian Church was established there. In France where Calvin's

followers were called Huguenots the new Protestants had to fight for there religious

freedom. From 1562 to the early seventeenth century the bloodiest conflicts between

Catholic and Protestant raged on in France. The country was drenched in blood for forty

years. On August 24th 1572 Roman C

trumped up charge of adultery which she knew carried with it the death penalty.

Henry was succeeded by his and his third wife Jane Seymour's son Edward VI

(pro-Reformation) who was succeeded by his and Catherine's daughter Mary

(anti-Reformation) and then by Elizabeth I (pro-Reformation). Mary, or "bloody Mary"

Tutor was despised not only for mercilessly persecuting the Protestants and having three

hundred of them burnt at the stake, but also for marrying a Spaniard, Philip II. The

thought of a succession of half-Spanish Catholic heirs to the throne was anathema to the

English and when Mary died without issue in 1558 their spirits soared. Philip went on to

become king of Spain and latter clashed with his sister-in-law, the new queen Elizabeth.

"Good queen Bess" reigned for 45 years.

Meanwhile in the Netherlands the ideas of the Reformation found a warm welcome.

But champion of the Roman Catholic Church, Emperor Charles V resorted to the

terrors of the Inquisition to root out all traces of Protestantism. In 1522 his persecutions

in the 'lowlands' began and continued unabated for thirty years. Over 30,000 men and

women were hanged or burnt to death at the stake for the crime of challenging the

church's authority. The terror did nothing to abate the growth of Calvinism there.

In 1555 Charles abdicated and his son Philip II ruled Netherlands and Spain and the

persecutions intensified. The nobles and peasantry alike resented the Spanish troops

situated there and the lack of religious freedom and demanded independence. In 1567

Philip sent the Duke of Alve to crush the offenders and six years of hideous slaughter

and ferocious oppression followed.

The Dutch leader, William the Silent, Prince of Orange stood as a unifying force to

the tough little Calvinists. In 1568 revolt broke out. England's Queen Elizabeth I,

notorious enemy of Philip, abetted the rebellion. In 1581 The Union of Utrecht declared

independence from the Spanish despot.

The Spanish refused to let the wealthy little principality go. The numerous

marranoes who had settled there had made the country into a leading commercial,

colonial and navel power. They had transformed the unknown village of Amsterdam into

the most important commercial port on the content. This was more than the Spanish

could stand.

In 1584 Philip was getting desperate and offered a reward for William's head.

William who is mourned to this day by the Dutch as 'father of our country' was

murdered. This not only didn't stop the rebellion against Spain, it strengthened it. When

Elizabeth I defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588 the Dutch were able to intensify their

offensive and strike a crippling blow. In 1609 The Netherlands' independence was

acknowledged.

With the Reformation firmly established the stage was set for the Thirty Years War

(1618-1648). As if enough blood hadn't been spilt already the Catholic Church and

Emperor attempted do crush all opposition. Rather than answering those questions

raised by the Reformation, rather than accepting the rebuke that their subjects

presented to them, they responded to being accused of being violent and stubborn by

killing anyone who dared challenged their authority.

The war began in 1618. With Protestantism strengthening all around, the ruling

Hapsburgs of Austria decided to uproot all of them if possible, exterminate them if

necessary, from all their dominions, beginning in rebellious Bohemia. The Czechs

resented the special favors granted to Germans and Catholics and requested equality.

When the Emperor refused, the Protestant Count Matthias of Thurn and his men picked

up the Hapsburgs representatives who were stationed in the Castle of Prague and threw

them out the window. This event was referred to a "the Defenestration of Prague." They

survived the fall when they fell into a pile of garbage and human and animal waste, but

Most of the foreign troops were seasoned Scots. In 1617 he put his new technology to the

test. He fought the Russians and won a decisive victory gaining Ingermanland for

Sweden.

When the Reformation spread from Northern Germany to Norway, Denmark, and

Sweden the Scandinavians viewed themselves as progressive adherents. When Ferdinand

waged war on the Protestants Gustavus stayed out of the fray allowing King Frederick

and King Christian to deal with it. In 1630 it became obvious that Ferdinand could not be

stopped.

The prospect that Catholic power would soon be entrenched on the North and Baltic

seas prodded him into action.

Just when the Protestant cause seemed hopeless he came to the rescue to Ferdinand's

chagrin. By now Ferdinand's resources were severely depleted. Gustavus was

unstoppable. He attacked and routed Ferdinand's men at Breitenfeld near Leipzig in

September 1631. In November 1632 Ferdinand again faced "The Lion of the North" and

Ferdinand's best general Albert of Wallenstein was crushed in the battle of Lutzen. But

the cost to the Swedes was great. A musket ball penetrated the king's armor and entered

his upper abdomen. Gustavus died on the battlefield. The suit of clothes he wore beneath

his armor can be viewed in the National Museum in Stockholm adjacent to the crown

jewels. The hole left by the bullet and the blood stain surrounding it are clearly visible.

Normally an invading army is viewed with hostility by the indigenous population.

This was not the case with Gustavus and his army however for several reasons and the

support of the locals helped his cause. Firstly most northern Germans were Protestants

and considered the Swedes as their saviors from the oppressive Catholics. Secondly the

barbarous armies of Frederick plundered all lands they occupied and the brutal sacking

of Magdeburg by Tilly's undisciplined soldiers in May 1631 was fresh in their memories.

The defenders of the Catholic church and the agents of the Pope and the Emperor went

house to house, raping, murdering and robbing in that order and then burning the

remains to the ground. Most of Northern Germany and Bohemia was dealt with likewise.

To this day the Northern Germans are grateful to the Swedes and this was another

reason Sweden was allowed to remain neutral during World War II (besides having been

the seat of the international Red Cross).

Gustavus was able to feed and supply his men without looting which gained him

favor with the locals. This was a novel development in the history of warfare but to do

this he needed an ally which he found in Cardinal Richelieu who subsidized his troops.

Richelieu kept the French out of the fighting until he deemed absolutely necessary, as

Gustavus had d one. He supported the Swedes indirectly until 1635 when French troops

entered the war and eventually finished Frederick off for good in 1648.

French Cardinal Richelieu was a Roman Catholic but his hatred of the Hapsburgs and

the Holy Roman Empire superseded all other concerns. What did he care if Protestants

gained victory in Germany, as long as the despised Hapsburgs were crushed. This in spite

of his mercilessly persecuting the French Protestants at the same time. In this sense the

Thirty Years War started out as a religious war and ended as a political war.

The end came in 1648 with the treaty of Westphalia. Germany was destroyed and its

political fragmentation officially sanctioned. A divided Germany meant, as it always has,

future peace in western Europe for years to come.

In terms of land, France acquired notable gains of previously German lands, and

Sweden also carved up German lands along the southern coast of the Baltic, some of its

most valuable property. Sweden also received a large cash indemnity and the right to

cast three votes in the Diet of the Empire, meaning the right to interfere with German

politics.

Other results of the treaty were Switzerland and United Netherlands gaining

independence and being recognized as political republics contrary to the wishes of Spain.

Calvinists (Swiss Protestants) received the same rights as Lutherans and parity between

Catholics and Protestants in the courts of the Empire was established. Rulers received

the "right of reformation" i.e. the right to determine their subjects' religion and the

subjects received the "right" to emigrate if dissatisfied with their rulers choice. Cardinal

Richelieu had died in 1642 but his apt pupil, Cardinal Mazarin was duly satisfied with

the terms.

The Holy Roman Empire which had been established by Charlemagne in 800 was so

weakened that for the next 150 years it stood on the constant brink of collapse until that

actually happened in 1806. The last Emperor was Francis II of Austria about who's

Empire the Voltaire said, "it is neither Holy, Roman, nor an Empire." With impending

doom on the horizon in the form of Napoleon, Francis resigned his title as Emperor.

Cardinal Richelieu thus not only empowered himself, he strengthened the rulership

of the French monarchy which set the groundwork for France's to establish its greatest

strength and most powerful king, Louis XIV, the "Sun King". This gave France the

strength and stamina to survive the French Revolution and give birth to a Napoleon who

could conquer an Empire of his own.

In those days if one was not born into a royal family his only way to rise to power was

through the military (rare), the merchant class and wealth (rarer), or to rise through the

ranks of the church as Richelieu had done (rarest).

Armand Jean Du Plessis Richelieu was born in 1585 and made Bishop of Lucon in

1607. Marie de Medices the regent and queen mother was so impressed by his ability and

shrewdness she made him secretary of state in 1616.

As a reward for his services in reconciling the queen mother and the young king Louis

XIII he was made Cardinal in 1622. Two years later he was Prime Minister.

Prior to this the French "Wars of Religion" (1562-1598) had been waged between the

Protestant Huguenots and the incumbent Catholics. In the "Edict of Nantes" the

Huguenots had won their "state within a state." However Richelieu viciously waged an

all-out offensive against them and besieged and captured La Rochelle their principal

stronghold in 1628 in spite of Protestant aide and support to the Huguenots from

England and other Protestant sympathizers. The resultant "Peace of Alais" withdrew all

their political gains and privileges. In addition to this he persecuted them without

compromise at every opportunity.

In 1630 the king's mother and brother, Gaston d'Orleans attempted to overthrow

Richelieu but he crushed the rebellion and had the queen mother exiled to Compiegne.

This occurred on the famous "Day of Dupes" November 10th, 1630, from which the

modern term "to dupe" or "turn the tables" comes. He sentenced the Duc de

Montmorency to death in 1633 insisting that rebellion against the crown should be

mercilessly punished no matter how high the culprit's rank.

Richelieu emerged politically all-powerful and nothing could stop him from

throwing France into the Thirty years war with all France's might and resources, even if

it meant economic disaster and the loss of most of France's remaining male population,

those who had survived the Wars of Religion.

At every step in his career Richelieu used all his power to gain more power for himself

at the expense of all those who stood in his way. His goal at each level was always the

same: to increase his power. No sooner had he ascended a step on the political ladder did

he set his sights on the next step and ruthlessly achieve it.

If there is one man who sums up the concept of "Unholy War" it is Cardinal Richelieu.

While persecuting the Huguenots he claimed to be defending the church against heretics.

If the Protestants were heretics it didn't seem to bother him when he fought alongside

them against the Catholics in the Thirty Years War. Here was a Catholic Cardinal, and

official administrator and representative of the church and the Catholic religion, fighting

a bloody war against the German Catholics to the rescue of the German, Swiss, and

Scandinavian Protestants! And winning! A man who had organized and carried out the

wholesale slaughter of the French Protestants only a few years before! It boggles the

mind.

A man who rose tooth and claw to power only to use that power in the most

destructive way possible, to persecute his co-nationals because of their religious beliefs

and to wage war against his political rivals.

When he gained power to imprison, he imprisoned his rivals and rose to greater

power making him the most powerful man in the French clergy. When he gained power

to execute, he executed his opponents and rose to higher political office making him the

most powerful man in France. When he gained power to wage war, he waged war,

crushing his enemies to make him the most powerful man in Europe. Had he not suffered

from a weak constitution and ill health and not died at the young age of 57, who knows

what trouble he might have caused.

This then is the embodiment of the concept of "Unholy War". To wage a so-called

"Holy War", hiding behind G-d and religion for one's own personal gain, be it an

individual or a country. This is a desecration of G-d's name. Using G-d, the One who said

"Love your neighbor as yourself", as an excuse to kill and shed the blood of innocent

victims. This turns people away from religion in general and from G-d in particular.

Ask Richelieu how he can persecute the Huguenots. He says, "I'm defending the

Church." Ask him how he can wage war against the German Catholics. He says, "I'm

defending the Crown".

He's not defending anybody. He's attacking. He's under no threat. He's a bloodthirsty

murderer. And his robes are the perfect disguise. He's the Spanish Inquisition, the

Crusades, the Grand Mufti, and the Druid Priests rolled into one. The same people who

brought you human sacrifice are back and bigger than before. And don't dare criticize

them. Its heresy, punishable by death.

This in stark contrast of the Jewish view of Peace and War. Peace is the ambition of

the Jewish people, world peace their aim, peace between family and friends, nation and

nation their goal. This is reflected not only by their actions, promoting peace and

preaching peace, but is also found in their writings throughout history. Consider the

following:

"When two men argue, the one who yields first displays the nobler nature." -Talmud

(Kidushin 71b).

"All the Torah's ways are pleasantness, and all its paths are peace." - Proverbs 3:17

"Peace is priceless, for G-d's name is Shalom." - Midrash (Bamidbar Rabbah 11:18).

"The counselors of peace have joy." -Proverbs 12:20

" If one seeks everlasting peace, truth must proceed it, as it says, 'Therefore love truth

and peace.' " - Zechariah 8:19

"The greatest blessing is that of peace, for all other blessings are included in it."

-Midrash (Vayikra Rabbah 9:9).

Perhaps King David said it best:

"Seek peace and pursue it." - Psalms 34:15

What is the Jewish concept of war? Besides the obvious need to defend one's life if it

is threatened, there is a concept of "Holy War." But it does not include the spilling of

blood in the name of G-d. It includes the war that one wages on one's self. The inner

battle between good and evil. The conquest of man's positive creative side, against his

own destructive or lazy side. It is the battle we wage each moment when we are faced

with a decision. Do we take the easy way out or do we strive to improve ourselves and the

world around us? When we have the urge to take something that does not belong to us, to

speak gossip, or to raise a hand against the weaker. The battle within rages and if we

desist we win. If we feel lazy or apathetic, the battle is on to go that extra mile, to give a

bit more charity, to study an extra chapter of Talmud, to help a neighbor in distress.

Because the way to change the world is to change one's self. To set an example. This

is the "Holy War". To improve oneself. As it says in our holy Talmud, (Pirkei Avoth 4:1)-

" Rabbi Ben Zoma said, 'Who is mighty? The one who conquers his own passions, as

King Solomon said, (Proverbs 16:31) 'He who rules his spirit is stronger than the

conqueror of a city.'

Our goal is not to conquer others. It is to improve ourselves. This is the "Holy War".

The war in which everyone wins.

Bibliography

"History of theMarranoes"Cecil Roth(Jewish Publication Society,New York,1932)

"The Crusades" Jonathan Riley-Smith (Yale University Press, New Haven , 1987)

"The Rishonim" Rabbi Shmuel Teich (Mesorah Publications, New York 1982)

"A History of the Jews in Christian Spain" Yitzhak Baer (Philadelphia, 1966)

"The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. II :The Reformation 1525-1559"

(Cambridge 1959)

"HaMoreh L'Doros" Meir Oryan (Mosad HaRav Kook, Jerusalem 1969)

"Living World of History" (Living World Publications, London 1964)

"Herald of Destiny" Berel Wein (Shaar Press, New York, 1993)

"Gustavus Adolfus" Michael Roberts (New York 1953-1959)

"The Spanish Inquisition" Cecil Roth (New York, 1964)

"The Diaspora Story" Joan Comay (Steimatzky Limited 1988)

Beth Hatefutsoth-The Nahum Goldmann Museum of the Jewish Diaspora