1914: THE GENESIS OF A TRAGEDY

THE TRIUMPH OF NATIONALISM

THE WORD “NATION”

A key word of the French Revolution

“What is a nation? A body of associates living under a common law and represented

by thesame legislature”

1789: a National Assembly

THE DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN

“The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor

individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation”

The nation = a social contract freely embraced by

the citizens

THE ROMANTIC THEORY OF NATIONS

Romanticism: intellectual movement of the late 18th century focusing on emotions

A nation = the fruit of nature

The Franco-German conflict and the question of Alsace-Lorraine

Self-determination vs. national identity through

language

ERNEST RENAN

What is a nation? (1882)

NO nation without national consciousness

New technologies (printing press/the

railroad) + EDUCATION

Wars: “Us” vs. “Them”

PERCEPTIONS

THE THREE-YEAR LAW (FRANCE)

RUSSIFICATION IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

PAN-SLAVISM

THE RISE OF GERMAN NATIONALISM

The unification of Germany (1871)

GERMAN NATIONALISM

A “German National Myth” rediscovered in the 18th century and boosted by the French

Revolution & the Napoleonic Wars

Main element of unity = hatred for the French

The dream of a Greater Germany

1862: BISMARCK AS CHANCELLOR

The unification of Germany under Prussia’s

leadership

“Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided but by iron

and blood“

The concept of Realpolitik (diplomacy based on power)

PRUSSIA UNTIL 1859

Austria dominates the German Confederation until 1859

ACT 1: THE ZOLLVEREIN

Austria denied membership

NAPOLEON III AND BISMARCK

Dialogue “Iron and Blood”

ACT 2: TO ISOLATE FRANCE

Napoleon III supportive of the German national movement

A German Confederation in the South and one in the North

Bismarck: France to be compensated if she remains neutral (Austria = next target)

Germany and Italy = a military alliance

ACT 3: THE BATTLE OF SADOWA

A decisive Prussian victory

ACT 4: A NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION

Free movement of the citizens within the

territory of the Confederation (1867)

A common postal system (1867/1868)

common passports (1867)

The taking over of the Prussian military laws

(1867)

To avoid humiliating Austria

ACT 5: THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870 - 1871)

Bismarck: France = an obstacle to the incorporation of Southern German states to

the German Confederation

Napoleon III aware of the danger but fails to reform the French military

A Franco-Austrian rapprochement?

THE AFFAIR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION

1868: Queen Isabella of Spain overthrown

1870: the throne of Spain offered to a German prince

Unacceptable to France

The Ems dispatch

AT WAR

France diplomatically isolated

A defensive strategy

Poor logistics

Lack of conscription

THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR

The collapse of the Second Empire

The Third Republic

The Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871): the loss of Alsace-Lorraine + heavy reparations

German unification is now complete

GERMANY’S ‘WORLD POLICY’ (WELTPOLITIK)

Prince von Bulow

‘We do not want to place anyone into the shadow, but we also claim our place in the

sun’

1897

Social Darwinism: the survival of the fittest

The notion that the German race is superior

A state must expand to survive

A PAN GERMAN LEAGUE

To unify German-speaking peoples of Europe

German spheres of influence outside of Europe + colonies

No more than 20,000 members

Perception: Germany = a threat

THE WAR IS INEVITABLE

The notion war was inevitable widespread in Germany

Two wars in the Balkans (1912-1913)

Confrontation between Germanic peoples and Slavs inevitable

The Russian “menace”

THE FEAR OF ENCIRCLEMENT

RUSSIAN REARMAMENT

‘Germany and the Next War’ (1911)

General von Bernhardi

War is a ‘biological necessity’

Germany must strike the first blow: France must be completely

crushed

FRANCE’S FOREIGN POLICY

Raymond Poincaré

The French motto: avoid war

if possible but remain firm

Revenge over the loss of

Alsace-Lorraine = a MYTH

THE FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE (1894)

The cornerstone of French foreign policy

THE “SICK MAN OF EUROPE”

NATIONALISM IN THE BALKANS

The gradual retreat of Ottoman power in South-Eastern Europe

THE BALKAN WARS (1912-1913)

Sharing the spoils

complicated: a complex

repartition of populations

The seeds of a second conflict

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908)

THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE AND THE BALKANS

THE ASSASSINATION OF FRANZ FERDINAND

EUROPE AT WAR

A GENERAL WAR IMPOSSIBLE?

The Great Illusion by Norman Angell (1910): economic interdependence of

nations = war is unprofitable

A 20th century war would be on such a scale to make war

‘unthinkable’

THE RISE OF INTERNATIONALISMS

A major cultural change: the perception of an irresistible march towards globalization

500+ international organizations (1912)

A common goal: to forge a project for the future/to build a new society

INTERNATIONALISM vs. NATIONALISM

THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL (1889-1916)

“The worker has no country”A common enemy: capitalism

1864: THE BIRTH OF THE RED CROSS

The Battle of Solferino (1859)Henri Dunant

THE HAGUE CONFERENCES 1899-1907

Nicolas II

A peace conference for the

limitation of armaments Safeguarding

the human rights of

individuals involved in

armed conflicts

THREE SECTIONS

The peaceful resolution of international conflicts

Laws and customs for the conduct of war on land

The extension of the Geneva Convention of 1864 to naval warfare

THE SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE (1907)

“Hostilities [between nations] must not commence without previous and explicit

warning” “The territory of a neutral power is

inviolable.”

The use of floating mines was forbidden

WAS WAR INEVITABLE?

The rise of nationalism in Europe = increased tensions

The spark: the assassination at Sarajevo