The Three Emperors’ League

• 1872• Dreikaiserbund• Germany, Russia, Austria--pledged to cooperate to maintain peace and the status quo• Part of Bismarck's effort to keep France isolated

Russo-Turkish War (1877-78)• 1876--revolt against Ottoman rule broke out in Bulgaria• Turks slaughtered thousands• Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire• Russians went to war in 1877 b/c they were "protectors of the Slavs"

1878--Treaty of San Stefano Forced on Turks by Russians Independent Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania Autonomy to Bulgaria (access to Aegean Sea), but it would be under Russian domination Turkish lands in the Caucasus to Russia

• Increase of Russian power threatened Austria• British feared advance of Russian power in eastern Mediterranean (where they had naval and commercial interests)• Br. threatened war with Russia

The Treaty of Berlin 1878

• Congress of Berlin replaced T. of S.S. with T. of B. (1878) Bismarck’s idea• Independent Serbia, Rumania, Montenegro• Confirmed Russian acquisition of Turkish lands in Caucasus• Size of Bulgaria reduced• Russia had control over "autonomous" northern Bulgaria• Turks would retain full autonomy over Macedonia• Austria received right to occupy and administer Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (but not to annex)• British got Cyprus• Intended to recognize Russian domination eastern Balkans and Austria's in the west, but far more beneficial to Austria• Led to collapse of Three Emperors' League

Germany/Bismarck’s Alliances• Dual Alliance--secret alliance between Austria and Germany for mutual aid in case either was attacked by Russia• 1881--TEL was reestablished, but remained fragile because of tension between Austria and Russia• Triple Alliance

1881--France established protectorate over Tunisia Italians angry 1882--Italy joined Germany and Austria in secret defensive alliance, the Triple Alliance

• Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 Germany-Russia Benevolent neutrality in case either partner involved in war Not applicable if Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria 1890--Not renewed by William II, who had dismissed Bismarck

Led to secret military alliance between Russia and France in 1894 (diplomatic revolution) Directed primarily against GB

Anglo-French Entente• France believed Germany posed a greater threat than GB• French withdrawal from Sudan during Fashoda Crisis marked beginning of better relations• England had already ended "splendid isolation" in 1902 with Anglo-Japanese alliance (directed primarily against Russian expansion)• Entente Cordial 1904• Dealt with colonial issues• French recognized British dominance in Egypt• British agreed to support French claims in Morocco• Began to consult on international issues of mutual interest

Secret Italo-French Agreement

• 1902• Italy promised to support French efforts to establish a protectorate over Morocco• French supported Italian ambitions elsewhere in North Africa• Austria became Germany's only reliable ally

First Moroccan Crisis• 1905--William II (Ger.) declared that Germany had interests in Morocco and spoke of Moroccan independence• Algeciras Conference (1906)

Germans isolated except for Austria GB, Russia, and Italy supported France Unfavorable impression for Germany Brought Fr., GB, and Rus. closer together

Anglo-Russian Entente• 1907• Encouraged by French• Recognized Russian sphere of influence in northern Persia and a British one in southern Persia• Russians agreed to withdraw from Afghanistan• Both promised to respect territorial integrity of Tibet• Could now collaborate in European affairs• Completed Triple Entente (Br, Fr., Rus.)

Two Blocs

BritainFranceRussia(Italy)

Triple Entente Triple Alliance

GermanyAustriaItaly (not faithful)

Bosnian Crisis• Germany could not restrain Austria's actions in the Balkans b/c Austria was Germany's only faithful ally• Buchlau Agreement (1908)

Russia would support Austria's efforts to annex Bos/Herz Austria would support Russia's efforts to gain right to send warships through Turkish Straits

• Austria annexed, and Russia annoyed because it hadn't gotten its part of the agreement fulfilled yet• Serbia also angry because Serbs thought that one day they could annex Bos/Herz• Austria and Germany forced Russia to back down in 1909, humiliating Russia

The Second Moroccan Crisis• 1911--Germany renewed objections to establishment of French protectorate over Morocco.• German warship Panther sent to Agadir (Mor. port)• French agreed to cede part of French Congo to Germany in return for German recognition of the French position in Morocco• Germany's "diplomacy" caused alarm• 1912--British began to concentrate warships in North Sea• French shifted bulk of their navy to Mediterranean• Entente Cordial comes close to being converted ina full alliance• At the same time, Italy went to war against the Ottoman Empire, won, and got Tripoli (Libya) in 1912

The First Balkan War (1912-13

• Italy's victory and gain of Tripoli encouraged small Balkan states to press their demands against the Ottoman Empire• Under Russian patronage, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece had formed the Balkan League• 1912--Balkan League went to war against Turkey• Treaty of London

May 1913 Ottoman Empire lost all territory in Europe except for area immediately adjacent to the Turkish Straits Albania created to curb Serbian expansion

The Second Balkan War (1913)

• Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Rumania, and Turkey joined to defeat Bulgaria• Treaty of Bucharest forced Bulgaria to cede territory• Russia's ambitions in the Balkans and Turkish straits had been frustrated• Russians felt compelled to support Serbia more firmly in the future• Germans believed it essential to back Austria

Outbreak of WWI1. June 28, 1914--Sarajevo, Bosnia. Franz Ferdinand (heir to Austrian throne) assassinated by Princep2. Serbian government aware and did nothing3. Austrian ultimatum to Serbia on July 23

Declared war July 28 Germany gave them a blank check

4. July 30--Russia mobilizes to back SerbiaGermany gives an ultimatum to stop

5. Germany declares war on Russia Schlieffen Plan--avoid a two-front war

6. France asks the intentions of Germany. France will act according to its own interests.7. August 3--Germany declares war on France8. Great Britain declares war on Germany (Aug. 4) because Germany touched Belgium in its bikini area

"The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime." -- Sir Edward Grey (British foreign secretary)

“The Great War”• Global war• Involves civilian population

Draft Taxes Price ceilings Wage controls Rationing Censorship

“The Great War”• New techniques

Birth control Tanks, subs, aircraft Heavy artillery/machine guns Communication

Radio Telegraph Propaganda

• Trench warfare• U.S. intervention in the last year• Psychological scars, lost generation• 10 million dead, 20 million wounded

Schlieffen Plan• Avoid two-front war• Rapid German mobilization• Defeat France in six weeks by going through Belgium• Concentrate energies against Russia• Didn't work

The Russian Revolution• WWI devastating for the country's backward agriculture and prepubescent industry• Nicholas II took control of the army in 1915, leaving Alexandra (under influence of Rasputin) to run the gov't• Early 1917--Strikes broke out all over St. Petersburg• Nicky dissolved the Duma, but radicals remained in the capital• March 12--Duma elected a committee to represent its interests• Nicky ordered troops to suppress the demonstrators--troops joined the demonstrators• March 15--Nicky abdicated• Duma became Russia's provisional gov't• Promised reforms and announced plans for the election of an assembly to draft a constitution for a democratic republic• Socialists created soviets (councils)• April 1917--Lenin returned to St. Petersburg (brought there by German forces) and presented April Theses to the Bolsheviks• "Peace, Land, and Bread"

July Days• Spontaneous revolt against unpopular provisional gov't• Suppressed• Bolshevik support of the revolt weakened the group and sent Lenin into exile• In the long-run, the position won Bolsheviks new followers

November (October) Revolution

• Nov. 6-7, 1917--Bolsheviks/Red Guards seized strategic points in St. Petersburg• Nov. 7--Lenin announced establishment of new regime: The Council of People's Commissars

Chairman: Lenin Commissar for Foreign Affairs: Trotsky Commissar for Nationalities: Stalin

• Took control in other cities with little violence

Early Measures of the Bolshevik Regime

• All political parties ceased to function in any meaningful fashion in the face of Bolshevik dictatorship (1918)• Church and state separated• Church property seized• Many churches, monasteries, and convents closed• Religious instruction prohibited• Civil marriage ceremonies had legal recognition• Replaced Julian calendar with Gregorian calendar• Simplified the Cyrillic alphabet• Titles of nobility abolished• Banks seized for the state• Debt of the tsarist gov't repudiated

Treaty of Brest-Livosk• Russia could not fight a broad and contain problems at home• Bolsheviks believed the war benefited only capitalism• December 1917--armistice with Germany• March 3, 1918--treaty• Russia yielded Poland, Baltic states, and Ukraine• Some territory in Caucasus to Turkey• Heavy war indemnity

Russian Civil War

• "Red" Russians supported the revolution• "White" Russians opposed revolutions• Summer 1918--Bolsheviks murdered Nicky and family• By 1921, Lenin & co. firmly in control

Paris Peace Conference of 1919

US - WilsonEngland - George

France - ClemenceauItaly - Orlando

Wilson’s Objectives

• "Peace without victory"• Fourteen Points

Open diplomacy Freedom of the seas Free trade Reduction of armaments Self-determination League of Nations

Clemenceau’s Objectives

• Gain security for France against possible future resurgence of German power• Substantial reparations from Germany to pay for reconstruction of war-ravaged Northern France

George’s Objectives

• Restore continental balance of power• Allow enough peace so that GB could devote attention to empire

Orlando’s Objective

Gain as much territory as possible

for Italy

The Treaty of Versailles• One of five treaties produced (Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, Germany)--treaty with Germany• Allies would occupy the Rhineland (between France and Germany) for fifteen years• Rhineland permanently demilitarized• Alsace and Lorraine back to France• Saar Basin (coal) in Germany placed under control of League of Nations for fifteen years• Coal of Saar property of French

The Treaty of Versailles• Poland recreated

Received large pieces of Germany Polish Corridor (created to give Poland access to the Baltic) separated East Prussia from Germany

• Port city of Danzig a free city at the head of the Polish Corridor• German army restricted to 100,000 men, navy reduced to coastal defense force• Germany allowed no air force, no tanks, no subs, no shoes - no service!• Article 231

"War Guilt" clause Germany and allies accepted responsibility for causing the war Justified requiring Germany to pay $33 billion in reparations to Allies

• Signed in the Hall of Mirrors on June 28, 1919

Colonies• Germany lost all colonies in Africa and Pacific• Africa given to GB and France under mandate system• Supposed to protect indigenous populations and prepare for independence, but really annexation• German islands in N. Pacific went to Japan• Germany's islands in S. Pacific went to Australia and New Zealand• France and Britain acquired Turkish lands in the Middle East (Treaty of Sèvres)

Other Changes• Austria-Hungary became Austria and Hungary (Treaty of St-Germain)• Czechoslovakia created from old A-H territory• Sudetenland (large German-speaking pop.) given to Czech.• Serbia, Montenegro joined in Yugoslavia• Estonia, Latvia, Finland, and Lithuania received independence from Russia

League of Nations• Covenant• Assembly representing all members• Council--major powers as permanent members, elected smaller powers• Secretariat as the administrative body• Headquartered in Geneva, Switz.• Permanent Court of International Justice ("World Court") in The Hague• U.S. did not join because Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles