The Theme of Melancholy and Nostalgia Within the Landscape Paintings of the Camden Town Group in Comparison With Other Post-Impressionist Artists

7/28/2019 The Theme of Melancholy and Nostalgia Within the Landscape Paintings of the Camden Town Group in Comparison With Other Post-Impressionist Artists.

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Contents

Introduction 3

ChapterOneMelancholyandNostalgia 8WhatisMelancholy? 8TheHistoryofMelancholyanditsMeaning 10TheImportanceofMelancholyintheVictorianandEdwardianEras 14IdentifyingPersonalandCulturalMelancholy 19

MelancholyinHistoryofArt 25ChapterTwoCamdenTownGroup:ABriefHistoryandContextualisation 30

WhoWeretheCamdenTownGroup? 30InspirationandTechnique 31TheCamdenTownGroupSubject 33DisagreementandDivision 36PersonalMelancholyandtheEndoftheCamdenTownGroup 37ChapterThreeAnAnalysisofMelancholyandNostalgiawithintheLandscape

PaintingsoftheCamdenTownGroupinComparisonwithotherPost-ImpressionistArtists39

i)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheCityscape 39ii)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheModernCountryLandscape 47iii)AnAnalysisofChildhoodNostalgiaandMelancholy 56iv)AnAnalysisofSocialNostalgiaintheTraditionalCountryLandscape 66

Conclusion 73

Bibliography 77


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Introduction

Figure1.SpencerGore,GauguinsandConnoisseurs,1911.Oiloncanvas(83.8x71.7cm)PrivateCollection.


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In1910,theEnglishartcriticRogerFry,heldaseminalexhibitioninLondoncalled

ManetandthePost-Impressionists.Itwastoforgethewayinshowcasingmodern

EuropeanartinBritain.1Thenin1911,anEnglishartistbythenameofSpencerGore,

decidedtocelebratethiseventinapaintingcalledGauguinsandConoisseurs[Figure1]

Hisdepictionoftheeventshowsalivelycrowdofvisitorsembracinganewmovement

ofartdevelopedbythePost-ImpressionistmastersGauguin,CezanneandVanGogh.

Gore,likehisartisticcolleagues,hadlongheldafascinationwiththisart,whichhad

precededtheBritishpublicsknowledgeofitsexistence.2Itwasaroundthetimeofthis

exhibition,thatagroupofmensoughttodepicttheirownlandinthestyleoftheir

idolsandsotheCamdenTownGroupwasborn.

TheCamdenTownGroupsplacewithinthehistoryofBritisharthasunfortunately

beensomewhatignoredandunderstated.Yettheirartisacuriousnarrativeonthe

experiencesofBritishculture,whichlaidimportanceonboththelandscapeinthecity

andthecountry.Furthermore,thegrouphaveoftenbeenevaluatedascelebratorsof

thecityandthattheirimportanceonlyliesherewith.Inreality,thereisastrongcase

foranexplorationofmelancholyandnostalgiawithinthesepaintersworks.

MelancholiawasanunavoidablepartofBritishculture,whichhaddevelopedoutof

theVictorianeraasaresultofthenegativeeffectsofmodernisation.Nostalgiabecame

partofaremedyinwhichtoalleviatetheseproblemswithinsociety.Withinananalysis

oftheirworks,itshallbeseenthattheseartiststrodalineonwhichtheycouldusethe

1AnnaGruetznerRobins,ModernArtinBritain1910-1914(Michigan:UniversityofMichigan,1997),p.8.2JudithTerry,TobiBruce,JaniceAndersonandDanielleChaput,Lasting

Impressions:CelebratedWorksoftheArtGalleryofHamilton(Hamilton:ArtGallery

ofHamilton,2005),p.82.


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creative,colourfulandexperimentalstyleofthePost-Impressionistsandapplyittoa

melancholicornostalgicsubject.

Whatshallbearguedhereisthatthereismuchtobesaidaboutthesimilarsubjects

whichtheCamdenTownGroupandPost-Impressionistsportrayed.Itwasnotjust

stylisticallyinwhichthetwoartisticerassharedacommontheme.Frenchsocietywas

undergoingmodernisation,perhapslaterthanEnglandbutnevertheless,thatcuriously

createdsimilarfeelingsofmelancholyandnostalgiawithintheirculture.Itishowever,

noteworthythatthePost-Impressionistsappearedtoinvolvemoreoftheirpersonal

feelingswithintheirworkthanperhapsdidtheCamdenTownGroup.Thisis

understandable,forthegroupworkedtogether,whereasthePost-Impressionists,

althoughgroupedundersuchaname,didnotcollaborateasagroupinthesameway.

Togatherafullunderstandingofthecircumstancesoftheseworksandwhatthis

thesiswillmeanbymelancholyandnostalgia,thefirstchapterwillseekathorough

evaluationofitsmeaninginitssocialandpersonalcontext,itshistory,itsimportancein

theVictorianandEdwardianeraanditssignificanceinarthistory.Fromhere,weshall

seejusthowimportantmelancholywasculturallyandthereforebeableto

comprehendhowitisreflectedinartinthesubsequentchapters.Thesecondchapter

shallgiveabriefcontextualisationoftheCamdenTownGroup,itshistory,technique

andsubject.Asanartisticgroupwhichisrarelywrittenaboutinanygreatdetail,this

willallowtheCamdenTownGrouptobeevaluatedinregardtotheirsignificanceand

whytheyarebeinganalysedagainstotherPost-Impressionistartists.

Therearefourmainareaswherethisthesisshallexploreaconnectionthrough

subject,andevaluatetheirdifferent,sometimessimilarexplorationsofpersonaland

socialmelancholy,aswellasthatofnostalgia.Bycomparingthroughsubjectand


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theme,thisthesiscanfocusonthepersonalandculturalconnectionswhichthese

artistsshared,notmerelyfromastylisticpointofview.Chapterthreeshallevaluate

melancholywithinthecityscape,forthissubjectisperhapswhattheCamdenTown

Grouparebestrememberedforandsoprovidesaspringboardforthesubject.This

chaptershallfindasharedappreciationofmelancholiaandapersonalreflectiononthe

subjectthatdiffersquitesignificantly.

Chapterfourwillprogressintothecountrylandscape,anareaofworkforwhichthe

CamdenTownGrouparelargelyforgotten.Hereafocusontheimpactof

industrialisationwithinthecountrysidewillbediscussed,whereagainweseeashared

passionforacommonsubject.Interestinglybothdisplayacommondesiretooppose

culturalopinion,yetpersonalreflectiondivides.Chapterfivemovesintochildhood

nostalgia,wherewedepartfromsubjectcomparisonontoacommonculturaland

personaltheme.Here,twoworkswhichappearsodifferent,shareadeepexpressionof

bothpersonalandculturalnostalgiathatreflectssocietyintheirrespectiveperiods.

Finally,chaptersixshallexploretheculturalnostalgiaofthecountrylandscape,which

perhapsfindsthemostsimilaritiesbetweenartistsinthisthesis.Bothexploring

personalexpressionsofappreciationwhilstsharinganostalgicculturewhichwas

apparentbothinEnglandandFrance.

WhatshallbediscovereduponanalysisisthattheCamdenTownGroupfoundbeauty

inbothcityandcountry,despiteanyunderlyingculturalmelancholy.Sometimes

however,byattemptingtoprojectinnocence,suchasinanexpressionofcultural

nostalgia,theviewerstillseesthemelancholythattheyareattemptingtohide.

Personalexpression,sometimesreflectiveofculturalviews,sometimesnot,comes

acrossstronglythroughsymbolismandstyle.TheylearntwellfromtheirPost-


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Impressionistpredecessors,thattechniqueandpalettecouldinformapersonal

expression,toeitherreflectorchallengeculturalopinion.Colourcouldbringbeautyto

acitydeeplyrepresentativeofculturalmelancholy,wherecolourcouldalsoadequately

expressthenostalgicbeautyofthecountryside.Sidebysidewiththeirartisticidols,

theysharedanappreciationofthemelancholicsubjectandexpressingtheirown

personalopinionthroughthepaintbrush.FrenchandEnglishculturesometimesdiffers,

sometimestheyconverge,muchliketheopinionsoftheCamdenTownGroupandthe

Post-Impressionists.


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CHAPTERONE

WhatisMelancholy?

Definingmelancholyisacomplexandratheroverwhelmingtask.Asisthewayofthe

Englishlanguage,wordshavechangedandevolvedtheirmeaningovertime.

Melancholyisnoexception.Today,itsdefinitionasanounisgivenasafeelingof

pensivesadness,typicallywithnoobviouscause,anothertermformelancholia(a

mentalcondition)orhistorical:anothertermforblackbile.3Theexperienceof

melancholycanbeaverypersonalexperience.4Itisquiteoftendescribedasamood,

whichinitselfisafeelingthatcandifferfrompersontoperson.HarvieFergusonhas

writtenthattheworditselfremainsanembarrassmenttomodernthought.5When

weexploremelancholywithinpaintingsinChapter3,wemustkeepinmindthat

melancholycanbeaverypersonalexperience.Whereyoumayseeit,anothermay

not.

Wheremelancholywillbemostrelevanttothisdissertation,willbeitsunderstanding

asasharedfeeling.Theluciditywithwhichthistermhastoday,meansitcanbe

adaptedtodescribeeverythingwhichispeculiartothemodernworld.Duringthe

lifetimeofourartists,whichincludesthelatterVictorianperiodandintotheearly

twentiethcentury,melancholyhadamoresubstantialplacewithinsocietysculture.As

DavidG.Riedewrites,VictorianmelancholyishistoricallyspecifictoVictorian

3OxfordEnglishDictionary,Melancholy,http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/melancholy(accessed15February2012).4HarvieFerguson,MelancholyandtheCritiqueofModernity:SrenKierkegaards

ReligiousPsychology(London:Routledge,1995),p.XVI.5Ibid.


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culture.6ItbecameentwinedandcomplexwithintheVictorianmind,aresultofthe

consistentlyevolvingandindustrialnatureoftheirworld.

Animportantsubchapterofmelancholy,whichiscrucialforanunderstandingof

Victorianlife,istheexperienceofnostalgia.TheOxfordEnglishdictionarydescribes

thisexperiencetodayasasentimentallongingorwistfulaffectionforaperiodinthe

pastorsomethingdoneorpresentedinordertoevokefeelingsofnostalgia.7Many

writersofthesubjectappreciatenostalgiaasanimportantfactorwithintheculture

andartsoftoday.Bonnetsextensiveanalysisofnostalgiawithinpolitics,haspin

pointedseveralwriterswhoshareanawarenessofnostalgiaanditsstandingin

modernculture.Oneofthosemostrecentwriters,Glazer,wroteofwhathecalleda

globalepidemicofnostalgia.8Furthermore,FredDavis,tenyearsearlier,notedthat

nostalgiaisverymuchinvoguethesedays.9

Inafastandmobilesociety,nostalgiaisanimportantpartofourpsychology,culture

andpolitics.Asaresult,wecanfullyappreciatethecultureofnostalgiathatwas

preeminentinVictorianandEdwardiansociety:thesocietyofwhichtheCamdenTown

GroupandthePost-Impressionistswereverymuchpartof.Wetooyearnforthepast

aswefaceanoftendifficultandeverfastchangingpresent.Yettofullyunderstandthe

placemelancholyhadwithinthepaintingswearetoexplore,agreaterunderstanding

ofitshistoryandsignificanceisfundamental.

6DavidReide,AllegoriesofOnesOwnMind:MelancholyinVictorianPoetry(Columbus:OhioStateUniversityPress,2005),p.7.7OxfordEnglishDictionary,Nostalgia,http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nostalgia(accessed15February2012).8P.Glazer,RadicalNostalgia(Rochester,NY:UniversityofRochesterPress,2005),p.35.9FredDavis,YearningforYesterday:ASociologyofNostalgia(NewYork:FreePress,1979),p.viii.


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TheHistoryofMelancholyanditsMeaning

Wemustbewaryofthechangingdefinitionofmelancholy,foritcanmeansomething

entirelydifferenttoustodaythanitdidinthetimeoftheCamdenTownGroup.What

makesthesubjectofmelancholy,withintheCamdenTownGroupandPost-

Impressionistworksofascinating,isthatthemeaningofthewordreachedamilestone

initsdefinitionatthetimeinwhichtheywerealiveandworking.ForthePost-

Impressionists,melancholyanditsseparationfrommedicaldepressionwasreachinga

climaxduringthelatenineteenth-century.Nostalgiawasalsotakingonimportant

culturalsignificance.Toappreciatethesignificanceofthesechangesanditsimportance

bythetimeoftheCamdenTownGroup,wemustdelvefurtherintothewords

meaningpriortothisartisticeraandtraceitsdevelopment.

Untilthelatterdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,thetermmelancholyappearsto

coveranumberofthings,includingfleetingmoods,mentaldisordersrangingfrom

severetoverymild,normalreactions,andlongtermcharactertraits.10Thiscanbe

gatheredfromSamuelJohnsonsdictionaryof1775,wheremelancholyisdescribedas

havingseveralmeanings,withtworeferencestodifferentmedicaldisordersandathird

tomorecommonstatesofmelancholy.11Melancholiadescribedawiderangeof

10JenniferRadden(ed.),TheNatureofMelancholy:FromAristotletoKristeva(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2000),p.4.11SamuelJohnson,DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageinWhichtheWordsAreDeducedfromtheirOriginals,andIllustratedintheirDifferentSignificationsbyExamplesfrom

theBestWriters.9thed.4vols(London:Longman,[1755]1805)asquotedinRadden,TheNatureofMelancholy,p.5.


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medicaldisorderssuchasapoplexyandepilepsy,aswellaspartialinsanity,whichwas

seenasalesssevereformoffullmadness.12

Thetermdepressionwasnottocomeintocommonuseuntilthelatterpartofthe

nineteenthcentury.Itisrelativelyrecentinitshistorythen,thatmelancholyhaslostits

connotationsofmentalillness,ratherthanitsmorecommonusetodayasatermused

toexpresspensivesadness.13Thebreakdepressionmadewiththeterm

melancholyoccurredaroundthesametimeastheRomanticideaofmelancholy,asa

subjectivestate,wasflowering.14Itisacknowledgedthatthebirthofmodern

psychiatrypartlycameaboutwiththedocumentationofmanic-depressiveillnessby

EmilKraepelininhis1899textbookonpsychiatry.15Today,itisacknowledgedthatwe

owemuchofourconceptualisationoftheillnesstothephysiatrist.16Therefore,the

complexityandambiguityofthetermmelancholywasbeingsomewhatresolvedby

theendofthenineteenthcentury,particularlyinscientificterms.

Inthearts,LindaM.Austinhasalludedtoliteraturetopresentthetheorythatthe

breakbetweenmelancholyandbereavement,ononeside,andthebittersweet

pleasureofrememberinglossontheotheroccurredwellbeforeithappenedinthe

medicalworld.17ShelookstoapoembySchiller,writtenin1784,wherehewritesthe

Mayoflifebloomsonceandnotagain;ithasceasedtobloomforme.18Austinreads

12Radden,TheNature,p.5.13OxfordEnglishDictionary,Melancholy.14Radden,NatureofMelancholy,p.33.15J.M.Quen(ed),EmilKraepelin,Psychiatry:ATextbookforStudentsandPhysicians(Canton:ScienceHistoryPublications,1990).16FrederickGoodwin,Manic-DepressiveIllnessVolume1(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),p.2.17LindaAustin,NostalgiainTransition1780-1917(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginia

Press,2007),p.54.18FriedrichSchiller,Resignation(1784),asquotedinAustin,Nostalgia,p.54.


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thisasamansawarenessofhistransitionfromdeepandphysiologicalmelancholia

towardsawistfulrecollectionofthepast.19

Assomeoftheartworkweshallbeexploringproceedsintothe1920s,itisalso

relevanttopointoutafterFreuds1917essay,atleastintheEnglish-language

tradition,melancholiabecomesanincreasinglyraredisordercategorylessandless

frequentlydescribedinclinicalcasematerial.20Despitethisimportantdecisivebreak

madebetweenclinicaldepressionandthestateofmelancholia,itshistoryofvaried

meaningshasledtoperplexityininterpretation.Itisinterestingthatmelancholy,asa

mood,hasnotparticularlyalteredinmeaningsincetheearlymodernperiod.In

medicalaccounts,itsmeaningasafeelingoffearorsorrowisdescribedasbecomingof

withoutcauseorwithoutapparentcause.21

Today,melancholyissimilarlydefinedastwoapparentlyunconnectedformulations

ofanexperienceofsorrowwithoutcauseandlossofbeing.22Thereforeinthe

Victorianperiod,therewasasimilardiscrepancyoveritsdefinitionasamood.Despite

itscomplexity,melancholyasdescribedasamoodbecamemoresignificant.

Groundlesssadnessanddespondency,asamood,becameseparatedfromclinical

depression,whichwasbasedongroundedfearandanxiety.23Despitethiscomplex

meaning,thewordmelancholyandtherichnessofitsdefinition,meansthatwecan

exploresubjects,liketheCamdenTownGroupspaintings,frommanyinterestingand

variedviewpoints.

19Austin,Nostalgia,p.54.20Radden,TheNature,p.49.Seealso:SigmundFreud,MourningandMelancholiainCollectedPapersVol.4(London:HogarthPress,[1917]1967.21StanleyJackson,MelancholiaandDepression(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1986),p.107.22Ferguson,MelancholyandtheCritiqueofModernity,p.XVI.23Radden,NatureofMelancholy,p.39.


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Itisnoteworthythatnostalgiaalsohasahistorytoitsmeaning,ifnotquiteas

complex.Thetermasitisknowntoday,asayearningforthepast,isaccordingto

Bonnettnotmuchmorethanacenturyold.24Thetermfirstcameaboutin1688by

JohannesHoferbycombiningtheGreeknostos,meaninghome,andalgos,meaning

pain.Thislongingforhomewasconsideredamedicaldisorder.25Itsfirstreferencein

Englishcomesin1770whenthebotanistJosephBanks,atseaatthetime,wroteinhis

diarynowprettyfargoneinthelongingforhomeadiseaseunderthenameof

Nostalgia.26Thisisquiteacomparisontothemorelucidandinformallyreferenced

nostalgiatoday.Indeed,bytheendofthenineteenthcenturythetermwasnotbeing

usedinaprecisemedicalway,butinalargersensetodescribesentimentsofthe

past.27Thefastpaceoflifestylethattookonforceinthenineteenthcenturyledtothe

termnostalgiagainingameaningthatrepresentedasharedfeeling.Inshort,its

meaningtookonanew,significant,culturalsense.Bythemiddleofthelastquarterof

thenineteenthcentury,theVictorianshadnowoutlinedperformativeandimplicit

memoryandthusitlegitimisedimpersonalandcommunalnostalgiaasacultural

force.28

Bythe1920s,theOxfordEnglishDictionarydescribednostalgiaasafleetingfeeling

ratherthanamedicalaffliction,areflectionofitschangedmeaning:regretfulor

wistfulmemoryorrecallofanearliertime.Austintellsusthatwithindecadesone

24AlastairBonnett,LeftinthePast:RadicalismandthePoliticsofNostalgia(NewYork:Continuum,2010),p.5.25CarolynKiserAnspach(ed)andJohannesHofer,MedicalDissertationonNostalgia,1688,BulletinoftheHistoryofMedicinebyJohannesHofer,2(1934),pp.380-1.26OxfordEnglishDictionary,Nostalgia(1989),asquotedinBonnett,LeftinthePast,p.5.27Bonnett,LeftinthePast,p.10.28Austin,NostalgiainTransition,p.86.


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couldtalkofnostalgiafrequentlyandthatthisbegananendemicphenomenon.29Asa

result,weoftentalkintermsofnostalgiatoday.Ourworldisnotmuchdifferentfrom

theonethattookoffinthenineteenthcentury,andwestillfeelwecanlookintothe

pastforsafetyandsecurity.Youneedonlyseethesuccessofhistoricaltelevision

dramasonBritishtelevision.JustastheVictorianpubliclovedtoshareanostalgiclook

intothepast,wetooappreciatethosegoodtimesthathavepast.

TheImportanceofMelancholyintheVictorianandEdwardianEras

ItisinterestingthattheCamdenTownGrouparebestknownfortheircelebrationof

themodern,whentheirworkoftendelvesintothemelancholicandnostalgic.Yetan

appreciationofthemodernaswellasofthepasthad,andstillhas,amorecomplex

relationshipthanonemightrealise.AsBennettstates,modernityistheconditionof

nostalgia,itprovokesandchangesit.30Toadequatelyunderstandmelancholyandits

placeatthetimeoftheartistswearetodiscuss,anunderstandingofindustrialisation

andsocietyisindispensable.

Thenineteenthcenturywasatimeofsweepingchangesandsometimesunsettling

uncertainty.TheVictorianerawasusheredinbytheFrenchRevolutionaswellasthe

IndustrialRevolution.AlthoughtheFrenchRevolutionwasremoteanditisimpossible

totellhowmuchofaneffectithadontheVictorianconsciousnessinBritain,Burrow

recognisesitashavingaprofoundeffectonliteratureinthe1830sand1840s

29Ibid.,p.1.30Ibid.,p.10.


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especially.31Ofcourse,forourPost-Impressionistsonthecontinent,thesignificanceof

theseeventswouldhavehadfargreaterimpact.Thisoccursbeforethelatterpartof

thecentury,whichisofmostrelevancetooursubject,butitdoesrepresentthe

beginningofaperiodinwhichinstabilityandchangewasrampant.Therewastobe

religiousuncertaintiesinthe1860s,commercialanxietiesinthe1870sandsocial

tensionsinthe1880s,tonamebutafew.32

WiththeIndustrialRevolutioncamegreatwealthforthosewhocouldachieveit.

HippolyteTaine,theFrenchcriticandhistorianwhovisitedEnglandinthe1860s,

notedhisamazementinthesizeofwealthinthecountry.Healsocommentedonthe

manywealthycitizenswhoenjoyedgreatluxuriesandevenwriterswhowereearning

forhardlywritingatall.Howeverhisenthusiasmwastemperedbyhisdislikeofthe

socialinequalitiesofsociety,thedegradingpovertyandmiserablypoorcitizens.Hefelt

thatinFrance,althoughlesswealthy,therewasafairerdistributionofwealth.33For

themodernscholarofthisperiod,itisanundeniablefactthatpovertyinBritain,

especiallyinitscities,wasanintegralpartofVictoriansociety.

Asamelancholysubject,povertyhasgreatimportanceasasourceofinspirationfor

theCamdenTownGroup.Oneofthebestwaysinwhichtodemonstratetheextentof

povertyinLondonatthetimeistoquotethefindingsofCharlesBooth,the

philanthropistandsocialreformer.HisinvestigationofLondoninthe1890sfoundthat

31LaurenceLerner,TheVictorians:TheContextofEnglishLiterature(London:Methuen&CoLtd,1978),p.124.32CarolDyhouse,TheConditionofEngland1860-1900,inLerner(ed.),TheVictorians,pp.70-71.33H.Taine,NotesonEngland,1860-70,trans.EdwardHyams(London:ThamesandHudon,1957),pp.290-2.


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30.7%oftheLondonpopulationwerelivinginpoverty.34Asaresultofthis,Keith

Robbinsidentifiesthattherewaspersistenceinapovertyculture,whichbecamea

concerntoreformersintotheEdwardianperiod.35TheCamdenTownGroupwere

stationedinCamden,North-WestLondon.CharlesBoothsstudydescribesthisareaas

havingmanyshops,mosthavinglodgersabove,aconsiderableamountofpoverty

existsinthecentreandtherebeingagooddealofpovertyamongthelabourers.36

OfcourseoneofthegreatestcomponentsoftheIndustrialRevolutionwastherailway

andCamdenTownwaspartofthisgrowingindustry.Infact,bythe1870sCamden

Townlayinaseaofrailwaylinesanditdidnotcreateaprettysight.TheNorth

WesternrailwayandtheNorthLondonlinebothcrossedthedistrict,belchingsmoke

andcoaldustdayandnight.37CamdenTownwasquitethecontrasttoRegentspark,

somuchsothatHughPrincefeelstheneedtodescribeitassuch:Nowherein

Londonwasthecontrastbetweentwosidesofarailwaytrackmoresharplydrawn.38

Itisnosurprisethatsuchanenvironmentwasaptforanartisttoexpressmelancholy.

ItalsoprovidedachallengingenvironmentfortheCamdenTownGrouptoexpress

someofthebeautythatcouldbefoundinmodernity,aswellasshowingitsgrim

reality.

34KeithRobbins,TheBritishIsles1901-1951(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),pp.207-8.35Ibid.,p.213.36CharlesBooth,LifeandLabourofthePeopleinLondon:Volume1(London:Macmillan,1902),p.180.37JackWhitehead,TheGrowthofCamdenTownAD1800-2000(London:J.Whitehead,1999),p.43.38DavidOwen,TheGovernmentofVictorianLondon1855-1889:TheMetropolitan

BoardofWorks,theVestries,andtheCityCorporation(Cambridge,Mass:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversity,1982),p.261.


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ThesignificanceofthetermnostalgiaintheVictorianandEdwardianperiodwas

relatedtothefastchanginglandscape,suchastheimpactoftherailways.Although

Austindescribesthenostalgiaphenomenonastakingshapeafterthe1920s,itrather

ignoresthesignificanceofaharkingtothepastthatwassoevidentinVictorianand

Edwardianculture.Perhapsitisrighttoascribethephenomenonofitsmodern

meaningasbeginningintheperiodafterthe1920s.However,wecanbetter

understandtheworldinwhichtheCamdenTownGrouplivedbyapplyingthismodern

meaningtotheirwork.Perhapsthewordnostalgiadidntquitehavethesamebroad

significance,butitsmeaningasweknowitwascertainlydominantintheirculture.

Urbanisationwasthemostspectacularfeatureofnineteenthcenturysocialchange.39

ThevastmetropolisofLondon,andtheindustrialstrainsfeltelsewhereinthecountry,

leftmanyfeelingmelancholic.Asignificantreactiontothiswastheembodimentof

newideasofhowtocombinecountryandtown.Onewayinwhichthiswasdonewas

throughthecreationofparksandprivategardensandtree-linedroadsthatinserted

zonesofquietandtranquillitywhichformerlyhadbeenrarities.40Butonalargerscale

therewasabiggerissue,whichwasthatofurbansprawl.Forcontemporarysocialand

architecturalcriticsofthetimewerefascinatedandappalledbythemindless,

sweepingnatureofthesprawldevouringland,destroyingthecountryside.41

Somefeltmelancholicaboutthelossofclose-knitcommunitieswhichexistedinaby-

goneera.Itwasthisnostalgiaforawayofrememberedaspurer,simplerandcloserto

39Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.80.40RobertJohnMorris,RichardRodger,TheVictorianCity:AReaderinBritishUrban

History1820-1914(London:Longman,1993),p.21.41Ibid.,p.150.


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naturethatcreatedandunderpinnedsemi-ruralsuburbandevelopments.42Theidea

oftheGardenCitywasadvocatedbyEbenezerHowardinTomorrow:APeacefulpath

toRealReform(1898).TheGardenCitywasintendedtobeaplannedself-contained

communitysurroundedbyparks,withselfcontainedhousing,agricultureandindustry.

ThisledtothecreationofLetchworthGardenCityin1903;thefirstofitskind.Afewof

theCamdenTownGroupactuallyvisitedLetchworthandpaintedthereasarespite

fromLondon.Letchworthperfectlyrepresentedthepastandpresentbyattemptingto

providethebestofbothworlds.TheCamdenTownGroup,withtheirflarefor

appreciatingthemelancholicandnostalgic,foundafittingsubjectinLetchworth,aswe

shallsee.

Childhoodnostalgiawasanunderstandablesubjectinartofthisperiod,forchildren

werethemajorcause-andthereforevictims-ofpoverty.43SeebohmRowntree,asocial

reformerinspiredbyBoothssurveyofLondon,identifiedhimselfthatafamilyoffour

ormoreasthecauseofoverafifthofpovertyin1899.44InLondonalone,60,000

childrenwereinsufficientlynourishedtobenefitfromschooling.45Withthemajorityof

workingclasschildrenbornintopoverty,itwasunderstandablethatsocietydeveloped

anostalgiccultureoflookingbacktoatimewhenchildrenweremorelikelytobe

broughtupinacountrysetting.

42PaulJ.Cloke,TerryMarsden,PatrickH.Mooney,HandbookofRuralStudies(London:SAGE,2006),p.141.43Robbins,TheBritishIsles,p.211.44Ibid.45Ibid.,p.214.


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IdentifyingPersonalandCulturalMelancholy

Thecomplexityofthehistoryandmeaningofmelancholycanmakeitdifficultto

definethedifferencebetweenpersonalandculturalmelancholy.Ithasbeennoted

however,thatintheartsoftheeighteenthcentury,melancholyasawistfuland

pleasurablefeelingwasalreadybeingdefinedandexpressed.Thiscanbetakenasa

personalexperience,forexample,thelossofalovedonewhoyoumayremember

fondly.However,thecultureofmelancholywasonethatwasbeingfeltandexpressed

byasocietyasawhole,inallofitscomplexities.

Dyhousepointsoutthatitwasduringthisperiod,around1900,thatmanyindividuals

werepassingthroughapersonalcrisisengenderedbythelossofreligiousfaith.46This

personalsenseofmelancholyoftentranscendedtopeoplefindingsolaceinasocial

dutytohelpthoseinneed.Tryingtofindoptimismwithinpersonaldespairwas

recognisedinliterature.InthenovelRobertElsmere,writtenin1888byMrsHumphrey

Ward,thisthemeisdramatisedthroughhertitlecharactersjourneyfrompersonal

religiouscrisistowardsfindingredemptioninhelpingthepoor.47Thissortoftransition

highlightsthedifficultiesindividingsharedandpersonalmelancholy,forsucha

personalexperiencecanbesharedandappreciatedbyasociety.

Itisperhapsinmentalillnessandclinicaldepressionthatwecanappreciateatrue

experienceofpersonalmelancholy,boththenandtoday.Thisiswhatseemingly

dividestheCamdenTownGroupmostdefinitivelywiththePost-Impressionists.Van

Gogh,CezanneandGauguinallsufferedfromclinicalmelancholiaatonestageattheir

46Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.75.47Mrs.HumphreyWard,RobertElsmere(London:Macmillanandco,1888).


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lives,atleast.Theirabilitytotranscendthispersonaldarknessintotheirworkhasbeen

appreciatedwidely.Itcouldbesaidthat,likethoseindividualsfindingthemselvesin

religiousturmoil,thesemenwerefindingoptimisminaformofartisticexpression.

PersonalmelancholywithintheCamdenTownGroupwasnotsoperceptiblyevident

withintheirwork.Instead,itismoreoutwardlyexpressiveoftheculturalvariety,aswe

shallsee.

ItcanbesaidthatthemostlastinglegacywehaveofVictorianculturalmelancholy,is

itsexpressionthroughoutliterature.CharlesDickens,nodoubtoneofthemost

successfulnovelistsoftheage,iswellknownforthegrittyrealismheportrayedinhis

novels.Infact,hehimselflivedinCamdenTownasaboyaswellashischaracterof

TinyTiminAChristmasCarol.48Furthermore,hedescribesCamdenTowninThe

posthumousPapersofthePickwickClub:whateveritmaybenow,wasinthosedaysa

desolateplaceenough,surroundedbylittleelsethanfieldsandditches.49

MelancholywithinBritishculturebecomesparticularlyinterestinginthelatterstages

oftheVictorianage.Itwasanerainwhichdespairandoptimismwereoftenclosely

allied.50DonaldReadhashighlightedtheimportanceofoptimismandpessimism

throughnewspaperextractsfromTheTimes.Onthe1stJanuary1901,beforeQueen

Victoriasdeath,thenewspaperwritesoptimisticallyaboutBritainsfuture:wemay

lookforwardwithgoodhopetothestormsandconflictsthatmayawaitus.In

contrast,anarticlewrittenbuttwenty-twodayslaterinthesamenewspaperandafter

theQueensdeath,pessimismiscreepingin:wearefindingourselvessomewhatless

48PaulNahin,OliverHeaviside:TheLife,Work,andTimesofanElectricalGeniusoftheVictorianAge(Baltimore:JohnHopkinsUniversityPress,2002),p.13.49CharlesDickens,ThePosthumousPapersofthePickwickClub,Volume1(London:

ChapmanandHall,1858),p.305.50Dyhouse,TheConditionofEngland,p.75.


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secureofourposition.By1914,TheTimesreportsnowhereistheregreater

pronenesstoself-deprecationthaninthiscountry.51

AttheturnofthecenturytheBritishconsciousnessinregardstothecountrysplacein

theworldhadacomplexrelationshipbetweenoptimismandarathermoremelancholy

outlook.Asshallbediscussed,itisthisfinelinebetweenthesetwoseemingly

contradictoryfeelingsthattheCamdenTownGrouptrodsosuccessfully.Byfinding

magnificenceinmelancholytheyexpressedthisextremelycomplexcultureof

optimismandpessimism.TheirPost-Impressionistcounterpartsonthecontinentcan

alsobereadastreadingthisfineline,yetfromtheirownpersonalandcultural

perspective.

InFrance,oneofthebestlastinglegaciesofRomanticpoetrycomesfromCharles

Baudelaire.Hislifewasoneofpersonaldespair,areflectionofhisBohemianParis

lifestyle.Hesufferedfromillnessandaconstantdespondentmood,whichbecomes

evidentinhispoems.52Romanticpoetryofthistimetypicallyalignedsadnesswith

beautyanditisofthisveinthatBaudelairewrotehispoetry.InAutumnSonghewrites,

Soonwillweplungeintothecolddarknessundertheheavyandceaselessblowsof

thebatteringrain.53MirroringtheEnglishpoetJohnKeats,Baudelaireuseda

conjunctionofsadnesswithpleasure.54Hehimselfexpressedinhisjournalthat

beautyitissomethingofardourandsadnessofvoluptuousnessandsadness-which

51TheTimes(1January1901),TheTimes(23January1901),TheTimes(IJanuary1914),inDonaldRead,DocumentsfromEdwardianEngland1901-1915(London:Harrap,1973).52Radden,TheNature,p.231.53CharlesBaudelaire,AutumnSongfromFlowersofEvil(1857),inRadden,The

Nature,p.232.54Radden,TheNature,p.232.


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conveysanideaofmelancholy.55Baudelairespersonalexperiencewithsadnessand

pleasurewasalsobeingexpressedculturallyinliteratureandart.Itwasanexperience

thatmanycouldidentifywith.Personalmelancholywasbeinginfusedintothe

collectiveexperience.TheCamdenTownGrouptappedintotheculturalvoguefor

combiningtwoseeminglyopposingthemes:thatofsadnessandbeauty.

Beforethelatenineteenthcentury,itcouldbesaidthatnostalgiaonlyhaditsplaceas

asub-definitionofthemedicalandpersonalafflictionofmelancholy.Bythetimethe

CamdenTownGroupwerelivingandworking,ithaddroppedthismedicaldefinition

andbecomemoreintegralinculturalmelancholy.Thisisnttosaythatnostalgiawas

notalsoapersonalexperienceandthatitwasntexpressedassuch.Bonnettdescribes

nostalgiaasbeginningtoleadadoublelifeinitsplaceattheheartofbothcultural

andpersonalexperience.56

Asshallbeexplored,anartistspersonalexpressionofnostalgiacouldhaveboth

personalandculturalmeaning.VictorianandEdwardiansocietyexpressedcultural

nostalgiawithinthearts,mostnotablyperhapsinliterature.TheIndustrialRevolution

rapidlyanddecisivelyledtoagreatevolutioninsocietyandculture,whichwasnot

necessarilyappreciatedbyeveryone.Peoplesharedasenseofsocialdislocationand

memoriesofagreaterpast,whichtranspiredintotheirculture.Thisculturalnostalgia

isveryprominentinsomeoftheCamdenTownartistswork.Nevertheless,nostalgiais

aubiquitousfacetofpersonallifeandsometimesthishastranspiredwithinthese

artistswork.

55CharlesBaudelaireandA.VanBever(ed.),JournauxIntimes(Paris:Cres,[1887]

1999),p.84.56Bonnett,LeftinthePast,p.5.


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TheVictoriancultureforlookingbackintothepastwasexpressedbyamanofhis

time,WilliamMorris,whenheexpressedtheVictoriansashavingatendencyto

retrospection.57Wecanseeinthisthenineteenthcenturyarchitecturethatsurrounds

ustoday.TheirresurrectionofGothicmedievalstylearchitecture,expressedtheir

desiretoharkbackintotheEnglishpast.Thistendencytopromotethehistorical

withinVictorianculturehasbeentoucheduponbyJ.W.Burrow.Heacknowledgesthat

wecanseesuchnostalgicculturewithinthepaintingsofthePre-Raphaeliteswho

providedearnestescapism.Nevertheless,importantlyhewritesofdefiningbetween

thepublicsapparentlyinsatiableappetiteforconversationpiecesinhistorical

costumeandothersearnestlyheldandvehementlyprofoundsocial,moraland

aestheticpreferences.58Awhimsicaltasteforthepastcouldsimplybesomeone

followingfashionableculture,whereasforsomeanostalgiclooktothepastcouldbe

feltonamorepersonal,deeplevel.

OneofthewaysinwhichnostalgiawasmoststronglyfeltwithinVictorianand

Edwardianculture,wasthroughanappreciationofthecountryside.Withinan

industrialworld,societystillsoughtcomfortinthecountrysagriculturalpast.Thus

evenasBritaincelebrateditsorderlyVictoriancultureanditssuccessastheworkshop

oftheworld,thecountrysidewascelebratedastheveryheartofEngland.59These

valueshadrootswithintheeighteenthcenturyperiodofRomanticism.Thecountryside

idealhadbeenareactiontoparliamentaryenclosure,whichrationalisedtheEnglish

57WilliamMorrisasquotedinJ.W.Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,inLerner(ed.),TheVictorians,p.120.58Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,p.121.59JamesErnestMurton,CreatingaModernCountryside:LiberalismandLandResettlementinBritishColumbia(Vancouver:UBCPress,2007),p.50.


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landscape.60TheRomanticpoets,suchasWordsworth,wroteofthenaturalbeauty

andlifethatthecountrysidepossesses:somethinginfusedwiththeveryspiritof

creationitself.61Consequently,acultureofcountrynostalgiatranscendsintothe

nineteenthcentury.

ItisthispastEnglandthatbecamesoimportanttoaVictorianculturewhichthrived

onnostalgia.IntheLondonmetropolistherewasashareddemandforsomesortof

escape,whichinoneway,wasfoundinliterature.IfDickensprovidedgrimmelancholic

reality,writerssuchasMaryMitfordprovidedaruralescape.Inthe1820sand30s,

MitfordwroteaseriescalledOurVillage.Theproofofsuchnostalgiccultureisreadin

thefactthatthecirculationofthemagazine,whichcarriedheressays,increased

eightfold.62ItwasLondonreaderswhowantedtoreadhersketchesoflifeinaclassic

Englishvillage;thesortofvillagethatindustrialisationandurbanisationwere

destroying.63ThepopularityofsuchcontradictorysubjectsasDickensandMitford,

representthecomplexityofVictoriansociety.

TheextensivepovertythatplaguedareasofLondonandthechildrenwholivedwithin

it,ledtoaformofnostalgicculturethatrevolvedaroundchildhood.Aswellasseeking

ahistoricalnostalgiaforatimewellbeforetheirown,someVictorianssought

reassuranceintheirownchildhoodmemories.Thisformofpersonalmemory

transpiredintoliteratureandtheartsandthusbecameaculturalphenomenon.Ann

C.ColleyhasstudiedthisparticularformofVictoriancultureandrecognisedits

importance.ThismoreimmediatenostalgiacanbefoundinthenarrativesofElizabeth

60Ibid.,p.49.61Ibid.62HerbertTucker,ACompaniontoVictorianLiteratureandCulture(Cambridge:

BlackwellPublishers,1999),p.384.63Ibid.


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GaskellorWalterHoratioPatersTheChildintheHouse,oreveninaseriesof

engravingsbyJ.M.W.Turner.64Sheargues,thattheseartistsallsufferfromadesire

forreunion,forsomepointofcorrespondencebetweentheirpresentandtheirpast.65

Suchartistsarepartofaculturethatisseekingaresolutiontothemelancholythey

experienceintheirlives.Itisperhapsironic,thattheyfindthisinrecollectingthepast,

whichinitselfcanbearathermelancholicexperience.Nevertheless,childhoodand

whatitrepresented,namelyanideologicallifewithoutworryorpressure,providedthe

Victorianswithacreativeoutlet.Thecomplexityofnostalgiaanditsdoublelifeasa

personalandculturalexperiencehavecertainlytranspiredintothetwentyfirst

century.Asaresult,wecanrelatetopopularityofnostalgiainbothitspersonaland

culturalsense,furthermorehelpingusunderstandtheCamdenTownGroupsworkand

theircomplexrelationshipwiththemodernandtraditionalworld.

MelancholyinHistoryofArt

Thecomplexityofmelancholiaanditsmeaningovertheages,hasmeantthatitisa

constantthemeandinspirationformanthroughtothepresentday.Madnessand

melancholyhavealwaysdisturbedbuttheyalsoexerciseasingularfascinationonthe

imaginationofcountlessgenerationsofartists,writersandthinkers.66Themanyforms

ofmelancholydescribed,createdanendlesssupplyofpossibleformsinwhich

melancholycanbeexploredandexpressedusingthearts.Itisintriguingthatwhere

64AnnColley,NostalgiaandRecollectioninVictorianCulture(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1998),p.2.65Ibid.,p.3.66PeterE.Pormann(ed.),RufusofEphesus,OnMelancholy(Tubingen:MohrSiebeck,2008),p.3.


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madnessinhistoryhasoftenbeenmisunderstoodandthosesufferingfromitshunned,

itcouldalsobeappreciatedasacharacteristicofgenius.Soisthecomplexityof

melancholy.

BeforethePost-ImpressionistsandtheCamdenTownGroupputpainttocanvas,

melancholywithinarthadavariedhistory.Lookingbacktothemedievalages,weonly

needlooktomedievalillustrationstohaveavisualisedrepresentationofhow

melancholiawasunderstoodandexpressedatthetime.JenniferRadenhaspointedto

Melancholicus(1490)fromtheAugsburgCalendar,showingamanofagloomy

expression:avictimofmelancholicdisorder.67DuringtheGermanRenaissance,the

artistLucasCranachtheElderpaintedMelancholy,AnAllegoryin1532[Fig.2].This

workalsogivesusavisualideaofhowmelancholywasunderstoodaccordingtoRaden.

Indeedthepaintingshowsusrathercontradictoryelementsofacontentedlooking

femalefigureintheforeground,whilstanunsettlingsceneofnakedfiguresriding

animalsoccursinthebackground.Asaresult,thispaintingpresentsthearrayof

associationsmadesoevidentinwritingaboutmelancholy.68

67Melancholicus,1490.Oil.BayerischeStaatsbibliothek,Munich.Seealso,Radden,The

Nature,p.5.68Radden,TheNature,p.6.


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Figure2.LucasCranach,Melancholy,AnAllegory,1532.Oilonpanel(113x72cm).

StatensMuseumforKunst,Copenhagen.

Figure3.C.D.Friedrich,TheMonkbytheSea,1809-1810.Oiloncanvas(110x171.5

cm).BildarchivPreussischerKulturbesitz.


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WehavenotedhowintheeighteenthcenturytheriseofRomanticismputtheideaof

culturalnostalgiaontheliterarymap.YetitisalsotheideaofRomanticmelancholy

thatgathersforcetowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury,wherewritingwas

similarlyfilledwiththeexaggeratedfeelingsofgriefandsolitude,longingandsadness.

ThepainterC.D.FriedrichcreatedTheMonkbytheSea(1809-1810)[Fig.3],which

evokeshisabilitytoshowthisrangeofresponsesandmoodsindark,haunting

landscapes.69Thischartsanimportantdevelopmentofmelancholyinart;amovefrom

melancholyasexpressedasamentalailmentofman,toasubjectivefeelingwhichcan

beappliedtonature.

IthasalreadybeenmentionedthattheVictoriansenjoyedlookingtothepastand

revivingoldarchitecturalandartisticstyles.Thistendencyforrevivalism,although

consideredaVictorianphenomenon,wasnotanewone.Intermsofarchitectural

history,lookingbackonhistoryandrevivingstyleshastouchedalmostallEuropean

architecturefromtheRenaissancetothepresentcentury.70Itisratherironic,thatina

periodknownforitstechnologicaladvances,culturallyinBritaintherewasanartistic

yearningforthepast.ThisisartisticevidenceprovingBennettsstatement,that

modernityprovokesandchangesnostalgia,isaveryprudentone.

JosephFLambhaswrittenoftheLateVictorianartsceneinLondon,withparticular

referencetotheartistscommunitieswhichthrivedthere.Duringthe1860stothelate

1880s,artistsfoundgreatadulationfromthepublic.Theseartistsweregenerallytobe

foundhappilywithinthesuburbanareasofKensington,Chelsea,HampsteadorSt.

JohnsWood.Butbythe1890stheLondonartscenewasmovingawayfromthese

69Ibid.,p.30.70Burrow,TheSenseofthePast,p.121.


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areasastheybecametooexpensiveforyoungartists.Besides,theseartistspreferred

tofindnewinspirationelsewhereinLondon,especiallyinareaslikeCamdenTownwith

itsgrittyreality.71ThisiswheretheCamdenTownGroupfoundtheirplacewithinthe

historyofart.Itiswheretheyweretofindtheirinspirationtoappreciateallaspectsof

themelancholyworld,aswellassendthemfurtherafield,tocapturethelostworldof

agriculturalEngland.

71JosephF.Lamb,SymbolsofSuccessinSuburbia:TheEstablishmentofArtistsCommunitiesinLateVictorianLondon,inDebraN.MancoffandD.J.Trele(eds),

VictorianUrbanSettings:EssaysontheNineteenth-CenturyCityanditsContexts(NewYork:GarlandPublications,1996),p.72.


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CHAPTERTWO

WhoWeretheCamdenTownGroup?

TheCamdenTownGroupwasofficiallyactivebetween1911and1913,arelatively

smalltimeperiod.Subsequently,althoughthisdissertationwillrefertotheCamden

TownGroup,notalloftheirpaintingsinthisdiscussionwilldatefromthisprecisetime

period.Thegroupwaspartofadevelopmentwhichactuallypreceded1911and

continuedbeyondit.Tograspthis,abriefhistoryofthegroupanditsparticipantsis

necessary.

Today,themostrememberedmemberoftheCamdenTownGroupisundoubtedly

WalterSickert.In1905theartistreturnedtoLondonafterhavingspentthepreceding

yearsinDieppeandVenice.Atforty-fiveyearsofage,hehadalreadyexperienced

ImpressionismandbeeninvolvedinacircleofartiststhatincludedWhistlerand

Degas.72ItwasonthistripabroadthathehadmetthefutureCamdenTownpresident,

SpencerFrederickGore.73ItwasyoungartistssuchasGore,whoSickertwantedto

steerandsupportwithhismatureoutlook.

Onhisreturn,herentedtwostudiosintheneighbourhoodaroundFitzroyStreetand

settleddownat6MorningtonCrescentinCamdenTown.Itisaroundthetwostudios

thattheFitzroyStreetGroupwasborn,aprecursortotheCamdenTownGroup.He

receivedregularvisitorsincludingbothSpencerGoreandHaroldGilman.Theybegan

toexhibittheirworktogetherat19FitzroyStreet,whereotherartistssuchasLucien

72WernerHaftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury:Volume(London:AshgatePublishing,1965),p.149.73WendyBaron,PerfectModerns:AHistoryoftheCamdenTownGroup(London:AshgatePublishing,2000),p.19.


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Pissarro,RobertBevan,WalterBayesandCharlesGinneragreedtojoin.74Othervisitors

includedWilliamRatcliffe,AugustusJohnandJ.D.Innes.

TheCamdenTownGroupitselfwasbornin1911,whenSickertandhiscirclewanted

toformanassociationwithacommoncauseandpartlyasareactionagainsttheNew

EnglishArtClub.Thisassociationhad,accordingtotheCamdenTownGroupmembers,

beencreepingtowardsconservatisminthewakeofRogerFrysManetandthePost-

Impressionistsexhibitionof1910-11.75Membershipwaslimitedtosixteenartists,most

memberstransferringfromtheFitzroyStreetGroup.GilmanandSickertwereopposed

totheinclusionofwomeninthegroup,andonlyWyndhamLewisandMaxwell

Lightfootwereelectedfromtheoutside.76

InspirationandTechnique

IftheCamdenTownGroupfoundacommongroundwithinsubjectmatter,the

techniquestheyadoptedweremorelucid.Theirmindswereopened,notonlyto

GauguinandCzanne,butalsotoVanGoghandtheNeo-Impressionists.Thepresence

ofLucienPissarromeanttheywereinsupplyofagooddealofauthentic

information.77Wehavementionedthe1910exhibitionbyRogerFrytwicealready,this

isduetotheimportanceithadinbringingthetechniquesofthePost-Impressioniststo

thegroup.However,forsome,theyhadalreadyencounteredtheirwork.Thepalette

thegroupuseddrewontheexamplesoftheirFrenchPost-Impressionistcounterparts.

74WendyBaron,Sickert:PaintingsandDrawings(Yale:YaleUniversityPress,2006),p.6975Haftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury,p.150.76BernadetteNelson,TheCamdenTownGroup(Oxford:OxonianRewley,1991),p.4.77Haftmann,PaintingintheTwentiethCentury,p.150.


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GorestechniquewaslittleinfluencedbyhismentorSickert.Sickertwasoccupiedby

thecontrastsofcolourandtexture,typicallywithinthecompositionoffiguresand

theirpsychologicalrelationship.78Hispalettewastypicallyrestrictedtotheuseof

violet/greencolourmixedwithboneblackthatWhistlerintroduced.79Gore,onthe

otherhand,foundhisgreatadmirationinCezanne,claimingthatitisthesinceritywith

whichhepursueshisobjectthatgiveshisworkthatwonderfulgravity.80Bevan,like

SickertandGore,hadalsotravelledabroad,seeingVanGoghandGauguinswork

whilstlivinginPontAvenandParis.Hisunhabitedapproachtocolourcapturedthe

membersof,thethen,FitzroyStreetGroup.81

By1912,Gore,GinnerandBevanwerebecomingadventurousincolourand

design.82WewillfindthatBevanwasparticularlyinspiredbyGauguin,aswasGore.

GilmanfoundhisinspirationparticularlyintheworkofVanGogh.AcopyofVanGoghs

letterswerealwaysonhistableandreproductionsofhispaintingswerepinnedallover

hiswalls.83ItwasGinnerwhointroducedGilmantogreatFrenchpaintersbytakinghim

toexhibitionsinParis.VanGoghtouchedhimmosthowever,andhesoughttoemulate

himinusingbuiltupstripsofvividcolour.84Gilmaninturn,influencedRatcliffeafter

theymetinLetchworthin1908,turningtoGilmanssourcesofinspirationforhimself.

Techniquewouldcreatedivision;Sickertdislikedtheuseofthickimpasto,asdida

minorplayerofthegroup,WalterBayes.Ontheotherhand,GinnerandGilmanwere

78Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.3.79GraceBrockington,InternationalismandtheArtsinBritainandEuropeatthefindesicle(Oxford:PeterLang,2009),p.46.80Haftmann,Painting,p.122.81Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.3.82Ibid.,p.4.83MaureenConnett,WalterSickertandtheCamdenTownGroup(Devon:Davidand

Charles,1992),p.48.84Ibid.,p.49.


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lifeseemedtoassumeakindofgravitas.89TheirfirstexhibitionheldinJune1911and

theirsecondlaterthatyear,reflectedthissubjectmatter.TheareaofCamdenTown

wasconsideredtheperfectareatodothis,Sickerthavinglivedintheboroughfor

severalyears.Apartfromfindingtheirdesiretopaintrealismwithinthecitylandscape,

theyalsofoundinspirationinportraitsandstill-lifes.

AtthethirdandlastexhibitioninDecember1912,therewasadramaticchangeof

subjecttothatoftherurallandscape.90Itisatthispointwhereourdiscussionwillbeof

mostvalue.Thetypicalinteriorswhichhaddominatedbefore,werenowbeing

dominatedbyathemethatwasnotoriginallypartofthegroupschosensubject.Gore

hadbeenpaintinglandscapesbeforetheCamdenTownGroupwasestablished.Some

tentativelandscapeshepaintedinNormandyin1904,stillsurvive.91Afteran

interludeofpaintingthecityofLondonwhenundertheinfluenceofSickert,tripsinthe

country,suchasatApplehayeswithGinnerandBevan,providesuswithanalternative

subject.

89StephenDeuchar,DirectorsForeword,inRobertUpstone(ed.),ModernPainters:TheCamdenTownGroup(London:TatePublishing,2008),p.6.90Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.4.91Baron,PerfectModerns,p.21.


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Figure4.WalterSickert,TheCamdenTownMurder(WhatShallwedoforRent?),c.

1908.Oiloncanvas,(25.6x35.6cm)YaleCentreforBritishArt.


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DisagreementandDivision

Insomeofthedarkestsubjects,themembersoftheCamdenTownGroupcouldfind

beautyandmodernity.However,thecracksintheirrelationshipsandtheirdiverse

viewsontechniqueandsubject,wereproblemsnotsoeasytocover.LikeGauguinand

VanGoghbeforethem,artisticdifferenceshadanegativeeffectontheirartistic

relationships.Eventhoseartistswhobelievedinthegroupscommongoal,found

irreconcilabledifferencesdividedthem.

WhilstSickerthadanappreciationforGoresuseofCezannestechnique,hehimself

hadalowopinionofCezanne.Additionally,hisrelationshipwithGinnerandGilman

wassouredbytheiropposingideas.Hedeniedthateitherofthemhadinheritedany

ofCezannestechnique.92Sincetheirmeetingin1904,GoreandSickerthadaclose

relationship,whereSickerttendedtofacedisagreementswithothermembers.Gilman

andSickert,inparticular,hadclashingpersonalities.Theybecamecarelessofeach

othersfeelings,disagreeingoverhowthegroupshouldberun.93Disagreements

flowedintothepostCamdenTownGroupperiod.SickertopenlyattackedGinnerand

GoreinJune1914,claimingthatitisatrivialthingtospendalife-timeinaneffort

afterintrinsicbrightnessofpaint.94

LucienPissarrogrewdisillusionedwiththegroup,dislikingWyndamLewissvorticist

style;hedidnotseewhytheyshouldputupwithsuchrubbish.95Theseinternal

differenceswouldleadtothegroupsdemise.Membersofthegroupwerevirtually

92Haftmann,Painting,p.234.93Connett,WalterSickert,p.48.94Baron,PerfectModerns,p.23.95Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.4.


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dividedfromthestartintoaninnerenthusiastichierarchyandanouterringof

satelliteswhoseloyaltytoitwashalfhearted.96.Allthatheldthemtogetherwasa

resentmentoftheestablishedartworldanditwasaforegoneconclusionthatthelife

oftheCamdenTownGroupwouldbeshort.97

PersonalMelancholyandtheEndoftheCamdenTownGroup

JustasdepressionandturmoilwerepresentattheendsofthelivesofCezanne,Van

GoghandGauguin,deathwasalsopresentinthefinaldaysoftheCamdenTown

Group.Lightfoottragicallycommittedsuicidein1911afterhisparentsdisapprovedof

hisfianc.98Gorediedprematurelyfrompneumoniaon25thMarch1914,whichwas

feltdeeplybyhisfriendsandfellowartisticfriends.Gilmanwrotetothewifeof

Pissarro,Itisaterriblelosstomemademoreterriblebyhishavingsuchawonderful

character.99

Gilmanhimselfsufferedatroubledpersonallife.Hismarriagehaddisintegratedby

1909,whenhiswifetooktheirchildrentohernativeAmerica.Hewasleftdevastated

bythelossofhischildren.100Hediedin1919anditwasadevastatingblowtohisartist

friendRatcliffe.Hecontinuedtopainthowever,butwithlittlesuccess,andbeingvery

96TheArtsCouncilofGreatBritain,AnExhibitionofPaintings:TheCamdenTownGroup(GreatBritain:TheArtsCouncilofGreatBritain,1953),p.2.97Ibid.98TateOnline,MaxwellGordonLightfoot:ABiographyhttp://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ArtistWorks?cgroupid=999999961&artistid=1510&page=1&sole=y&collab=y&attr=y&sort=default&tabview=bio(13December2011).99LetterfromHaroldGilmantoMrsPissarro(25March1914),Connett,WalterSickert,

p.44.100Connett,WalterSickert,p.47.


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poorasaresultplaguedhislife.101Drummondalsolackedsuccessandsufferedfrom

blindnessinthelastfewyearsofhislife.Hediedin1945,obscureandforgotten,save

forafewfriendsandfellowartists.102

Bythistime,theCamdenTownGrouphadalreadybeendissolved.InOctober1913,

theLondonGroupwasformedbycombiningtheCamdenTownGroupandFitzroy

StreetGroup.AfterGoresdeath,Gilmanwaselectedpresidentandmembership

increasedtothirty-two,aswellaspermittingwomen.SickertandPissarroresigned

beforethefirstexhibitionwasheldinMarch1914.103.GinnerandGilmanwentonto

worktogetherclosely,callingthemselvesNeo-Realists.104Althoughtheywerenot

technicallyreferredtoastheCamdenTownGroupbythispoint,theirworkwillstillbe

importantasastudy.Consequently,thefollowingchapterwillmakenoattemptto

restrictthepaintingstothe1911-13period.AsIhopethischapterhasshown,the

artistswhoweassociatewiththegroupproducedworkwhichwascreatedbeforeand

afterthisspecifictimeperiod,andwhichisstillrelevanttothisdiscussion.

101Ibid.,p.89.102Ibid.,p.77.103Nelson,TheCamdenTownGroup,p.5.104Ibid.


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CHAPTERTHREE

i)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheCityscape

Figure5.WilliamWhiteheadRatcliffe,RegentsCanalatHammersmith,c.1910-20.Oiloncanvas(52x60cm)LetchworthMuseumandArtGallery.

Figure6.VincentVanGogh,ViewoftheRoofsofParis,1886.Oiloncanvas(54x75.5

cm)VanGoghMuseum,Amsterdam.


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ThereisnobetterwaytodiscussthecityscapeinourperiodthantoanalyseLondon

andParis;twoburgeoningcitiespulsingunderthepressureofVictorianandEdwardian

life.IhavespecificallychosenVincentVanGoghsViewoftheRoofsofParis[Fig.6}

andWilliamRatcliffesRegentsCanalatHammersmith[Fig.5],fortheyexpressso

eloquentlythethemesdiscussedinthefirstchapter.Unfortunately,writingonthese

twopaintingshasbeenslim,forarthistorianshavelargelyoverlookedthem.Onthe

otherhand,wecanfortunatelyexploreafreshperspectiveontwogreatartistsandthe

connectiontheyshared.

VanGoghhadleftHollandforParisin1886andwastospendtwoyearsthere,where

hewouldexperienceImpressionistpaintingbutbecomeambivalentabouttheirsubject

matterwhichfocusedonmodernParis.105VanGoghwantedtocelebratethepoetryof

oldParis,yettherazingofwholemedievalneighbourhoodslefthimfeelingthatthe

citynowdwarfedtheindividual.106WilliamRatcliffe,ontheotherhand,wasanartist

whorevelledinexploringthemodern.InHammersmith,hefoundthepeculiar

juxtapositionofaffluenceandpoverty,choosingtoportraythelessattractive

residentialareaandtransformitthroughart.

Atfirstglance,ViewoftheRoofsofParisshowsthevieweritisacity,yetitisntclear

preciselywhichcityitis.Oursensesarefilledwiththevariationoftheswirling

brushstrokesthatdominatethesky,whicharecontrastingagainstthesmallervertical

linesthatdominatethebuildingsintheforeground.Theshapesofthebuildingsare

thereforemoredensethanthefreeformingstrokesofthecloudedsky.Immediately,a

tumultuousmoodhasbeencreated.Lineandshapebecomemorefullyformedfor

105AnnGalbally,ARemarkableFriendship:VincentVanGoghandJohnPeterRussell

(Carlton,Vic:MelbourneUniversityPublishing,2008),p114.106Ibid.


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RatcliffeinRegentsCanal.Formiscreatedwithsmaller,softerbrushstrokes,toexpress

socialmelancholyinasedatestate.Yetbothartistshaveeffectivelyexpressedthevast

conurbationofhousesbyusingananglethatoverlapsthefeaturesinthelandscape.

VanGoghusesrepetitionofsimplifiedshapestorepresentthebuildingswhichoverlay

oneanother.Spacebecomesrestrictedwheretheskyisopen.Ratcliffealsoshows

repeatedbuildingsextendingintothedistance.

Crowdedhousingwasavisuallandmarkofpoorareasinurbancentres,whichviewers

thenandnowcanequallyidentify.Suchiconographywassharedwithinliterature

throughouttheVictorianperiod,notonlybyDickens,butalsothatothergreatnovelist

SirArthurConanDoyle.HisgreatcreationSherlockHolmesobservedsodensea

swarmofhumanity.107ThetendencyinwhichsocietyinBritainhadinexpressingthe

themeofmelancholiawithinartisticresources,madeRatcliffesworkculturally

relevant.VanGoghhadallowedthisimagetoexpresstheburgeoningexpansionof

Paris,aswellastoexpresshistendencytoprojecthisownpersonalmelancholy.By

1900,PariswasdealingwiththesameproblemsLondonwasexperiencing.Stoval

writesthattherewasashortageoflow-costhousingcausingtheresultant

overcrowdingoftheworkingclassinParis.108

WithinViewoftheRoofsinParis,thescaleofthesubjectislarge,presentingavast

viewofParisfortheviewertoengagein.Buildingsmovefromlargeintheforeground

tosmallerandlesswellformedinthebackground.Theskyisgivenoverhalfofthe

canvasspace,preventingthelandscapefromdominating.Thecityrepresentsthe

107SirArthurConanDoyle,AdventuresofSherlockHolmes(NewYork:Harper&Bros,1892),p.154.108TylerStovall,TheRiseoftheParisRedBelt(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990),p.24.


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significanceofthenineteenthcentury;itisasymbolofindustrialisation.Thevieweris

madetofeelsmallinrelationtoit,amereobserverofthesocialmelancholywhichfalls

uponthemasses.Ratcliffedoesntuselargescaletomakeusfeeldwarfed,butinstead

placesusinsidetheresidentialarea,makingusfeelconfined.Heusestheconceptofa

smallspace,aclearlysqualidandpoorareaofLondon,toexpressthecultural

importanceofpoverty.

Ratcliffeexpressestexturalvariationbypaintinginthebrickandtilesontheleft

building,aswellasfinedetailontheropesandwoodpanellingoftheboat.Forallthe

darknessthatisimpliedbythecrowdedhousing,heisexpressingvariationanddetail

withinasociallymelancholylandscape,whichhasbeeninformedbyitsclaustrophobic

structure.Yettexturebecomesobsoletefurtherbackinthepictorialspace,wherehe

suggeststhevasthousing.Thefigureontheleftisbarelynoticeableandthefigureon

theboatamereshadow:avisualreminderofthepoor.Thesecharactersbecomean

expressionofthepovertyculturethatKeithRobbinshasidentified.109Ratcliffes

inclusionoftheseindividualsrevealsaninterestinprojectingsocialmelancholy.Van

Goghleavessuchtexturaldetailoutofthepicturealtogether.Thisisalandscapewhere

thecityhasdwarfedtheindividualandthereisnobeautifuldetailtobefoundhere.

Bothartistsareexpressingsocietiesmelancholicexperienceofthecity,yetRatcliffe

canfindindividualityinanoppressiveplace,whereVanGoghseesthecityscapeasa

massmelancholicexperiencereliantonthecityscapetosymbolisethis.

InViewOftheRoofsofParis,thecloudshavebeenpaintedimpastotodefinethe

swirlingactionofhisbrushstrokeandcharacterizeskyfromlandscape.Thesoftshaping

ofthecloudshasthenbeenreflectedinthesoftroundedbrushstrokesthatformthe

109Robbins,TheBritishIsles,p.213.


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trees.Thefoliagethenbecomesjuxtaposedwiththesolidsquare,rectangularand

triangularshapesthatformthebuildings.Ratcliffeusesaflatterandsofterbrushstroke

forthewholeofthepainting,whichensuresthatthetreebecomespartofthe

cityscaperatherthancompetingwithit.Bothpaintingsarealludingtothepowerand

beautyofnature,howitiscompetingwithurbanlife.InViewoftheRoofsofParis,the

treesarebarelynoticeableagainsttherooftops.Beautyistrappedinmasssprawl.In

Ratcliffespainting,thetreealsoappearstrappedwithinurbanlife,yetthelight

upwardstrokesthatformthebranchesandleavesofthetree,appearhopefulasthey

stretchtowardsthesky.Natureoftenbecomesasymbolinwhichtoexpresspersonal

andculturalmelancholywithinthearts.Itisparticularlysignificantinthe1800s

however.Forexample,WutheringHeightsbyEmilyBront,publishedin1847,is

famousforitsuseofpatheticfallacy.110Naturehowever,wasalsoasimpleenduring

symbolofthecountryside.InLondon,conscientiouseffortsweremadetobringthe

countryintothecitytoappeasethepersonalandsocialmelancholythecitysuffered.

RatcliffedisplaysboththemelancholicstructureoflifeinHammersmithandalsothe

beautysocietyfoundinnature,sidebyside.VanGogh,bycontrast,usesnatureasa

strugglingsymbolofindividuality.

Ratcliffecreatestonethroughhisbrightandvibrantpalette.Thebuildingsare

informedbydeepintenseyellows,oranges,pinks,reds,blues,greensandpurples.Dark

bluesontheroofsofthebackgroundbuildingscreatedepthandshadow,wherethe

translucentuseofapastelpaletteforthecanalcreatelightness.Thedeepcontrastsdo

notsomuchcreateabuoyantmoodasevokeafantasticcombinationofmoods.

Ratcliffeusescolourtoevokepersonalappreciationratherthanilluminateanycultural

110EmilyBront,WutheringHeights(NewYork:Harper&Bros,1858).


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significance.AdarkcornerofLondonisbathedinthelightofsunset:itisbeautifulbut

clearlyshouldntbe.ForVanGogh,darknessandlightisformedprimarilyfromhisuse

oftwoprominentlydifferentcolourpalettes,darkerintonethanRatcliffe.The

buildingsandfoliageintheforegroundaredefinedbywarmbrowns,greensand

oranges,formingbrick,foliageandchimneys.Thebuildingsinthebackgroundare

informedbydarktolightgreys,blues,beige,whiteandahintofpink.Thisopposing

colourpaletterendersformandshapesimplified,whereasthecontrastofcolourin

theforegroundensuresformisdominant.Thegreysandbluesthatdominatethespace

createahazeofsmoke,whichalludestotheindustrialnatureofindustrialcities.

RatcliffeinsteadusesRegentscanaltoexpresstheextensionofindustryintothecity.

ThecanalboatbecomesanimmediateiconofindustryinLondon.However,hereit

appearssubdued:anacceptedpartofthelandscape.Ratcliffeistappingintothe

complexityofVictorianculturethatprojectedoptimisminindustryaswellasthesocial

andculturalmelancholywhichindustryprovoked.InViewoftheRoofsofParis,the

buildingsinthebackgroundseemtofoldintotheskylinebyechoingthesameblue-

greycolourpalette.Itappearsasifsmokeandcloudismovingtoconsumethe

foregroundbuildingsinformedinawarmerpalette.WeareremindedoftheParisian

poetBaudelaire,quotedpreviouslyinchapterone:Soonwewillplungeintothecold

darknessundertheheavyandceaselessblowsofthebatteringrain.111By1910,

Londonhadformanyyearsbeentransformedintoanindustrialcentre.Ratcliffe

reflectsthisacceptanceofsharedmelancholyandthebeautytobefoundwithinit.For

BaudelaireandVanGoghhowever,theyfoundthemselvesinacitystillundergoing

change.HisworkreflectsthemelancholyfeltsociallyandpersonallyaboutPariss

111Baudelaire,AutumnSong(1857).


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transformation.WhenVanGogharrivedinParis,thecitywasbusypreparingforthe

InternationalExpositionof1889,aswellasstillundergoingaprogrammeof

modernisationunderBaronHaussmann.ControversyoverthebuildingoftheEiffel

Tower,reflectedthefeelingsofunhappinesspeoplefeltovermodernisation.112Asa

result,bothVanGoghandRatcliffeareexpressingthethoughtsofcontemporarysocial

andarchitecturalcriticsofthetime.Peoplewereasequallyfascinatedastheywere

appalledbyurbansprawl.113

GreatmovementhasbeenimpliedbytheswirlsoflargebrushstrokesthatVanGogh

usestoformclouds.Thelongthinlinesrepeatedlyformingchimneysontherooftops

createastaccatorhythmicquality,whichcontrastswiththelargerounded

brushstrokesofthesky,creatingaheavierandconfusedrhythm.Asaresult,the

buildingsrepresentthefast,quickpaceofthecity.Thedarknessofformcreates

density,butthechimneysbecomeasymbolofindustrialisation.VanGoghisshowing

thereisconsistentexpansioninthiscity,butthedarkpaletteandoverlappingformare

areminderofthemelancholicdestructionofoldParis.Movementisnotsomuch

portrayedinRatcliffespainting,butratheritisimpliedashappeningwhenwe,the

viewer,cannotsee.Ratcliffestopsusfromfeelingmovementsothatweareprevented

fromseeingtheobvious,inthatsocialmelancholywasfeltprominentlyinapoorarea

andtoinsteadseebeautywithinit.Thebrushstrokesthatformthewaterarenotlarge

andswirlinglikethebrushstrokesthatformvanGoghssky,butinsteadappearinsmall

strokes.Darkoutlinesaroundforms,suchastheboatandbrickwall,preventforms

112EnricaCrispino,VanGogh(Minneapolis,MN:OliverPress,2008),p.24.113SeeChapter1,pg6Referencewhenpagesarenumbered


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frommoving.Theboatandthecurvedformofthecanalonlyimplymovement.Weare

simplylefttoobservesocialmelancholyandbeautycoincidinginthegoldenlight.

In1886,VanGoghhadnotyetdiscoveredhisbrilliancewiththecolourpalette,howit

couldtransformsomethingdarkintosomethingluminous.Yethisuseofformand

brushstrokewereuniquelyhisandallencompassinginViewoftheRoofsofParis.Here

heexpressesbothhispersonaldisillusionmentwithParisandcombinesitwiththe

socialmelancholyoflifefeltinParis.Ratcliffealsosharedbothpersonalandsocial

experiencewithinRegentsCanalatHammersmith.PaintedduringtheCamdenTown

Groupdecade,the1910s,thelastinginfluenceofVanGoghslater,brighterpaletteis

clearinthispainting.

Whatmattersmosthowever,ishowbothsharedanappreciationofallforms

melancholywithinthecityscape.Ratcliffewasabletoreconcilehispersonal

appreciationofmodernlifewithsociallyacceptedmelancholiclifeexperiencedin

London.Subject,form,shapeandlinecreatethemelancholicscene.Colourhowever,

allowedmelancholytoshine.HeperfectlyreflectedthecomplexityofVictoriansociety,

whichhadcontradicteditselfbybeingattractedtothesocialmelancholyofthecities

aswellasthebeautyofthecountry.Bothartistsequallyexpressed,notonlytheirown

feelingbutalsosocieties,eveniftheseopinionsweresomewhatdifferent.


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ii)AnAnalysisofMelancholyintheModernCountryLandscape

Figure7.SpencerGore,TheBeanfield,Letchworth,1912.Oiloncanvas(30.5x

40.6cm)TateCollections.

Figure8.PaulCezanne,TheRailwayCutting,1870.Oiloncanvas(80x129cm)

NeuePinakothek,Munich,Germany.


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SpencerGorehadapreoccupationwiththeworkofPaulCzanne,suchthathewrote

ofhisadmirationinhisregularcolumnforArtNews:Itistheintensesinceritywith

whichhepursueshisobjectwhichgivestohispaintingthatwonderfulgravity.114Both

GoreandCezannefoundthatgravityandmeansofexpressioninthecontroversial

subjectofindustrialisationwithinthecountrylandscape.Comparedtotheworkofhis

colleagueRatcliffe,Goresworkhasbeengivenconsiderablemoreattentionwithinthe

historyofart.

Cezanne,likeVanGogh,iswrittenaboutextensivelybutthepaintingthatshallbe

discussedhere,TheRailwayCutting[Fig.8],isnotsowellanalysedasthatofhislater

work.Gores1912landscape,TheBeanfield,Letchworth[Fig.7],providesanintriguing

comparisontoCezannesimpressionofmodernisminthecountry.Cezanneoften

voicedhisattitudetochangeswhichtechnologicalprogresshadonthelandscape.The

townofAixhasbeenruinedbytheChiefEngineerofRoads.Youwillhavetohurryif

youwanttoseeanything,hewrotetoEmileBernard.115AtthetimeofpaintingThe

RailwayCutting,hewaslivinginLEstaqueasarefugefromParisduetotheoutbreak

oftheFranco-Prussianwar.Gorewasalsoseekingasortofrefuge,atthegardencityof

Letchworth.Here,culturewasattemptingtocombinemodernitywithrurallife.Gore

soughttofindaresolutionbetweenthetwo,asRatcliffehadinthecity,whereas

Cezannecouldonlyseemodernitydestroyingnature.

ThedepictionofGoreslandscapeinTheBeanfieldimmediatelycontradictsthe

traditionalinterpretationofthenaturalistlandscape.Linesarenotusedtoutilise

114Connett,WalterSickert,p.37.115UlrikeMalorny,PaulCezanne1839-1906:PioneerofModernism(London:Taschen,2001),p.20.


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naturalshapes,butformgeometricpatterns,asseeninthezigzagformationthat

constitutesthebeanfield.Thiscontinuesinthetrees,wherelinesformblocksofcolour.

Thesegeometricformsthenmirrortheman-madeformofthechimneysinthe

foreground.ThesechimneysareinfactpartofthebrickworksatBaldock.116Geometric

lineandshapecontinuesintheclouds,completingtheunificationoftheman-made

andnaturalobject.Thefactory,anestablishediconofindustry,typicallysymbolised

negativequalities.AnnBerminghamargues,thatafter1860countryandcitywere

culturallydefined,inthatthecitywasnegativeandthecountrytrueEngland.117

Berminghamnotesthatthiscontinuedintothetwentiethcentury,becomingsignificant

inBritishculturewhenmodernistEnglisharttookmodernismasacentraltheme.The

symbolsofcountryandmodernityhaveinsteadbeenembracedtogetherbyGore,

joiningfieldandfactorytogetheringeometricpatterns.Cezannealsouseslinetoform

blockedshape,asinthedarklinethatcutsacrossthefield,yetcolourisnotrestricted

bylinelikeGore.Linesbecomedisjointed,allowingcolourtointegrateasseenonMont

Sainte-Victorietotheright.WherebyBritainhadbeenabletoaccepttheideaof

industryandnaturetogetherbythe1910s,Francein1870wasstillundergoing

modernisation.NatureistreatedmorenaturallythroughCezannesuseoflineand

form,makingthecutinthehillappearunsettlingandaclearprojectionofhispersonal

anguish.

Thesethemesarefurtherreflectedinscaleanduseofspace.ThescaleofGores

landscapeisfar-reaching,allowingustoseethemajesticscaleofthecountryside,as

116YsanneHolt,BritishArtistsandtheModernistLandscape(Aldershot:Ashgate,2003),p.122.117AnnBermingham,LandscapeandIdeology:TheEnglishRusticTradition1740-1860(Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),pp.102-3.


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wellastheplaceofindustry.AlthoughGoreusessimplifiedshapetocreateatwo-

dimensionalspace,theinterplayofpositiveandnegativespacethroughcolourallows

scaletobefelt.Cezannealsoshowsanexpanseoflandscape,projectingthe

magnificentscaleofthecountryside.Thecuttinginthehillisgivenadominantrole

here,alludingtotherailwaywhichisoneofthemostpotentsymbolsofVictorian

progressandindustrialisationatthistime.118ThroughCezannesrenderingofthe

subjectinadeepbloodred,thissymbolofindustrialisationlosesitsconnotationsof

positivity.Thelargescaleofthesubjectthen,representsthelargepersonalgriefthe

artistholdsovertheeventsthatareoccurringinLEstaque.

Gorehascreatedtextureinthespacethroughhisuseofgeometricshape,allowing

thepaintingtoremaintwo-dimensional.Thisismostkeenlyfeltinthebeanfield,where

thetextureofthefieldisexaggeratedintoapattern.Textureinthefieldsbeyondis

renderedobsolete;thefieldsbecomereducedtomereshape,integratingonceagain

theman-madechimneyswiththesurroundingcountryside.YsanneHolthasalludedto

thesymbolicreflectionofLetchworth,throughhisuseofsimplifiedforms:His

approachwassimilartothatofthearchitectsofthenewtownitself.Holtquotesa

townplannerwhoremarked,Wetriedtocombineacertainamountofformalityinthe

plan.119Asaresult,GoreusestheinspirationoftheLetchworthplantocombine

modernandtraditional,thencelebrateitinthelandscape.Ontheotherhand,taking

natureandrenderingitsimplifiedandvisuallyequaltothesplendourofthe

countryside,maybetakenpersonallyasanunhappyscene.Theculturefor

118AidanCruttenden,TheVictorians(London:Evans,2002),p.7.119Holt,BritishArtists,p.122.


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appreciatingruralEnglandwasstillstrongin1912.Eyeslookingupontheworkatthe

time,mayhaveperceivedthisratherasamelancholicrenderingofareveredland.

TextureisfoundmoreearnestlyinTheRailwayCutting,whereCezanneallowsthe

textureofthecanvastocomethrough.Brushstrokesarevisibleacrossthecanvas,

especiallywhereroundedbrushstrokesformcloudstocontrastwiththeflatter

horizontalstrokesformingtheground.Equally,theshapeofthemountainiscarved

throughthevariedlinesheproduces.Cezanneusestexturetoinsteaddistinguishit

frommodernism.Controversyoverthedestructionofcountrysideforrailwaysexisted

inEnglandatthebeginningoftheindustrialrevolutionandnowsuchcontroversy

transcendeduponFrance.CamillePissarrohadpaintedaseriesofdrawingsdepicting

thecityascorruptandthecountryaspeaceful.120.Aslateas1900,poetrywasstill

lockedinRomanticismintheFrenchprovinces.DavidCowardwritesthatthispoetry

withitsevocationsofsea,landscape,customsandpeasantlifeprovided(usually

melancholy)glimpsesoftheprovinces.121Byrepresentingnatureassociety

appreciatedit,Cezannemadethecuttinglookallthemoreintrusiveandmelancholic.

DarknessandlightisformedinTheBeanfieldwithinthecolourpalette.Eventhough

thefactoryinthebackgroundisfurthestaway,itisshowninalightblueshade,

whereasthetreesareindarkergreensandblues.Blueisusedprimarilytoconvey

shadowandagainservestounifynaturewiththeman-made.Intruth,Gores

representationofaunifiedLetchworthdidnotentirelyreflecthowthoselivingthere

feltinreality.ItwasobservedthatsocialclassesatLetchworthsimplydidnotmix;

120JohnHouse,LandscapesofFrance:ImpressionismanditsRivals(London:HaywardGallery,1995),p.56.121DavidCoward,HistoryofFrenchLiteratureFromChansonDeGestetoCinema(Oxford:JohnWiley&Sons,2007),p.487.


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socialdisharmonieswouldnotdisappear.Goreleftoutanyrepresentationofthe

peopleofLetchworth,weseeonlythatharmonycanexistpictorially.122Hispersonal

interpretationmayhavebeenoneofjoy,butresidentsmayhaveseenthisasa

distortion.Inlightofthis,theimagetakesonalonelyandisolatedperspective.In

Cezanneslandscape,blueisusedalsoasaprimarycolourbutgenerallytovaluelight

withintheskyanduponthemountain.Darkred,greenandbrownimpressshadow

uponthepicture.Cezannemakeshispersonalmelancholicthoughtsexplicit,rather

thaneradicatinganyhiddenthemes,asGoredoes,tocreateaharmoniousimage.

ThereforeCezannepresentspersonalmelancholy,whereGoreprefersamorepositive

personalinterpretationtoanyrepresentationofsocialmelancholythatmaylie

beneath.

ThecolourpaletteGoreusesinformsshapeandform,notasatooltoportrayrealism.

Colourfoundinthenaturalformshavebeengroupedintopatterns,allowingvibrant

contrastsofcolours,mostnoticeableinthepastelpinksagainstdarkbrownandearthy

redinthebeanfield.Thesmokerisingfromthebrickfactoryisnotsimplygrey,butis

highlightedinduskypurpleandwhite.Thecolourofsmokebecomesonewiththe

colourofthenaturalclouds,thusbecomingpartofnaturesbeauty.Goreisreversing

thetypicalassociationsoftheiconicityofsmoke.MarroniwritesoftheVictorian

novelistElizabethGaskell,whosebookNorthandSouthspeaksofthenegative

iconicityofindustrialisation.123Literaturewasfullofthesmokingchimneysthat

imposetheirantiecologicalmessageontheVictorianlandscape.124Goreuseshis

122Holt,BritishArtists,p.125.123FrancescoMarroni,VictorianDisharmonies:AReconsiderationofNineteenth-

CenturyEnglishFiction(Newark:UniversityofDelawarePress,2010),p.36.124Ibid.


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Cezanneequallycouldnotreflecthisownsocietysforemostattitude.Hedidnotwant

tobesympathetictowardstheintrusionofmodernisation.Hegivestheskymovement

bybrushstroke,ratherthantheuseofblockedshapes,contrastingwiththewoundin

thelandscape.Thedeepredcolourimpliesithasbeenfreshlycut,withitsblocked

colourmakingitdenseandstill.Thenaturalmovementofthefieldsandmountain

constructedwithhisvariedbrushstroke,havebeendestroyedinthecutting,leavinga

permanentportraitofadamagedhillandthussuggestingachangethatcannotbe

undone.Cezanneismakingclearthattherailwaysareapersonallymelancholicsight.

ItwouldhavebeeninterestingtoseeGoreandCezanneapproacheachothers

subjects;theirpersonalopinionswouldhavebeenmoreaccuratelyreflectiveofthat

societythantheirown.Nevertheless,theirpersonalinterpretationsofmodernisation

uponthecountrysidemakeanintriguingcomparison.MelancholyforCezanne

becomesapersonalpreoccupationinTheRailwayCutting.Itseemsthatwithinsociety,

theopinionsofthose,suchasCezanne,wereintheminority.Theworkthereforetakes

onadeeppersonalsignificance.Hehasprojectedanindividualfeelingwithadeeplove

fornatureandcontrastingitwiththewound.

Gorealsorejectstheprominentfeelingwithinhissocietytochallengethemelancholic

cultureassociatedwithurbanisationandreplaceitwithappreciation.Butbehindthe

faade,LetchworthwasnotthepictureofharmonyGorewantedustobelieve.

Thereforewhatcanbetakenasanoptimisticpicture,becomestingedwithsocial

melancholyinretrospect.YetGoresprimaryaimwastoconsoleasymbolofcultural

melancholy,thefactory,withthepositiveimageofnature,toprovethatbothcanbe


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iii)AnAnalysisofChildhoodNostalgiaandMelancholy

Figure9.RobertBevan,AStreetSceneinBelsizePark,aHouseatHampstead,London,

1917.Oiloncanvas(75x90.3cm)MuseumofLondon.

Figure10.PaulGauguin,TheSacredMountain(ParahiTeMarae),1892.Oiloncanvas(66x88.9cm)PhiladelphiaMuseumofModernArt.


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WellbeforetheCamdenTownGrouphadformed,RobertBevanhadmetPaul

Gauguinwithacommonaim.In1891,BevanhadtravelledtoBrittanytofinda

primitiveandunspoiltenvironmentforinspiration.Gauguinandhimselfwouldwork

together,whereGauguinwouldbecomehischiefinfluence.128Itwouldbetoosimple

however,tomerelyindulgeintheirworkatthispoint.WhenBevanandGauguin

displayfascinatingsimilaritiesisintheirwork,ithappenstooccurwhentheartists

departontheirownseparatepaths;GauguintoTahitiandBevantoLondon.

Itisimperativethatthesepaintingsaretakenwithinthecontextoftheirtime.Bevans

AStreetSceneinBelsizePark[Fig.9]isnotableforitscompletionduringWorldWarI

anditssignificancebecomesmorepoignant.GauguinsTheSacredMountain(ParahiTe

Marae)[Fig.10],waspaintedduringhistimeinTahitifrom1891to1893.However,the

paradisewhichheenvisionedwasshatteredwhenhesawFrenchcolonisationmeant

virtuallynothingnowremainedofthetraditionalreligion,mythologyandart.129What

BevanandGauguinachievedintheirpaintings,wasachildlikenostalgiaforwhathad

beenlostintheirrespectivesubject.Eachistingedwithanostalgiceyethatalso

becomeslayeredwithculturalandpersonalmelancholyunderobservation.

TheuseoflineisveryimportanttoBevansAStreetSceneinBelsizePark.Frances

Stenlakewrites,thatmuchlikeSpencerGore,Bevanusesahorizontalandverticalgrid

toachievecomposition.130Linedoesnotdefinetexture,butratheritformssimple

shapesthatlackdetail.Themotorisedtaxi-cabforexample,lookstwo-dimensionalasa

result.ForGauguin,hisuseoflineachievesasimilargoal,inthatthefenceisformedby

128Connett,WalterSickert,p.61.129AlanBowness,TheGreatArtistsCollection:Gauguin(London:EncyclopaediaBritannica,1971),p.11.130FrancisStenlake,RobertBevan:FromGauguintoCamdenTown(London:UnicornPress,2008),p.146.


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simpleoutlining,renderingittwo-dimensional.BevanadmiredGauguinforhisbold

patterningandclearlyithadalastingimpact.Itservedwellinachievingachildlike

qualitytoBevansworkthatGauguinfoundreflectiveofhissubject.Gauguinwas

consistentinwantingtofindinhisartaconnectiontohischildhoodtimespentin

SouthAmerica.Hereproachedthefast,industriallifestylethatwasencroachingupon

France,asdiscoveredwithinViewoftherooftopsinParisbyVanGogh.Hewasalways

lookingbackwardstowardsmemoriesofchildhood.Hisuseoflineinthiswayandthe

childlikequalityithad,remindsusofGauguinsattemptstoreachhisroots.

ForBevan,usingthistechniquealsobringstomindachildlikeimage.Usingdarker

outlinestoformshapesisreminiscentofachildspicturebook.Gauguinalsousesthis

visiblyonthegreentrees.Bevanisusingthistechniquesymbolicallytoevokeinusthe

feelingsofchildhoodandinnocence.Itbecomesallthemorepoignantanddistant

whenwetakeintoaccountthatinnocencehasbeenlostthroughwar.Bevanis

continuingtheVictoriantendencyforculturalretrospection,whichcontinuedintothe

twentiethcenturyforreassurance.Thetragicimpactofwaronyouthcanbeexpressed

throughthepoemInASoldiersHospitalI:PluckwrittenbyEvaDobell,avolunteer

nurseduringWorldWarI.Shewrites:Achild-sowastedandsowhite,Sobrokewith

pain,heshrinksindread.131Thisisacandidillustrationoftherecruitingracketthat

allowedboysyoungerthantherequisiteagetojoinup;theboyinthispoembeingjust

seventeenandmaimedforlife.132Bevanallowedhisworkachildlikeinnocencewhich

theseboyshadtragicallylost.

131EvaDobell,InASoldiersHospitalI:Pluck(1919),inGeorgeWalter(ed.),ThePenguinBookofFirstWorldWarPoetry(London:Penguin,2006),p.207.132NosheenKhan,WomensPoetryoftheFirstWorldWar(Kentucky:UniversityofKentucky,1988),p.126


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ThelackoftexturetoBevansworkmeansthatthepictorialplainappearsstill.

Brushstrokeisnotobvious,insteaditislineandformwhichdominates.Asaresult,

areasofthespace,includingtheroadandthesky,appearempty.Withoutlookingat

thetimeofthispaintingorknowingitsl