The Tao of Green:

Building the Foundation for an Environmental Ethic with Taoist Philosophy

Stephen Wolkwitz

Religion 182 - East Asian Religion & Philosophy

29 April 2009

The Taoist environmental ethic that can be named is not the true Taoist environmental

ethic. Can Taoism be pointed to as providing an environmental ethic? Though one should not

equate Taoism with environmentalism, I argue that Taoist thought provides a basis for a

relationship between man and nature, on which a modern environmental ethic can be built.

Modern philosophers and environmentalists have, in the past few decades, begun to examine

Taoism as a source for their environmental ethics. I will attempt to articulate the Taoist concept

of nature, and how it is affected by ontological and metaphysical elements of Taoist thought.

Using this conception of nature, I will provide evidence for how Taoism suggests humans should

relate to the environment in a way that could form the groundwork for environmental ethics and

also address criticism of Taoism as environmental philosophy. I will finally review my argument

as a coherent proposal for a Taoist-inspired environmental ethic. Taoist philosophy could prove

to be a key in reshaping how humans think about the physical world and how they act in it,

which could help to solve the many environmental problems we are faced with today.

In the modern world, environmentalism has become a powerful ideology as

peoples and governments contemplate their relationship with the natural world. Many have

turned to the ancient Chinese Taoist philosophy as a source of wisdom, looking to it to advise

humanity on how to act and deal with the environment.1 Environmentalists often see in Taoism a

philosophy that encourages “oneness with the universe” and a sense of “harmony with nature.”2

Of the environmentalists who have examined Taoism for support, some have interpreted Taoism

as naturalism, a philosophy that views the universe as subject to the “order of nature” that creates

and governs all things.3 Others have tried to see in Taoism a separation between human and

1 Lai, Karyn L. "Conceptual Foundations for Environmental Ethics: A Daoist Perspective." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 247-66.2 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 119.

3 Peerenboom, Randall P. "Beyond Naturalism: A Reconstruction of Daoist Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 13 (1991): 4-5.

1

nature and a direction for humans to act in accordance with the way of the natural world.4 Others

have tried to argue that Daoism held even more different views of nature. These modern

disagreements on how to interpret Taoist metaphysics and its human/nature relationship have

lead to a serious undermining of the capability for Taoism to deliver a coherent message to

contemporary environmentalism. In what follows I hope to clarify the Taoist conception of

nature and address criticism to its applicability with environmental concerns.

Understanding how Taoism views nature is essential to developing any ethical

attitude towards the environment based on Taoist principles. To begin to comprehend nature in a

Taoist sense one should start with the concept of the Tao itself. The Tao, which translates to “the

way,” is the central concept of Taoism, giving the tradition its name. The Tao is explained as

eternal and nameless. It is the “mother of the universe,” which is in operation everywhere and

dependent on nothing.5 Taoist descriptions of the Tao portray it as an all-pervasive, life-

sustaining, and nourishing force.6 We must be careful not to take the Tao as something that can

truly be described with words, however. Lao Tzu, who wrote the Tao Te Ching, the main

doctrine of Taoism along with the book of Chuang Tzu, tells us “the Tao that can be told is not

the true Tao.”7 Lao Tzu refers to the Tao as nameless and intangible, due to its infinite nature.8

Only finite objects can be assigned to a name in Taoist thought, since giving something a name

serves to tie it to a definite identity.9 Since the Tao “cannot be told” and has an infinite and all-

4 Ibid.5 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 256 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

336. 7 Lao Tzu. Ibid. Chap. 18 Ip, Po-Keung. Ibid.

9 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 337.

2

pervasive nature it “rejects all names.” Lao Tzu even tells us that the only reason he refers to the

Tao as the Tao is because he does “not know its name.”10

The Tao is really the underlying pattern of the universe, or a type of cosmic law from

which all things are derived. Everything is derived from the Tao and everything is a part of the

Tao. We can read this in the words of the Tao Te Ching, which tells us “the Tao is like a well,

used but never used up.” It is also like an “eternal void, filled with infinite possibilities” and the

“great mother which gives birth to infinite worlds.”11 The Tao, by its nature, cannot be explained

or comprehended like any finite thing can. Instead we must recognize the infinite mystery of the

Tao as existing in all things and making them one.

Many ecologists look at the Tao as the source that nourishes, sustains, and transforms

beings.12 Because of this, they hold, a natural relationship is built between the Tao and all the

myriad things that are a part of it. This arises out of the Tao’s infinite nature as described

previously because it is limitless, and so reaches all things, and because it gives “birth” to all

things, becoming a nourishing “mother” as Lao Tzu described. The Tao can also be thought of as

a process of change. The interactions of the Tao’s cosmic principles of Yin and Yang govern

everything in the universe and cause them to exist in a constant transformative process.13 This

transformative process is illustrated in the Chuang Tzu, in a story where a man is dying and

Master Lai comes to see him while his family has gathered around to lament. “Hush, get out! Do

you want to disrupt the process of change?” says the master.14 He goes on to glorify the Tao as

10 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 111 Ibid. Chap.1-1412 Ip, Po-Keung. Ibid.

13 Ibid.14 Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu (Penguin Classics). Trans. Martin Palmer. New York: Penguin

Classics, 2007. Chap. 6

3

the “maker of all” and wonder what it will transform this man into next.15 The way in which

Master Lai tells the family not to disturb the process of change has important repercussions for

the way environmentalists view the way man should act toward nature. The process of change is

natural and a part of the Tao, therefore disrupting the process through human intervention is

unnatural and, in an ethical environmental view, should be avoided.16 It is this feeling that has led

to a wide interpretation of Taoism as naturalism, a philosophy that advocates acting in

accordance with nature.

The Tao follows tzu jan, or “natural spontaneity,” which is the movement of the Tao as it

underlies the unity and life of all things.17 Since the Tao will change and move things naturally,

the way in which it doe this is spontaneously through tzu jan. Things have relative freedom of

self-movement within the Tao, which allows them to act in such a spontaneous way so as to

always be in accordance with their own nature. Since the type of action that arises from tzu jan

comes naturally, it is therefore the easiest course of action, and the most effective. Using this

principle we can understand how “the Tao constantly does nothing, and yet everything is being

done.”18

In order to understand how a person could follow the Tao better, and become like a sage,

we need a deeper understanding of what its “nature” is exactly. “The Tao doesn’t take sides, it

gives birth to both good and evil.”19 Because the Tao is eternal and all encompassing it is also

unbiased and impartial. The Tao is the source of all things, both good and evil, as illustrated in

15 Ibid.16 Ames, Roger T. "Taoism and the Nature of Nature." Environmental Ethics 8 (1986): 317-49. 17 Cheng, Chung-ying. "On the Environmental Ethics of the Tao and the Ch'i." Environmental Ethics 8

(1986): 356.

18 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 3719 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap 5

4

the passage above. Thus a person following the Tao will avoid making distinctions such as that

between good and evil, or right and wrong. The Tao Te Ching supports this when it states, “the

sage doesn’t take sides, he welcomes both sinners and saints.”20 Instead of trying to make

distinctions of right and wrong in order to act correctly, a true sage doesn’t have to think about

their actions, they just act. The Tao, essentially, is nature and what comes naturally, without

thought, is the Tao. This will prove to be an important point for the human-to-nature relationship

that interests modern ecologists. This is because many ecologists have interpreted this notion as

“acting in accordance with nature.”21 Acting in accordance with nature leads, such ecologists say,

to harmony and an ethical relationship for humans to follow.22 The Taoists refer to this principle

as wu wei, literally meaning “non-action”, which I will elaborate on later, in the context of its full

value to modern environmentalism. Not making

distinctions is a very important principle of the Tao. The Taoist master Chuang Tzu said, “The

Tao is in all things, in their divisions and their fullness. What I dislike about divisions is that they

multiply, and what I dislike about multiplication is that it makes people hold fast to it.”23 Chuang

Tzu is saying that regardless of whether you look at things from the point of view of their

“divisions” (the ways in which they differ) or from the point of view of their “fullness” (the ways

in which they are the same), they are still the Tao. Chuang Tzu goes on to state that he does not

like looking at “divisions” because this multiplies into endless classifications that people tend to

place their belief in. This undermines people’s ability to see the larger picture of the infinite and

20 Ibid. 21 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

339.

22 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 119.

23 Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu (Penguin Classics). Trans. Martin Palmer. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Chap. 23, Page 205.

5

eternal nature of Tao. The bigger problem arises for Chuang Tzu when people begin to study all

these distinctions and believe they are gaining true knowledge. Chuang Tzu says, “knowing that

knowing is unknowable is true perfection.”24 This means that a true master will recognize nature

itself as ultimately unknowable and be content in his ignorance. What Chuang Tzu is explaining

is that when we view things from the point of view of their diversions we see things in a dualistic

manner and blind ourselves to the ultimate truth. When we see things from the point of view of

their fullness we see nature as one. The importance of non-dualism in shaping the way Taoism

proposes for us to see nature is paramount.25 The Té is another central

concept to Taoism that is important to understand in the way it helps shape the Taoist

conceptualization of nature. The Té can be described as the power or potency of the Tao that

changes beings.26 The Té is both potency and a virtue in that it is internalized and possessed by

all things, which means the Tao in turn possesses it. One who uses Té wields a moral charisma

over people and allows the power to flow from them, without having to do anything. This is

explained in the Tao Te Ching in passage 38: “The sage does not try to be powerful, thus he is

truly powerful.”27 Thus we can see that this power, the Té, is a natural energy embedded in the

Tao that is inherent in all things. The Té relates all things to each other both metaphysically and

morally. I say it relates things because, since everything is endowed with Té and a part of the

Tao, everything is inherently connected to all other things in the universe. I have previously

explained that the Tao is impartial and makes no preference among things since it is itself

24 Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu (Penguin Classics). Trans. Martin Palmer. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007. Chap. 23, Page 203

25 Ames, Roger T. "Taoism and the Nature of Nature." Environmental Ethics 8 (1986): 321-28.

26 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

335-43.

27 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 38

6

inseparable from the natural world it gives birth to. This means that all things can be seen as

being “ontologically equal.”28 Not only that, but all things are valued equally since they are

related to everything else through the processes of transformation. Humanity is not given any

special status as above, or even separate from nature, as it often is in Western and Confucian

schools of thought.29 This resonates extremely well with many modern environmentalists, who

have been looking for a way to relate humans to nature that does not see the natural world as

being subject to humans or valued only for material gain.30 This holistic view of the natural

world as one, and humans as simply another part of it, provides an excellent basis for an

environmental ethic’s metaphysical philosophy. Some scholars

have noted that the concept of Té is often underplayed in terms of its significance to Taoist

thought. As I have explained, the term is very flexible and can be taken to mean anything from

“power” to moral principle and “virtue.”31 I have described the Té as a power or type of charisma

so as not to confuse the Té with “virtue” or “principle” in a Confucian or any other sense that

would be at odds with the Taoist critique of the cultural metastructure. The metastructure is all

the man-made concepts that have become ingrained in one’s mind, such as social norms, gender

roles, language, and other institutions.32 Instead, Taoism compels us to transcend these

meaningless values in order to follow the pure and natural way.33 It is important to make this

28 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

337-40.

29 Ames, Roger T. "Taoism and the Nature of Nature." Environmental Ethics 8 (1986): 321-31.

30 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 121.

31 Lai, Karyn L. "Conceptual Foundations for Environmental Ethics: A Daoist Perspective." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 248-53.

32 Trowbridge, John. "Skepticism as a Way of Living: Sextus Empiricus and Zhuangzi." Journal of Chinese Philosophy (2006): 254-61.

33 Lee, Jung H. "Preserving One's Nature: Primitivist Daoism and Human Rights." Journal of Chinese

7

point in any construction of an environmental ethic because “virtue,” in the Taoist sense, seems

to be tied more to the natural way than too any system produced by humans.

Wing-tsit Chan describes the Té in yet another way, as the Tao “endowed in the

individual things.”34 In this light, we see the Té as the essence of an individual thing. The Té is

what binds everything to the Tao, the ultimate unnamable source. Chan’s model of the Té as an

essence in all individual things helps to promote the equal value of all things and drawing out the

interdependence of the universe.35 Interdependence is also something ecologists emphasize as the

many life forms and non-living things that make up the environment are interdependent in such a

way that the removal of one element affects all the others.36 This is another way in which the Té

helps promote the value of all things in an environmental context.

Understanding the metaphysical nature of the Tao, we can now fully discuss the

wu wei principle as a guide for the way humans should act in accordance with nature. “Tao

invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left undone.”37 This quote tells us that the Tao

is able to accomplish all things through nonaction, or wu wei. Since the Tao “sustains and

governs” all action, it can be said to be action-in-itself.38 Therefore, when it is said that the Tao

does not perform action, it is similar to saying the Tao does not act outside of itself, or that it acts

in accordance with its own nature. The Tao that would have to take extra action outside of its

nature would not be the true Tao.

Philosophy (2007): 597-609.34 Chan, Wing-tsit. Way of Lao Tzu Tao-Te Ching. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1963.

35 Lai, Karyn L. "Conceptual Foundations for Environmental Ethics: A Daoist Perspective." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 247-66.

36 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

335-43.

37 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 3738 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983):

341.

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In explaining the nature of the sage, Lao Tzu models the way the humans should

act off the way the Tao acts. He says “The sage does nothing and yet leaves nothing undone,” the

sage also “deals with things before they arise” and “puts things in order before disorder arises.”39

Through these passages we can see that the sage acts as the Tao does, in accordance with his

own nature, following the principle of wu wei. In this light we can see how those who attempt to

take action outside of the laws of nature (in other words, action not in accordance with the Tao)

will fail because they go against the way.40 When someone acts according to wu wei they can

accomplish anything without trying. They are free of the rules and distinctions and independent

of anything but their own nature. Thus, instead of trying to use the natural world as a means to an

end, the sage works with nature and all is easily accomplished. Many ecologists believe wu wei

allows man to value the non-human world more for what it is and to exploit it less, creating

harmony in the man-to-nature relationship.41

Using this understanding of the nature of Taoism, its view of the human-nature

relationship, and its insights on how to act in harmony with nature, as a foundation from which

to build an environmental ethic, we can begin to explore other themes where Taoist thought can

bolster modern environmentalism. One such theme is that of primitivism. Primitivism is the

notion that humans should live in a more primitive society, less reliant on technology and more

connected with nature.42 Naturally, there are many environmentalists who would advocate some

form of a primitivist way of life, which would limit human society’s harmful affects on nature.

Many of these environmentalists see Taoist philosophy as having set a precedent for this idea.43

39 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap 55-6540 Ip, Po-Keung. Ibid.41 Lai, Karyn L. "Conceptual Foundations for Environmental Ethics: A Daoist Perspective." Environmental

Ethics 25 (2003): 247-66. 42 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 121. 43 Ibid.

9

Taoism makes some explicit suggestions for governing a country that support a

return to a more primitive way of life. For example, Lao Tzu tells us that the government of the

sage “empties the peoples minds” and “weakens their ambition,” suggesting that a country

should break down the metastructure society has been living in, in order to return people to their

free and natural state.44 The Tao Te Ching also states that people should “let go of the law, let go

of economics, let go of religion” and they will become “honest, prosperous, and serene.”45 This

also follows the theme of letting go of rigid concepts in order to live in a more simplistic and

harmonious society. If your society is simple and harmonious with nature then there is no need

for ritual, as the imposition of the leader’s will in that way would just ignore the Tao causing

desire and disorder.46 Lao Tzu advocates a simple agrarian society that will avoid over-

complexion.47

The Taoist advice for governing a nation is in fact very much like its advice for acting

according to the principle of wu wei, but on a larger scale. Lao Tzu says, “governing a large

country is like frying a small fish. You spoil it with too much poking.”48 This “poking” represent

the rituals and laws of the Confucians, in that it involves too much human intervention and does

not allow people to act according to nature. Instead, Lao Tzu tells leaders to “learn to follow the

Tao and stop trying to control,” which again implies wu wei, nonaction or action in accordance

with nature.49 Essentially the sage is able to employ wuwei in his governance, attaining a natural

state of oneness in his country, and making it “ordered and secure.”50 Wu wei is meant to hinder

the promotion of the desires of the people so as to avoid competition for happiness and security.51

Chuang Tzu also voices criticism against striving for happiness as opposed to “just being” happy

as you are, saying, “happiness is the absence of the striving for happiness.”52 Instead, people

naturally attain these things through the Tao. With people living this way, everyone would be

44 Lee, Jung H. "Preserving One's Nature: Primitivist Daoism and Human Rights." Journal of Chinese

10

content and there would be little interference with the natural world, something most ecologists

would find attractive. Another theme in which Taoism and

ecology intersect is that of femininity. The value of femininity in Taoism is of special interest to

a branch of ecology that has grown over the past few decades known as ecofeminism, with many

leaders developing concepts similar to Taoism.53 Ecofeminist thought criticizes the dualistic

metaphysics so common in modern thought in much the same way Taoism did in ancient

China.54 Many of the ecofeminists say that dualism supports the distinction and division of things

into completely separate entities, and also promotes inequality in the value we assign to each

thing.55 For example, there is distinction between human society and nature through which

humans view nature as subordinate in value and subject to exploitation. This argument resonates

with virtually the same Taoist argument against dualism elaborated on earlier. The Taoist view

of an interconnected whole, which makes no distinctions, assigns equal value to all things. This

allows for human harmonization with nature, as well as equality between male and female,

which are both goals of ecofeminist philosophy.56 The Taoist concept of yin and yang

is one of the most important examined by ecofeminists. The yin/yang is used to represent binary

Philosophy (2007): 597-609. 45 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 5746 Lee, Jung H. Ibid.47 Cooper, David E. Ibid.48 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 6049 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 5750 Lee, Jung H. "Preserving One's Nature: Primitivist Daoism and Human Rights." Journal of Chinese

Philosophy (2007): 597-609. 51 Cheng, Chung-Ying. "Dimensions of the Dao and Onto-Ethics in Light of the Daodejing." Journal of

Chinese Philosophy 32 (2005): 162. 52 Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu (Penguin Classics). Trans. Martin Palmer. New York: Penguin

Classics, 2007. Chap. 18, Page 15053 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 122. 54 Rowe, Sharon, and James D. Sellmann. "An Uncommon Alliance: Ecofeminism and Classical Daoist

Philosophy." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 129. 55 Ibid. 13156 Rowe, Sharon, and James D. Sellmann. "An Uncommon Alliance: Ecofeminism and Classical Daoist

Philosophy." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 133.

11

traits as coming from the same source and working together in a dynamic relationship. The

relationship is irreducible and illustrates interdependence, encouraging non-dual thought.57

Instead of seeing two forces as separate, the yin and yang allow us to see them as one. The yin is

often used to represent feminine traits while the yang represents masculine traits. However,

through this metaphor, one is able to view masculine and feminine elements as equal in value,

interrelated, and ultimately irreducible.58 Yin and yang illustrate this type of relationship between

other forces such as light and dark or positive and negative. This helps to provide a different way

of viewing the world important to any environmentalists who advocate looking at the world in

terms of interrelationship rather than differentiation.

The Taoist concept on which most

ecofeminists focus their attention, however, is that of femininity itself. In Taoism, femininity is

praised for being “like water.”59 Water is the “supreme good” because it “nourishes all things

without trying to.”60 In this way it is yielding and passive, like the female, which is why Lao Tzu

praises femininity. Like the Tao, being passive leads to making no distinctions and giving to all

without discrimination. Thus water is willing to constantly transform and acts as the source for

life, much like the Tao.61 Lao Tzu also uses metaphors like the “valley” and the “great mother” to

symbolize the fertility of the Tao and to celebrate in the feminine nature of it.62 The way Taoism

gives value to nature as fertile and feminine has great appeal for most ecofeminists and also

helps to solidify the way humans should be treating all things as equal instead of subordinate.

57 Lai, Karen. "The Daodejing: Resources for Contemporary Feminist Thinking." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 27 (2000): 131-53.

58 Rowe, Sharon, and James D. Sellmann. Ibid. 59 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 660 Ibid. Cap. 861 Rowe, Sharon, and James D. Sellmann. "An Uncommon Alliance: Ecofeminism and Classical Daoist

Philosophy." Environmental Ethics 25 (2003): 143. 62 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 6

12

Through the exploration of the various

concepts from which Taoism forms its view of nature and the human-to-nature relationship one

notices the reoccurrence of certain fundamental themes in the type of Taoist thought that will

help to support a modern environmental ethic. Some of these themes are non-dualism,

naturalism, primitivism, and femininity. All of these themes have drawn criticism from skeptics

of Taoism’s ability to provide a basis for environmental ethics. Some critics have asserted that

many or all of these themes are actually not present in Taoism, or do not actually help to promote

environmentalism. I will aim to reveal how faith in these criticisms is misplaced and that most

stem from either misinterpretation and limited knowledge of Taoism, or in a failure to recognize

the value of these themes in constructing an environmental ethic.

The most common criticism of

interpretations of Taoism is the notion that it is somehow not naturalist or holistic. R. P.

Peerenboom writes a criticism of naturalism that divides into two interpretations of the Tao: one

which views humans as a part of nature and one that views humans as separate from nature.63

The view that holds humans as separate from the Tao portrays the Tao as the “law of nature”

which governs only the non-human realm of the universe and with which humans must conform

in order to follow the way correctly.64 This mode of thought is flawed in that it separates humans

from the Tao, which I have already explained Lao-Tzu has described as “infinite” because it is

“present for all beings,” and as not “taking sides” or making any distinctions.65 Chuang Tzu also

agrees “the Tao is in all things.”66 It seems baseless to suggest, then, that somehow the Tao is the

63 Peerenboom, Randall P. "Beyond Naturalism: A Reconstruction of Daoist Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 13 (1991): 4-5.

64 Peerenboom, Randall P. "Beyond Naturalism: A Reconstruction of Daoist Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 13 (1991): 5.

65 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 5-766 Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu (Penguin Classics). Trans. Martin Palmer. New York: Penguin

Classics, 2007. Chap. 23, Page 205

13

way, but not the way of the human.67 This in fact creates a dualism where there is a difference

between nature and human, which would be hypocritical to the clearly non-dualist philosophy of

Taoism. Peerenboom rightly points out the flaws in this argument.

However, Peerenboom then moves on to criticize the view

that humans are a part of nature. Here, he asserts that the wu wei principle is essentially useless

because if humans are a part of nature they can do nothing else but act naturally.68 This view

misinterprets both the Tao and wu wei. First of all, Taoist texts clearly state the Tao as being the

source and inherent nature, without discrimination, of all things, as outlined above and

throughout this paper. Being one with the Tao assures that all humans can act naturally (in

accordance with it) through wu wei, or without extraneous action. However, though they are a

part of nature, Lao Tzu clearly explains that it is possible, and even common, for humans to act

in violation of their own nature, by making distinctions between things and trying to “force

issues.” This is the concept of yu wei, acting “against the current of the Tao,” and occurs

whenever Lao Tzu says someone is “trying to be virtuous” or “reaches for virtue but never has

enough.”69 Chapter 9 of the Tao Te Ching, which states that “chasing” after such things as wealth

and approval is against the Tao, also supports this.

If one recalls Chuang Tzu’s saying, “happiness is

the absence of the striving for happiness,” one can understand how it is possible to act

unnaturally (striving against the Tao for what the Tao already provides) despite being a part of

nature. In short, the Tao provides a person with a natural essence, but it is up to the person to

utilize this through wu wei. This is why critics such as Peerenboom miss the point when they say

67 Peerenboom, Randall P. Ibid. 6. 68 Ibid.69 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap 38

14

that wu wei is “redundant.”70 Though Peerenboom’s argument against naturalism may be

understandable, it does not hold with closer examination of the Taoist texts. Therefore naturalism

and wu wei as the principle for human’s relationship with the natural world remain valuable

contributors to an environmentalist ethic. There are also critics of Taoism’s support

for primitivist and feminine ideals. Arguments against primitivism cite only Taoist reverence for

“wild men” as any call to a simpler life and reject any of Lao Tzu’s work as calling for anything

other than “vacating language.”71 This is a major mistake and overlooks a wealth of material in

Taoism calling for a simpler society that pursues nothing but follows the Tao. One example

clearly displaying the primitivist traits of closeness to nature and simplicity is in chapter 8 of the

Tao Te Ching, which says, “In dwelling, live close to nature. In thinking, keep to the simple. In

governing, don’t try to control.” Critics also question whether primitivism helps the

environmentalist cause. Most ecologists would point out that living with less reliance on

technology and acting according to ones nature, as a primitivist lifestyle would demand, is

certainly more environmentally friendly than constantly seeking to exploit nature to “progress”

society.72 Criticisms of the way ecofeminism has

largely interpreted the feminine nature of the Tao acknowledge the feminine qualities, but take

issue with their application to environmental ethic. They wonder how much masculine values

should be devalued as “disruptive to nature” and “penetrating.”73 This is a legitimate question

and resonates with the yin/yang concept, explained earlier, which holds that masculine and

feminine values are equally important and valuable, and that one (in this case the feminine

70 Peerenboom, Randall P. "Beyond Naturalism: A Reconstruction of Daoist Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 13 (1991): 6.

71 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 119-25.

72 Ip, Po-Keung. "Taoism and the Foundations of Environmental Ethics." Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 341-343.

73 Cooper, David E. "Is Daoism Green?" Asian Philosophy 4 (1994): 119-25.

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values) should not be held as superior to the other. One criticism follows by suggesting that the

feminine nature of the Tao encourages us to act in a “seductive” manner to overcome nature and

cites Lao Tzu’s praise for water’s ability to “dissolve what is hard and strong” as evidence.74 This

evidence is not so compelling as the metaphor suggests yielding action, more in tune with nature

and opposes it to the yu wei of “that which is hard and strong.”75 This actually disproves the

argument more than it supports it. Criticism also questions if a passive nature is suitable to

modern environmentalism, which requires active political challenge to the status quo.76 The

argument is made in the wrong context, given that the passive attitude is intended for our

dealings with nature and our way of life, not for the method of political change used by the

environmentalists. The feminine nature is more the type of ethic that environmentalists should be

arguing for, and less the method they should use to argue. For the most part, Taoist ideas as a

base for environmental ethics actually stand up to criticism extremely well in nearly all cases.

Taking into account the Taoist conception of

nature as outlined in this paper, along with the human-to-nature relationship and all of the points

on which many ecologists and environmentalists have looked to Taoism to provide an

environmental ethical system, it is possible to construct a proposal for a coherent environmental

ethic based on Taoist thought. This ethic will rest firmly on the foundation of Taoist principles. It

will be able to shape the way modern people think of the universe, in a way more conducive to

sustaining and harmonizing with the natural environment.

The Taoist ethical proposal rests on the idea of the

Tao as universal, eternal, all encompassing, and infinite source that is in all things, and governs

74 Ibid.75 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap 7876 Cooper, David E. Ibid.

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the universe. With the notion of the Tao in place, humans are incorporated within it and within

nature. Humans are recognized as a part of nature and the Tao, thus they are put on an equal

level with all things. This allows harmony with nature to arise as the most important value, rather

than giving the priority to human needs that allows for exploitation of the environment.

The Taoist ethical model will also hold that we avoid viewing the

world in terms of dualism. Dualism divides things into particulars and blinds us to the dynamic

relationships and interdependence between everything. Recognizing the Tao as everywhere and

seeing all things as connected builds the notion of a supreme ecological principle in which all

things are an important part of nature and therefore hold intrinsic value. The Tao itself becomes

in a way the supreme ecology of the universe.

The principle of wu wei becomes the basis for how humans should act in

accordance with their nature and, in turn, the environment. Instead of continually trying to push

things and exploit the resources of the environment, humans should adopt the “feminine” stance

of water by following the Tao, nourishing and yielding all things, and achieving harmony

through a more passive and simple life. This philosophy focuses on the ethics of treating all

things as valuable in more than just a material sense, but in the sense of their Té, or their virtue.

From there we move to viewing the world as one whole. We live spontaneously and

harmoniously within our nature and the environment.

This is the Taoist foundation for a modern system

of environmental ethics that needs to reshape thought about the environment in order to change

how humans act towards it. Many environmentalists and ecologists can use this Taoist ethic as a

cornerstone for advocating ecological views in modern society. If Taoism can change the way

people think about the nature of the universe, it can change the way they act towards the non-

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human world, creating a more harmonious and environmentally healthy society. As Lao Tzu

says, “If virtuous men and women could enter themselves in the Tao, the whole world would be

transformed by itself, in its natural rhythms. People would be content with their simple, everyday

lives, in harmony, and free of desire. When there is no desire, all things are at peace.”77

77 Lao Tzu. Tao Te Ching. Trans. Stephen Mitchell. New York: Frances Lincoln, 1999. Chap. 37

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