The Study of Competency-Based Training and Strategies in the Public Sector: Experience from Taiwan

Public Personnel Management42(2) 259 –271

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Article

The Study of Competency-Based Training and Strategies in the Public Sector: Experience From Taiwan

Jui-Lan Wu1

AbstractIn the private and public sectors, competency-based training is a popular method that focuses on improving employees’ knowledge, abilities, skills, and organizational performance. Yet, working in complex organizational environments, training practitioners often neglect certain steps and principles. This article examines competency-based training and strategies in Taiwan’s public sector, from the concept to the critical success factors in competency-based training. It then suggests some practices for training practitioners in the public sector.

Keywordscore competency, competency gap, competency-based training

“Competent employees don’t remain competent forever. Skills deteriorate and can become obsolete. That’s why organizations spend billions of dollars each year on for-mal training” (Stephen, 2001, p. 480). The term training, according to The ASTD Reference Guide to Workplace Learning and Performance (American Society for Training & Development, 2000), “is intended to build on individual knowledge, skills and attitudes to meet present or future work requirements.” Competency comprises the specification of knowledge and skills. The application of knowledge and skills to the standard of performance requires completing a task.

1Civil Service Protection and Training Commission, Taiwan, Republic of China

Corresponding Author:Jui-Lan Wu, Civil Service Protection and Training Commission, No. 1-3, Shihyuan Rd., Wenshan District, Taipei 11601, Taiwan, Republic of China. Email: [email protected]

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260 Public Personnel Management 42(2)

In the 1980s, human resource development (HRD) introduced competency-based training, which was implemented worldwide later. Competency-based training aims to not only improve employees’ knowledge, abilities, and skills, but also upgrade their organization’s performance. In both the private and public sectors, competency-based training is a popular method. However, since training often takes place in complex organizational environments, it is common for training practitioners to neglect certain steps and principles, especially in the public sector.

Purpose and Statement of the Problem

Based on a literature review and content analysis, this article examines four research problems related to competency-based training and strategies in the public sector:

Research Question 1: Why is competency-based training important? Why not tra-ditional training?

Research Question 2: What are the critical success factors in competency-based training in the public sector?

Research Question 3: What are the strategies for competency-based training in the Taiwanese public sector?

Research Question 4: How can critical success factors and competency-based train-ing strategies be linked in the public sector?

The purpose of this article is to provide some practical suggestions for training practitioners in the public sector by examining competency-based training and strate-gies in Taiwan’s public sector. It consists of four sections: The first presents the con-cept and critical success factors of competency-based training, the second section examines competency-based training and strategies in Taiwan’s public sector, the third section demonstrates the research findings concerning the link between critical success factors and practice strategy, and the last section elaborates research sugges-tions for training practitioners in the public sector. Future research is also discussed in this section.

Method and Data

This article is based on a literature review and the government documents that it uses to analyze competency-based training and strategies in the public sector. The literature used in this article was identified through a search of previous related studies.

The data selected from government documents comprise (a) official documents in Central Personnel Administration1 (CPA) websites, (b) interviews with two practitio-ners in Taiwan’s public sector who deal with government training affairs, (c) internal meeting data provided by meeting participants, and (d) research reports commissioned by the CPA and available in the library.



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Literature Review

The Concept of Competency-Based Training

As the concepts and practices of competency-based training have recently been applied to HRD policies in the private and public sectors, it is first necessary to understand the definition of “competency-based.” When searching for the origin of competency, researchers generally cite McClelland’s (1973) “Testing for Competence Rather Than for Intelligence,” an article that appeared in American Psychologist (pp. 423-447). McClelland’s concept of competency has been the key driver of the competency movement and competency-based education. The term competency comprises the specification of knowledge and skills, and the application of that knowledge and skill to the standards of performance required in the workplace (Electrotechnology Training Package [UEE07], 2011). In other words, it is important to know that “competency-based training” not only improves employees’ knowledge, abilities, skills, and atti-tudes, but also prepares employees for reaching their organization’s goals, and aligns training and strategies with performance intervention.

To understand the differences between competency-based training and traditional training, this paragraph introduces the definitions of both kinds of training. Training differs from education and employee development, both of which prepare people for work and daily life. There are various types of training, including remedial/basic skills, orientation, qualifying, second-chance, cross-training, retraining, and outplace-ment. Training may be unplanned or planned. According to Dubois and Rothwell (2004), when training is unplanned, it is rarely effective, because people cannot learn how others perform. When training is planned, it probably follows an approach based on the instructional systems design model (ISD). The ISD model, which is a tradi-tional training approach, has several important features in common with competency-based training. There are nine steps in ISD—Step 1: applying the ISD model to analyze the performance problem, seeking to determine the underlying cause; Step 2: involv-ing only problems that are rooted in a lack of individual knowledge, skills, or attitudes; Step 3: conducting a thorough training needs assessment; Step 4: writing instructional objectives; Step 5: deciding whether to make or buy training content to achieve the instructional objectives; Step 6: deciding how to deliver the training; Step 7: conduct-ing a formative evaluation; Step 8: delivering the training, also known as the imple-mentation phase; and Step 9: conducting a summative evaluation. The ISD model of traditional training “has been proven to be effective in getting results in improved job performance. Unfortunately . . . learners and their supervisors may lack ownership of the training offered” (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004, p. 50).

Besides these definitions, the differences between competency-based training and traditional training are also important to know. According to Naquin and Holton (2003), competency-based training, which is built around the fundamental principles of demonstrating capability, usually requires employees to first demonstrate their abil-ity to perform specific tasks. Competency-based training focuses on behaviorally stated and measurable objectives. Competencies are gained in multiple ways, such as




life experience, on-the-job training, and training and development programs. Dubois and Rothwell (2004) state that competency-based training is an “attempt to make training a joint venture or place greater responsibility on the learner for taking initia-tives.” Yet, traditional training is attentional to work requirements, not to discover differences between exemplary and successful performers. Basically, these training approaches are not mutually exclusive, but they do represent different emphases. Competency-based training takes a broader view. This means that competency-based training is more than just to provide knowledge, build skills, or improve attitudes. There are two different emphases: (a) competency-based training to guide self-directed training and development, emphasizing an individual’s duty to accept increased responsibility for his or her own learning, and (b) competency-based training for work-team development (Dubois & Rothwell, 2004).

Critical Success Factors of Competency-Based Training

The development and implementation of competency-based training is merely one facet of ensuring the success of the training program. But Hyland’s (1994) critique is that competency-based training is a “theoretically and methodologically vacuous strat-egy.” Also, Collins (1983), in his critical analysis of competency-based training as a system in adult education, argues that competency-based training is excessively reduc-tionistic in attempting to explain complex phenomena through discrete standardized concepts (Kosbab, 2003). Despite contradictory views on the effectiveness or other-wise of competency-based training, it continues to be used as an approach to learning (Smith, 2000). In studying competency-based training, five factors have been identi-fied as critical success factors in competency-based training processes (Figure 1):

1. alignment with the organization’s strategic goal and plans,2. based on a high performance system,3. competency model development,4. individual competency gap, and5. training on the gap—training package.

Ignoring any of these factors can significantly impair success or produce failure. To assess a person’s competence, a department needs to demonstrate the ability to per-form tasks and duties to the standard expectation in employment. Competency-based training focuses on the development of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to achieve that competency standard. The competency standard needs to align with the organization’s strategic goal and plans, and be based on a high performance system. One of the primary competency-based training features is that each learner’s achieve-ment is measured to see whether they reach the competency standard. Under the competency-based training approach, each learner is assessed to find the gap between the skills they need (as described in the training package) and the skills they already have. The difference between the two is called the competency gap. A training pro-gram is then developed to help the learner acquire the missing skills and close the gap.



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IndividualCompetency

HighPerformance

Gap-Training Package-

CompetencyModel

StrategicGoal & Plan

Figure 1. Critical success factors in competency-based training.

Competency-Based Training and Strategies in Taiwan’s Public Sector

Human resources play a key role in administrative effectiveness and quality. To make the Taiwan government more efficient, responsible, and responsive, it has formed the Government Reform Committee to integrate civil service human resources. In Taiwan, the CPA, a professional staff agency of the Executive Yuan in human resource man-agement, is responsible for overall personnel administration (including training and appraisal of civil servants) of all the ministries and agencies under the Executive Yuan. The CPA also deals with competency-based human resource practices such as those used by the U.S., the U.K., and the Canadian and Australian governments.

Competency-Setting Process. The CPA initially applies a “competency concept” to deal with human resource management and development. The steps involved are discussed below (sourced from the CPA website).

Policy research by an external expert. According to the related competency concept applied in the private sector, competency-based training has seldom been applied in the public sector. To introduce the concept, in 2002, the CPA commissioned an exter-nal expert to conduct policy research. The conclusion of his research suggests using (a) a competency model, (b) a competency scale list, and (c) a competency-setting process (Lin, 2003).




Setting principles. Although external experts provided some suggestions, in prac-tice, the CPA’s executive meetings suggested that some principles still needed to be defined. (a) Competency includes personal attitudes and management skills for achieving the organization’s goal. (b) To focus on the importance of competency, the CPA requires that competency should be no more than five to six items. (c) There should be a focus on duty analysis for middle- and high-level civil servants.

Duty analysis for middle- and high-level civil servants. There are 14 grades in Taiwan’s civil service system. Grade 14 (e.g.–Vice Minister) is the highest and Grade 1 is the lowest. At a high duty level (Grade 12, Director General level), civil servants are more strategic oriented, while at the middle level (Grade 9, Section Chief level), they are more operation oriented, as shown in Figure 2.

Questionnaire investigation. All middle- and high-level civil servants and their col-leagues are to investigate the opinions and views on management competency cognition.

Dynamic competency analysis. For reaching the organization’s goal, the competency needs dynamic adjustment.

Competency Items. The CPA’s vision is to maintain an honest, competent, and fair administrative team, as well as to provide citizens with first-class public service. Based on this vision and the principles set out above, Table 1 summarizes the core competency items for high- and middle-level civil servants, as defined in 2004 and edited in 2009.

Competency Gaps Between the Civil Servant and Competency. Gaps are defined on an organizational level as well as at an individual performer level. The organizational

ForesightPlanning

PersonalInteraction

ExecutivePractice

High level (e.g.–Grade 12)

Middle level (e.g.–Grade 9)

StrategicOriented

High

Low

Middle

Middle High

Low

OperationOriented

Figure 2. Duty analysis for middle- and high-level civil servants.



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level helps to target what is needed across the enterprise to create the right skill sets. The individual level helps each employee develop important skill sets for their current role, as well as with career planning, which increases their understanding of where they stand and precisely what is needed to serve in other roles. “Competency” helps organizations understand and focus on the key factors that actually drive performance. Competency-based training needs to identify the gap between the civil servant and competency in the public sector, and then carry out training to close that gap.

In Taiwan, there are about 900 agencies in the public sector. For investing needs, the CPA (2004) designed a management core competency scale and online evaluation system for high- and middle-level civil servants. This scale enables these agencies to evaluate their employees’ competency. All middle- and high-level civil servants, their superintendents, colleagues, and subordinates, take part in the system and then receive individual competency evaluation results. The evaluation methods include 360-degree feedback, focus groups, and assessment centers.

Competency-Based Training and Strategies. Annual training needs and plans were devised, based on the conclusions of the evaluations made at the 900 agencies, and then the CPA (2009) designed a general management plan as shown in Table 2. All the workshops are open to civil servants attending, if their agencies agree.

Table 1. Competency Items for High- and Middle-Level Civil Servants in Taiwan.

2004 2009

High level (Grades 10-14) 1. Modeling vision with creativity

2. Strategy analysis3. Change and crisis

management4. Team stimulation and

leadership5. Interdepartmental

coordination6. Performance management

1. Foreign-domestic environmental and situational analysis

2. Goal visualization and strategic thinking

3. Leadership and coordinated cooperation

4. Risk management and crisis management

5. Performance management6. Cultivating legal capability7. Cultivating Humanism quality

Middle level (Grades 6-9) 1. Customer-oriented service

2. Knowledge management and utilization

3. Process and time management

4. Conflict mediation and communication

5. Coaching and passing on experience

6. Goal setting and execution

1. Goal and performance management

2. Knowledge management and passing on experience

3. Innovative service and process management

4. Question tracing and solving ability

5. Expressional ability6. Emotions management7. Cultivating legal capability8. Cultivating humanism quality




Table 2. 2009 General Management Plan and Competency Related List.

Competency related

Workshop Objectives Target audience Workshop Objective Audience

Government Service Innovation

To strengthen the innovative management capacity of middle- and high-level civil servants, help them understand the real practices involved in government service innovation, and also find feasible applications through case discussion.

Executives with junior rank and Staff with senior rank in central and local government under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ◎

Service for People To understand the concept of serving people sympathetically and the practice of serving people with convenience to improve the quality of government service.

Civil servants who directly serve the public at central and local government departments under Executive Yuan.

× × ×

Project Planning and Management

To understand the process of project planning and management. To study how this should be considered in project planning and execution. To increase practical training to enhance knowledge and project management ability.

Civil staff at central and local governments.

× × ×

Policy Planning and Performance Management

To understand the meaning of KPI and the practical concept of KPI application in performance management to guide the integration of policy planning, budgeting, evaluation, and performance. To reach the goal of government effectiveness.

Civil servants responsible for policy planning, performance management, and budgeting management and related work at the central and local government departments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ×

Risk and Crisis Management

To understand the theory and application of risk and crisis management and to enhance the ability to handle risk and crises.

Civil staff of junior rank or higher at the central and local governments.

◎ ◎ ×

Leadership and Motivation

To make executives understand their key management ability, management style, and communication ability. Also to motivate subordinates to improve the efficiency of administration.

Executives with junior rank and Civil staff with senior rank at the central and local governments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ◎

Communication and Coordination (executives with junior rank and staff with senior rank)

To strengthen the communication capacity of middle- and high-level civil servants and increase their ability in coordination and cross-division cooperation.

Executives with junior rank and Staff with senior rank at central and local governments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ◎

(continued)



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Competency related


Communication and Coordination (general civil servants)

To understand the principles and practice of communication and coordination, and know the obstacles and solutions to them.

Civil staff at the central and local governments (executives with junior rank and civil staff with senior rank excluded).

◎ ◎ ×

Coaching To learn the concepts and skills of coaching and use the appropriate coaching behavior at the right time.

Executives at junior rank at local governments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ◎

Benchmark Learning

To understand the meaning of benchmark learning. To improve the efficiency of the organization’s operation through sharing experiences of excellent organization.

Civil staff at the central and local governments.

◎ × ×

Team Building To understand the importance of team building. To respect the differences between team members, and use the different roles and contributions of members to create team performances.

Executives with junior rank and civil staff with senior rank at central and local governments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ×

Time Management To understand the principles of time management and take advantage of time resources to set priorities for enhancing work efficiency and effectiveness.


× × ×

Briefing Skills To understand the basic components of a successful briefing. To improve the presentation of briefing content and oral skills for briefing.


× × ×

Press Release Writing

To understand the principles and methods of press release writing and to improve writing skills.


× × ×

Bargaining and Negotiation Skills

To learn the theory and practical skills of bargaining and negotiation, and create a win-win situation between government and the general public.

Civil servants with junior rank who need to improve their bargaining and negotiation skills at the central and local government departments under Executive Yuan.

◎ ◎ ×

Problem Analysis and Solving

To identify problems and understand the processes and methods of problem analysis. To study and use all kinds of strategies to solve problems to enhance the ability to make the right decisions.

Civil staff with junior rank or higher at the central and local governments.

◎ ◎ ×

(continued)

Table 2. (continued)




Research Analysis

In Taiwan, introducing a new and different training model to the government organi-zation is difficult, and sometimes the new training model may be misused. In other words, employees may treat the new method as just the latest fashion. Although, as seen from the literature review, competency-based training focuses on five critical factors (organizational goals, high performance, competency model, competency gap, and training package), in training practice, there are some problems when competency-based training is conducted. These are described below.

Competency Setting Without a High Performance System

The basic competency-setting processes in Taiwan’s public sector have involved policy research by an external expert, definition of principles, duty analysis, a questionnaire investigation, and dynamic competency analysis to match the competency concept in literature and practice. Yet, the key point of the competency standard is based on the high performance system, generated by high performance employees who have certain distinctive personal characteristics. In the duty analysis and questionnaire investigation process period, however, all civil servants were involved, whether they were high or low performance employees. Hence, the competency-setting results may display only an average level standard, not a high performance standard.

Competency-Based Training Without Integrated Checking of the Competency Gap and Individual Differences

Checking gaps helps to target what is needed across the enterprise to create the right skill sets. In Taiwan, the CPA has designed a management core competency scale for

Competency related


Project Management

To understand the process of project management, to explore issues that should be considered during project planning and execution, and to use practical drills to enhance project management capability.


◎ ◎ ×

File Management of Central Government

For the implementation of File Law and related law, to improve the understanding of file management and professional ability through practical learning and experience exchange.

New staff in file and information management at central government under Executive Yuan.

× × ×

Note: KPI = key performance indicate. “◎” means “competency related” and “×” means no “competency related.”

Table 2. (continued)



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high- and middle-level civil servants. This scale enables about 900 agencies to evalu-ate their employees’ competency. Yet, when the CPA interviewed practitioners in the public sector, these agencies could not understand the function of the evaluation method because the competency concepts and skills were new and difficult. The CPA did not double check whether the agencies had completed the evaluation properly. In addition, the CPA did not integrate its checking of the competency gap with assess-ment of individual differences.

Annual Training Plan Without Effective Linkage With Competency Model

In the Taiwan government, there is a Government Employees Training and Reorientation Law, which legislates that each agency must set an annual training plan. The CPA deals with annual training for middle- and high-level civil servants. Without identifying individual differences in the competency gap, the CPA annual training plan requires all civil servants to attend, regardless of whether they have a gap. Moreover, while the annual training plan has 18 workshops, only 4 of them exactly fit the competency model and the designs for middle- and high-level civil servants. Some workshop objectives are not management competencies but general competencies, such as “Briefing Skills” and “Press Release Writing.” This means that the annual training plan does not consider the association between competency and individual competency deficiencies properly.

Research Suggestions

For Training Practitioners in the Public Sector

Competency-based training is not a fashionable term. However, as shown in this arti-cle, competency-based training is an effective training approach for both the private and public sectors. Because there are so many government employees who need train-ing, it is difficult to manage class design and time schedules to meet every individual’s needs. With reference to Dubois and Rothwell’s (2004) emphasis on “increased responsibility for his or her own learning,” here are some suggestions concerning competency-based training: (a) understanding what high performance in the public sector is, (b) identifying the best civil servants and their attitudes, (c) evaluating differ-ent individual training needs, (d) designing training packages for individual gaps, and (e) developing a training roadmap for self-directed learning.

For Future Research

In fact, human resource management and development in Taiwan’s public sector does emphasize competency setting and competency-based training, and revised compe-tency items were issued in July 2009. But in the implementation period, the CPA is still meeting obstacles. Suggestions for future research to address these are as follows: (a) conduct research on the obstacles and why these obstacles occur, (b) focus on other




countries’ implementation period, (c) design a training package and roadmap that is effective for those agencies that have too many civil servants to operate the training successfully, (d) conduct an experimental study to understand the results after competency-based training has been given.

Author’s Note

This paper was presented at The 8th International Conference of the Academy of Human Resource Development (Asia Chapter), Manama, Bahrain, in December 2009.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Note

1. In 2012, Central Personnel Administration changed its name to “Directorate-General of Personnel Administration.” But its function and work did not change. The Directorate-General of Personnel Administration is still responsible for the training of civil servants.

References

American Society for Training & Development. (2000). The American Society for Training and Development reference guide to workplace learning and performance. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.

Central Personnel Administration. (2004). Core value and core competency in middle and high-level civil servant. Retrieved from dpa.mof.gov.tw/public/Data/610101654746.doc

Central Personnel Administration. (2009). General management plan. Retrieved from http://www.hrd.gov.tw/e_content/public/Public02in.aspx?Pid=4

Collins, M. (1983). A critical analysis of competency-based systems in adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 33, 174-183.

Dubois, D., & Rothwell, W. (2004). Competency-based or a traditional approach to training? T+D, 58, 46-57.

Electrotechnology Training Package (UEE07). (2011). Volume 2, Part 1. Retrieved from http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/pdf_doc/electrotechnology08/Appendix-4-Definitions-Glossary.pdf

Hyland, T. (1994). Competence, education and NVQs: Dissenting perspectives. London, England: Cassell.

Kosbab, D. J. (2003). Dispositional and maturational development through competency-based training. Education & Training, 45, 526-541.

Lin, J. (2003). Research report: Management core competency and professional competency- setting for middle and high level CPA civil servants. Taipei: Central Personnel Administration.



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McClelland, D. C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than for intelligence. American Psychologist, 28, 423-447.

Naquin, S. S., & Holton, E. F. (2003). Redefining state leadership and management develop-ment: A process for competence-based development. Public Personnel Management, 32, 23-46.

Smith, P. I. B. (2000). Preparing for flexible delivery in industry: Learners and their work-places. Geelong, Australia: Deakin University.

Stephen, P. R. (2001). Organizational behavior (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Author Biography

Jui-Lan Wu, PhD, graduate institute of human resource management of National Central University, Taiwan, is the director of the Department of Training Assessment, Civil Service Protection and Training Commission, R.O.C. (Taiwan).



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The Study of Competency-Based Training and Strategies in the Public Sector: Experience from Taiwan