THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF KERALA …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5686/10/10... · 2015. 12. 4. · Sarvatobhadra (openings in all cardinal directions)

CHAPTER - 4

THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF

KERALA TEMPLE áRIKOVILS

4.1 General

The structural spaces and forms of the ¿rikovils of Kerala are very distinct, exact

and unique. The plan shapes are restricted to square, rectangle, hexagon, octagon,

circle, ellipse and apsidal. The horizontal spaces (the area) are dictated by the

shape, space and interior arrangements. The three dimensional aspects of forms

are decided by the heights and number of storeys. The overall forms are dictated

by the shapes, spaces, the elevations, mouldings, nitches, alank¡ras, artifacts and

decorations. From the basic concepts of shapes, spaces and forms varieties are

created by antar¡las, mukhamandapas, adhis¶¡nas, upap¢tas, sop¡nas, pran¡las,

bhittialank¡ras like ghanadv¡ras, panjaras, ¿¡las, k£tas, n¡sikas, st£pis and the like

81

in order to achieve uniqueness to each and every temple. Yet, in the diversity there

is unity in the concept and practices of Kerala temples.

4.2 The Concept of Structural Spaces and Forms.

The dictionary307 meaning of the key words are:

(a) Structural: having a certain structure.

(b) Space: that in which materialised bodies have extensions, an arrangement of

points in three-dimensional space.

(c) Form: space, model and mode of arrangement, style and arrangement.

(d) Structure: manner or act of putting together, construction, arrangement of

parts, a thing constructed.

As per World. Atlas of Architecture,308 "we take interest in a building to the

degree to which we see it", "The effects of volume, space, rhythm and colour that

307

Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, 1966.

82

please us".309 Building first appears as a volume or more often, as a combination

of different volumes-horizontal or vertical, compact or spread out. Facades are

always admitted by openings, by recesses or projecting features or by contrast of

colour .. the numbers, shape and distributions of openings to a large degree

determines the character of a facade. Most of the facades are articulated by some

kind of membering, standing out either in relief or in colour. Ornament can be

geometric, coloured or relief consisting in mouldings.310

The main divisions of v¡stu are bh£mi, harmya, y¡na and ¿ayana. Of these

divisions bh£mi from v¡stu point of view, which provides an area for occupation is

two-dimensional and others are three dimensional, which occupy space, which

have volume and mass. Two-dimensional planes are defined by the areas occupied,

308

World Altus of Architecture, pp.12-14. 309

A text book of V¡stuvidya, Ch. 7, pp.81-84. 310

Katy¡yana¿ulbasutra, Introduction and Ch. 1,

83

which are determined by the shapes and sizes. For solids (three-dimensional) one

more parameter of the third dimension is required. For solids, the parameters,

therefore, are the volumes and enveloping surface areas. In v¡stuvidya, perimeter

has been recognised to describe the enclosed plan area. The simplest geometrical

shape to enclose an area is a triangle. K¡ty¡yana áulbasutra describes the triangle

as the basic geometrical figure. The first part of áulbasutra is devoted to the

geometrical portions required in the construction of vedis, citis and pandals. The

development of square, rectangle, polygons, circle and apsidal shapes are from the

combination of triangles. The ground plan in v¡stu is determined by the

v¡stumandala. The area and the height of the structure define the space. The

elevation, mouldings, nitches, openings and decorations provide the form. The

rules and canons are specific in v¡stu¿¡stra, more so, in the temple architecture.

84

From the engineering point of view, a structure is created to serve some

specific function in safe and economic way. It is an assemblage of elements, which

can resist the applied loads without appreciable deformations. Due considerations

are also given to the aesthetics and ecological aspects.311 The physical form of a

structure may be plane and space structures. The analysis of the structures is

simplified by considering various forms of structures to behave in a localised

manner, in two dimensional (2D) planes. When third dimension in addition to the

two-plane dimensions decides the space. These are denoted by 3 axes namely X

axis, Y axis and Z axis. The degrees of freedom or degrees of kinematics

indeterminacy are the number of displacements allowed at a joint of a structure. In

a plane frame for a joint the degrees of indeterminacy is three where as in the

space frame it is six which requires special methods of analysis. In the finite

311

Structural Analysis, L.S Negi, Tata MC Graw Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2001, Ch. 1, pp.1-3, 17-18.

85

element analysis, the prime element is a triangle. Any shape is formed by the

combination of small triangles.312

From the foregoing, it may appear that the structural space, from and

shape are closely linked with each other. For the purpose of the study certain

demarcations are assumed as under:

(a) Structural: Assemblage of elements and the order of arrangement of

elements.

(b) Shape: The plan shape. Plan shape is the one seen from top vertically

on the horizontal plane.

(c) Space: The extent in the horizontal plane and development in the

vertical direction leading to three dimensions.

312

Matrix , Finite Elements, Computer and Structural Analysis, M. Mukhopadhyaya, Oxford & 1BH Publications,

New Delhi-1, Ch.12.1.

86

(d) Form: The mouldings, nitches, openings, solid artifacts and alank¡ras

(paintings and graphics are excluded), toranas, ghanadv¡ras, n¡sikas,

viÀkambhas and the like.

4.3 The Evolution of the Structural Spaces and Forms of Kerala Temple árikovils

(pr¡s¡das).

Temples were built and were existing in Kerala much before the Christian era. The

inscriptions were available from around 800 AD.313

H. Sarkar in his book, 'Archeological Survey of Temples of Kerala' gives three

distinct phases of the temple buildings viz. (i) early phase from 800 to 1000 AD (ii)

middle phase from 1001 to 1300 AD and

(iii) late phase from 1301 to 1800 AD. In each phase he has given certain

313

Archeological Survey of Temples of Kerala, H. Sarkar, Archeological Survey of India,

New Delhi, 1978, pp.97-101.

87

characteristics of the structures of temples. Certain relevant extracts of interests

are given in the sub paragraphs below:

(a) Early phase. Early phase is represented by temples built on square, circular and

apsidal ground plans. Oblong or rectangular plan was also in vogue. Both

nirandh¡ra and sandh¡ra were in vogue. Sarvatobhadra (openings in all cardinal

directions) were existing. For decorations, generally Pandya method of providing

recesses and projections with false niches has been followed. The emphasis was on

the sanctum. In square temples, narrower mukhamandapa projects out of larger

sanctum. For circular and apsidal temples the space in front serves as

mukhamandapa. The temple building of this phase was patronised by the three

major ruling dynasties, the Ëys, the Ceras and the MuÀikas.

(b) The middle phase. The middle phase showed several developments especially in the

interior arrangements. Temples have been built on square, circular, aspidal and

88

rectangular plans in the previous phase but there is a possibility of the elliptical

plan making its debut now. The antharabhitti stands for the wall of miniature

Dr¡vida vim¡na serving as the garbhag¤ha. Many temples of this phase reveal the

fusion of typical Dr¡vida tradition with indigenous Kerala style, the latter forming

as it were its outer cover. Generally, the inner shrine of a circular temple is square

on plan. In the case of square temple, the garbhag¤ha is invariably square, while

the apsidal temple houses only as apsidal garbhag¤ha. The practice of enshrining

the consort of god at the back of the garbhag¤ha must have received great phillip.

The most notable development in the construction of a temple similar to the idea

of m¡takkovil of Tamil country has been noticed during this phase.

(c) The late phase. The temple architecture of Kerala now reached its final stage of

evolution both in dimension and exterior embellishments. The emphasis got

89

shifted to gopuras, dÅvajas, balikkalpura... and the external sub constructions.

Timber roofs were covered with copper sheets.

(d) From 1801 till date no major development in the pr¡s¡da architecture took place.

The materials like cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete, plaster of paris etc.

have been found used.

4.4 Antiquity of Kerala Temples. As per the legend, Kerala was believed to be the gift of

Para¿urama. He was responsible for consecrating 64 áiv¡layas and Durg¡layas.

Sri Subramaniaswami Temple at Haripad was installed 4000 years back.314 The

temples of grandeur existed from 2000 BC. áiva temples at Taliparambu, Trissur

and Visnu temple at Tiruvalla existed prior to Christian era,315 Cave temples

(Vizhinjam, Kottukkal, Trikkakudi, Thalappilly, Tiruvegappura and

314

District Gazetteers, Alleppy, A. Sreedhara Menon, p.603. 315

Temples of Kerala, Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala, p.11.

90

Kunnathurpadi) had early origins.316 During Kulak¿ekara period (800-820 AD),

Cera empire (800-1102 AD) the temple constructions got big boost. It can be

presumed that several important temples found in Kerala existed at the close of

eleventh century AD.317 Vilvamangalam Swamiar (1575-1660) was responsible for

consecration of several temples in Kerala. Very prominent v¡stu texts were written

between 13-16 century AD, which guided temple constructions there on. The main

texts were Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Tantrasamuccaya, SeÀasamuccaya.

Putayoorbh¡Àa and the like.318

4.4.1 Antiquities of temples in certain districts of Kerala.

316

Ibid., p.12. 317

Ibid., p.13. 318

Ibid., pp.24-25.

91

The antiquities of the temples of certain districts of Kerala as extracted

from the Census Publications of various districts319 are given in the tabular

form below. The idea is not go into the antiquities of all temples in Kerala

but to indicate the antiquity to get an idea about the durability and

sustenance of the temple structures for a log period.

Table 4.1 Antiquities of temples in certain districts of Kerala.

No Antiquity

Districts

Tota

l

Perc

enta

ge

Kasa

rgod

Kann

ur

Vaya

nad

Kozh

ikod

e

Mal

appu

ram

Palg

hat

Triss

ur

1 Very ancient (More than

two thousand years old 15 40 10 34 37 48 63 247 3.3

2 Ancient (First to ninth

century AD

36 127 21 120 199 93 200 796 10.8

319

Temples of Kasargod District, Temples of Kannur District, Temples of Vayanad District, Temples of Malappuram

District, Temples of Trissur District, Temples of Palghat District and Temples of Kozhikode District etc

Published by the Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala.

92

3 Tenth to thirteenth

century AD

103 147 27 146 105 184 290 1002 13.6

4 Fourteenth to sixteenth

century AD

179 206 63 147 251 341 412 1599 21.7

5 Seventeenth to nineteenth

century AD

174 385 83 155 377 868 418 2460 33.5

6 Twentieth century AD 53 103 65 57 123 344 117 862 11.8

7 Not known 12 175 39 28 28 84 13 379 5.3

Total 572 1183 308 687 1120 1962 1513 7345 100

Source: Temples of 7 districts published by Census of Operation, Kerala-details of only 7

districts are published so far.

Few inferences derived from the table given above are:

(a) Temples of very ancient and ancient origins existed which were 1000 years or

more to an extent of 14.1% of the temples in the districts.

(b) At most 69% of the temples were 300 to 800 years old.

(c) Very few temples were constructed during 20th century AD. Temples of age

about 100 years or less account for less than 12%.

93

(d) Almost 83% of the temples withstood for more than 300 to 2000 years or more

indicating very high rate of durability and sustainability.

4.5 Horizontal Space of Temples in Square Plan Shapes.

Various classifications of the temples based on the plan shapes, number of

storeys, forms and decorations were discussed in the previous chapters.

Mayamata320 grouped the pr¡s¡da shapes into the broad categories of N¡gara

(square and rectangle), Ve¿ara (circle, ellipse and apsidal) and Dr¡vida

(polygonal). Samar¡nga¸asuthra-dh¡ra321 describes 36 types in the N¡gara category,

64 types in the Rucaka category, five thalacandas from one to 12 storeys under

Dr¡vida category. The mixed category of N¡gara-Dr¡vida category (Vir¡ta and

Bhumija types) include 16 types.

320

Mayamata, Ch.19, Sl. 1-4. 321

Samar¡nganasutradÅ¡ra, Ch.59-63.

94

K¡¿yapiya,322 Tantrasamuccaya,323 Putayurbh¡Àa,324 Kuzhikk¡ttupacca,325

áilparatna,326 and áilpiratna327 describe the plan shapes only based on square plan

into basically alpapr¡s¡da and mah¡pr¡s¡das. There are jathi, ccanda, vikalpa and

¡bh¡sapr¡s¡das based on the size, number of storeys and uthama, madhyama and

adhama categories. The above pr¡s¡das are given in tabular forms below:

Table 4.2 Divisions of Alpapr¡s¡das

No. PariÀa Pr¡s¡da

(width (kol-viral) Remarks

1 3 kol 2-18, 3-2, 3-10

2-18 Ekayoni. Alternates are

Pancayonis.

13x3=39 types of alpapr¡s¡das.

2 4 kol 3-18, 4-2, 4-10

3 5 kol 4-18, 5-2, 5-10

322

K¡¿yapiya. Ch. XXVII -XXXIII. 323

Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.1. 324

Putayurbh¡Àa, Patala.2, Sl. 46-47. 325

Kuzhikkattupacca, Patala. 2. pp. 35-36. 326

áilparatna, pp. 56-68. 327

áilpiratna, Sl. 289-304.

95

4 6 kol 5-18, 6-2, 6-10

5 7 kol 6-18, 7-2, 7-10

6 8 kol 7-18, 8-2, 8-10

7 9 kol 8-18, 9-2, 9-10

8 10 kol 9-18, 10-2, 10-10

9 11 kol 10-18, 11-2, 11-10

10 12 kol 11-18, 12-2, 12-10

11 13 kol 12-18, 13-2, 13-10

12 14 kol 13-18, 14-2, 14-10

13 15 kol 14-18, 15-2, 15-10

The J¡thi, Ccanda, Vikalpa and Ëbh¡sapr¡s¡das have four criterias:

(i) the number of storeys, (ii) the width of pr¡s¡das, (iii) three categories of uthama,

madhyama and adhama and (iv) oja and yugma.

Table 4.3 Divisions of jatipr¡s¡das

96

No.

No. of

storeys

Oja (kol) Yugma (kol)

Uthama Madhyama Adhama Uthama Madhyama Adhama

1 3 11 13 15 12 14 16

2 4 17 19 21 18 20 22

3 5 23 25 27 24 26 28

4 6 29 31 33 30 32 34

5 7 35 37 39 36 38 40

6 8 41 43 45 42 44 46

7 9 47 49 51 48 50 52

8 10 53 55 57 54 56 58

9 11 59 61 63 60 62 64

10 12 65 67 69 66 68 70

Table 4.4 Divisions of Ccandapr¡s¡das

Si. No

No. of

storeys



1 4 13 15 17 14 16 28

2 5 19 21 23 20 22 34

97

3 6 25 27 29 26 28 30

4 7 31 33 35 32 34 36

5 8 37 39 41 38 40 42

6 9 43 45 47 44 46 48

7 10 49 51 53 50 52 54

8 11 55 57 59 56 58 60

9 12 61 63 65 62 64 66

Table 4.5 Divisions of Vikalpapr¡s¡das

No.

No. of

storeys



1 5 9 11 13 10 12 14

2 6 15 17 19 16 18 20

3 7 21 23 25 22 24 26

4 8 27 29 31 28 30 32

5 9 33 35 37 34 36 38

98

6 10 39 41 43 40 42 44

7 11 45 47 49 46 48 50

8 12 51 53 55 52 54 56

Table 4.6 Divisions of Ëbh¡sapr¡s¡das

No.

No. of

storeys



1 4 11 - 13 12 - 14

2 5 15 - 17 16 - 18

3 6 19 - 21 20 - 22

4 7 23 - 25 24 - 26

5 8 27 - 29 28 - 30

6 9 31 - 33 32 - 34

7 10 35 - 37 36 - 38

8 11 39 - 41 40 - 42

9 12 43 45 47 44 46 48

99

It can be seen from the above tables that there are 13 pariÀas (3 to 15) in

alpapr¡s¡das (3x13=39 divisions). Jati has 6x10=60 divisions, the pr¡s¡da width

starting from 11 kol and ending at 70 kols. The number of storeys ranges from 3 to

12. In ccandapr¡sadas there are 54 divisions with number of storeys ranging from

4 to 12. In vikalpapr¡sadas there are 48 divisions with number of storeys ranging

from 5 to 12. The ¡bh¡sapr¡s¡das have 38 divisions with the number of storeys

varying from 4 to 12. The plan shape is square in all cases as evident from the

calculation of yonis (yoni is the reminder (R) of perimeter (P) x 3/8). Here R of 2-

18x4x3/8=1(®kayoni). Here the perimeter is obtained by multiplying the side by 4.

The widths given in the table are for the ground plan. Any suitable/desirable

pr¡s¡da width can be selected.328 According to Mayamata,329 the widths at higher

storeys get reduced from the lower floor's width. The rules are given below:

328


Mayamata, Ch.21.

100

(a) For three storeyed pr¡s¡das the width of the ground floor plan is divided by

7 or 8. The first floor width is 6 divisions and second floor width is 3

divisions.

(b) For 4 storeyed pr¡s¡das, divide the ground floor plan width into 9

divisions. Adopt 8, 6 and 5 divisions for the second, third and fourth

storey.

The rules are given for storeys upto 12 but, Kerala temples are not seen beyond 3

storeys. So the canons are restricted to 3 storeys.

4.5.1 Horizontal space of temples - other than square plan shapes.

The formulae and their verifications are given in brief as under:

(a) Rectangular plan shapes. As per Tantrasamuccaya330 the half perimeter of

the pr¡s¡da is divided into 10 and 6 parts are taken for the length and 4

parts for the width i.e. the length:breadth= 6:4. Hence the aspects ratio is

330

Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.12-16.

101

1.5. (length ÷ breadth) No mukhamandapa is provided separately

projecting out. áilpiratna specifies proportions of 15:9, 6:4 and 6:3.

Therefore maximum aspect ratio is 2.

(b) Circular plan. The desired perimeter is divided by 710 and take 113 parts as

the radius to draw the circle. The aspect ratio is 1.

Verification: Let the perimeter be P, r the radius and D the diameter.

Then r=(Px113)/710 (as per formula given)

P=2πr, π = P/2r = (Px710)/2x113

π = 710/226=3.1416

Actual value of π upto 4 decimals =3.1423

Difference in the value of π = 0.038% (practically negligible)

(c) Apsidal plan. Divide the perimeter into 64. Take 63 divisions and again

divide by 18. The 4 parts will form the sides and the front. Take 2 parts as

102

the radius and draw half circle at the back. The length of the curve will be

approximately 6¼ part.

Verification: Let a be the length of the side and P the perimeter. As per

the formula given

a= P x (63/64) x(4/18) = 0.2188P.

Theoretically, P=3a + π x a/2 = a(3+π/2) = 4.5714 a

a= P/4.5714 = 0.2188P (agrees with the formula).

The curved length = 1.5714a = 4x1.5714a divisions

= 6.2856 divisions (approximately the error is 0.566%, practically

negligible)

(d) Elliptical plan. Draw the square and two half circles at the front and rear

as per apsidal plan. This is one form. The other is the improvement on the

103

two sides. Take 3 divisions divide it by 21 and take 20 divisions. Take this

as radius and draw sectors on the sides. The aspect ratio is less than 2.

(e) Hexagonal plan. Divide the desired perimeter by six to get the length of a

side. Take out twice the side and divide by 15. Thirteen parts will be the

diameter of the hexagon.

Verification: Let side be S, perimeter be P. Then, S=P/6.

The diameter as per the formula given above is

(Px2/6) x 13/15 = (26/90)P=0.2889P = 1.7333S.

As per the geometry, the diameter is 3S=1.7320S. The difference is

0.058% (very small). The aspect ratio is 1.

(f) Octagon. Divide the desired perimeter by 10 and the 3 divisions will be the

diameter of the octagon. Divide the diameter by 12 and 5 parts will form

the length of the side. Aspect ratio is 1.

104

Verification. S, the side is P/8.

The radius r/(s/2) =2r/s tan67½º = 2.4142.

r=2.4142s/2 = (2.4142 x P)/ 2x8 = 0.150398 P

Diameter = 2r = 0.30178P. As per the formula, it is (3/10) x P.

The difference is 0.589% (very small)

4.5.2 Mukhamandapa. The mukhamandapa is provided in front of the

garbhag¤ha, square or rectangular in plan shape. In certain square

¿rikovils the mukhamandapas project out. The width of mukhamandapas

is either ½, 3/5, 4/7, 6/10, or 5/12, of the pr¡s¡da width. The length

(projected portion) may be ½, ¾ or equal to the width of the pr¡s¡da.331

Mayamata332 also agrees more or less with the canons. The width of

mukhamandapa is equal, ¾ or ½ of the width of pr¡s¡da. Mayamata

331


Mayamata, Ch.19.

105

insists that the width be equal to the pr¡s¡da if antar¡la is provided. For

square temple ¿rikovil with mukhamandapa, the maximum value of

aspect ratio is 2. The following table gives the plan shapes of temples of

certain districts of Kerala.

Table 4.7 Plan shapes of temple of 7 districts.

No Plan shape

Kasa

rgod

Kann

ur

Kozh

ikod

e

Mal

appu

ram

Way

nad

Pala

kkad

Triss

ur

1 Square 465 995 374 808 228 1469 1163

2 Rectangle 64 128 151 98 39 238 85

3 Circle 8 24 61 184 184 174 229

4 Apsidal 3 4 3 12 1 1 7

5 Octagon - 2 - 2 1 2 8

Total 540 1153 589 1104 454 1904 1482

Note : St¡nas, tharas, pa½½iyaras with out roof etc are not taken into consideration.

106

Ayur áiva temple and Mankata á¡stha temple reported to be of apsidal

shapes (Temples of Malappuram District by Census Operations of Kerala) on the

site visit are found to be of square in plan shapes.

From the table given above representing seven districts of Kerala shows

that:

(a) Majority of temples are of square ground plan (75%)

(b) Square and rectangle ground plans account for about 88% of the temples.

(c) Circular plan shapes are popular and account for about 8%.

(d) Apsidal shapes are very few and accounts only 0.6%.

(e) Hexagonal shapes are not reported. Octagonal shaped temples are very

rare.

4.5.3 Horizontal spaces of adhis¶¡na and upapitha. The adhis¶¡na and

upap¢tha project out of the main walls of pr¡s¡da. The uttaradandu is

107

considered to be uthama, jagati dandu as madhyama and p¡dukadandu

as adhama.333 It gives indications that the horizontal spaces provided by

all the three i.e. uthara, jagathi and p¡duka are to be reckoned with. The

projections/recesses are to be in proportion to the height of the elements or

to the appropriate yoni of the adhis¶¡na. The rules are given below:

(a) Adhis¶¡na. The projections shall be given in such a way as to obtain the

same yoni of the uttara. This can be achieved by giving the projections of

8A, 16a and 24A from the uttara. The projections of Jagati can be up to its

height and same projections are given for kumuda. For other elements like

gala, pati, etc shall have projections equal to its height, ¾th or ½ of its

height. The projection of p¡duka is to be taken from the jagati.334

333

Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.4. Sl.12.

334


108

(b) Upap¢tha. It is optional. Upap¢tha is provided to have elevated look and

grandeur. The rule for projections is as applicable to adhis¶¡na or the

dandu (the width of the top of the pillar).335 More details of adhis¶¡na and

upap¢tha will be given later.

4.5.4 Horizontal spaces of the interior of ¿rikovils.

The main arrangements with in the ¿rikovils are the garbhag¤ha, the

antar¡la, mukahmandapa, the positions of installation of the deity and the

interior walls. Varieties are created by different arrangements. Very small

temples have neither separate garbhag¤ha nor antar¡la. Except for square

plan shaped temples separate mukhamandapas are not provided. The

rules for garbhag¤ha, antar¡las and the walls are given in table form

below:

335

Ibid., Ch.2. Sl.11.

109

Table 4.8 Horizontal spaces of garbhag¤ha and wall thickness.

No Elements of

¿rikovil Canons/ rules Reference

1 Size of

Garbhag¤ha.

Square in plan

shape.

(a) Width of pr¡s¡da, w (2/3 3/5, 4/7, 5/9, 7/11,

8/13, 9/15, 5/8, 4/8): 9 types.

(b) W(1/3, 3/5, 4/5, 5/9, 6/11, 7/13, 8/15, 9/17, ½ )

(c) Divide the ¿rikovil into 5x5 grids of small

pr¡s¡das. The inner most cell (one cell) is for

the devap¢tÅa, the surrounding 8 cells are for

garbhag¤ha and the outer 16 cells are for the

garbhag¤ha wall. The outer most wall will

coincide with the wall of pr¡s¡da.

(d) If the pr¡s¡da is small divide the pr¡s¡da into

9x9 grids. The inner most one cell is for

devapitÅa, outer 8 cells for garbhag¤ha, the

outer 16 cells are for the garbhag¤ha wall,

outermost 32 cells are for the outer wall and

the intervening space is for antar¡la.

T.S.S 2-12

MM,19,13-15

T.S.S. 1,18-22

110

2

Thickness of

garbhag¤ha

wall

(a) Pr¡s¡da width : Wx1/8 for larger pr¡s¡das.

(b) One of the above as given in 1(c) and 1(d)

(c) For 3 to 5 kol parisas, thick wall may be

provided with out antar¡la.

4.5.5 Position of the installation of the Idol.

The idol is installed in the garbhag¤ha. The position of the idol varies with

the god/goddess. Only mah¡linga having the height of the linga above the p¢tha

in one Hasta or more is installed at the centre.336 All other positions of

installations have shift to the back, shift to the side and to the North-East. The

rules are tabulated below:

Table 4.9 Position of Pratista-p¤stagamana

No Pada/KoÀta Position of installation of idol Reference

336


111

1 7x7=49 divisions of garbhag¤ha.

Middle pada is Brahmapada,

outer 8 cells are Devapada, outer

16 cells are ManuÀyapada and

outer 24 cells are Pi¿aca pada

(a) Brahmapada is divided into

15 parts

(b) Devapada is divided into 13

parts

(c) Manusyapada is divided in

to 11 parts

(d) Pi¿¡capada is divided into 9

parts.

(i) Exactly at the middle for

Mah¡linga

(ii) Second division towards back

from the centre for Alpalinga

(iii) Third division-ViÀ¸u

(iv) Fourth division-Subramanya

and áankaran¡r¡yana

(v) Sixth division-Durga

(vi) Eight division- Sankaran¡r¡yana

(vii) Twentieth division-Ayyappa

(Viii)Twentieth and twenty

first division-Ganapati

T.S.S. 2.232337

2 7x7=49 divisions Exact centre-Mah¡linga

2nd division-alpalinga

3rd division-ViÀnu

4th division-áiva, P¡rvati,

áilpi. R338

337

Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.2. Sl.23-27. 338

áilpiratna, Sl.528-533.

112

K¤À¸a & Subramanya

6th division-Narasimha

16th division-Gane¿a

20th division-á¡sta

3 7x7x=49. Brahmapada Centre-Mah¡linga

2nd division-Alpalinga

3rd division-ViÀnu

4th division-Subramanya

5th division-Vasudeva

6th division-Durga, K¡li

7thdivision-Murtis in Sukh¡sana

8th division-Sankaran¡r¡yana

T.S.S.339

4 Devapada Gane¿a, Var¡ha, V¡mana, á¡sta,

Rudra, Saptamurtis, Surya,

Ratnalinga etc

5 ManuÀyapada Lakshmi, Bh£mi, Gane¿a, Weapons

of ViÀnu.

339

Taccu¿¡stram-bh¡Àa, Sl.129-151.

113

Note: Further division into 21 and garbardÅada¿apadam (10 division) are also in vogue,

but seldom. The positions with shift to the back from the centre are given above.

The shift to the side (North to East) is 1/126th of the door width. The

i¿¡n¡gamana is 1/126th of the height of the idol. For bahureva bimba the rules are

slightly different from the above as given in Tantrasamuccaya.340

4.5.6 Sop¡na and pran¡la. Sop¡na consists of the steps to enter the main shrine ¿rikovil

and the decorated sides. It may be direct as can be seen in most of the temples or

from the sides (examples: Mannur áiva temple and Vazhapalli Mah¡deva temple).

Sop¡nas of combinations could be made (examples: Tiruvannur áiva temple and

Triprangod áiva temple). The rules are: 341,342

(a) Length is equal to the width of the main door.

(b) Width is equal to ½, 1 or 2 dandu (the stambhagra dandu)

(c) Number of steps, even numbers or odd numbers.

340



114

(d) Sides are decorated with lion's, crocodile's mouth and body.

Pran¡la is the decorated drain, which projects out from the ¿rikovil's adhis¶¡na.

The rules are as under:

(a) The projecting length is equal to the height of adhis¶¡na, 3/4th or 1½ times.

Half of its length has to be inserted into the wall.

(b) The projecting length is equal to width of srip¢tha, or 8A to 24A.

(c) The length is equal to 12A with increment of 3A upto 24A.

(d) The width at the supported end is L/5, L/4, or L/3 (L= length). The depth is

equal to ½, ¾ or equal to the width. At free end the width and depth may

be ½, ¾ or equal to the ones at the fixed end. The hole or grove may be 1 to

1½ A wide.

The pr¡nala is decorated with Vy¡limukha, Gomukha or Makara mukha. It

may be free standing in most of the cases or supported (example-Moozhikulam

342


115

Laksmana temple and Tripangod áiva temple) by dwarfs. The horizontal spaces of

certain temple ¿rikovil varieties are given in the diagram form 4.1 to 4.17. The

details are given below:

Table 4.10. Horizontal space (plan shapes) of certain temples, (Obligation to Book-

'Temples of Kerala').

No Diagram

Number Plan space Particulars

1 4.1 Square

ári Vi¿nu temple, Eramam, Kannur district. There is no

separate garbhag¤ha.

2 4.2 Square

ári Krishna Temple, Podiyil, Ernakulam District,

garbhag¤ha and antar¡la can be noticed.

3 4.3 Square

ári Rajarajeswara temple, Taliparambu, Kannur district.

Note the garbhag¤ha, two antar¡las and steps to

garbhag¤ha

4 4.4

Square with

mukhama-

ndapa

ári K¤À¸a Temple, Thichambaram, Kannur district. Note

the garbhag¤ha antar¡la and attached mukhamandapa.

116

5 4.5

Square with

mukhama-

ndapa

ári áiva temple, Kantiyur, Mavelikkara, Alleppy district.

Note the garbhag¤ha, antar¡la, mukhamandapa,

upap¢tha and sop¡nas.

6 4.6 Rectangle

ári Tirumandhamkunnu Bhgavati temple, Malappuram

district. Pr¡s¡da width is more than the length. No

separate garbhag¤ha.

7 4.7 Rectangle

ári Brahmashrine, Turuvallam, Thiruvanantapuram

district. Note the garbhag¤ha and mukhamandapa with

in the ¿rikovil.

8 4.8 Circle

ári áiva temple, Pulpalli, Palghat district. No separate

garbhag¤ha.

9 4.9 Circle

ári áiva temple, Pulpatta, Malappuram district. Note the

shape of garbhag¤ha, the bhitti and antar¡la.

10 4.10 Circle

ári áiva temple, Tirunellai, Palghat district. Note the form

of garbhag¤ha, antar¡la and sop¡na.

11 4.11 Circle

ári Karikkattu Subramanya temple, Malappuram district.

Note the garbhag¤ha and pillared antar¡la.

12 4.12 Circle with ári Para¿urama temple, Tiruvallam. Note the main

117

mukhaman-

dapa

shrine, mukhamandapa and sop¡na.

13 4.13 Ellipse

ári Mahadeva temple, Vaikom, Note the garbhag¤ha,

pillared antar¡las, steps to garbhag¤ha and partial

opening in the front.

14 4.14 Apsidal

ári Trikandiyoor Maha¿iva temple, Tirur. Note the

garbhag¤ha, mukhamandapa, upap¢tha and sop¡nas.

15 4.15 Apsidal

ári áiva temple, Tiruvannur, Kozhikode. Note the

garbhag¤ha, small mukhamandapa, bhitti, upap¢tha and

sop¡na.

16 4.16 Apsidal

ári Mah¡linge¿vara temple, Adoor, Kasargod district.

Note the garbhag¤ha, antar¡las, large space in front of

garbhag¤ha and attached mukhamandapa.

17 4.17 Apsidal

ári Subrama¸yaswami temple, Payyannur, Note the

garbhag¤ha, antar¡las, mukhamandapa and steps at

antar¡las.

118

Diagram No:4.1, Sri ViÀnu Temple, Eramam, Kannur District.

Diagram No:4.2, ári Krishna Temple, Podiyil, Ernakulam District,

Diagram No:4.3, ári Rajarajeswara temple, Taliparambu, Kannur District.

119

Diagram No:4.4, ári K¤À¸a Temple, Thichambaram, Kannur District.

Diagram No:4.5, ári áiva temple, Kantiyur, Mavelikkara, Alleppy District.

120

Diagram No:4.6, ári Tirumandhamkunnu Bhgavati temple, Malappuram Disctrict.

Diagram No:4.7, ári Brahmashrine, Turuvallam, Thiruvanantapuram District.

121

Diagram No:4.8, ári áiva temple, Pulpalli, Palghat District.

Diagram No:4.9, ári áiva temple, Pulpatta, Malappuram District.

122

Diagram No:4.10, ári áiva temple, Tirunellai, Palghat District.

Diagram No:4.11, ári Karikkattu Subramanya temple, Malappuram District.

123

Diagram No:4.12, ári Para¿urama Temple, Tiruvallam.

Diagram No:4.13, ári Mahadeva temple, Vaikom,

124

Diagram No:4.14, ári Trikandiyoor Maha¿iva temple, Tirur.

Diagram No:4.15, ári áiva temple, Tiruvannur, Kozhikode.

Diagram No:4.16, ári Mah¡linge¿vara temple, Adoor, Kasargod District.

125

Diagram No:4.17, ári Subrama¸ya Swami temple, Payyannur,

4.5.7 Creation of varieties in horizontal space with in the frame work of the

canon/rules. Varieties are created by various arrangements of horizontal

spaces as under:

(a) Garbhag¤ha. Garbhag¤ha may not be provided separately in very small

temples. The plan shapes of garbhag¤ha are mostly square. But the

shapes of the main ¿rikovils also exists.

126

(b) Mukhamandapa. In small ¿rikovils the mukhamandapas are not

provided. In larger temples mukhamandpas are provided with in the

¿rikovil or outside irrespective of the plan shapes of ¿rikovils.

(c) Antar¡las. In small temples no antar¡las exist. In large temples antar¡las

exist. In larger temples antar¡las with bhitti or pillars are provided.

(d) Sop¡nas. In most of the cases the sop¡nas provide direct entry. There are

sop¡nas from the sides or combinations of both.

(e) Upap¢tha. In most of the temples, the upap¢thas are not provided. In

certain temples, wide and elaborate upap¢thas are provided.

4.6 Vertical Spaces -The Three Dimensional Spaces.

The two dimensional horizontal spaces of ¿rikovils were discussed in brief. The

spacial effect comes from the third dimension in the vertical space, the

development in the Z axis. The discussions shall be directed towards the heights of

127

¿rikovils and various elements which give the three dimensional spaces. The rules

and canons are given in various texts in detail. Hence very brief details are given

in table form.

Table 4.11. The Three dimensional spaces of ¿rikovil.

No Horizontal depth of

Elements/part Rules

1 Foundation depth (a) Depth equal to the height of the owner or till rock or

water level is reached343 and refill upto ¾th depth.

(b) Either rock or clear water is reached,344 and fill up to

¾th depth.

(c) PuruÀapramana, till water or rock is reached345

and fill upto ¾th depth.

2 Sad¡dh¡ra

Refer diagram No.

(a) Adh¡ra¿ila346- ½ of srip¢tha¿ width taken as its

height.

343


Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 1-8. 345

K¡¿yapiya. Ch.4. 346


128

4.18 (b) Nidhikumbha-Bhitti height of pr¡s¡da 6 is the width.

The height is 9/8th of the width.

(c) Lotus width=1/8th of the height of wall.

(d) Tortoise-Height=11/12 x7/8th of the wall height.

Yoganala is given upto napumsaka¿ila.

3 Upap¢tÅa The height of upap¢tÅa may be 1/3, 2/5, ½. ¾ or equal to

the adhis¶¡na.347

4 Padmap¡duka. Height of Padmap¡duka may be ¼, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7, 1/8, or 1/9th

of the adhis¶¡na.348

5 Adhis¶¡na

(Main Height)

The height of adhis¶¡na as per Tantrasamuccaya,349 is half

of the height the wall (from the top of adhis¶¡na to the

bottom of the wall plate). Some texts differ from the above.

Some differences are:-

(a) 3 kol pariÀa pr¡s¡das shall have the wall's height of 2

Hastas. The height of adhis¶¡na shall be 1 Hasta. An

increment of 4 Angulas will be given for each pariÀa

from 2 Hasta (wall height). Hence the 15 kol pariÀa

347

áilpiratna, Sl.43. 348

Ibid., Sl.44. 349


129

will have the height of adhis¶¡na as 2 Hasta (half of 4

Hastas). The height of adhis¶¡na may be reduced or

increased by one division by dividing the height by 6,

7, 8, 9, 10 or 11.

(b) As per K¡¿yapiya,350 the height of base is to he

considered depending on the height of the temple. The

uthama category is more than 3 Hastas, 2 Hastas

madhyama and 1 Hasta is adhama. Minimum height

is 1 Hasta.

(c) As per Mayamata,351 the maximum height of

adhis¶¡na is 4 Hastas (for 12 storeys) and by

successively reducing it by 4 Angulas per storey, the

minimum height of adhis¶¡na is 1¾ Hastas.

(d) áilparatna, áilpiratna, Kuzhikattupacca, Kriyadipika.

etc agree with Tantrasamuccaya.

6 Adhis¶¡na (Elements

of Adhis¶¡na)

Tantrasamuccaya352 has given mainly 14 types of adhis¶¡na,

K¡¿yapiya353 12 types, Mayamata354 14 types, M¡nas¡ra355 19

350


Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 11-18. 352

Tantrasamuccaya, (áilpabhaga), Ch.2. Sl.13-16.

130

types, Ì¿¡nagurudeva padhati356 8 types. Kriy¡dipika and

kuzhikattapacca agree with tantrasamuccaya. Basically the

adhis¶¡nas are divided into dvivarga, trivargand

pancavarga. The main elements are P¡duka, Jagati,

Kumuda, Gala, Kampa, Pati, V¡jana etc. Various

combinations and measurements make varieties of

adhis¶¡nas. áilpiratna357 gives elaborate details of

adhis¶¡na. V¡stuvidya358 gives more details about

mancakas.

Refer diagram 4.19 to4.29 to see some varieties of

adhis¶¡nas.

7 Height of the temple

¿rikovil

The height of ¿rikovil from p¡duka to the top of st£pi H=1

3/7 W, 1½ W, 1¾ W, or 2W (where W= width of pr¡s¡da) as

per Tantrasamuccaya.359 Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati360 gave the

353


Mayamata, Ch.14, Sl. 19-35. 355

M¡nas¡ra, XIV. 356

Ì¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Kriyapada, Vol.I, Sl.31. 357

áilpiratna, Sl.49-66. 358

V¡stuvidya, Ch.9 359


131

names as ¿antika, paus¶ika, sarvak¡mika and adbÅuta

respectively. M¡nas¡ra361 give H=1W, 1¼ W,1½ W and 2W,

(¿antika, paus¶ika, jayada and adbÅuta). However, the

height varies from 1W to 2W. For storeyed temples the

width gets reduced by 6/7 or 6/8 and the height also gets

reduced accordingly.362 The numbers of storeys based on

pariÀas are as under:-

(a) For pariÀas of 3 and 4 kol - 1 storey

(b) For pariÀas of 5 and 6 kol - 1 or 2 storeys

(c) For parisas of 7 to 10 kol - 1, 2 or 3 storeys

(d) For pariÀas of 11 and 12 kol - 2 or 3 storeys

(e) For parisas of 13 to 15 kol - 3 storeys

Temples of Kerala do not have more than three storeys.

Hence details of further storeys are omitted.

8 Height of the wall For alpapr¡s¡da the height varies from 2 Hastas to 4 Hastas (

3 kols pariÀa to 15 kol pariÀa with 2 Hastas as minimum

and with increment of 4 Angulas for each additional

360

¢¿¡nagurudevapadhati, Patala. XXX, Sl.22-23. 361

M¡nas¡ra, XXXV, Sl. 11-13. 362

Mayamata, Ch.21, Sl. 4,5.

132

pariÀa) Option are given to increase or decrease the height

of the wall by one division by dividing the wall height or wall

height + adhis¶¡na by any number from 6 to 11. For upper

storeys the height can be ½, 2/3, ¾, 4/5, 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 8/9,

9/10, 10/11, 11/12, 6/10, 5/7, 5/9, 9/11 etc. of the lower storeys.

9 Division of the wall

height

Vedika - 1/8th of wall height H, kaluyara - 4/8H, 1/16H

kallutara, 1/16H valaru, 1/8H Kapota and 1/8H as

g¤hapindi.

10 Height of roof

(áikhara)

Generally the slope of roof is 45º. Hence the height will be

half of the width of Pr¡s¡da. Dip up to 2 Angulas (equal to

12 Angulas per 24 Angulas of half span). Making the height

to half span ratio of 1:2 can be considered.

11 St£pi The height may be equal ¾, ½ of adhis¶¡na by Hasta or by

giving appropriate yoni.

12 Height of

Garbhag¤ha

5/4, 6/5, 7/6, or 8/7th of exterior wall shall be the height of

garbhag¤ha. The adhis¶¡na shall be ¼, 1/5, 1/6, 1/7 or 1/8th

of the height of garbhag¤ha

13 Height (thickness of Equal, 3/4th or ½ of the width of the wall (uthama,

133

wall plate) madhyama and adhama - known as khandottara,

patrottara, r£pottara)

14 Ceiling May be flat ceiling or turavu

15 Griva The height between the prastara and wall plate is griva. The

height depends on the overall height of the ¿rikovil.

16 Two storeyed pr¡s¡d¡s

and three storyed

pr¡s¡d¡s

Rise the arudÅabhitti, place sambharappati and give lean to

roof to outside. Provide gala (2,3,5,7,8,9 part of the wall

when it is divided by the numbers from 3 to 11). Similarly

the heights for the third storey also be taken a per 2nd

storey.363

363


134

1. ADHARASILA2. DHANYA PITA

3. NIDHI KUMBHA

4. PAMA

5. KURMA

6. YOGANALA

7. NAPUMSAKA SILA

Diagram No:4.18, âadadh¡ra

A. EKAVARGA B. DVIVARGA C. TRIVARGA

D. CHATUR VARGA E. PANCHA VARGA

135

Diagram No:4.19, Vargas of Adhis¶¡nas

Diagram No:4.20, Mancaka Types of adhis¶¡nas

136

4

4

1

10.5

1 PATIPATTAGALA

KUMUDA

PATI

KUMUDA

JAGATHI

Diagram No:4.21, P¡dabandha (12 divisions)

2

4

4

2

2 PATI

GALA

KUMUDA

JAGATI

PADUKA

Diagram No:4.22, P¡dabandha (14 divisions)

3

7

6

5

137

Diagram No:4.23, Adhis¶¡na of 21 divisions.

Diagram No:4.24, Adhis¶¡na of 24 Am¿as.

2

6

1

2

1

2 GALA PATI

MEL-PATTA

GALA

PATTA

JAGATI

PADUKA

Diagram No:4.25, Galamancaka (14 divisions).

138

4

4

1111

JAGATI

KUMUDA

PATIVAJANA

GALAKUMUDA PATTA

Diagram No:4.26, Pratikrama Type of Adhis¶¡na (12 divisions).

KAPOTA PATIKAPOTAVALARU

UTTARA PATI

GALA PATI

KUMUDA

JAGATI

PADUKA

Diagram No:4.27, Adhis¶¡na (19 Am¿as).

6

2

5

4

4

3

PATI

KAMBA

GALA

GALA

KAPOTHA

VALARUUTHARAGALAPATIGALAKUMUDA PATI

KUMUDA

JAGATI

PADUKA


139

2

5

4

4

3 KAPOTA

VALARU

PATI

UTHARAGALAPATI

GALAPATIGALA

KUMUDA

JAGATI

PADUKA


A typical sectional elevation of a ¿rikovil showing the vertical spaces is given in

diagram No-4.30.

140

1

2

3

4567

8

9

10 11

12

13

14

151617

18

19 20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

PARTS

1. PADUKA

2. JAGATI

3. KUMUDA

4. PATI

5. GALA

6. PATI

7. VEDIKA

8. BHITTISTAMBHA

9. ADHARA SILA

10. DHANYA PITA

11. NIDHI KUMBHA

12. PADMA

13. KURMA

14. YOGANALA

15. NAPUMSAKA SILA

16. PITA

17. PANJARA

18. GHANA DUARA

19.GARBHAGRHA DUARA

20. MAIN DOOR

21. TURAVU

22. SOPANA

23. VALARU KAPOTA

24. CEILING

25. RAFTER

26. BALA KUTA

27. COLLA PIN

28. UTHARA (WALL PLATE)

29. COLLAR

30. KUTA

31. MANDI PHALAKA

32. STUPI

Diagram No:4.30, Main parts of árikovil.

The number of storeys of temples in certain districts of the state are given in

tabular forms below:

141

Table 4.12 Number of temple with ®katala, dvitala and tritala

No District

Tal¡s of ¿rikovils

Remarks Ókatala Dvitala Tritala

S R C A O S R C A O S R C A O

1 Kasar-

god

378 61 8 - - 85 3 - 1 - 2 - - 2 - S:square

R:rectangle

C:circle

A:Apsidal

O:Others

2 Kannur 887 124 22 2 2 97 4 1 2 - 1 - - - -

3 Kozhi-

kode

374 144 48 1 - 54 3 13 1 - 4 - - - -

4 Wynad 216 37 19 2 1 8 1 2 - - 1 1 - - -

5 Malap-

puram

693 95 152 8 1 95 1 32 4 1 1 1 - - -

6 Palakk-

ad

1304 150 1 2 100 9 23 - - - - - - - -

7 Trissur 976 81 195 6 7 157 2 34 1 1 4 1 - - -

Total 4228 787 634 20 13 596 23 105 9 2 13 3 - 2 - 6435

Perc

enta

ge

65.7

12.2

9.9

0.3

0.2

9.3

0.4 1.6

0.1 - 0.2 - 1

100%

4.7 Structural Forms. The moulding, the projection, niches, openings, decorations of

various categories, (except graphics and paintings) and elevations constitute the

forms considered for the study. Canons/rules are described in various texts. In

order to make it compact and comprehensive the structural elements/parts, which

142

contribute to the forms, are given in tabular form. There are several elements which

contribute towards not only the forms, but also towards the structural strength,

stability and sustainability of the structure as a sub system and system as a whole.

Table 4.13 structural forms of árikovils

No Elements Particulars

1 Padmap¡duka

Refer Diagram

No. 4.31

The moulding is provided above the foundation.364 The height of

adhis¶¡na desired is divided by any number from 4 to 9 and one

part is provided for padmap¡duka. The decorative monldings

are: 1/6 lower, patta, 3/6 dala, 2/6 upper karnika, giving shapes

of the petals of lotus.365

2 Upap¢tÅa

Refer Diagram

No. 4.32

Optional below the adhis¶¡na, if provided, the height shall be

1/3, 2/5, ½ , ¾ or equal to the height of adhis¶¡na and

projection from ½ the height of adhis¶¡na or 1 to 3 uttara

dandu.366 The moulding may be of manjaka, padabandha or

364




143

pratibandha type.367 K¡¿yapiya gives details of kampa, gala,

pati,368 etc.

3 Adhis¶¡na The various mouldings are provided by means of p¡duka, jagati,

kumuda, gala and pati. The pati may be plain or kapota type.

The gala may be provided with decoration like lotus, flowers,

legs, etc.369 The kumuda may be rounded or square with exterior

two edges cut to form a polygonal shape. The projections are

am¿a based or yoni based.370

4 Vedika

Refer Diagram

No. 4.33

The vedika is provided above the adhis¶¡na and at the base of

the wall around the pr¡s¡da. The openings cut the vedika. The

vedika is highly decorated mould. The vedika is divided into two

and the top half can be given 3 mekhalas and the bottom half

can be the gala. Or else, the height can be divided by 6, 7 or 8

and from top to bottom kampa, padma, kampa and gala are

provided. The kampa and padma may be decorated with square

khandas.371 K¡¿yapiya (Ch.10) gives detailed account of vedika.

367


K¡¿yapiya, Ch.5. 369




144

5 Openings

(a) Doors

Let the door height be DH and door width DW.

(a) The garbhag¤hadv¡ra

DH = garbhag¤ha width x 7/11; DW=10/21 or 7/17 of the

garbhag¤ha width or 5/8 and 7/17 as DH and DW

respectively or 4/7 and 6/13 of DH as DW.372

(b) DH = Padocca x 7/10, 8/10 or 9/10; DW=½DH.373

(c) DH= ½ of garbhag¤ha width and DW - 1/4th.374

(Garudapur¡na gives same rules as B¤hatsamhita)

(d) Same rules are applicable for the outer door of pr¡s¡da, with

the measurements of pr¡s¡da.

May be provided by am¿akrama or yonikrama (yoni can be

arrived by Hasta or Angula).375 There are special rules for

various gods.376 Decorated door frames, shutters with

s£trapattika, phalaka, etc be provided. Only one door opening is

provided for garbhag¤ha. It may be 1, 2, 3 or 4 for ¿rikovils.

(b) GÅanadv¡ras It is provided when the door openings are not provided in the

372



B¤hatsamhita, Ch. 56, Sl. 12. 375



145

cardinal directions except for the main door, gÅanadv¡ras are

provided. The width of gÅanadv¡ra is 5/8th of the main door and

its height is 3 or 2½ times its width.377 All elements of door

frame and shelters shall be moulded/engraved. Gamana as per

cardinal directions in clockwise directions is to be provided.

(c) Windows The width of the window may be 1 to 4 dandu and height may be

equal to the width or incremented by one dandu upto twice the

width. Can be provided upto the wall plate. The kÅanda

pÅalikas have different decorations, viz. square holed,

rectangular holed flower like, flowers and holes at corners and

sakarnaka.378

(d) N¡sikas The roof of pr¡s¡das shall have n¡sika(s). N¡sika is for breathing

in and out and has openings in small size(s). Small pr¡s¡das

shall have at least one n¡sika in front, big ones have up to four.

There are mah¡n¡sika, bhadran¡sika and kÀudran¡sika by name.

Mah¡n¡sika, shall have the width equal to half width of the roof.

Bhadran¡sika shall have its width equal to 1/3, ¼, or 1/5 of the

377

Tantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.14. 378


146

width of the roof and projection equal to ½, ¾ or equal to its

width. Kimparimukha (kimpuruÀa) is provided up to 1/3rd its

height.379 The n¡sikas are provided with decorated galas,

pÅalakas, carvings of creepers, k£ta, koÀta, lakÀmi, bells, etc to

make the n¡sika elegant and beautiful.380 A typical n¡sika is

depicted in diagram No. 4.34.

6 StambÅas StambÅas are provided one each at corners of pr¡s¡da and two

each in cardinal directions counting it to 12. It may be 16 or 20

depending on the size of the ¿rikovil. K¡¿yapiya,381 áilpiratna,382

Tantrasamuccaya,383 etc give detailed account of the stambha

and the mode of decorations. The pillars can be square, round,

hexagonal or octagonal shaped. The top portion, the pothika

(bodhika) connects the pillar with uttara. The middle portions

can be provided with decorations like kumbha, virakanda,

garlands, etc. the bottom width of pillar is 1/6 to 1/11th of the

379






147

height of the pillar with top width reduced by 1/8th. The width of

the top of the pillar is taken as the 'dandu'. The projection

(moulding) from the pr¡s¡da wall may be from Angula to the

half the width of the pillar.

7 Bhitti Alank¡ras The main bhitti alank¡ras (decorations) can be broadly divided

into stambhas (given above), ghanadv¡ras (given above),

panjaras, ¿¡las, k£tas, prastaras, gr¢vas, uttaras, toranas, valaru-

kapotha, viÀkhambhas and the like. All pr¡s¡das shall have at

least the stambhas, toranas, openings/ghanadv¡ras. For ¿rikovils

of 5 kol pariÀa and upwards, there can be decorated pillars and

panjaras. For bigger pr¡s¡das the corners may be provided with

k£tas. For very big pr¡s¡das (mahapr¡s¡das) there can be ¿¡las,

mah¡n¡sikas, decorated j¡lakas-panjaras, etc in addition. The

bhitti alank¡ras are explained in brief in Tantrasamuccaya.384 It

is explained in great details in áilpiratna385 K¡¿yapiya386 and

áilparatna.387 For small pr¡s¡das the alank¡ras are simple. The

384



K¡¿yapiya, Ch.9-20. 387

áilparatna, pp.130-144.

148

wall height is divided by 8 and given 1 division for vedika, 4

divisions for the wall, ½ division for stone uttara, ½ division for

valaru, 1 division for kapota and 1 division for g¤hapindi.

The projections of these mouldings range from ¼, ½, ¾

dandu (dandu taken here is the top width of the pillar/wall).

There can be separately projecting adhis¶¡nas for the k£ta,

¿¡la, panjara, j¡laka, etc as can be seen in several big temples. The

mouldings provide additional thickness to the exterior walls and

serve as sorts of pilasters giving additional stiffness and strength

to the walls.

8 Ceiling/Turavu The garbhag¤ha is provided either with the ceiling or Turavu.

The ceiling is flat. Turavu is octagonal or combination of

octagon and circle. The height above door's top level is half the

span of the garbhag¤ha. The ceilings can be of wood or stone.

The turavu is made by corbelling in stones/bricks. The

mukhamandapas are provided with ceilings with highly

149

decorated beams and planks (phalaka) divided into segments of

9 or 25. The details are given in áilpiratna388 and

Tantrasamuccaya.389

9 K£tas K£ta is a solid timber element, which takes the hip rafters and

slanting rafters and also connects the ridge. The k£ta is highly

decorated with pattas, v¡janas and mukula or like lotus. It can

be circular, octagonal or sextagonal in shape.390 B¡lak£tas are

of same shape but smaller in sizes and are provided at the ends

of ridges and at the centre. B¡lak£tas are provided at the eves

end with the leveling plate at the bottom.

10 Rafters Rafters can be decorative. It can be decorated with ¿ukan¡sika,

cuttings, vala, tips covered with copper or brass plates, decorated

nails with 'st¡na' or mukula.

11 V¡mata It has the function of joining the rafters at the free end and

support the roofing material. The v¡mata is decorated with

v¡janas. It provides stability to the space frame.

12 ViÀkambhas These are the decorated struts and function like slanting struts.

388

áilparatna, Sl.87-90. 389

Tantrasamuccaya (áilpabh¡ga), Ch.3. Sl.26-27. 390

ManuÀy¡layacandrika, Ch.6, Sl.9-11.

150

It can be highly decorative, decorated in the shapes of lion,

horse, crocodile, some idols, etc to give varieties and decorum.

13 Roof Sloping roofs are provided in most of the temples. Tiles of

various varieties and sizes provide uniqueness. Copper sheeted

roofs are provided in several temples. Rarely, RCC roofs are also

seen provided during last few decades.

14 St£pis St£pi (Th¡zhikakuta) is important part of ¿rikovil. Some temples

are provided with gold plated st£pis, copper st£pis, brass, silver

and terracotta st£pis. The height of the st£pi can be

proportional to the pr¡s¡da. It may be ½ , ¾ or equal to the

high of adhis¶¡na, to the appropriate yoni and to have proper

padayoni of the total height. The st£pikalank¡ras are: padma,

kumbha, pati, gala, pattas, n¡la and lotus bud.391 Mayamata

(Ch.19, Sl.15-17) gives details of the finials.

15 Inside if

¿rikovil

Garbhag¤ha, antar¡la, bhittis or pillars, uttaras, turavu/ ceiling

are inside the ¿rikovils. Except for garbhag¤ha no bhitti

alank¡ras are provided inside the

¿rikovil. In most of the ¿rikovils plastering with lime mortar is

391

áilpiratna, Sl.261.

151

provided.

Diagram No:4.31, Padmapaduka.

UPAPITA

Diagram No:4.32, Upap¢ta.

152

6

1

1

1

1

1

1 PATTA

KARNIKA

PADMA

PATTA

GALA

PATTA

Diagram No:4.33, Parts of Vedika ( 6 Divisions)

Diagram No:4.34, N¡sika.

4.7.1 Floor levels of garbhag¤ha. Generally the level of garbhag¤ha is the same as

of the level of ¿rikovil (as can be seen in small temples). In certain cases it

is below the level of the surrounding floor level. The examples are

153

Kadampuzha bhagavati temple, Chalisseri Bhagavati temple, Mankata

Svar£pam áasta temple and Kiliyanadu áasta temple. In certain cases the

garbhag¤ha's floor is higher than the antar¡las or mukhamandapa. The

examples are: Taliparambu Rajarajeswara temple, Payyannr Subramania

temple, Trissur Mahadeva temple, Vazhapally Mahadeva temple and

Trikandiyoor áiva temple. There are Matathappan temples where the

pratiÀta is at an elevated floor. Example is áiva Temple, Peruvanam.

The variations in the levels of pratiÀta create not only the varieties

but also uniqueness to the individual temples.

4.8 Discussions. Detailed discussions are reserved to be carried out in separate chapter

in order to contain this chapter and to have more facts and figures from other

chapters.

Documents

THE STRUCTURAL SPACES AND BUILT FORMS OF KERALA …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5686/10/10... · 2015. 12. 4. · Sarvatobhadra (openings in all cardinal directions)