The role of the historical geographer today

The role of the historical geographer today

DELLA HOOKE

Hooke, D. 1999. The role of the historical geographer today.Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–NorwegianJournal of GeographyVol. 53, 61–70. Oslo. ISSN 0029-1951.

Academic research in historical geography can be both academic and functional, contributing towardsthe maintenance of biodiversity, the preservation of regional character and the recognition of culturalheritage. This requires an improved database of historical landscapes with detailed regional studies andimproved methodologies. Historical geographers also need not only to become actively involved in thedecision making process but to investigate the ideologies which guide the different interests that areinvolved in the management of landscape.

Keywords:Biodiversity, cultural landscapes, historical geographer, landscape conservation, regionalcharacter

Della Hooke, 91 Oakfield Road, Selly Park, Birmingham B29 7HL, UK and Institute for AdvancedResearch in Arts and Social Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

In the past, landscape scholars were able toconcentrate upon the purely academic aspect ofthe subject: attempting to understand the way inwhich the present landscape has evolved, bothphysically and culturally. An important extensionof this was the dissemination of such research to anever-widening audience, including the generalpublic. In England, the late W. G. Hoskins wasan outstanding exponent and his book,The Makingof the English Landscape, first published in 1955and brought in 1988 up-to-date by ChristopherTaylor, was a landmark in such studies showingjust how relevant an understanding of the evolu-tion of the regional landscape is to all concernedwith it. Clearly displaying the love for landscapefirst fostered in his native Devon, Hoskins was ableto communicate this fascination to his readers.There were similar writers in other Europeancountries, of course. The success of this periodof landscape study is manifest today for it helpedto give rise to a ground swell of appreciation andawareness among the general public that isessential if any cause concerned with the protec-tion of the historical – or traditional – landscape isto be furthered successfully.

However, an awareness of the importance ofunderstanding landscape evolution, in all its facets,is far from universal among European plannersand practitioners today, not the least in England.Too often the historical geographer is left in therole of passive critic, left to comment uponmanagement plans and landscape appraisals al-ready in place, if indeed he or she is asked tocontribute at all.

In some ways, we have only ourselves to blame.For too long in the universities we have tended toview those who applied their knowledge forspecific purposes as generally displaying a degreeof academic inferiority. I might, as an example,cite the late Land of Britain reports producedunder the guidance of the late L. Dudley Stamp(1930–47, 1950), which recorded the nature offarming regions in the interwar years, and othersimilar studies making use of the ‘old-fashioned’regional approach. Even the achievements ofClifford Darby (1977) in presenting his Domesdayregions based upon an analysis of the 1086Domesday Book have been seen as ‘pioneering’studies that are somehowpasse´. But this regionalapproach will always have a place in landscapeassessment and is increasingly being used, if not inEngland by most present-day geographers, in more

Norsk geogr. Tidsskr.Vol. 53, 61–70. Oslo. ISSN 0029-1951

practical studies. In other approaches,too, theunderstandingpossessedby the historicalgeogra-pheroffersvaluableknowledgeandguidance.

Thecontributionof the historicalgeographerasresearcherFirst, I shouldlike to outlinesomeof thefields inwhich I believehistoricalgeographerscanmakeasignificantcontribution.

(1) The maintenanceof biodiversity: The naturalhabitatis partof thenation’sheritageandprovidesabiologicalstoreof bothfloraandfaunafor futuregenerations.It is, however, as much a humanconstructas a natural one and it is necessarytounderstandhow pastlandscapesweremanagedinsome detail if such biodiversity is to be main-tained. It is no use, for instance,reinstating aflower-rich water meadow if it is not to bemanagedappropriately (i.e. mown at the righttime so that flowers can set seed and withrestrictions upon grazing); woodlands cannotmerelybeplantedbutmustbemanagedto providethe appropriatechanginghabitatsrequiredby theresidentflora and fauna.The life cycle of somespecieshas beenshown to be closely relatedtolocal factors. The dormouse, for instance, isquietly vanishingnot becauseits favourite food-stuffs– the hazel,honeysuckleandbramble– arein shortsupplybut becausetheyno longerform apart of woods managedprimarily for timber inwhich plantedrows of treesexcludethe light andin which suchundershrubsareconsideredunpro-ductive speciesto be removedas they take upvaluable space. There have to be older treespresentto providesuitablenestingholesandcoolcreviceson thegroundfor hibernation– all withinperhapsonehectareof woodland.Somecreatureshave a life cycle that is incredibly complex,dependinguponthe closejuxtapositionof oneortwo species,andanychangein landusecanupsetthe delicate pattern. Knowing how land wasmanagedin the pastandthe techniquesthat werein usecanoffer invaluableadviceandguidance.

(2) The preservationof regional character: Inconservingregionalcharacterweneedtounderstandhowlandscapesevolvedif wearetooffermorethanmeresuperficialimpressions.Evidenceof a deep-seatedheritageoratraditionalharmonyexpressedinthe landscapeis in dangerof beingeradicatedbymodern-daychangeonanunprecedentedscale.The

conservationof recognisedfeatureswhich indicatethe cultural heritageandmaintainthe beautyof adiversecountrysidecan protect a landscapethatpromotesbothasenseof identityandof well-being.A thoroughknowledgeof landscapeevolution isessential in order to guide land management,especiallyin a rapidly changingagri-environment.Ecologistsin generalknow that the habitatstheystudyarehugelyinfluencedbypreviouslandusebutmanyassessmentsfrequentlylooklittle furtherthanthevisualaspectsof thelandscape.

Although everycounty in EnglandmaintainsaSites and MonumentsRecord of archaeologicalsites – and even that is under threat in somecounties– few extendto historicallandscapesandthe databasehas not been established. ‘TheCountryside Character Map’ (e.g. CountrysideCommission& English Nature 1996), a projectinstigated by Michael Dower, former DirectorGeneral of the Countryside Commission, is aprecis of suggestedlandscaperegions acrossEngland but is no more than a beginning. Anumber of counties are now preparing moredetailed studies and under the instigation ofEnglish Heritageare attemptingto make use ofmore historical investigation (Cornwall CountyCouncil& CountrysideCommission1996).I haverecentlybeeninvolvedin a studyof Herefordshireand Worcestershireand colleaguesare carryingout other national studies for English Heritagewhich will feedinto countydata.But how do weachieve more clout among practitioners? InEngland academicresearchersand practitionersarestill oftenmiles apart.

As anexampleof oneareacurrentlyundergoinga landscapeassessmentto guide planners,land-ownersand local authoritypolicies, I will brieflyrefer to Herefordshire,a countyin theBorderlandbetweenEnglandand Wales.Superficialsurveyswouldnodoubtidentify thisasacountyin generalcharacterisedby tiny village nuclei and manyscatteredhamletsand farms. The countrysideisgently rolling but the county is ringedwith morehilly uplands.Apart from afew remainingareasofunenclosedupland commonand sheepwalk,theland lies mainly under medium-sizedenclosedfields. Ancient woodland survives in scatteredpatchesin someregions.It is, however,a countywith diverse regional landscapesand it is onlywhen the fieldscape and vegetation cover isanalysedthat the subtlenatureof thesebecomesapparentand that the amountof changethat hasoccurredin recentdecadesis revealed.

62 D. Hooke NORSKGEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT53 (1999)

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NORSKGEOGRAFISKTIDSSKRIFT 53 (1999) Roleof the historical geographer 63

Openfields were presentmore often than hasbeen recognisedbut were small and scattered;enclosurebeganearlyandpiecemealto producealandscapeof tiny hedgedfields favoured in aneconomywith muchpastoralismbut with isolatedareas of strip fields still present in the midnineteenthcentury.Thestudyrevealedhow muchthis field patternhasalteredand beenerodedinrecentdecades:althoughthefieldscapeis still oneof well-hedgedfields, many field boundaries–perhapssome40–50%– havebeenlost.

Thebordercharacterof theregionis alsoclearlyindicated. Offa’s Dyke was constructedin theeighth century to keep out the Welsh, to befollowed by thenumerousmottesandlatercastlesof Normanlordsconstructedfor the samereason.It is still aborderregion,culturallyandvisuallysetbetween the Welsh uplands and the Midlandfarmlands.(Fig. 1 showsa small part of north-west Herefordshirewhere a basin of lowland ispartly enclosedby woodedhills andescarpments;here Offa’s Dyke lies further to the west.) Thehistoricalstudyis beingusedto directtheregionallandscapedivisionsbeingsuggestedandto identi-fy andexplainthosecharacteristics,both obviousandmoresubtle,which shouldbe conservedandperhapsenhanced.

(3) The recognition of cultural heritage: It isnecessaryto understandthecomplexstrandsof theculturalheritageif thisis to beinterpreted,whetherthis is in a museumsituation,where a complexhistorical situation is being conservedor inter-pretedto the generalpublic, or aspart of a moregeneralappraisalof landscapesexpressingregio-nal or nationalidentity.

TheIronbridgeGorgein Shropshireis a formerindustrialareawhich wastraditionally seenasthebirthplaceof the IndustrialRevolutionin England– here Abraham Darby and his son perfectedmethodsof using coke rather than charcoal tosmelt iron. Already an areaof coal mining andothermorerural industries,theregionbecameoneof the most important iron-producing areas inEnglandat the end of the eighteenthcentury,itsfame augmentedby the constructionof the firstiron bridge in 1779,spanningthe deeply incisedgorgeof the River Severn.Transportdifficultieswere to leave this region remoteand productioncostly, andalthoughcoalminingand ironworkingincreasedfor a time further to the north, by thebeginningof this centurythe regionwasseverelydepressedand run down. It was partly for this

reasonthat Dawley, on the coalfield to the northonly five kilometresfrom Ironbridge,waschosenin the1960sto becomea New Town, now namedTelford.

In the Gorge, the conservationof industrialfeatureshas given rise to a flourishing touristindustry.Everybuilt up featurehasbeenrecordedandre-recordedandspecificlimited areassubjectto close scrutiny (Alfrey & Clark 1993) but abroaderlandscapestudy of the whole region hasonly recentlybeencarriedout (Hooke1998).Thissets the post-medieval industrial developmentwithin its historical landscape context, bothspatially and chronologically, for the resourceswhich led to industrialdevelopmentwereinitiallymorewidespreadandit waschangingtechnologythat causedthe concentrationof industry withintheGorgeregion.

The presenceof woodland has been a majorcharacteristicshaping the developmentof thisregion. It was a frontier region between twoAnglo-Saxon kingdoms and the woodland wasinitially usedmainly as wood pasture,often bymonasticestablishments.Much of it becameroyalforestundertheNormankings,setasidefor royalhunting,althoughassartingincreasedin medievaltimes.Graduallythe woodlandbecamean indus-trial resource,increasingly coppiced to supplycharcoalto iron forges establishedwhere waterpower was also available (Fig. 2). After thedissolutionof themonasteries,privateestatesbuiltup, their ownersinvestingheavily in coalminingand iron productionand the areabecamerecog-nisedfor its key role in the IndustrialRevolution.The Ironbridgeregion had accessiblesuppliesofsuitablecoal,waterpowerand,importantly,localskills fostered by earlier development whichattractedand made possible the entrepreneurialand inventive activities of Darby and his associ-ates.As industrysubsequentlydeclinedtherewasmuch regenerationof secondarywoodland,oftenoverabandonedsites,andtodaythewoodsprovidethe settingfor the rich industrialheritagethat hasmadethegorgeaWorld HeritageSite(Fig.3).Thehistorical study was carried out for the SevernGorge CountrysideTrust and will help them tomanagethelandscapeundertheir care.It mayalsobe possible to develop the studies further foreducationalpurposes.

Theseexamplesmerely outline three types ofhistorical enquiry that makeconsiderablecontri-butionsto the study,understandingandpresenta-tion of a present-daylandscape.


Fig. 2. The IronbridgeGorgedistrict: woodlandandwaterresourcesbeforethe IndustrialRevolution.


Thepro-activerole of the historicalgeographerIf thecontributionof historicalgeography– in allits facets– is to be effective,however,we cannolonger afford – in reality or metaphorically– toseparatethe role of critic from that of activeparticipant. We may have progressedfrom thedescriptive-analyticalapproach to assuming amore critical role, but how pro-activeshouldwenow become?

Europeanparticipation

Therehave,over the last few years,beenseveralencouragingmoveswithin theEuropeanCommu-nity to put landscapeson the map. In the early1990s many conferencesrevealed a growingconcern over landscapeissues: in addition tomeetingsof the PermanentEuropeanConferencethere was, for instance,the Blois conferenceof1992 (Howard & Jenny-Zarmati1993).Practicalstepswerealsobeingundertaken.(i) Two workinggroupsweresetup by theCouncil of Europe,onerelated to nature conservationin a landscapecontext, the other to the historic heritage.Thesehave moved from a site-specific attitude to abroader view of landscape.(ii) The EuropeanEnvironmentAgency for the EuropeanEnviron-ment Ministers’ conference held in Sofia inOctober1995(theDobrisAssessment)for thefirsttime extendedits referenceto landscapes.(iii)UNESCOhasreviewedthe criteria of sitesunderits World HeritageConventionto include a newcategoryof cultural landscapes.(iv) TheCongressof Local and Regional Authorities of Europe(CLRAE) set up, in 1995, a Working Group topreparea EuropeanLandscapeConvention.

This latter group met in Strasbourgin 1995,largely under the leadership offered by YvesLuginbuhl and Michael Dower, and many of usoffered commentsupon a draft report which hassubsequentlybeen put into legal form and wasadoptedat the 5th plenarysessionof CLRAE inMay 1998 (Council of Europe, CLRAE 1998).This recognisesthe importance that Europe’scitizens attach to their environment and theirdesire to see the quality of their surroundingssafeguarded,especiallyasthis is often alreadyindecline. It is noted that, as an internationalinstrumenton landscape,the recommendationsofthe Conventionmust be legally binding to have

any effect. At the May meeting it was recom-mendedthat ‘official landscapeactivities shouldno longerbe merely a field of studyor a limitedareaof actionwhich is the prerogativeof certainspecialisedscientific bodies’ but the ‘landscapeshould become a mainstreampolitical subject,sinceit playsanimportantrole in thewell-beingofEurope’s citizens, for whom it is no longeracceptablethat their surroundingsaretransformedby technicalandeconomicchangeson which theyhaveno say’ (ibid., p. 2). Shouldthe Conventionbeapprovedby theCommitteeof Ministersit willbe put forward for acceptanceasan internationaltreaty. In practice,thereis likely to be at leastathree-yeardelay beforesufficient MemberStatessignup to it.

Where, then, doesthis leave us?None of theEuropean initiatives have yet had substantialinfluenceon whatnationalgovernmentsaredoingin thefield of landscapeandthereis little hopethatthe Conventionwill come into effect until suffi-cient memberstateshaveacceptedits recommen-dations. One aspect for concern is the widevariationbetweendifferent Europeancountriesinthelegislativeandpracticalsystemsfor protectingandmanaginglandscapes.

Establishmentof an historical database

The information alreadygatheredacrossEuropefor an historical databasediffers markedly: inEngland there is nothing to match the SwedishNationalAtlas or the detailedregionalappraisalsbeingcarriedout in SwedenandThe Netherlands(Berglund 1991; Renes1988). One of the firststepsto beundertakenis theestablishmentof sucha database.While everycountyin EnglandhasitsSites and MonumentsRecord,listing significant(and insignificant)archaeologicalsites,only noware attempts beginning to be made to maphistorical land use.Very often, this continuestoplay only a minor role in landscapeassessments.At present,thereis little for landscapemanagerstoturn to. Fortunately some counties, perhapsspurred on by the Countryside Commission’scharactermap, are now making more detailedassessments.

In Wales,a more integratedapproachis beingestablishedwith the settingup of a GIS databasecalledLANDMAP. Ecologicalregionsareoneoftheaspectsbeingmappedat a regionallevel anditis hoped that more historical information will


Fig. 3. The IronbridgeGorgedistrict: the landscapeof the IndustrialRevolution.


eventuallybe accumulated.At presenta selectednumberof moresignificanthistoricalregionshavebeen chosen for analysis (Cadw 1998) – anapproachstrongly rejectedby England’sEnglishHeritage which strongly resists any qualitativejudgement.In practice,someEnglish landscapes,like those at Ironbridge or around Stonehenge,havebeenselectedas World HeritageSites; thedesignationof some other regions as Areas ofOutstandingNaturalBeautyor NationalParksalsomakesqualitativejudgementsaboutlandscapesingeneral.

Methodologiesfor the investigation of land-scapeare emerging(Hooke 1993) and it wouldprobably be unwise for rigid directions to beproposed.The scale of enquiry will differ at anational,countyor regionallevel.Thestudieswillalsoneedto adaptto fit changingrequirements.Inmanyassessments,the historical informationwillbeonly onefacetguiding landscapemanagement,although a knowledge of landscapeevolutionwould seem to be essential if guidelines forcountrysidemanagementareto respecttraditionalregionalcharacteror long establishedhabitats.

Historical geographersasadvisersin landmanagementandplanning

Otherpracticalstepsarebeingtaken.In England,the CountrysideStewardshipschemenow run bythe Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Food(MAFF) offers incentivesto farmersto carry outconservationwork they would otherwise haveneglected; historic landscapesfigure amongstthose landscapeswhich are specially targeted–althoughwith little recognitionthatall landscapesare historic to a greater or lesser degree. Inpractice,historic landscapesusually meanpark-land. The ecological databasefor this is againimpressive,thehistoricalonealmostnon-existent.In general,with suchpowerful bodiesasEnglishNature, the Wildlife Trusts or the RSPB(RoyalSociety for the Protection of Birds), wildlifeenjoys considerableprotection but penaltiesfordestroying historical landscapesremain slight.Traditional farm buildings are especiallyvulner-ableat a time of agriculturalrecessionandcanbeallowed to fall into decay or even deliberatelydestroyedwith little legal redress.

On the plus side, new regulationsto preservehedgerowshavenow comeinto force (HedgerowRegulations1997)and a Herefordshirefarmer in

1998wasfinedfor takingouthalf amile of hedgeson his farm in the Golden Valley of south-westHerefordshire,attempting to turn seven smallfields into two larger and more profitable onesfor crop growing.The regulationswerenecessarybecausehundredsof thousandsof milesof hedgeshave been lost since 1955, much with theencouragementof former EC subsidies.Again,historical evidenceis necessaryto pinpoint themostvaluablehedgessuchasthosewhich markedtownship boundariesor bounded former largeopen fields, those which are oldest and mostspecies-richand those which provide valuablewild-life corridors.

There may be a need to influence othergovernmentpolicies and every country has itsownagenda.In acrowdedcountrysuchasEnglandthe planning of settlementand communicationshasenormousrepercussionson the quality of therural landscape,bothin avisualandpracticalway,affecting the quality of everydaylife. Housingisessentialbut its provisionneedsto be madewiththe leastlossof the remainingfarmlandor of thepreciouspatchesof remainingopencountryside.The governmentitself is committedto enforcingtheconstructionof thousandsof newhousesin thecountrysideto meeta perceivedneed(quotedasonemillion homesin thenext20years).Obviouslydeveloperspreferattractiverural sitesto industrial‘brownland’ which requireshigh costsof restora-tion, but thelatter is still widely availableandalsooffers an existing infrastructure for suburbanliving. Most councils feel that the number ofhouses required is over-exaggerated.In somefavoured areasof the countryside,such as theGloucestershireCotswoldsor southDevon,secondhomeownership,ashighas50%of housesin somevillages,is still forcing up housepricesto createalack of affordable homesfor the young or lesswell-off. I haveno wish to makepolitical state-mentsor over-emphasise‘green’ policies,but alltheseareissueswhich mustbefacedby someone.

In passingintellectual judgement,a degreeofsubjectivityis inevitablyboundto bepresent.Whois to interpretthesignificanceof landscapechange,to judge the cultural import of what is beingdiscussed?Changein the landscapeis inevitable,butwhois to expressanopiniononthedesirabilityor direction of change?What sort of countrysidedowewantandwhois to decide?Someyearsago,somecried for a newwildernessin themountainsof Snowdonia,ignoring the rich cultural back-groundapparenteverywherein thelandscape;this,


however,is asituationthathasto befacedin otherEuropeanregions,suchasthe emptyheartlandofthe French Cevennes.Others prefer their land-scapesto remainin arustictimewarp,ignoringthatthecountrysideis a living economicentity. It is alltoo often ignoredthat most areasof countrysidewere alive with rural industry before the 19thcenturyand only rarely entirely dependentuponagriculture.In the Midland region, for instance,rural-basedindustries ranged from the needle-making and nailing of cottagersto fulling millsservingthe woollen tradeand forgesand slittingmills producingiron goods.

Historical geographersasdecisionmakers

Are we,asacademics,goingto allow ourselvestobe contentwith the ‘academic-scientificrole’ ofsaying‘my readingof landscapehistory is …’, orare we ready to assumean advisory or politicalrole by saying‘the lessonsI drawfrom this areasfollows…’? Decisionshaveto be madeaboutthefutureof thecountryside.Thereis, for example,aproblemin selectinghedgesto beconservedwhenboth wildlife corridorsand ancientfield patternsarefactorsto beconsidered(areenclosurehedge-rows which are only some 200 years old asimportantas the primary hedgerowsmarking theboundariesof former openfields or townships?).Again, shouldold industrial landscapesand theirassociatedhousing be preservedbecausetheyrepresenta stagein an area’scultural inheritanceevenif theyaredeemed‘unattractive’?Do we tryto maintain traditional landscapesin partsof theuplandswhen thesetraditions – as of intensivesheep grazing on the Welsh uplands – arethemselvesrelativelymodern(herewe might lookto the landscapehistorian and the ecologist toadvise on what is ecologically sustainable).Tohaveany influence,thehistorianof landscapehasto be involved in the planningand conservationprocess.

Thereis anotherfield in whichweneedto makeour voicesheard:the creationof new landscapes.Canabravenewlandscapebeallowedto dispensewith thepast?It maybethoughtthat in suchcasesthereis little needto researchpastlandusebut thisis certainlyfar from true.In England,theCountry-sideCommission,hopingto doubleEngland’streecover,hasseta targetof increasingtheamountofwoodlandto 15% of the total land coverover thenext 50 years– a million hectaresof new wood-land (CountrysideCommission1996).Onemajor

step – the creation of a new National Forest(CountrysideCommission1994) – has alreadybeensetunderwayin theEastMidlandsandmanyconurbationshaveplannedtheir own ‘neighbour-hoodforests’very muchon the Europeanmodel.Planting schemeshave been only partially suc-cessful,however.Landownersareloatheto ‘ster-ilise’ their land in this way, knowing that theywould find woodland,once planted,difficult toremove,andevenlocalpeoplehavein someplacesrejected planting, preferring to see their fewremaining open spacesreally open for publicenjoyment – places the dogs can run and thechildrenplay safely.

Therearealsohidden‘landscapes’beyondthepurely physical. We can reveal and discusstheideologieswhich guidedifferent intereststhat areinvolved in the managementof landscape.Land-scapemanagementis unavoidablyconcernedwiththe exerciseof power, but with whom doestheultimate power reside?And what are the powerrelationshipsbetweenbusinessinterests,politi-cians,landscapemanagers,landownersandordin-ary usersof the landscape?Canwe, ashistoricalgeographers,play apart in identifying themotivesbehind landscapemanagement?And, more di-rectly, shouldwe too havea voicebaseduponourown ideologies?

One thing is certain: if we, as landscapescholars,evadeinvolvement,others,perhapswithlessunderstanding,andwithoutadequatescrutiny,will makethesedecisionsfor thefuture.It is up tous to carry out our researchin ways that are asacademicallysoundaspossiblebut, on the manyoccasionsthat arise, to presentit, quite deliber-ately, in ways that will be useful for a selectedpurpose.We needto be awareof all the factorsbehindproposedlandmanagementandshouldnotwithhold judgement.We havethe opportunitytomakeour voicesheardonly if we go out into theworkplacewherethedecisionsarebeingmade– atlocal, regionaland national level – but we mustfirst insist upon being there alongside otherpractitionersandamongthedecisionmakers.

Manuscriptaccepted1 June1999

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The role of the historical geographer today