The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in …...Page 2 The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in the Swedish Education System Page 2 such as technical and vocational

Projet internationalpour l'enseignement technique etprofessionnelInternational Project on Technical and Vocational Education

The Role ofTechnical and Vocational Education

in the Swedish Education System

The International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC) is a project of the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Its purpose is to contribute to the development and improvement of tech-nical and vocational education in Member States.

UNEVOC works in three programme areas:

Programme Area A deals with the international exchange of experience and the promotion of studies on policy issues. It isdevoted to system development in technical and vocational education.

Programme Area B is devoted to strengthening national research and development capabilities, that is to the development ofinfrastructures.

Programme Area C concerns access to data bases and documentation in its broadest sense, in other words, with informationand communication.

The basic concept behind Programme Area A is to enhance the role and status of technical and vocational education withinnational education systems.

UNESCO held a consultation in 1993 with experts from different regions of the world in order to identify some of the factorswhich determine role and status of technical and vocational education. Based on the findings, a series of case studies hasbeen initiated on the relevance of these factors within given national education systems.

The present study on "The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in the Swedish Education System" has been preparedin this context.

The study was prepared by Nils FRIBERG (Executive Director), Björn CARNSTAM (International Coordinator)and Louise HENRY (Assistant) of THE EDUCATION CENTRE OF KRISTIANSTAD, Sweden, in 1994.

This print version has been prepared at theUNEVOC Implementation Unit � Fehrbelliner Platz 3 � 10707 Berlin � Germany

Fax [+49] (30) 86 49 15 41 � E-Mail: [email protected] � Web: www.unevoc.de

© UNESCO 1995

Date of this reprint: 30 January 1999

Document Nr. ED/IUG/002

The Role ofTechnical and Vocational Education

in the Swedish Education System

Table of Contents

Summary..........................................................................................................................................3

1 Introduction and Brief History of Technical and Vocational Education..................................5

2 Present Situation - Period of Transition ...................................................................................6

3 Future Developments .............................................................................................................10

4 Adult Education......................................................................................................................11

5 Improving Participation of Special Social Groups.................................................................12

6 Financial Resources and Financing........................................................................................13

7 Teacher Certification and Supplementary Training ...............................................................14

8 Entrepreneurial Orientation and Technical and Vocational Education..................................16

9 Cooperation between the Schools and Industry .....................................................................17

References .....................................................................................................................................19

Appendix I: Fact Sheets on the Sixteen National Programmes.................................................20

Appendix II: Vehicle Programme Specification.........................................................................30

Page 1 The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in the Swedish Education System Page 1

Summary

In Sweden, technical and vocational education istotally integrated into the national school systemand as such cannot be taken out and examinedcompletely on its own. Labour market policy andeducation policy often go hand in hand but mustnot be seen as interchangeable. Technical andvocational education has the complex task ofcombining flexibility to solve difficult problems ofdifferent levels of urgency, at worst in a labourmarket changing month-by-month, as well asbeing an integral part of the country's educationpolicy that must have long-range vision andstrategies for maintaining and improving acountry's wealth. Here, the term wealth refers tosomething much more than simply the concept ofwhat can be measured in terms of materialpossessions.

Internationalization, the revolution in informationand communications systems, and rapid andsometimes stunning technological change haveinfluenced all groups, levels and aspects ofSwedish society. Consequently, these three majorfactors are of the utmost importance in thereasoning behind the creation and implementationof a successful educational system, of whichtechnical and vocational education is a funda-mental element. At the beginning of the 90s,Sweden's position was weakened since its labourforce was not as well educated as that of otherindustrial nations in the West.

Today, in 1994, Swedish education and especiallytechnical and vocational education, is in a state oftransition. A major reform was initiated in 1992,the Upper Secondary School Reform 1992. By theschool year 1995/96, students will be admittedonly to the new national programmes as specifiedby this reform. The effects of this reform are far-reaching in that the Reform impacts all aspects oftechnical and vocational education and general/theoretical education in youth upper secondaryeducation and in municipal adult education as wellas some important aspects of university educationand application requirements. The Reform alsostipulates a new system of marks and a newcurriculum, in effect beginning with the autumn1994 term. The Upper Secondary School Reform1992 is the most extensive of this century inSweden. It has been worked out in order toguarantee the individual's right to freedom of

choice as well as to meet society's demand for aschool that can adapt to rapidly changing externalconditions in the near society and in the globalsociety.

One of the essential ambitions of the Reform is theimplementation of the concept of lifelong learn-ing. Education must give people the necessarycompetence and self-confidence, providing theindividual with the foundations to see change notas a threat but as a potential opportunity. Multi-facetted knowledge is necessary especially intimes of dramatic and profound changes. Thespeed and extent of developments in traditionaltechnology and information/communication tech-nology today make knowledge a kind of perishablegoods, that must be constantly renewed and keptfresh. This means that education, be it theoreticalor vocational, must not be seen as a finite product,but as a life-long process of learning. In thisrespect, formal education must not only providethe student with certain skills and knowledge butalso the key tools for renewing skills and supple-menting knowledge throughout an entire lifetime.

The main strategies of the Upper SecondarySchool Reform 1992 are:

1. decentralizing education authority anddecision-making power

2. increasing local freedom in the allocation offunds for education

3. realizing a smoother transition from youthupper secondary education to municipal adulteducation

4. creating a more course-oriented uppersecondary education structure

5. raising the status of technical and vocationaleducation to the same level as general/theoretical upper secondary education

Traditionally and also under this Reform, fourgroups are given particular support in order toimprove their participation in national education,especially also the opportunities offered by tech-nical and vocational education: Girls, immigrants,the mentally handicapped and the physicallyhandicapped.

Concerning the financing of technical and voca-tional education, the Swedish education system issupported by government subsidies and municipalfunding. Costs are not broken down into areas


such as technical and vocational education orgeneral/theoretical studies. The total expenses forthe upper secondary school were approximately17.4 thousand million SEK in 1992, of which halfmay be expected to have been used for technicaland vocational education. In 1992, expenses formunicipal adult education were approximately 2.5thousand million SEK, of which only a minor partmay be expected to have been used for technicaland vocational education.

Entrepreneurial orientation in technical and voca-tional education is much better emphasized underthe Reform. The study of basic businesseconomics is now included in fifteen of the sixteennational programmes. In addition, the study ofBusiness Economics for Small Businesses isoffered in eight national programmes. During thepast years of recession and privatisation, there hasbeen more support for a broader small businesssector in Swedish society. A form of "vocational"education available now to adult students is seeenin the "Starting Your Own Business". This,combined with the raised status of vocationaleducation, is expected to lead to an increase in thenumber and status of small businesses in Swedishsociety.

Several private industries have taken their owninitiative and set up different forms of cooperationwith the upper secondary schools in order toensure relevant technical and vocational education.These initiatives also include efforts to de-drama-tize technology in the elementary school in orderto encourage elementary school pupils to studytechnical and vocational education programmes inthe future.

Regarding teacher training and supplementaryteacher training, the Reform stipulates that, in

addition to the specific knowledge and skillsrelevant to the subject taught, the teacher'sresponsibility includes other non-traditionalteaching responsibilities. These responsibilitiesare meant to promote an atmosphere of democracyand personal responsibility in the classroom. Thenew responsibilities, in their orientation andgravity, lead to a serious need for supplementarytraining for teachers. This need is also based onthe increased demands on the professional knowl-edge each teacher possesses, knowledge that mustbe constantly updated in order to stay in touchwith both local and global events that have animpact on the subject taught. The need to cooper-ate with other teachers applies especially toteachers in technical and vocational education whomust coordinate their students' education in theschool with training at different commercial/industrial companies, due to the requirement that15% of vocational studies must be carried out at arelevant workplace. The format and content ofsupplementary training for teachers may beasserted as one of the most important questions ineducation today, for teachers of both general/theoretical subjects and vocationally orientedsubjects.

This case study is thus a report on an educationalsystem in transition, due to the introduction of themost important school reform in Sweden in thiscentury. Students of technical and vocationaleducation are expected to benefit greatly from theReform, as it is oriented towards raising the statusof technical and vocational education. It is alsooriented towards the maintenance of a democraticsociety in which all members of society haveaccess to educational opportunities that promotelife-long learning.


1 Introduction and Brief Historyof Technical and VocationalEducation

In Sweden, technical and vocational education istotally integrated into the national school systemand as such cannot be taken out and examinedcompletely on its own. Labour market policy andeducation policy often go hand in hand but mustnot be seen as interchangeable. Technical andvocational education has the complex task ofcombining flexibility to solve difficult problems atdifferent levels of urgency, and worst of all, in alabour market changing month-by-month, as wellas being an integral part of the country's educationpolicy that must have long-range vision andstrategies for maintaining and improving acountry's wealth. Here, the term wealth refers tosomething much more than simply the concept ofwhat can be measured in terms of materialpossessions.

100 years ago, Sweden was one of Europe's poor-est agricultural countries, struggling with theproblems facing a society based on class differ-ences, poverty, little educational opportunityexcept for the privileged, and extensive emigra-tion. Apprenticeship training was always entirelylocated in, and the responsibility of the workplace.Any theoretical studies were carried out in eveningclasses, to the extent that these were available.

75 years ago, in the recession after the FirstWorld War, industry renounced this expensiveresponsibility of taking on apprentices and theschool system took over much of the practicaltraining in daytime classes. This lead to municipalresponsibility for education in industry and trade.

50 years ago, Sweden was on the verge of erasingmany class differences, emigration had beenstemmed and educational opportunity had defi-nitely reached into the sphere of vocationaleducational opportunity. After the Second WorldWar, labour market education became a new factorin the education system and a matter of concernfor the national school system. Thus, the nationalschool system accepted the civic responsibility fortraditional education, vocational education,apprenticeship training and training for un-employed persons. Vocational education wasbased on specific manual skills with little con-sideration of learning to solve problems, make

choices or take the initiative. Students waiteduntil a relatively late age to make vocationalchoices; however, this must be seen against thebackground of depression that made vocationalchoices almost a matter of survival. The SecondWorld War also affected vocational choices,especially for women who, after training and someyears' professional experience, were often forcedinto the ranks of the unemployed when the warwas over.

25 years ago, in the expanding economy of the70s, university studies were a realistic goal formany students whose parents had never dreamedof this. The Upper Secondary School Reform of1971, based on the 1970 Curriculum for the UpperSecondary Schools (known in Swedish as Lgy 70)united the existing schools for voluntary education(university preparatory upper secondary school,vocational school and technical school) into oneupper secondary school with one administration.However, technical and vocational education,though officially integrated, widely available,covering many vocational fields and providingskills in Swedish and English, was still limited inits vision of preparing these technical/vocationalstudents for specialist areas only. At this timeonly a few unusual professions maintainedresponsibility for apprenticeship training. Thereform work of the 60s, that envisioned a moregenerally oriented technical and vocational educa-tion, was mostly ignored; and machining tech-niques came to dominate the training in industrialeducation courses (e.g. workshop, electri-cal/telephone, and vehicle technology courses).Education was chiefly taylored according to theestimated labour market needs. Interesting to notehere are some of the training goals as stated in theofficial report SOU 1966:3 - almost 30 years ago:

1. cooperate with others at the workplace2. plan the work rationally3. make decisions regarding different action plan

alternatives

These appear also in updated form in the reformnow in progress in the 1990s.

Over the last 10 years, vocational education on-site in industry has lost even more ground to prac-tical training in the schools, while at the same timevocational education has had to respond todramatic changes in the organization of the labour


market, demands for more highly qualifiedpersonnel and the need for much closer ties withindustry; in order to guarantee the continueddevelopment of Sweden as an industrial nation.During the last ten years, young people have beenhesitant to apply to the vocational educationprogrammes in the technical and industrial sectors.This is partly due to poor general knowledgeamong youths of what it's like to work in a modernindustry and also due to poor interaction betweenindustry, the schools and general society. Anotherfactor here is the appearance of groups in thelabour market that traditional vocational educationhas not been able to cope with, i.e. first and secondgeneration immigrant children and the handi-capped.

This brief history is superficial at best, but threeimportant aspects emerge:

1. Technical and vocational education has beendefinitely acknowledged as an integral part ofthe education system, in youth schools andadult schools.

2. Changes in technical and vocational education

have been based on

a) assuring Sweden's place as an industrialnation and

b) the extent of unemployment in general andyouth unemployment in particular.

Teaching materials have not been able torespond to the officially stated goals and intentof technical and vocational education.

3. In the past, recessions have led to narrower

horizons for technical and vocational education,with training based on more specific vocationalskills, and the expectation or existence of agood economy has led to broader horizons andmore general goals for technical and vocationaleducation in order to facilitate geographicalmovement and vocational freedom.

The national curriculum reforms since 1960

1962 Lgr 62 - Läroplan för grundskolan 1962:1962 Curriculum for the CompulsorySchools

1970 Lgy 70 - Läroplan för gymnasiet 1970:1970 Curriculum for the Upper SecondarySchools

1980 Lgr 80 - Läroplan för grundskolan 1980:1980 Curriculum for the CompulsorySchools

1994 Lpf 1994 -Läroplan för friviliga skolformer 1994.The term "non-compulsory schools" refersto all forms of schooling beyond themandatory 9-year secondary schooling inSweden, i.e. upper secondary, post-uppersecondary, etc.

2 Present Situation -Period of Transition

Internationalization, the revolution in informationand communications systems, and rapid andsometimes stunning technological change haveinfluenced all groups, levels and aspects ofSwedish society. Consequently, these three majorfactors are of the utmost importance in the reason-ing behind the creation and implementation of asuccessful educational system - of which technicaland vocational education is a fundamental element- a system that is vital to maintaining and increas-ing the standard of living of the entire society. Atthe beginning of the 90s, Sweden's position wasweakened because its labour force was not as welleducated as that of other industrial nations in theWest.

In the 90s, historical trends seem to have a reverseapplication - the facilitation of geographicalmovement and vocational freedom is now seen asa means to ameliorate today's very serious labourmarket situation in which very few make predic-tions about the future, and many unemployed andespecially youth unemployed have bleak prospectsof finding a job. At the same time, industry andtrade are looking for persons who have con-siderably more talent than pure technical/ voca-tional skills; instead promoting and rewardingthose with traditionally humanistic skills, e.g. inforeign languages, communication, economy, andgeneral computer science. The present situationhas been considered to be partly due to the failureof central planning.

Today, in 1994, Swedish education and especiallytechnical and vocational education, is in a state of


transition. A major reform was initiated in 1992,the Upper Secondary School Reform 1992. By theschool year 1995/96, students will be admittedonly to the new national programmes as specifiedby this reform. The effects of this reform are far-reaching in that the Reform impacts all aspects oftechnical and vocational education and general/theoretical education in youth upper secondaryeducation and in municipal adult education as wellas some important aspects of university appli-cation requirements and education. The Reformalso stipulates a new system of marks and a newcurriculum, in effect from the autumn 1994 term.The Upper Secondary School Reform 1992 is themost extensive of this century. It has been workedout in order to guarantee the individual's right tofreedom of choice as well as to meet society'sdemand for a school that can adapt to rapidlychanging external conditions in the near societyand in the global society.

One of the essential ambitions of the Reform is theimplementation of the concept of lifelong learn-ing. Education must give people the necessarycompetence and self-confidence, providing theindividual with the foundations to see change notas a threat but as a potential opportunity. Multi-faceted knowledge is necessary especially in theface of dramatic and profound changes. The speedand extent of developments in traditional tech-nology and information/communication tech-nology going on today, make knowledge a kind ofperishable goods, that must be constantly renewedand kept fresh. This means that education, be ittheoretical or vocational, must not be seen as afinite product, but as a life-long process of learn-ing. In this respect, formal education must notonly provide the student with certain skills andknowledge but also the key tools for renewingskills and supplementing knowledge throughout anentire lifetime.

The main strategies of the Upper SecondarySchool Reform 1992 are:

1) Decentralizing education authority anddecision-making power

This has been effected by dissolving the NationalBoard of Education and the 24 county educationcommittees as well as the Swedish Institute forTeaching Materials. Instead, Sweden now has theNational Agency for Education responsible for the

three main tasks of assessment, follow-up, andsupervision.

A great amount of authority has thus been placedin the hands of local boards with extensivedecision-making responsibility for the munici-palities and in the hands of the schools themselves.

2) Increasing local freedom in the allocation offunds for education

(See Section "Financial Resources and Financing",page 12.)

3) Realizing a smoother transition from youthupper secondary education to municipaladult education

In the Reform, the same curriculum will apply toboth upper secondary education and municipaladult education. This means a structural inte-gration of the two types of education, and that theartificial division of studies into "years" will bereplaced by a course-oriented structure of studieswithin the framework of the national programmes.(See also point 4 immediate following for furtherdiscussion.)

4) Creating a more course-oriented uppersecondary education structure

The intent of the Reform is "course-oriented"upper secondary education within the frameworkof the national programmes, which means thatafter the Reform has been completely imple-mented, each and every student will have thechance to compose his/her "own" programme,although most students are expected to follow thenational programmes as they have been set uptoday. The course-oriented structure meansimprovement in several aspects of especial impor-tance to students in technical and vocationaleducation:

a) Easier to combine general/theoretical subjectswith vocational subjects

b) Greater opportunities for each individualstudent to direct his/her own studies based onhis/her own needs and desires

c) Greater opportunities for each municipality to

influence the education offered in the region. d) Students can complete their studies in a shorter

or longer period than the normal three years.


Each student enters at his/her own level ofknowledge and exits after achieving his/hergoals.

e) The syllabus for each course includes a clear

description of the knowledge and skills thestudent is to achieve

5) Raising the status of vocational education tothe same level as general/theoretical uppersecondary education

Strategies to raise the status of technical and voca-tional education are:

a) More closely integrating vocational educationinto the normal upper secondary school andincreasing the extent of compulsory generalsubjects - "core subjects" - for students invocational education

b) Making all education programmes, includingthe vocational programmes, three years inlength

c) Introducing a new form of "workplace-related"education

d) Revising the assessment of qualifications

These are described more fully in the followingdiscussion:

a) More closely integrating vocational educationinto the regular upper secondary school and

Vocational programmes and branches

Arts Programme• Art and design• Dance and theatre• Music

Building and Construction Programme• Construction metals• Building• House Painting

Business and Administration Programme

Children and Recreation Programme

Electrical Engineering Programme• Automation• Electronics• Installation

Energy Programme• Energy• Heating, ventilation and plumbing• Shipping technology

Foodstuffs Programme• Baking and pastry making• Fresh and cured meat products

Handicraft Programme

Health Care and Nursing Programme• Dental nursing• Health care

Hotel and Catering Programme• Hotel• Restaurant• Large scale catering

Industry Programme• Industry• Process• Textiles and garments• Wood

Media Programme• Information and advertising• Printed media

Natural Resources Programme

Vehicle Programme• Aircraft maintenance• Body work• Vehicles• Transport

General/theoretical programmes

Social Sciences Programme• Economics• Humanities• Social Studies

Science and Technology Programme• Science• Technology

Table 1National vocational and general/theoretical programmes


increasing the extent of compulsory generalsubjects - "core subjects" - for students invocational education.

Now all students in programmes of technical andvocational education study the following coresubjects in common with those students aiming foruniversity entrance: Swedish, English, Mathe-matics, Civics, Religion, Sports & Health, ArtsActivities and General Science. (Note: In mu-nicipal adult education, the core subjects Sports &Health and Arts Activities are eliminated.) Theconcept of a block of core subjects not only con-tributes to raising the status of graduates of voca-tional programmes, it also provides a solid basisfor further education at the upper secondary andpost-secondary adult education level and at theuniversity/university college level. Even moreimportantly, it contributes to achieving the generalgoal of Swedish education identified as lifelonglearning (see also above in Section "PresentSituation - Period of Transition" regarding lifelonglearning, page 5).

b) Making all education programmes, includingthe vocational programmes, three years inlength. This is an important step away from theold system where many vocational "lines" wereonly two years in length.

National timetables for these programmes state theguaranteed minimum time for instruction byteacher or supervisor.

Table 1 (page 6) shows a list of the fourteennational vocational programmes and branchesoffered in youth and adult education, followed bythe two general/theoretical programmes.

The latter concentrates on general science andtechnological theory and prepares the student forfurther studies to become a graduate engineer, orto participate in research programmes.

It is important to note that the sixteen nationalprogrammes are not static, since municipalitiesnow have the authority to create other branches tosatisfy local and regional needs. These are usuallyrelated to vocational opportunities in the region,such as the quarry industry, local tourism, thetextile industry, etc.

One of the most far-reaching results of the Reformis that all of the sixteen national programmes

provide the student with general eligibility to con-tinue his/her studies at the post-secondary or uni-versity level, whereas in the old system students inthe technical and vocational education lines oftenhad to supplement their education before becom-ing eligible for further studies.

The sixteen national programmes are not the onlyprogrammes available to students. The Reform,promoting non-centralised reasoning and practiceas well as implementing the concept of freedom ofchoice to a much greater extent than before leadsto the possibility of both specially-designed pro-grammes and individual programmes.

Specially-designed programmes are those thatmainly parallel a national programme but studyspecific subjects more deeply or with anotherorientation than the national programme. Thistype of programme is always three years in length,and is mainly intended for extremely goal-orientedstudents interested in a specifically composed pro-gramme to meet the individual requirements ofcertain vocational or theoretical professions,requirements that may not be covered by thenational programmes. The student can combinetheoretical and vocational subjects from any of thenational programmes, however, the core subjectsand a special project are compulsory components.

Individual programmes enable an individual tocompose a programme that more suits his/herspecific needs. Most individual programmes arecompensatory one-year programmes aimed at pre-paring the individual to enter a national pro-gramme after completion. A small percentage aremotivational programmes that seek to counsel andencourage unmotivated students (and students whohave dropped out) to choose and complete anexisting national programme. Individualprogrammes can also be programmes for studentsinterested in unusual occupations not covered inthe national programmes, or for students who livevery far away from the school offering the desiredprogramme. The opportunity to create individualprogrammes is also oriented toward immigrantyouths (and immigrant adults in adult education)to enable them to study Swedish and English moreintensively, possibly combined with e.g. guidancein their own language.

A special variant of the individual programme isthe Apprenticeship Training programme. This


programme is always three years in length. Itcombines vocational training at a company in theform of employment, with studies. The studiesmust include the core subjects. Apprenticeshiptraining is intended for students who are highlymotivated to learn a vocation but much less moti-vated to study theoretical subjects.

In statistics based on upper secondary education inOctober 1992, the first year after the Reform wasinstituted, approximately 25% of those studentsstudying in the reformed upper secondary schoolfollowed individual programmes. This should beseen in relation to the very initial character of suchstatistics and the fact that implementation of theReform is still in the transitional stages. Thefigure 25% shows the necessity of flexible pro-grammes in today's education, but this figure isexpected to drop to around 5% when the Reform isin full effect by the turn of the century.

As mentioned above, when the course-orientedstructure is fully introduced, every student will ineffect have the possibility to create his/her ownindividual programme.

Interesting to note here is that the number of boysand girls studying individual programmes wasrather evenly distributed in the age group 16-17year olds, but that girls dominated in the age group18-20 year olds (pg 41, Beskrivande data omskolverksamheten - 1993).

Again, in all such specially-designed and indi-vidual programmes, the core subjects must begiven a share equivalent to the established nationalprogrammes.

c) Introducing a new form of "workplace-related"education.

The school and the company where the trainingtakes place now cooperate much more closely,with the company taking the main responsibilityfor the student's time and training within the com-pany. At least 15% of the total study time in theprogrammes in technical and vocational educationis to be assigned to the workplace.

The main idea behind this new form of workplace-related training is the belief that this alternatingresponsibility for the student will achieve the bestpossible use of the student's time in school and in

the company. This ensures higher quality educa-tion due to three important results:• the integration of general knowledge and

specific vocational theory provided in a suitablepedagogical context with guaranteed up-to-datetechnological methods and equipment,

• closer links between the schools and industry,assuring a continuing dialogue regardingindustry needs, qualifications and skills, and

an easier transition from school life to working lifefor the student, allowing the student to smoothlyacquire the social competence necessary inworking life.Compensation for apprenticeship training andworkplace-related training: The compensationreceived by the companies for apprenticeshiptraining and workplace-related training is underdiscussion at this time. Normally, each companyreceives a subsidy from the municipality to offsetcompany costs for making supervisors and facili-ties available. Although the student's tasks duringhis/her apprenticeship or workplace-related train-ing must preserve the status of the student purelyas a student, the student receives a "salary" as anextra incentive, the amount of which is determinedin accordance with the prevailing agreementsbetween the national employee association and thenational trade unions.

d) Revising the assessment of qualificationsThere will be a new system of goal-related marksin effect as of July 1, 1994. The old system ofrelative marks was based on a 5-point scale (5 asexcellent, 3 as average, 1 as inferior). After thereform has taken full effect, upper secondaryschools will award marks according to a 4-pointscale: Passed With High Distinction, Passed WithDistinction, Passed, and Not Passed. The newgoal-related marks are expected to provide aclearer indication of how successful student hasbeen.

Discussions are going on right now about thevalue and significance in technical and vocationaleducation of a supervisor's certificate as a form ofevaluation of the 15% of vocational education thatis assigned to the workplace. Character judge-ments such as diligence, industry, and personalsuitability could be included, however, it must beemphasized that there are no official recommen-dations or directives at this time on this matter.

3 Future Developments


The following are developments that technical andvocational education in Sweden must take intoconsideration.

Professional skills will need to be broadened andapplied in new ways.

Social skills will be necessary to cooperate andcommunicate effectively with various persons atvarious levels in company organisation. This alsoplaces more emphasis on foreign languages andcross-cultural knowledge as international contactsbecome more and more frequent.Greater demands will be placed on personal skillsand flexibility.

Working in groups will become more usual astraditional hierarchies are replaced by cross-departmental resource groups.

New technologies will demand a new type ofmanager and a new type of subordinate. In factthe word "subordinate" will be replaced more andmore by "colleague" as people learn to respecteach other's competence and contributions.

Individuals will expect and demand challenge andopportunities for personal growth in their work, atall levels.

4 Adult Education

Adult education is not to be confused with highereducation. The origins of adult education inSweden lie in providing an inexpensive (usuallyfree) opportunity to improve vocational skills in aninformal but serious setting, that also encouragedsocial intercourse. This has developed in differentdirections, extending also now to formal educationadministered by the state and, mainly, the munici-palities.

Almost 50% of Sweden's adult population isenrolled in some form of adult education. Thishigh rate is due in part to long traditions in educa-tional opportunity for adults and in part to thegreat variety of adult education institutions.

In the Reform, the state and municipalities mustoffer education to all youths up to 20 years of age.After this age, a person must procure his/herfurther education through one of the following

types of adult education, or through university oruniversity college education:

• Adult Study Associations• Folk High Schools• Government Labour Market Education• In-Company Training• Training sponsored by Employee Organizations• Radio, TV and Correspondence Courses• National Schools for Adults (two in Sweden)• Swedish for Immigrants Education• Public Libraries and Audio-visual Centres• Municipal Adult Education.

Recent figures state that approximately 160,000persons are enrolled in Municipal Adult Educa-tion, of which 100,000 are women. 45% of theenrolled students study subjects at the compulsoryschool level, 30% study at the upper secondarylevel, and 25% study technical/vocational educa-tion courses. The percentage of technical andvocational education will increase since municipaladult education is now used as a tool in labourmarket policy.

A new dimension has been added over the lastdecade to municipal adult education. Munici-palities can now sell courses to "customers"among industry, banks and other commercialunits, government authorities, etc., on a contractbasis. The volume of these contracted courses,also known as commissioned courses, was in 1993around 20% of the total municipal educationoffered. This type of education will have a greatimpact on technical and vocational education sinceit promotes closer cooperation between industry,upper secondary education and post-secondaryeducation.

Another new type of education potential utilized inmunicipal adult education and in youth uppersecondary schools is that represented by so-calledlocal courses. The Reform not only providesextensive local freedom in the allocation of funds(see Section "Teacher Certification and Supple-mentary Training", page 12 regarding this) butalso in the creation of courses outside the nationalprogrammes. This is very advantageous fordeveloping technical and vocational education, notonly in fulfilling regional demands for vocationalskills, but also in enabling hitherto unusualcombinations of educational subject and targetgroup, i.e. to tailor-make courses for technical-


vocational groups, e.g. communication forengineers, marketing for food-stuffs industryprofessionals, etc. These courses can be tailored tomeet local industrial needs at many differentlevels.

Especially in times of recession, such as Swedenhas recently experienced and which probably isnot over yet, commissioned courses and localcourses have been able to quickly meet the swiftlychanging demands not only of the labour marketitself but also of the labour market exchangesseeking courses to train/retrain large numbers ofunemployed. Here is where technical and voca-tional education in the adult education system hasbeen most effective. This means that local courseshave become a powerful tool to keep up withregional and local demands.

In the past, the intent of municipal adult educationhas been two-fold,compensatory in that it has provided the oppor-tunity to many adults to fill in the gaps in theircompulsory education that could exist for a varietyof reasons, andsupplementary in that it has provided adults withthe opportunity to augment and strengthen theirbasic skills and competence in order to achievebetter jobs and better lives.

Today's Reform means that adult education isconsidered not only to be a second chance formany to compensate and supplement their originaleducation as youths, but also as a bridge betweenupper secondary education and university/university college education, and increasingly as afertile area in itself for different initiatives/avenues in post-secondary education. This willallow exploitation of the possibilities offered notonly by commissioned education, but alsotraditional formal education. Again, students intechnical and vocational education are expected toreap great benefits from the developments in thisintermediate level between the upper secondaryand university/university college levels. Thecurriculum, syllabi, teaching materials, andassessment criteria are in transition here, too.

New tools in adult education and universityeducation include three new strategies specified inthe Reform, to be implemented over a period oftime. These strategies are deemed valuable notonly in the short run for increasing competence in

today's labour market situation, but also in thelong run in contributing to structural change in thesystem. Thus they combine education policy andlabour market policy by solving contemporaryproblems on the labour market while at the sametime being instruments of the education system forachieving and maintaining a high standard ofliving.

The three strategies are:

1) Educational VouchersThis strategy is seen as promoting diversity andproviding the individual with complete freedom inchoosing an educational institution (e.g. companyoffering education, education association, univer-sity, municipal adult education school, etc.) Thevoucher must however be used for education in anarea that will increase the individual's competenceand prospects on the labour market, e.g. foreignlanguage training.

2) Post-secondary Trainee EducationThis is a particularly significant strategy formedium-sized and small companies. It is a formof apprenticeship training, but intended for educa-tion at the post-secondary level. It combinesadvanced theoretical training at universities ormunicipal adult education schools, with on-sitetraining at the chosen company or a combinationof companies. This type of training previouslywas only available in large companies.

This strategy, since it is oriented toward small andmedium-sized companies may be seen also as aneffort to alleviate one of the effects of thereformed technical and vocational education thatcould be seen as a disadvantage for small andmedium-sized companies, namely that studentsgraduating from the national vocational pro-grammes will be less specialized than before - theywill be more generally competent in the chosenvocation, but with more emphasis on competencein social and problem-solving skills.

3) Summer Courses at Universities and MunicipalAdult Education Schools

Sweden has lagged behind other countries in fullyutilizing its higher education resources year-round.Funding for this as well as revised study assistanceprogrammes will enable the development of acomplete curriculum available in the summer atdifferent educational institutions.


5 Improving Participation ofSpecial Social Groups

Four groups are given particular support in orderto improve their participation in national educa-tion, and particularly the opportunities offered bytechnical and vocational education: Girls, immi-grants, the mentally handicapped and the physi-cally handicapped.

In the 1980s, special efforts were made to helpgirls apply to male-dominated vocations and boysto apply to female-dominated vocations. If educa-tion courses the year before had less than 30% ofthe under-represented sex, then individuals fromthis under-represented group received extraeligibility points on applying to school. Thismeasure, however, did not seem to improve thesituation, and today it is thought to fosterinequality and has been withdrawn. Now, indi-viduals can apply under the free quota system,which means that they can cite certain priorities,e.g. medical disability, long vocational experience,incomplete basic schooling, etc., anything that theindividual can prove as being special for him/her.Technical and vocational education is not givenany special status in application procedures. Thenational programmes and branches are intended toattract both girls and boys. Evaluations at the endof the transition period and in the first years ofimplementation of the Reform will show whetheror not this strategy is useful.

Several measures must be mentioned in this con-text:

a) frequent information campaigns are carried outto encourage individuals from the under-repre-sented groups to apply to relevant vocationaleducation programmes

b) unemployed persons are sometimes offeredopportunities to complete local, specially-oriented courses that are meant to inform andenthuse an under-represented group aboutvocations seldom considered in that specificgroup.

Girls are not specifically targeted in the abovetwo measures. However, as technology ad-vances into our daily personal and workinglives, girls are an obvious direct target groupfor these two measures. Girls and traditionally

female vocations are also an indirect target ofthese measures due to the fact that as men enterfemale-dominated vocations, they usually bringabout a general increase in status and salary forthat vocation. Many persons would todayassert that an interesting side effect of the pres-ence of more women in male-dominated voca-tions is the acceleration of the fulfilment of thedemands for more personal and communicationskills in the workplace that technical and voca-tional education must take into consideration(see Section " Future Developments", page 8).

c) summer courses in general science and tech-nology are sometimes offered for girls in thesecondary schools (13-16 years old). This is upto the individual municipalities. Governmentsubsidies are available for these summercourses as well as for other efforts during theschool summer holiday to encourage girls to beinterested in these fields (SKOLFS 1994:4).

d) Women in regions where there is extensiveunemployment or outdated industries areoffered help in the form of special courses orfinancial aid to open their own businesses,based on business ideas that will promote theregion. (See also Section " EntrepreneurialOrientation and Technical and Vocational Edu-cation", page 14, regarding entrepreneurial-oriented vocational education strategies for"Starting Your Own Business".)

e) For handicapped persons, a national agency hasnow been established to work on questionsconcerning education and teaching materials forthe mentally handicapped - the NationalSwedish Agency for Special Education. Theprogrammes are the same for youths and adultsas in the regular school programmes. The basicgoals for technical and vocational education forthe mentally handicapped are to improve anindividual's self-confidence and increase his/herpotential to influence the daily activities ofhis/her life. The physically handicapped arerelatively well cared for in Sweden. In south-ern Sweden, there are several institutions, forexample, a school for adults with seriousphysical handicaps that is scheduled to becomea Folk High School and as such will not only beable to participate in but also offer graduationcertificates in the national educationprogrammes.


In addition, there are several national uppersecondary schools for the handicapped, eachone integrated with a regular upper secondaryschool in the region.

6 Financial Resources andFinancing

Each Municipality receives a subsidy from theState for use in financing its school activities.This subsidy is not ear-marked for schools but ispart of a larger total amount granted to theMunicipality according to certain principles. It isthen up to the Municipality to decide how muchwill be allocated to different municipal activities,e.g. for technical/vocational education. The Stateonly demands that the Municipality fulfil theeducational goals set by the State. The Munici-pality has, however, extensive freedom in theorganization of its school activities. Through con-tinuous evaluation by the National Agency forEducation, the State can verify that theMunicipality is fulfilling the goals.

Every Municipality is responsible for offeringupper secondary education based on a compre-hensive selection from the national programmesfor all youths in the Municipality aged 16-19.Great consideration must be given to the requestsand choices of the youths of the Municipality. It isalso up to the Municipality whether or not all ofthe vocational and technical programmes will beoffered, or if the courses in certain programmeswill be "bought" in a neighbouring Municipality.

The subsidy from the State is not intended to coverall expenses for education in the Municipality.The Municipality is expected to be responsible forapproximately 50% of these expenses. Examplesof expenses that are considered to be the respon-sibility of the Municipality have traditionally beenthe expenses for buildings, equipment, and teach-ing materials.

Expenses are not broken down into cost areas suchas technical and vocational education or general-theoretical studies. The total expenses for theupper secondary school were approximately 17.4thousand million SEK in 1992, of which half maybe expected to have been used for technical andvocational education. In 1992 expenses formunicipal adult education were approximately 2.5

thousand million SEK, of which only a minor partmay be expected to have been used for technicaland vocational education.

As mentioned above, in municipal adult education,commissioned courses have become a valuabletool in labour market strategy. These courses arepaid for totally by the commissioning customer,although premises and equipment may be sharedwith regular municipal adult education.

7 Teacher Certification andSupplementary Training

In order to be permanently employed as a teacher,the applicant must:

• have full command of the Swedish language• possess the necessary insights into the regu-

lations concerning public schooling andespecially the goals for the relevant education

• have successfully completed the Swedishteacher certification programme orientedprimarily towards that type of education forwhich the employment is intended (or aprogramme in another country that is ajudgedequivalent).

Education leading to the upper secondary schoolteacher certificate, including education for teach-ers in technical subjects for the Science and Tech-nology Programme, covers a period of 4-5 years ofuniversity studies. This education prepares theteacher to teach general-theoretical subjects in theupper secondary schools and in municipal adulteducation. Each teacher normally is certified toteach at least two subjects. Usually, each subjecthas been studied for 1.5 years and these studies arecombined with 1 year of practical/pedagogicalstudies.

Persons who already have university degrees, forexample in economics or engineering, cancomplete a teacher training programme of 1 yearin order to become eligible for certification.

For vocational teachers, the education is shorterand is usually equivalent to one year of studies formost vocational subjects. In order to be eligiblefor this teacher certification, the applicant must:

• have an upper secondary school certificate


• have at least 4-5 years of professional workexperience oriented on the intended area ofcertification

• successfully complete the 1st year of universitystudies of pedagogy and methods.

Under the Reform, the curriculum for uppersecondary education (youth and municipal adulteducation) stipulates that, in addition to thespecific knowledge and skills relevant to the sub-ject taught, the teacher's responsibility includes thefollowing:

• promote the student's specific knowledge andsocial skills through personal development con-ferences

• cooperate with other teachers to form a team inorder to achieve the education goals for thestudents.

• base his/her teaching on the premise that eachstudent can and wants to take personal respon-sibility for their studies

• make certain that all students receive thechance to influence work methods, work formsand the content of the education

• plan and evaluate the lessons together with thestudents

The need to cooperate with other teachers appliesespecially to teachers in technical and vocationaleducation who must coordinate their students'education in the school with training at differentcommercial/industrial companies.

The above requirements, in their orientation andgravity, lead to a serious need for supplementarytraining for teachers. The need for in-servicetraining is also based on the increased demands onthe professional knowledge each teacherpossesses, knowledge that must be constantlyupdated in order to stay in touch with both localand global events that have an impact on thesubject taught. An example of one new area thatall teachers must become proficient in and mustinclude in some way in their lessons is that ofknowledge of the environment.

The format and content of supplementary trainingfor teachers may be asserted as one of the mostimportant questions in education today, both forteachers of general/theoretical subjects and ofvocational subjects. The achievement of tangibledevelopments in professional competence in

today's and tomorrow's teachers is of the greatesturgency. The Swedish Parliament has stated thatsupplementary training should meet three differentneeds:

• the individual teacher's need for development• the needs based on specific relationships at a

certain school or in a certain municipality• the needs created by the sixteen national pro-

grammes and the national ambition of lifelonglearning.

Strategies for teachers in technical and vocationaleducation will include not only the requirement oflearning skills to facilitate his/her role as"manager/coordinator" of vocational training butalso the requirement of spending periods of time ata relevant workplace in order to keep informed ofchanges in that vocation.It is the responsibility of the Headmaster to makesure that the administrative and teaching staff havethe competence to perform their tasks in a profes-sional manner. It is the responsibility of eachMunicipality to make sure that supplementarytraining is accessible to all teachers and that thetraining takes place. The National Agency forEducation, newly established under the Reform, isresponsible for centrally organized supplementarytraining for teachers.

It was not always the case that the Headmaster orthe Municipality has specific responsibilities forin-service training. Centrally organized interest onthe part of the State has always been in the areas ofthe actual teaching and course content, but it wasnot until the beginning of the 20th century that theState took an interest in Pedagogy, introducing itas a new discipline at the university. This meantthat pedagogical research was reserved for special-ists outside the classrooms, with the result thatteachers became "users" of the results of thisresearch produced by pedagogical experts, and"performers" following a script set by the State.Thus the space for professional development wasshrinking and teachers were made obedient stateservants.

In the 60s, supplementary training became im-portant to the State, and centrally determined in-service training material was produced, influencedto a large extent by American research. Newteaching materials and standardized tests further


restricted the already limited professional freedomfor teachers.

In the 70s and 80s it was finally recognized thatthe pedagogy still dominating in the classroomwas old-fashioned and should be replaced withmore problem-oriented teaching methods. TheReform now in progress thus represents a newstrategy in both preparation and implementation ofsupplementary training; that of putting moreresponsibility into the hands of the teachersthemselves for determining the goals and exe-cution of their own supplementary training.Teachers now have the freedom to observe theirpractical work, reflect on the outcome, formulatenew ideas regarding teaching, and individuallyseek the training that they perceive to be instru-mental in fulfilling the goals and ambitions of thenational programmes - in effect, to become pro-fessionals. This freedom is available to allteachers; teachers in technical and vocational edu-cation included.

8 Entrepreneurial Orientation andTechnical and VocationalEducation

In the past, Sweden has not had a strong traditionof individual enthusiasm or government supportfor small businesses. Assistance such as tax-breaks, professional advice, financial aid frombanks, etc., has not been widely available.Moreover, education, especially technical andvocational education, has not taken advantage ofthe unique possibilities to enthuse young peoplewith the idea that they could start their own busi-ness and to prepare them for the economic andorganizational realities of such an investment oftime and money. In today's economic recession ithas become an absolute necessity to help personswith viable business ideas to get the educationthey need to successfully realize these ideas.Sweden has, however, over the recent decades,become aware of the value of small businessmento the continued existence of a democratic society,which the Reform takes into serious consideration.Thus, the study of basic business economics isnow included in fifteen of the sixteen nationalprogrammes (the theoretical Science and Technol-ogy Programme does not include any study ofeconomics). In addition, further economicseducation is offered in the course BusinessEconomics for Small Businesses in seven of thevocational programmes (as well as in the

Economics branch of the SocialSciences Programme).

For those who are 20 years orolder, i.e. considered to beadults in the education system,the above courses are offered inthe regular upper secondaryprogrammes under the auspicesof municipal adult education.

"For those adults who have abusiness idea, there are specialcourses called "Starting YourOwn Business" which can becombined with a six-monthgovernment subsidy for parti-cipants who are unemployed.The amount of the subsidy isequivalent to each participant'susual unemployment benefitsand is seen as a "salary". Inorder to receive the subsidy, theaspiring business-man/businesswoman mustsubmit his/her business idea to

Course Course Name Taught in ProgrammeFE203 Basic Business Economics • 15 programmes

(all programmes except Scienceand Technology Programme)

FE201 Advanced Business Economics• Business and Administration• Handicraft• Natural Resources• Social Sciences

FE200 Business Economics forSmall Businesses

• Business and Administration• Foodstuffs• Handicraft• Hotel and Catering• Industry• Natural Resources• Social Sciences• Vehicle

FE205 Organization and Management• Business and Administration• Health Care and Nursing• Social Sciences

FE206 Personnel Administration • Business and Administration• Social Sciences

FE202 Export and Import • Business and AdministrationFE207 Financing and Calculation • Social SciencesFE204 International Economics • Social Sciences

Table 2Economics Courses in the National Programmes


an assessment panel. Other subsidies andfavourable loans are available from the govern-ment to defray investment costs involved in start-ing a business. An advantageous loan programmefor 50 million SEK was recently made available towomen only.

Starting Your Own Business" courses usuallycover a total of 2-3 weeks and are not "vocational"in the sense that they provide skills for a specificvocation. However, they provide the skills neces-sary to running a small business, such as knowl-edge of relevant laws, patent application, admini-stration, planning and control, management,analysis, basic accounting, marketing, quality, etc.For those with first-class vocational skills thiseducation is the key to realizing a certain way oflife. This strategy has encouraged not only menbut also women to take a decisive step in theprocess of opening their own businesses. It hasalso been invaluable for opening the door toSwedish society for immigrants with skills andbusiness ideas.

As mentioned above, Sweden has not had a tradi-tion of encouraging small businesses and there is ashortage of such businesses in Sweden's nationaleconomic picture. During the past years of reces-sion and privatisation, many observers andanalysts have raised their voices in warning of thissituation and in encouragement of support for abroader small business sector. This type of "voca-tional" education in the form of "Starting YourOwn Business" courses combined with the raisedstatus of vocational education, as well as the intro-duction of the courses in basic business economicsand business economics for small businessesunder the Reform is expected to lead to anincrease in the number and status of small busi-nesses in Swedish society.

Table 2 (page 14) shows how economics is taughtin the fifteen programmes.

9 Cooperation between the Schoolsand Industry

In the past decade especially, industrial vocationsexperienced further losses in status and appealamong youths. Many industrial workers wererecruited from amongst students who either hadlow grade averages or who had very little interestin industry, choosing such vocations only as a last

resort. The revolutionary changes in informationtransfer and technology in general have led to anacute awareness of the need for high competenceand excellent knowledge in vocational skills aswell as in general school subjects.

Representatives from the national employersassociation and the trade unions have set upnational vocational councils for the purpose ofinput and follow-up concerning matters relevant tovocational education. There are also localrepresentatives for these groups with whom thelocal school boards are now developing closer tiesdue to the necessity of cooperation and consul-tation on essential vocational education issues.The goal here is to set up local municipal centresor "forums" for organized discussions betweenrepresentatives from employers, employees andthe schools regarding technical and vocationaleducation in order to keep it updated and viable.

Several private industries have taken their owninitiative and set up different forms of cooperationwith the upper secondary schools in order toensure relevant technical and vocational education.One example of this is found in the town ofSkövde where cooperation between three parties:Volvo Car Corporation, a local university college,and an upper secondary school, has lead to thecreation of a Vehicle Engineering Centre. Volvohas a long tradition of programmes for integratingapprenticeship training with theoretical andpractical upper secondary education. Today, inconjunction with the Educational Reform, threesteps have been taken to create the new modelintended to meet future demands:

Based on the concept of life-long learning, theexisting apprenticeship training has been revisedto constitute the first step in continuous training,to make it possible for the apprentice student to goon with his/her studies and become a qualifiedengineer.

The content of the apprenticeship training hasbeen adjusted to meet the goal of developingtechnological competence.

A specially-designed programme has beeninitiated, combining aspects of the nationalprogramme for science and technology withvocational studies in industrial and vehicleengineering.


The participating students have been offered aperiod of apprenticeship training over the threeyears in the company, studying full-time (40 hoursa week), which means that the six school yearswill be completed in three years.

Another company in Volvo Car Corporation, theVolvo Olofström Stamping Plants, has decided toattack the problem of the widespread lack ofinterest and misunderstanding concerning indus-trial vocations among youths today. Severalprojects have been initiated in cooperation withthe schools in the Olofström area, parallel to thetraditional cooperation between Volvo and uppersecondary and higher education:

Interest and pride for third graders(9-10 year olds):Parents who work at the Volvo OlofströmStamping Plants give informal presentations abouttheir work and the company, and answer questionsthat the children have. This is usually veryenlightening information and makes the childrenproud of their parents and the parents of theirfriends, as well as sows the seeds of interest inworking in heavy industry.

Production for sixth graders:Sixth graders are informed in the classroom aboutpre-production and production activities, i.e.design, stamping and assembly, and then given the

chance to see actual production operations at theplants.

Technology for elementary school teachersof 4th-6th grades:In cooperation with the Industrial DevelopmentCentre of Olofström, Volvo offers its facilities to ateacher supplementary training programme inwhich elementary school teachers can up-date andexpand their knowledge in matters concerningmodern technology and production. Theseteachers can then provide their pupils with a morecorrect, detailed and vital picture of technology.

Technology summer school for 8th graders(15 year olds):Experience and training in the activities at thestamping plants are provided in a summer coursethat is aimed at encouraging boys and girls tochoose technical programmes when they mustmake a decision regarding which nationalprogramme to study after completing the 9thgrade.

Workplace-related training for upper secondaryschool students:Volvo participates in the regular workplace relatedtraining offered under the old programmes and thereformed national programmes.

Cooperation with the university colleges:Volvo is often the site of course work projects forstudents at the university colleges in the SouthernSweden region.


References

"Beskrivande data om skolverksamheten 1993", National Agency for Education Report No. 8. InSwedish. (Descriptive data regarding school operations - 1993)

"The Changing Role of Vocational and Technical Education and Training (VOTEC)", by RagnarEliasson, Swedish Ministry of Education and Science, 1991.

"The Changing Role of Vocational and Technical Education and Training (VOTEC)", Swedish Ministryof Education and Science, September, 1992.

"The Changing Role of Vocational and Technical Education and Training", by Christina Hasselberg,Swedish Ministry of Education and Science, February 23, 1994.

"Education and Employment: Apprenticeship and Alternance" by Christina Hasselberg. Paper given atthe OECD seminar April 12-14, 1994, Marseille.

En Ny Läroplan och ett nytt betygssystem för gymnasieskolan, komvux, gymnasiesärskolan och särvux.Regeringens proposition 1992/93:250 English version: "A New Curriculum (1992/93:250)" Ministry ofEducation and Science.

FoU Rapport 42, Yrkesundervisning i ljuset av productionslivets reflexer, Liber UtbildningsFörlaget,Skolöverstyrelsen 1981.

"Growing with Knowledge" A reform of upper secondary and municipal adult education in Sweden,Draft Version 2 of the Government Bill and the decisions of Parliament in June 1991, Swedish Ministryof Education and Science.

SKOLFS (The Code of Statutes of The National Agency for Education) 1994 Nr 8-10.SKOLFS (The Code of Statutes of The National Agency for Education) 1994 Nr 12-13.

SUO - Statens Offentliga Utrednigar. In Swedish. (The Swedish GovernmentTs Official Reports)

Starta Eget Handboken Kullstedt and Melin (Handbook on how to start your own business)

1992 Statistics Sweden F15 SM 9201, "New Firms in Sweden 1990 and 1991".

1994 Statistics Sweden "Education in Sweden 1994".

"Strategies for Education and Research 1994, Extract from Swedish Government Bill 1993/94:100,Appendix 9", Ministry of Education and Science.

Svensk Utbildningshistoria, by Gunnar Richardson, Studentlitteratur, Lund 1990.

The Swedish Institute, publications:• Current Sweden, No 399, June 1993, "Big Changes in Swedish Education", Kerstin Weyler.• Fact Sheets on Sweden, "Primary and Secondary Education" March 1992, FS 39 t Em.• Fact Sheets on Sweden, "Adult Education in Sweden" December 1992, FS 64 n Em.08.

"Vocational Education in the Reformed Upper Secondary School", by Christina Hasselberg, SwedishMinistry of Education and Science, June 8, 1993.


Appendix I: Fact Sheets on the Sixteen National Programmes

Vocational Programmes:Arts Programme...............................................19Building and Construction Programme ...........19Business and Administration Programme .......20Children and Recreation Programme...............20Electrical Engineering Programme..................20Energy Programme ..........................................21Foodstuffs Programme ....................................22Handicraft Programme.....................................22Health Care and Nursing Programme..............23Hotel and Catering Programme .......................23Industry Programme ........................................24Media Programme ...........................................25Natural Resources Programme ........................25Vehicle Programme .........................................26

General/theoretical Programmes:Social Sciences Programme ............................ 26Science and Technology Programme.............. 27

Guidelines for reading the Fact Sheets

In order to graduate from a programme, the stu-dent must successfully complete:• the required core subjects• the required compulsory subjects for the chosen

programme• the required compulsory subjects for the chosen

branch, and• the individually selected electives.This means that all students at youth upper secon-dary schools study the eight "core" subjects speci-fied in section A on the fact sheets. These "core"subjects comprise the basis for participation in ademocratic society, and for achieving lifelonglearning. Then according to the respective pro-gramme and furthermore according to his/herchoice of branch, the students study certain"compulsory" subjects in common with the otherstudents in the same programme and ultimately, inthe same branch. Each student then individualizeshis/her programme by selecting a certain numberof "electives" to study which are especially impor-tant to his/her individual educational goals.

Each course in the programmes carries a certainnumber of points. One point is equal to one lessonhour (40 minutes). The core subjects, compulsorysubjects, and electives must be combined toachieve the minimum total number of points forgraduation from a programme:

Vocational 2,400(1,370 points in vocational subjects)General/Theoretical 2,180

Note: The Arts Programme requires 2,180 pointsto graduate.

Only the points for the eight core subjects arespecified on the fact sheets. As pointed out in thefootnote on each fact sheet, the information on thefact sheets often refers to subjects, not specificcourses studied in the programmes/branches andbecause of this, points cannot correctly be speci-fied. Please see Appendix II (page 28) for anexample of a completely specified programme, theVehicle Programme.

Students at Municipal Adult Education schoolscan graduate from the Social Sciences programmeor the Science and Technology programme. Theprogrammes are otherwise highly individualized.All students study the core subjects but then eachstudent is free to create his/her own programmebased on a combination of courses from the differ-ent national programmes. To graduate with anupper secondary school certificate, the adultstudent must obtain 1,990 points.


Arts Programme✶✶✶✶

A Core subjects and compulsory subjects(in the order of value in study points):

SwedishA: Language and MankindB: Language - Literature - Society

200 pts

English A 110 ptsMathematics A 110 ptsCivics A 90 ptsSports and Health A 80 ptsReligion A 30 ptsGeneral Science A 30 ptsArts Activities 30 pts

Compulsory subjects in the Programme:English BHistory AMathematics B

B Vocational subjects in the Programme

Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceOrientation in the ArtsBasic Business EconomicsBasic Cultural History

ElectivesArrangement and CompositionChildren and MusicChildren, Dance and TheatreChoirCompositionComputer Graphics and SoundConducting and Ensemble ConductingCultural HistoryDance Improvisation and Design - Textiles and FashionDesign in MetalDesign - Textiles and WeavingDesign in WoodDesign in Ceramics and GlassDesign - EnvironmentDramatic Form and CompositionGraphicsHistory of Art and DesignHistory of Dance and TheatreHistory of MusicImages and IllustrationsInstrument/SongMoving PicturesMusic Production and Sound Music for Dance and TheatrePainting and SculpturePhotographic picturesRhythm with DanceScenographyStaged Music ProjectTechniquesTheatre TechniquesVisualization

✶ Note that the above is mainly an overview of the subjects, not the

actual courses offered, which are often more numerous

C Vocational subjects in the Programmebranches

C1 Dance and Theatre

Compulsory coursesMusic for dance and theatreTheatre production

ElectivesDance, form and actingDance trainingPhysical trainingActing on stage

C2 Art and Design

Compulsory coursesImagesDesign

C3 Music

Compulsory coursesEnsemblePitch and musicInstrument/SongMusic and communication

Building and Construction Programme*



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsBasic ElectricityBuilding Construction Techniques


C1 Structural Sheet Metals

Compulsory coursesConstruction Techniques


ElectivesAdvanced Construction TechniquesVocational Construction Techniques

C2 Building and Site Preparation

ElectivesSite Construction Machine TechniquesSite Construction TechniquesVocational Site TechniquesHeavy Vehicle Technology

C3 Painting

ElectivesBuilding TechniquesVocational Painting TechniquesVehicle Painting Techniques

Business and Administration Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsWork Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsAdvanced Business EconomicsBasic AdministrationTrade (marketing, sales, purchasing and storage, etc.)Trade and Administration

ElectivesAdvanced AdministrationBusiness Economics: Export and ImportBusiness Economics: PersonnelBusiness Economics: Organization and ManagementBusiness Economics: Small BusinessesTradeTrade: SalesTrade: AdvertisingTrade: TransportTourism and Travel Service



Children and Recreation Programme*



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsWork Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsKnowledge of Children and RecreationPedagogy for Children and Recreation

ElectivesActivities for Children and Recreation• Play & Sports• Library Activities• Culture• Handicap and Recreation• Swimming• Creative Drama• Skiing• Child Care• Nature and Outdoor Recreation

Electrical Engineering Programme*


SwedishA: Language and MankindB: Language Literature Society

200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic ElectronicsBasic ElectricityBasic Business EconomicsQuality Technology in ProductionBasic Control TechnologyBasic Workshop Techniques


ElectivesRestricted Electrical Certificate BB2Basic and Advanced Technology


C1 Automation

Compulsory subjectsComputer Science (CAD)Electricity 3-phase AC currentMeasurement and Control SystemsControl Technology using a PC

ElectivesAdvanced ElectronicsElectronics SystemsAdvanced Measurement and Control SystemsAdvanced Control TechnologyWelding TechniquesWorkshop TechniquesMaintenance Hydraulics

C2 Electronics

Compulsory subjectsAdvanced Electronics

ElectivesAdvanced Computer Programming and ApplicationsAdvanced ElectronicsAdvanced Electronics SystemsElectricity: 3-phase ACElectricity: Kitchen and Laundry AppliancesMedical EquipmentBasic Medical KnowledgeTV/Alarm/Network Installation

C3 Installation

Compulsory subjectsElectricity: 3-phase ACMeasurement and Control SystemsTV/Alarm/Network Installation

ElectivesComputer Science CADElectrical DistributionElectronicsElectrical InstallationElectrical AppliancesAdvanced Measurement and Control SystemsControl TechnologyAdvanced TV/Alarm/Network

Energy Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic ElectricityBasic Energy TechnologyBasic Business EconomicsEnvironmental Science EnergyMeasurement and Control SystemsBasic Control TechnologyBasic Workshop Techniques

Electives within the ProgrammeBasic ElectronicsElectricity: 3-phase AC + appliancesAdvanced Energy TechniquesMaintenance Hydraulics


C1 Energy

ElectivesRestricted Electrical Cert. BB2Buildings: Operation TechnologyVehicle Tech. small machinesCombustion Engine TechnologyPower and Heating TechnologyCooling and Heat Pump Tech.Water Sewer TechnologyBasic & Advanced Water PowerHeat Water Sanitation

C2 Shipping Technology

ElectivesShipping Technology: SafetyShipping Technology: MaintenanceShipping Technology: OperationShipping Technology: FisheryMachinist CertificateMaster's CertificateElectricity: 3-phase ACElectricity: Kitchen and Laundry AppliancesMedical Equipment




Basic Medical KnowledgeTV/Alarm/Network Installation

C3 Water-Heat-Sanitation (WHS)

ElectivesRestricted Electrical Cert. BB2Basic WHS technologyWHS WeldingWHS Advanced heatingWHS Advanced sanitationWHS industrial pipes

Foodstuffs Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsTrade Sales and ServiceHygieneBasic Knowledge of FoodstuffsFoodstuffs TechnologyKnowledge of Material and MachinesBasic Nutrition

ElectivesBasic Electrical SafetyBusiness Economics Small BusinessesBasic Food Preparation Cold DishesAdvanced Nutrition


C1 Bakery and Patisserie

Compulsory subjectsBasic BakeryBasic PatisserieFoodstuffs Knowledgefor Bakery and Patisserie



ElectivesBakery productionAdvanced Patisserie: ChocolateAdvanced Patisserie: ConfectioneryAdvanced Patisserie: Production

C2 Fresh and Cured Meat Products

Compulsory subjectsBasic Knowledge of Cured MeatFoodstuffs: Butchery/Cured MeatBasic Butchery

ElectivesCured Meat: productionFood Prep: in quantity/cateringFood Preparation: hot dishesAdvanced Butchery: pork/beef/other

Handicraft Programme*



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Electrical SafetyBasic Business EconomicsBusiness Economics Small BusinessesKnowledge of Handicraft Orientation and ServiceHistory of Culture and Style

ElectivesAdvanced Business EconomicsKnowledge of Handicraft: materialsKnowledge of Handicraft: repair and storageBasic Handicraft TechniquesAdvanced Handicraft Techniques


Health Care and Nursing Programme*



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsBusiness Economics Organization & ManagementHealthKnowledge of Health CareBasic Medical KnowledgeMedical Knowledge: Man Social and CulturalBasic Health CarePsychologyBasic Social Aspects of Health CareTechnology in Health Care, Nursing, or Dental CareKnowledge of Dental Care


C1 Health Care

Compulsory subjectsAdvanced Medical KnowledgeBasic EthicsAdvanced Health CareAdvanced Social Aspects ofHealth Care

ElectivesFoot Health CareHealth Care: EmergencyHealth Care: Day ClinicsHealth Care: PsychiatryHealth Care: Children and YouthsRehabilitationThe Mentally Handicapped

C2 Dental Care

Compulsory subjectsBasic Dental CareBasic Dental Nursing

ElectivesAdvanced Dental CareAdvanced Dental Nursing

Hotel and Catering Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsKnowledge of HotelsBasic HygieneBasic FoodstuffsMaterial and Machinery: kitchen and waiting tablesFood Preparation: basic cold and hot dishesBasic NutritionBasic Principles of Waiting Tables

ElectivesBasic Electrical SafetyBusiness Economics Small BusinessesHotel: Flowers and DecorationFood Preparation: alcoholic beveragesFood Preparation: Gastronomy


C1 Hotel

Compulsory subjectsAdvanced Hotel OperationHotel Equipment

ElectivesHotel Operation: HousekeeperHotel Operation: ConferenceHotel Operation: ReceptionTourism and Service

C2 Restaurant

Compulsory subjectsAdvanced HygieneAdvanced FoodstuffsFood Prep: CateringFood Prep: Restaurant DishesAdvanced NutritionAdvanced Waiting Tables




ElectivesFood Prep: Special DietsFood Prep: Advance Restaurant DishesFurther Advanced Waiting Tables

C3 Catering

Compulsory subjectsAdvanced Foodstuffs HygieneAdvanced FoodstuffsFood Prep: CateringFood Prep: Basic Restaurant DishesCatering ProductionAdvanced NutritionAdvanced Waiting Tables

ElectivesFood Prep: Special DietsNutrition: Dietetics

Industry Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsBasic Electrical SafetyQuality Techniques in ProductionBasic Control TechnologyBasic Maintenance

Electives (one subject at least must be studied)Basic Workshop TechniquesBasic Technology


C1 Industry

Compulsory subjectsProduction TechnologyCAD/CAM TechnologyIndustry-TechnologyBasic CNC Workshop Techniques



ElectivesElectronicsElectrical SafetyCasting TechnologyModel TechniquesSheet Metal TechnologyControl TechnologyWelding TechniquesMaintenance TechnologyWorkshop TechniquesTools

C2 Process

Compulsory subjects (not printing)Basic Control TechnologyProcess Technology

ElectivesBasic Foodstuffs HygieneBasic Knowledge of FoodstuffsProcess Techniques (pulp/paper, metal, casting, plastics,

foodstuffs, chemical, etc.)Screen/Printing Techniques

C3 Textiles & Garments

Compulsory subjectsBasic Technology: Textiles & GarmentsBasic Materials

ElectivesLeather TechniquesTricot TechniquesPatterns and GradingComputerized Pattern HandlingDrawing and DesignTextilesBusiness Econ: Small BusinessesTrade and Marketing

C4 Wood

Compulsory subjectsBasic Wood ProcessesBasic wood materialsDrying

ElectivesModel TechniquesSawmill TechnologyCAD/CAM TechniquesWood Furniture TechniquesWorkshop Techniques


Media Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsKnowledge of MediaMedia Forms and ExpressionsMedia Techniques

ElectivesAdvanced ExpoAdvanced Photographic PicturesAdvanced Graphic ReproductionAdvanced Graphic FormAdvanced Graphic MontageAdvanced IllustrationAdvanced Sound MediaAdvanced Media CommunicationAdvanced Moving PicturesAdvanced Screen TechniquesAdvanced Text ProductionAdvanced Text Handling


C1 Information and Advertising

Compulsory subjectsMedia Communication

Electives (in combination with advanced course above)Printed Pictures and TextBasic ExpoBasic Photographic PicturesBasic Graphic ReproductionBasic Graphic FormBasic Graphic MontageBasic Sound MediaBasic Moving PicturesBasic Text ProductionBasic Text Handling

C2 Printed Media

Compulsory subjectsPrinted Pictures and Text



Electives (in combination with advanced course above)Basic ExpoBasic Photographic PicturesBasic Graphic ReproductionBasic Graphic FormBasic Graphic MontageBasic Sound MediaBasic Media CommunicationBasic Moving PicturesBasic Text ProductionBasic Text Handling

Natural Resources Programme*



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsBasic Electrical SafetyBotanyEconomizing in Food PreparationWork EnvironmentsTools and Machines for Natural Resource UseKnowledge of Nature and the Environment

ElectivesWorking in a TeamAnimal HusbandryShipping Technology: Machinist CertificateShipping Technology: Master's CertificateBuildings and EquipmentVehicle TechnologyBasic Heavy Vehicle TechnologyAdvanced Business EconomicsBusiness Economics Small BusinessesTrade: Sales and ServiceEarth ScienceNatural Resource Production:

Gardens, Fishery, Greenhouse, Ecological Cultivation,Transport, Pigs, Cattle, Golf Course Care, Floriculture,Dairy, Timber, etc.

Natural Resource Techniques:Repairs, Greenhouse Techniques, Machine Operation

Advanced Knowledge of Nature and the Environment:Fishery, Recycling and Composting, Microbiology andGenetics, Waterways, Wildlife Conservation

Welding Technology


Vehicle Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts



Compulsory subjectsBasic Work Environment KnowledgeBasic Computer ScienceBasic Business EconomicsBasic Electrical SafetyBasic Vehicle Technology


C1 Aircraft Maintenance

ElectivesElectricity: DC and 1-phase ACElectronicsElectronic SystemsBasic Aircraft TechnologyCombustion Motor TechnologyBasic FuselageBasic Aircraft Control Systems

C2 Body Work

ElectivesVehicle Service and MaintenanceBody WorkPainting TechniquesWelding TechniquesRepair of Plastics

C3 Vehicles

Compulsory subjectsVehicle Service and Maintenance Vehicle Electricity and

ElectronicsBody Work and Interior

ElectivesElectronic SystemsVehicle TechnologyBasic Heavy VehiclesElectric VehiclesCombustion Motor TechnologyBusiness Econ: small businesses



Trade: Sales and ServiceBranch and Product KnowledgePersonal Sales TechniquesChassis: Passenger CarsChassis: Heavy VehiclesAir Conditioning SystemsPower Transmission TechnologyControl Systems: Heavy VehiclesHydraulic SystemsWelding Techniques

C4 Transport

Compulsory subjectsBasic Heavy Vehicles

ElectivesConstruction Site VehiclesPreparing Construction SiteBusiness Econ: Small BusinessesTransport TechnologyAir CargoTimber TransportsLogisticsTank and Bulk TransportSanitation TransportDistribution Transport

Social Sciences Programme*



200 pts


B Compulsory subjects in the Programme:Advanced EnglishPhilosophy/PsychologyBasic HistoryAdvanced Sports and HealthAdvanced MathematicsAdvanced General ScienceReligionForeign Language 2Swedish

C Subjects in the Branches of the Programme:

C1 Economics

Compulsory subjectsGeographyMathematicsAdministrationBasic Word ProcessingBasic Computer Science


Basic Business EconomicsAdvanced Business EconomicsBasic Law

ElectivesForeign Language 3Business CommunicationBusiness Comm: EnglishBusiness Comm: FrenchBusiness Comm: SpanishBusiness Comm: GermanAdvanced Word ProcessingBusiness Econ: Small BusinessesInternational Business EconomicsMarketingAccounting and TaxationCorporate Law

C2 Humanities

SubjectsAdvanced HistoryForeign Language 3Latin + General LinguisticsForeign Language 4CivicsAdvanced Studies: Humanities/Social Sciences

C3 Social Sciences

SubjectsBasic and Advanced GeographyFurther Advanced MathematicsAdvanced HistoryAdvanced CivicsAdvanced Studies in the Humanities/Social Sciences

Science and Technology Programme✶✶✶✶



200 pts


B Compulsory subjects in the Programme:Basic BiologyEnglishPhysicsBasic HistoryMathematicsAdvanced MathematicsEnvironmental ScienceForeign Language 2Basic Technology

C Subjects in the Branches of the Programme:

C1 Science

SubjectsAdvanced BiologyPhilosophyAdvanced Sports and HealthAdvanced ChemistryPsychology

C2 Technology

SubjectsAdvanced TechnologyFurther Advanced Technology




Appendix II: Vehicle Programme Specification

Required study points: 2,400 points of which 1,370 points in vocational subjects


Subject Course PointsSwedish A: Language and Mankind 80

B: Language - Literature -Society

120

English English A 110Mathematics Mathematics A 110Civics Civics A 90Sports and

HealthSports and Health A 80

Religion Religion A 30Science General Science A 30Arts Activities Arts Activities 30

B Vocational courses within the Programme:

Compulsory Subjects

Subject Course PointsWork environ-

ment knowl-edge

Work environment -working life

30

ComputerScience

Basic Computer Science 30

ElectricalKnowledge

Basic Electrical Safety 30

Vehicle Tech-nology

Basic Vehicle Technology 110

BusinessEconomics

Business Economics A 30

C Vocational subjects within the Branches ofthe Programme:

C1 Branch: Aircraft technology

Electives

Subject Course PointsElectrical

KnowledgeD.C. + 1-phase A.C. 90

Electronics Basic Electronics 40Digital Technology 50

ElectronicSystems

Flight Avionics 70

Flight Avionics - Service andMaintenance

90

AircraftTechnology

Aircraft Technology - Basics 90

Airplanes and Helicopters -Service and Maintenance

120

Flight Systems Technology 155

CombustionEngine Tech.

Aircraft Engines - Basics 90

Aircraft Engines - Pistons andgas turbine

140

Aircraft Engines - Service andMaintenance

90

Body andFuselage

Aircraft - Basics

Aircraft TechnicalMaintenance

120

ControlSystems

Aircraft Electrical Systems 120

C2 Branch: Bodywork

Electives

Subject Course PointsVehicle

TechnologyVehicle Service and

Maintenance100

Body Body and Interior 90Body Designs 70Jointing Techniques 200Damage Inspection 50Alignment Bench Techniques 370Alignment Techniques -

Basics60

Alignment Techniques 130Painting

TechniquesSpray-painting - lacquering 175

Repair of Plastics 100Science of Colour and

Nuances75

Vehicle Painting - Basics 120Vehicle Painting 275Painting - Heavy Vehicles 150Painting Systems 270Lettering and Stencilling 30

WeldingTechnology

Welding Techniques -Auto Repair

150

C3 Branch: Vehicle Technology

Compulsory Subjects

Subject Course PointsVehicle

TechnologyVehicle Service and

Maintenance100

Vehicle Electricity andElectronics

160

Body Body and Interior 90


Electives

Subject Course PointsElectronic

SystemsInstallation: Antenna, Mobile

Telephone, CommunicationRadio

30

VehicleTechnology

Passenger Cars - Basics 160

Heavy Vehicles - Basics 90Electric Vehicles 40Small Machines - Care and

Maintenance30

Vehicle Inspection 60Combustion

EnginesOtto Cycle Engine 160

Diesel Engines 160Otto Cycle Engine - System

Technology130

Diesel Engine - SystemTechnology

80

BusinessEconomics

Bus. Econ. for SmallBusinesses

60

Trade andCommerce

Sales and Service 60

Branch and ProductKnowledge

60

Personal Salesmanship 60Body Chassis Components -

passenger cars120

Chassis Components - heavyvehicles

110

Air Conditioning Systems 60Power Trans-

missionDriveline - passenger cars 140

Driveline - heavy vehicles 190Control

SystemsBrakes and auxiliary systems -

heavy vehicles190

Hydraulic Systems - heavyvehicles

190

Hydraulic Brake Systems 160Welding

TechnologyArc Welding - heavy vehicles 40

Flash Welding - Basics 40

C4 Branch: Transport

Compulsory Subjects

Subject Course PointsVocational

TechnologyHeavy Vehicles - Basics 90

Electives

Subject Course PointsConstruction

SiteMachines

Excavator and Power Loader 250

Wheel-mounted Loader - site 100Wheel-mounted Loader -

handling65

Mobile Crane 220Telescope Loader 190Road Grader 290

VocationalTechniques

Earth and Site Preparation 50

BusinessEconomics

Business Economics for SmallBusinesses

60

TransportTechniques

Construction Site Transport 190

Sanitation Transport 90Distribution Transport 190Airline Goods 80Vehicle Combinations 80Handling Goods 90Logistics 80Forestry Transport 120Tank and Bulk Transport 100Transport Vehicles - Basics 90Fork-lift Truck

Document Nr. ED/IUG/002

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The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in …...Page 2 The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in the Swedish Education System Page 2 such as technical and vocational