The Role of Education in Shaping

Sustainable Energy Behaviours

A Seminar for CREE at the University of Bath

by

Andrew Darnton

22nd March 2007

Background & Objectives

• AD an independent desk researcher – including for Defra, WWF, EST

• Today discussing two recent studies for EST (both as yet unpublished)

• Research brief for Study One:

“Establish and review the current state of knowledge about the impact of

education / awareness raising programmes on children’s long-term

behaviour (ie. their behaviour as adults).”

• Research brief for Study Two:

Explore...

i) Current and future role of schools in wider communities

ii) Implications for sustainable energy agenda, and for EST

iii) Likely impacts of school-community links on energy-related

behaviour change

A Common Hypothesis

• Study One identified a “growing opportunity” for encouraging sustainable energy behaviours via education, thanks to the Sustainable Schools agenda

“Changing behaviour…forms a large part of the Government’s thinking on sustainable development. Education is one of the key ways by which

Government expects to realise this cross-cutting goal.”

Sustainable Schools Consultation Paper (May 2006)

• Together, the studies aim to unpick this

Overview

1. Research Methods

2. Availability of Evidence

3. Lessons from Behavioural Theory

4. Lessons from Educational Theory

5. Whole School Approaches

6. Sustainable Schools

7. Next Steps

AD’s Methods

• No common methodology/format for desk research (eg. MRS)

• Desk research not academic literature review

“Meeting new research objectives through existing evidence”

• Not a systematic method, but a synthesis of sources suggested by individuals best placed to judge (thus ideal for SD studies)

• AD’s three part method (as used in these EST studies)

i) Datagathering

ii) Scoping

iii) Reporting

EST Study One (Longterm Behaviours): 55 selected sources

EST Study Two (Energy & Schools): 45 selected sources

• Studies begun in October 2006, completed March 2007

Availability of Longterm Evidence

• As anticipated, a dearth of longterm impact evaluations available

• Study One identified only three longterm evaluations (ie. with more than 2-year follow-ups):

- Growing to Greatness (NYLC (US) 2006)

Longterm survey of ex-service-learners, within random sample of 18 to 28 year olds. Differences in behaviour observed, but causality not investigated.

- National Trust Guardianship Scheme 2006 (Peacock 2006)

Small-scale follow-up study of ex-primary pupils, to establish lasting pupil impacts of conservation work on local NT site. Hard to identify relevant behaviour measures, and causality not investigated.

- Longitudinal Citizenship Study (eg. NFER 2006)

Forthcoming evaluation of Citizenship Curriculum by NFER. Four Annual Reports to date, but impact evidence due in 2008 at best.

Availability of Evidence – the Citizenship Study

• Citizenship Study serves as case in point, on gargantuan scale

• Citizenship in schools as an experiment in knowledge and behaviour: to see if 2002’s 11 year olds “know more...and will be more involved” by 2009 (Crick 2002); if results “negative or inconclusive” compulsion will be dropped

• NFER appointed to run longitudinal Citizenship study (2002-2010) to track progress of Citizenship arrangements, and evaluate pupil outcomes of “knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour”

• Impact outcomes not yet available (c. 2008?), but (unreleased) q’aire suggests few behavioural measures beyond (reported) voting intentions.

• Pro-environmental component suspected to comprise intentions to litter, behaviour-specific attititudes, and understanding of citizenship

• Difficulties in measuring behavioural outcomes inc. isolating effects (causality), and ‘light touch’ nature of Citizenship in curriculum (eg. lack of definition, lack of agreed behavioural outcomes, varying assessment measures)

Availability of Longterm Evidence: Evaluation Limits

• Study One not a definitive collection of evidence, but signs of unidentified further sources were slim:

• Contacts interviewed doubted much else out there, and literature reviews (some systematic) complained of lack of longterm evidence (eg. EPPI Centre at IoE; NICE Behaviour Change Review – due Dec 2007)

• Considerable barriers to undertaking longterm evals mean such evidence is unlikely to be forthcoming, for instance...

- relatively high costs

- hard to undertake (eg. recruit participants long after an initiative)

- low recall among ex-participants

- near-impossibility of establishing causality (NB available evals don’t...)

- misgivings among educationalists as to value/aim of the exercise

Conducting longterm behavioural evaluations is certainly impractical, and may be inappropriate

Availability of Shortterm Evidence - Generic

• As well as a lack of longterm outcome evaluations, only a limited number

of shortterm behavioural outcome evals identified

• Robust evidence of behavioural impacts clearest in Safety Education

- Lifeskills Learning for Life Centre, Bristol

- Kerbcraft (pedestrian safety skills training), Drumchapel pilot

• Some evidence on shortterm behaviour change also in health domain

- Reviews of healthy eating programmes, and some NHSS impacts

• Little evidence of shortterm behaviour change by children elsewhere –

some no evidence, some targetting parents’ behaviours indirectly

- Energy-related; Env Citizenship; Fairtrade; Other (ie. Waste)

• Conclusions: few ed activities look for behavioural outcomes

children not seen as primary audience/actors in many areas of SD-related behaviour change

Availability of Shortterm Evidence – Energy-Related

• Relative to extent of initiatives, evidence of impacts is scarce

eg. Powergen – new schools programme, not evaluated yet

eg. BG Think Energy – undergoing relaunch (not evaluated yet), and future eval would explore “brand awareness and programme

perceptions”

• CSE/EST Energy Matters exceptional

- compelling evidence of behavioural impacts vs. comparison group (qv. Capener 1998, featuring 12 month follow-up)

- ...but measures parental behaviours, not pupils’

- ...and causality implied, not established statistically

• GAP Action at School also shows impacts:

- in terms of whole-school resource savings, but not pupils’ behaviours

- wider impacts (eg. “empowering pupils”) not investigated

Making a Case for Longterm Impacts

• Widespread conviction across the sources that education impacts on behaviours in the longterm; given lack of longterm evidence, this remains a conviction

• Conviction exists in different formulations, all based on deep transformative effects, but best of which acknowledge uncertainty, eg.

“Clearly education can influence attitude in order to change behaviour.... This strong relationship…is not supported by all studies.”

[‘Education on Energy’ European Communities 2006]

“It is essential that [the Citizenship] push continues as it would appear these messages emerge as modifications to behaviour later on as adults, but

unfortunately not at the time.”

[‘Teenage Dirtbag’, Encams 2004]

“The work in schools is sowing seeds, we have to hope they get nurtured.”

[Dickens Camelot Streets Waste Project, Liverpool, 2004]

Faced with (irreparable?) absence of evidence, best turn to theory

Lessons from Behavioural Theory

• Theory shows factors driving pro-environmental behaviours to be complex, qv. eg. Kolmuss and Agyeman’s ‘Mind the Gap’ (2002):

“The question of what shapes pro-environmental behaviour is such a complex one that it cannot be visualized through one single framework or model.”

• Moreover, different barriers face different individuals, even for the same behaviour (qv. eg. Barr et al 2005)

• External (‘contextual’) barriers seen to predominate (eg. Shove’s ‘lock in’); thus both Stern and McKenzie Mohr advise: address physical barriers first

• Three internal (‘psychological’) barriers feature across diverse theories; each represents limiting factors, difficult for individual to tackle:

- Norms (“Norms guide how we should behave” McKenzie Mohr)

- Agency (cf. ‘Perceived Behavioural Control’, ‘Self Efficacy’)

- Habit (“Many behaviors...matters of habit or routine...rarely considered” Stern 2000)

Lessons from Behavioural Theory – Role of Education

• 1998 study suggested 80% of factors determining p-e behaviours are not related to p-e knowledge or awareness (cited by K&A in ‘Mind the Gap’)

• However, education-led factors and ‘learning’ contribute to underlying motivations across p-e behaviours, and shape societal norms

• Theoretical drivers which can be linked to educational activity include:

- Raising awareness of opp’ties for and impacts of p-e behaviour

- Encouraging p-e beliefs, and positive behaviour-specific attitudes

- Tackling norms, agency and habits, often through group work

- Building emotional investment in a problem, often via active involvement

- Providing a forum in which sus lifestyle approaches can be negotiated

- Creating ‘action learning’ opportunities, for ‘reflective practice’

Behavioural theory suggests education-related factors are not key determinants, but they shape deep-seated longterm factors

Lessons from Environmental Education Theory

• Andy Dobson asks fundamental question about role of Citizenship education in pro-environmental change (2003)

“Can liberal education cope with the value-laden nature of

sustainability questions?”

• Or, from Martha Monroe, at what point does education teeter into ‘advocacy’ or worse, ‘brainwashing’?

• Citz-related disciplines of Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development riven with debates over ‘purposes’ (eg. education ‘by’, ‘with’, ‘for’ the environment or SD)

• Behavioural outcomes inherent in Environmental Education since Tbilisi (1977) but educationalists tend to be polarised

• Paul Vare and Bill Scott identify ‘polar’ purposes as complementary

ESD1: (environmentalists’ view) teaches pre-determined behaviours

ESD2: (educationalists’ view) develops learners’ capacity to think critically

• Growing appreciation that ESD1/2 tensions are resolved ‘on the ground’

• Martha Monroe et al’s Framework for Env Ed Strategies [2006 – in press]

Env ed spans both behaviours and debate; for best fit, activities should span spectrum (and evaluate all)

• Env Ed and B Change a continuum (Monroe joining up the literatures)

• Purposes of env ed “morph into one another” in participative approaches

Lessons from Environmental Education Theory

Towards Consensus? Citizenship Revisited

• Study One stressed experimental nature of Citizenship project, with ultimate goal of creating better citizens by 2009

• Part of wider behaviour change agenda to “enhance democratic life for all of us...beginning in schools and radiating out” (Citizenship Orders, 1999)

• But NFER evaluation suggests insufficient emphasis on Active Citizenship opportunities mean there is currently no “radiating out” (Ireland et al 2006)

• Even if there were, it’s doubtful NFER Longitudinal Study would evidence it

• Current tension between NFER’s participative approach and Ofsted’s “essentially prescriptive” approach (2006), emphasising core curriculum content, timetabled lessons, robust assessment, Citizenship GCSE (...and linkages to ECM!)

• “It’s unclear which direction Citizenship will take by 2009”, conclude NFER

• QCA Secondary Curriculum Review (2007) further complicates the picture – a move towards child-centred flexible delivery, and increased participation

Towards Sustainability? Whole School Programmes

• As ESD1/ESD2 purposes morph in participation, so better citizens are best created through learning in practice

• “Practise What You Teach” (DfE 1993) definition of whole school approach

• Whole school approach includes: teaching & learning, school management, pupil participation, community links

• Many whole school programmes sustainability-related, including EcoSchools, Healthy Schools (NHSS), and GAP Action at School (if short-term)

• As an example of these programmes, EcoSchool elements include:

Environmental management tool; EcoCommittee; Awards/Accreditation framework

• Benefits to whole school (inc. Ofsted!), whole pupil (‘empowerment’ more than attainment), and whole community (social norms and “social impacts” – GAP)

• Key function is to embed issues/values in school ethos

Towards Sustainable Schools

• Tony Blair (2004) in Consultation Paper (DfES May 2006)

“Sustainable development will not be just a subject in the classroom: it will be in its bricks and mortar and the way the school uses and even generates

its own power. Our students won’t just be told about sustainable development, they will see and work within it: a living learning place in

which to explore what a sustainable lifestyle means.”

• Full of unfulfilled promise (“the vision thing”)...and Consultation met with qualified approval (DfES November 2006)

“We back your vision but show us you are serious in seeing it through”

• but begs big questions, including

- Very ESD2, and even radical – but does Blair know (or intend) it?

- What is a sustainable lifestyle and what are the limits to exploring one?

- “Not just a subject in the classroom”...ESD not even a subject!

Sustainable Schools: Definitions & Elements

• No agreed definition of a Sustainable School exists (and arguably none is possible – a rod for DfES’ own back, unlike other home nations?)

• Best definition yet has a Sustainable School as “guided by the principle of care: care for onself, care for each other, and care for the environment” (DfES May 2006)

• Consensus is it’s a school which embeds sustainability in all they do, ie. takes a whole school approach to SD

• Consultation Paper identifies three aspects to delivery, the ‘3 Cs’

- Campus, Curriculum, Community

- (but puts emphasis on the “main” first two)

• ...and 8 areas of school activity or ‘doorways’, to advance SD through:

Food and Drink; Energy and Water; Travel and Traffic;

Purchasing and Waste; Buildings and Grounds; Inclusion and Participation;

Local Well-being; Global Dimension

Becoming a Sustainable School

• No clear roadmap yet available (DfES Action Plan, due January 2007?)

• No evidence either: two studies forthcoming

i) NCSL / WWF ‘Leadership for Sustainable Schools’ – due March/June 2007

ii) Ofsted/Reading University ‘Pupils Views of Sustainable Schools’ – 2006-09

• Consultation Paper identifies the whole school programmes NHSS and EcoSchools as ways in for schools who wish to “get started” (DfES 2006)

• ...but WWF Pathways (2004) approach more likely – a “flexible and dynamic” planning tool – and heir to DfES ‘s3’ self-assessment tool (2006)

• Ofsted/Reading case study schools all Pathways schools, and most also EcoSchools (Green Flag or towards), NHSS, Global Gateways etc.

• Will Sustainable Schools supersede or celebrate these schemes?

• And what of Every Child Matters? Consultation says ECM and Sustainable Schools are “highly relevant to one another” but “the area under-represented is the environment”

• How then to fit climate change into the ECM outcomes? Economic wellbeing! (DfES 2006)

The Role of Energy in Sustainable Schools

• Energy prominent in the Sustainable Schools agenda (Doorway 2), and anecdotal evidence it’s the main attraction for schools getting involved

• DfES Sustainable Schools papers (2006) present energy’s role as follows

Curriculum

- through “knowledge, values and skills” become “good stewards of energy in school and at home”

- but no place for climate change in QCA Review, and SD not mandatory till KS4

Campus

- by 2020 schools to be “models of energy efficiency and renewable energy, showcasing wind, solar and biofuel sources in their communities”

- “Sustainable Schools are affordable” (and “more fiscally prudent” – Kats 2006)

- Emphasise good “management” of energy first, then “deployment” of appropriate technologies (EE equipment, passive designs, RE sources)

Community

- Schools to promote awareness of sustainable energy to stakeholders (contractors and suppliers, parents and community learners)

- Schools to build links with Local Authorities and other “outside bodies which support efforts to reduce energy use and increase renewable energy use”

Ways Forward for Sustainable Schools

• Provide a concrete definition of a Sustainable School, or at least a means of identification (accreditation framework?), in order to...

• Build an evidence base to inform how to become a Sustainable School, predominantly based in case studies

• Clarify the links between the Sustainable Schools agenda and other ‘reshaping’ initiatives: Extended Schools; Citizenship; EcoSchools etc

Integrate the aims of Sustainable Schools with the Outcomes of Every Child Matters (ideally, rewrite ECM)

• Commit funding to support development of Sustainable Schools

• Present a joined-up face to schools to support their efforts to embed SD across the 3 Cs, ie. combine educational goals of DfES with behaviour change goals of Defra (via Climate Challenge team?)

• Pursue energy across the 3 Cs, maximising school energy savings, effective educational experiences, and community behaviour change

ad@andrewdarnton.co.uk