THE RESEARCH PROCESS• Sociology as a Science •Vocabulary of Science• Quantitative versus Qualitative• Steps of conducting research

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THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

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THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is a Science, more specifically a social

science. Sociology is the scientific study of human activity

in the society. Sociology is one of 6 social sciences. A social science studies human behaviour,

institutions, or functions of human society in a scientific manner.

Other social sciences include:◦ Anthropology◦ Psychology◦ Economics◦ Political Science◦ History

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The belief that sociology is a science is called positivism.

It is important to note that sociology is extremely complex because social life is complex.

So although traditional sociologists may have applied the characteristics of a science, it is not as simple as a conventional science to investigate.

People are very complex creatures.

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What makes sociology a science?◦Empirical – observable facts◦Theoretical – a set of ideas used to explain

a phenomenon◦Cumulative – builds on previous knowledge◦Objective – bias-free, not influenced by

personal opinion ◦Value-free – free from criteria

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm") or a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill...").

This is the most common way of defining "ethics“: norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature (NIH 2013).

ETHICS

ConfidentialityHonestyIntegrityObjectivityOpenness Respect for Intellectual PropertyIssues re: Illegal ActivitiesSource and use fundingPolitical InfluencesHuman Subject ProtectionLevel of Attachment/Involvement

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

In this section we would examine the research process as it relates to:◦ Positivism and interpretivism◦Quantitative, qualitative and triangulation◦Surveys and sampling methods◦Document studies◦Observation (participant and non-

participant)◦Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

During the past century, science has revolutionized the way we live and die.

We have identified earlier that there are several characteristics that make Sociology a Science:

1. Empirical2. Theoretical3. Cumulative4. Objective5. Value-Free

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Science basically follows a relatively simple method:

1. Determine concepts of interest (phenomena)

2. Posit or suggest some relationship between those concepts

3. Test whether the posited relationship reflects what happens in the real world.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Variable – Independent vs Dependent

HypothesisRelationships (Correlation)Operational definitionsTables & Figures

VOCABULARY OF SCIENCE

Variable – Independent vs DependentWhen sociologists speak or write

about their research, they tend to use the word “variable” a lot.

A variable is an element, feature or factor.

Variables have two important characteristics:

1. It influences or is influenced by another thing

2. It also means variation or difference

VARIABLES

Independent Variable is the variable that is changed by the researcher to test the effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable is the variable being tested.

For example: A Sociologist may want to examine the increasing level of crime in the country. Based on the literature, they may further narrow down their search to class, gender & race.The Dependent Variable – CRIMEThe Independent Variable – CLASS, GENDER & RACE.

A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between variables.

It is usually based on theoretical expectations about how things work.

In Sociology, these hypotheses are divided into Null & Alternative Hypotheses.

Null is an absence of a relationship between the variables. Alternative is a definite link between the two.

Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship between socio-economic class and crime.

Alternative Hypothesis: Members of the lower socio-economic class are more likely to commit crime.

HYPOTHESIS

There are causal and correlation relationships.

A causal relationship is when one variable causes a change in another variable. These types of relationships are investigated by experimental research in order to determine if changes in one variable actually result in changes in another variable.

Does A cause B?

RELATIONSHIPS

A correlation is the measurement of the relationship between two variables. These variables already occur in the group or population and are not controlled by the experimenter.

A positive correlation is a direct relationship where as the amount of one variable increases, the amount of a second variable also increases. For e.g. there is a positive correlation between poverty & crime.

In a negative correlation, as the amount of one variable goes up, the levels of another variable go down. There is a negative correlation between education and poverty.

In both types of correlation, there is no evidence or proof that changes in one variable cause changes in the other variable. A correlation simply indicates that there is a relationship between the two variables.

RELATIONSHIPS

Operationalization is an attempt to define a term that may have more than one meanings or its meaning may be vague.

For example, it may be used to define bullying or drug abuse or technology.

So, it is important for the researcher to conceptualise or operationalise the relationship so that the reader could understand how the research was done.

For instance, the researcher may define bullying as physical bullying, rather than emotional or cyber, and the operational definition makes this clear at the start of the project.

OPERATIONAL

It is very critical in Sociology (as in any Science) to put data into a table or figure (bar graph, pie chart, line graph) to present those data clearly.

When reading tables and charts it is important to take the following into consideration:◦ Read the title of the table or figure carefully◦ Determine the source of the data◦ Read any notes that accompany the table or

graph◦ Examine the footnotes◦ Look for trends in the data

TABLES & FIGURES

Quantitative research is conducted with the focus being on statistics, numbers and figures. (What is the percentage of males who commit crimes?)

Qualitative research on the other hand focuses on words, expression and details. (Why did the males in Golden Grove commit crimes?)

QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE

QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Statistics, Numbers Words, PicturesLarge number participants

Few participants

Generalisations possible

Rich in detail

Test specific hypotheses

Exploratory in nature

Introduction (Statement of the Problem, Research Aims & Objectives)

Literature ReviewTheoretical / Conceptual FrameworkResearch Design (Sampling & Data

Collection)Analysis of Data & Interpretation of

FindingsConclusionsBibliography

STEPS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

DE-SHIFTING AND CONVERSION: AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS AT A FORMER JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL (A CASE STUDY) – Sara Chookolingo (2012)

The statement of the problem:This case study seeks to discover

how de-shifting and conversion may have affected student-teacher relationships at the Chaconia South Secondary School.

INTRODUCTION

The goals, intents and purposes of the paper:1. To discover the extent to which de-shifting

and conversion would have implications for student-teacher relationships at Chaconia South

2. To describe the student-teacher relationships in the school following de-shifting of the school

3. To determine what influences the nature and extent of student-teacher relationships at a former Junior Secondary school

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

A literature review is a compilation of all the contemporary literature done on a particular topic or phenomenon.

The information sourced is usually not older than10 years.

In my research, my literature review encompassed de-shifting & conversion and student-teacher relationships.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Each research project should be accompanied by a theory.

In my dissertation, I used the Social Exchange Theory (Behavioural theory by P. Blau).

You use the theory as a guide for the research.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Research Design is made up of:◦Type of Research used (Qualitative

vs Quantitative)◦The instrument used to collect data◦Sampling

RESEARCH DESIGN

There are many methods used by Social Scientists to collect data:◦Questionnaires◦Interviews◦Observation◦Case Study◦Life Histories◦Pilot Studies◦Longitudinal Research

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVEQuestionnaires/

SurveysInterviews

Life documents, Historical Sources

Observation

Official Statistics Case Study

Data Collection Methods

PRIMARY SOURCES SECONDARY SOURCES

Questionnaires/Surveys

Statistics

Interviews Historical Documents

Observation Mass Media Case Studies Life documents

Primary Sources are data that you collect for yourself.Secondary Sources are data that you use from other sources.

A questionnaire consists of written questions.

There are many types of questionnaires; these include postal, email, internet or blog, telephone or direct questionnaires.

In each questionnaire, there are open-ended (where the participants could write their view) and closed-ended questions (where there are fixed choices to choose from).

Questionnaire

Another type of question that is popular in Sociology is the Likert Scale which is used to get the opinions of people.

Agree Strongly

Agree Somewhat

Neutral (Unsure)

Disagree somewhat

Disagree strongly

1. No student should be allowed to consume alcohol on campus.2. Faculty should be subject to a dress code.

An interview is a one-on-one discussion between the interviewer and the person or persons being interviewed. There are many types of interviews:

Structured – a list of questions are created and interviewers stick by those questions and do not go off topic.

Unstructured – there is no preset list of questions and the interview is conducted more like a conversation.

Group – occurs when there is more than one person participating in the interview. It is used to make the people more comfortable and also to stimulate conversation and to bounce ideas off each other.

Interview

Observation is a form of data collection where you observe what is taking place and take notes of it. You then examine the trends of what you have seen.

There are two types of Observation:◦ Participant – occurs when the researcher is

an active part of the group being researched

◦ Non-participant – is when the researcher opts to not be a part of the group but observes as a silent observer.

Observation

INSTRUMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

QUESTIONNAIRES • Inexpensive• Not as time consuming• Large amounts of data could be collected quickly• Little personal involvement• Confidentiality is enhanced• For positivists (macro), statistical patterns could reveal theories/trends• Access to subjects is easy• It is reliable (replication)

• Questions may be misinterpreted by respondents• Researchers determine what should be investigated• Validity may be undermined• Interviewers cannot get in-depth into the answers• Researchers are distant from their subjects• Answers may be misinterpreted by researchers

INSTRUMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

INTERVIEWS • It is valid (represents a true population of the population)• Feminists prefer interviews• Its practical and flexible

• It may not be reliable.• Interviewer Bias• Ethnicity, sex, gender may influence responses• It is time-consuming• Respondents may not be available for interviews or may not be willing to be taped• Interviewees may not want to reveal personal or illegal information

INSTRUMENT ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

OBSERVATION • It is mostly used by Qualitative researchers (micro) especially Interactionists• Extremely valid• You get to understand the subject better• You may get an in-depth analysis of the problem and discover more underlying issues

• Interviewer Bias (Hawthorn Effect)• Recording data may be difficult• Observer may not recall everything• Time-consuming• Expensive• It may be impossible to observe some groups• Samples too small for generalisations• Researchers lives may become disrupted and they may face dangers

The Hawthorne Effect (Interviewer Bias) resulted from a study done in a factory in the 1920s-30s.

What was discovered was that the Interviewer could influence the findings of the study just by being present.

It was reported that the participants altered their behaviour because of the presence of the Interviewer.

The Hawthorne Effect

A Census is a survey of everyone in the population.

A Sample is a survey of a proportion of the population.

There are many types of Sampling:◦ Random – randomly select using statistical

probability Simple: Names are randomly from the list in any order Systematic: A list is obtained and every Nth is selected Stratified: The population is divided into portions and

persons are randomly selected◦ Non-Random – purposely select individuals: Snowballing: a member of the sample puts researcher

in touch with other members Quota/Purposive: when you select who you want

Sampling

The data that is collected is put into charts, tables, figures, or coded and presented.

PRESENTATION OF DATA

The data that is collected is analysed and, and using the literature review, trends are noted.

ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF

FINDINGS

In the conclusion, the findings are re-iterated.

The limitations (challenges) of the study are stated.

Recommendations are also made.

CONCLUSION

Chookolingo, Sara. 2012. “De-Shifting & Conversion: An Analysis of Student-Teacher Relationships at a Former Junior Secondary School (A Case Study).” M.Phil Thesis. UWI, St. Augustine, T&T.

Holborn, Martin & Peter Langley. 2002. Haralambos and Holborn: Sociology: Themes and Perspectives – Student Handbook. London: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.

McIntyre, Lisa. 2006. The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology. 3rd Ed. New York, NY: Mc Graw Hill.

BIBLIOGRAPHY