The Project Gutenberg eBook of Public Opinion

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The Project Gutenberg EBook of Public Opinion, by Walter Lippmann

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Title3 Public Opinion

4uthor3 Walter Lippmann

eleae $ate3 .eptember, 5667 8EBook 9:7;:<8'e, we are more than one year ahea" of che"ule<8Thi file wa firt pote" on $ecember /;, 5665<8$ate lat up"ate"3 $ecember 56, 566;<

E"ition3 /6

Language3 Englih

Character et enco"ing3 4.C&& =with a few &.O>??;0>/ character@

((( .T4T O) T-E POAECT GTEBEG EBOOD PBL&C OP&&O (((

Pro"uce" by $a!i" Phillip, Charle )rankan" the Online $itribute" Proofrea"ing Team#

PBL&C OP&&O

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Wa"ing i!er,Long &lan"#/05/#

F%Behol"2 human being li!ing in a ort of un"ergroun" "en,which ha a mouth open towar" the light an" reaching all acro

the "en they ha!e been here from their chil"hoo", an" ha!e theirleg an" neck chaine" o that they cannot mo!e, an" can onlyee before them for the chain are arrange" in uch a manner ato pre!ent them from turning roun" their hea"# 4t a "itanceabo!e an" behin" them the light of a fire i blaHing, an" betweenthe fire an" the prioner there i a raie" way an" you willee, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the creenwhich marionette player ha!e before them, o!er which they howthe puppet#

& ee, he ai"#

4n" "o you ee, & ai", men paing along the wall carrying

!eel, which appear o!er the wall alo figure of men an"animal, ma"e of woo" an" tone an" !ariou material an" omeof the prioner, a you woul" e+pect, are talking, an" ome ofthem are ilentI

Thi i a trange image, he ai", an" they are trange prioner#

Like ourel!e, & replie" an" they ee only their own ha"ow,or the ha"ow of one another, which the fire throw on theoppoite wall of the ca!eI

True, he ai"3 how coul" they ee anything but the ha"ow ifthey were ne!er allowe" to mo!e their hea"I

4n" of the object which are being carrie" in like manner theywoul" ee only the ha"owI

'e, he ai"#

4n" if they were able to talk with one another, woul" they notuppoe that they were naming what wa actually before themI%F>>The epublic of Plato, Book .e!en# =Aowett Tranlation#@

COTET.

P4T &# &TO$CT&O

&# The Worl" Outi"e an" the Picture in Our -ea"

P4T &&# 4PPO4C-E. TO T-E WOL$ OT.&$E

&&# Cenorhip an" Pri!acy

&&&# Contact an" Opportunity

&*# Time an" 4ttention

*# .pee", Wor", an" Clearne

P4T &&&# .TEEOT'PE.

*&# .tereotype



*&&# .tereotype a $efene

*&&&# Blin" .pot an" Their *alue

&J# Co"e an" Their Enemie

J# The $etection of .tereotype

P4T &*# &TEE.T.

J&# The Enliting of &nteret

J&&# .elf>&nteret econi"ere"

P4T *# T-E 4D&G O) 4 COO W&LL

J&&&# The Tranfer of &nteret

J&*# 'e or o

J*# Lea"er an" the ank an" )ile

P4T *&# T-E &4GE O) $EOC4C'

J*&# The .elf>Centere" an

J*&&# The .elf>Containe" Community

J*&&&# The ole of )orce, Patronage, an" Pri!ilege

J&J# The Ol" &mage in a ew )orm3 Guil" .ocialim

JJ# 4 ew &mage

P4T *&&# EW.P4PE.

JJ&# The Buying Public

JJ&&# The Contant ea"er

JJ&&&# The ature of ew

JJ&*# ew, Truth, an" a Concluion

P4T *&&&# OG4&KE$ &TELL&GECE

JJ*# The Entering We"ge

JJ*&# &ntelligence Work

JJ*&&# The 4ppeal to the Public

JJ*&&&# The 4ppeal to eaon

P4T &

&TO$CT&O



C-4PTE &

T-E WOL$ OT.&$E 4$ T-E P&CTE.& O -E4$.

C-4PTE &# &TO$CT&O

T-E WOL$ OT.&$E 4$ T-E P&CTE.& O -E4$.

There i an ilan" in the ocean where in /0/7 a few Englihmen,)renchmen, an" German li!e"# o cable reache that ilan", an" theBritih mail teamer come but once in i+ty "ay# &n .eptember it ha"not yet come, an" the ilan"er were till talking about the latetnewpaper which tol" about the approaching trial of a"ame Caillau+for the hooting of Gaton Calmette# &t wa, therefore, with more than

uual eagerne that the whole colony aemble" at the uay on a "ayin mi">.eptember to hear from the captain what the !er"ict ha" been#They learne" that for o!er i+ week now thoe of them who wereEnglih an" thoe of them who were )rench ha" been fighting in behalfof the anctity of treatie againt thoe of them who were German#)or i+ trange week they ha" acte" a if they were frien", when infact they were enemie#

But their plight wa not o "ifferent from that of mot of thepopulation of Europe# They ha" been mitaken for i+ week, on thecontinent the inter!al may ha!e been only i+ "ay or i+ hour# Therewa an inter!al# There wa a moment when the picture of Europe onwhich men were con"ucting their buine a uual, "i" not in any waycorrepon" to the Europe which wa about to make a jumble of theirli!e# There wa a time for each man when he wa till a"jute" to anen!ironment that no longer e+ite"# 4ll o!er the worl" a late a Auly5;th men were making goo" that they woul" not be able to hip, buyinggoo" they woul" not be able to import, career were being planne",enterprie contemplate", hope an" e+pectation entertaine", all inthe belief that the worl" a known wa the worl" a it wa# en werewriting book "ecribing that worl"# They trute" the picture in theirhea"# 4n" then o!er four year later, on a Thur"ay morning, came thenew of an armitice, an" people ga!e !ent to their unutterable reliefthat the laughter wa o!er# 'et in the fi!e "ay before the realarmitice came, though the en" of the war ha" been celebrate", e!eralthouan" young men "ie" on the battlefiel"#

Looking back we can ee how in"irectly we know the en!ironment inwhich ne!erthele we li!e# We can ee that the new of it come to unow fat, now lowly but that whate!er we belie!e to be a truepicture, we treat a if it were the en!ironment itelf# &t i har"erto remember that about the belief upon which we are now acting, butin repect to other people an" other age we flatter ourel!e thatit i eay to ee when they were in "ea"ly earnet about lu"icroupicture of the worl"# We init, becaue of our uperior hin"ight,that the worl" a they nee"e" to know it, an" the worl" a they "i"know it, were often two uite contra"ictory thing# We can ee, too,that while they go!erne" an" fought, tra"e" an" reforme" in the worl"a they imagine" it to be, they pro"uce" reult, or faile" to pro"uceany, in the worl" a it wa# They tarte" for the &n"ie an" foun"

4merica# They "iagnoe" e!il an" hange" ol" women# They thought theycoul" grow rich by alway elling an" ne!er buying# 4 caliph, obeyingwhat he concei!e" to be the Will of 4llah, burne" the library at



4le+an"ria#

Writing about the year M?0, .t# 4mbroe tate" the cae for theprioner in PlatoN ca!e who reolutely "ecline to turn hi hea"# %To"icu the nature an" poition of the earth "oe not help u in ourhope of the life to come# &t i enough to know what .cripture tate#

NThat -e hung up the earth upon nothingN =Aob ++!i# 1@# Why then arguewhether -e hung it up in air or upon the water, an" raie acontro!ery a to how the thin air coul" utain the earth or why, ifupon the water, the earth "oe not go crahing "own to the bottomI###ot becaue the earth i in the mi""le, a if upen"e" on e!enbalance, but becaue the majety of Go" contrain it by the law of-i will, "oe it en"ure table upon the untable an" the !oi"#%8)ootnote3 -e+aemeron, i# cap :, uote" in FThe e"i!al in"F,by -enry Oborn Taylor, *ol# i, p# 1M#<

&t "oe not help u in our hope of the life to come# &t i enough toknow what .cripture tate# Why then argueI But a century an" a halfafter .t# 4mbroe, opinion wa till trouble", on thi occaion by the

problem of the antipo"e# 4 monk name" Coma, famou for hicientific attainment, wa therefore "epute" to write a ChritianTopography, or %Chritian Opinion concerning the Worl"#% 8)ootnote3Lecky, Fationalim in EuropeF, *ol# &, pp# 51:>?#< &t i clearthat he knew e+actly what wa e+pecte" of him, for he bae" all hiconcluion on the .cripture a he rea" them# &t appear, then, thatthe worl" i a flat parallelogram, twice a broa" from eat to wet ait i long from north to outh#, &n the center i the earth urroun"e"by ocean, which i in turn urroun"e" by another earth, where menli!e" before the "eluge# Thi other earth wa oahN port ofembarkation# &n the north i a high conical mountain aroun" whichre!ol!e the un an" moon# When the un i behin" the mountain it inight# The ky i glue" to the e"ge of the outer earth# &t conitof four high wall which meet in a conca!e roof, o that the earth ithe floor of the uni!ere# There i an ocean on the other i"e of theky, contituting the %water that are abo!e the firmament#% The pacebetween the celetial ocean an" the ultimate roof of the uni!erebelong to the blet# The pace between the earth an" ky i inhabite"by the angel# )inally, ince .t# Paul ai" that all men are ma"e toli!e upon the %face of the earth% how coul" they li!e on the backwhere the 4ntipo"e are uppoe" to beI With uch a paage beforehi eye, a Chritian, we are tol", houl" not Ne!en peak of the4ntipo"e#N% 8)ootnote3 F&"#F<

)ar le houl" he go to the 4ntipo"e nor houl" any Chritianprince gi!e him a hip to try nor woul" any piou mariner wih totry# )or Coma there wa nothing in the leat abur" about hi map#Only by remembering hi abolute con!iction that thi wa the map ofthe uni!ere can we begin to un"ertan" how he woul" ha!e "rea"e"agellan or Peary or the a!iator who rike" a colliion with theangel an" the !ault of hea!en by flying e!en mile up in the air# &nthe ame way we can bet un"ertan" the furie of war an" politic byremembering that almot the whole of each party belie!e abolutely init picture of the oppoition, that it take a fact, not what i, butwhat it uppoe to be the fact# 4n" that therefore, like -amlet, itwill tab Poloniu behin" the rutling curtain, thinking him the king,an" perhap like -amlet a""3

%Thou wretche", rah, intru"ing fool, farewell2 & took thee for thy better take thy fortune#%

5



Great men, e!en "uring their lifetime, are uually known to the publiconly through a fictitiou peronality# -ence the mo"icum of truth inthe ol" aying that no man i a hero to hi !alet# There i only amo"icum of truth, for the !alet, an" the pri!ate ecretary, are oftenimmere" in the fiction themel!e# oyal peronage are, of coure,contructe" peronalitie# Whether they themel!e belie!e in their

public character, or whether they merely permit the chamberlain totage>manage it, there are at leat two "itinct el!e, the publican" regal elf, the pri!ate an" human# The biographie of great peoplefall more or le rea"ily into the hitorie of thee two el!e# Theofficial biographer repro"uce the public life, the re!ealing memoirthe other# The Charnwoo" Lincoln, for e+ample, i a noble portrait,not of an actual human being, but of an epic figure, replete withignificance, who mo!e on much the ame le!el of reality a 4enea or.t# George# Oli!erN -amilton i a majetic abtraction, the culptureof an i"ea, %an eay% a r# Oli!er himelf call it, %on 4mericanunion#% &t i a formal monument to the tate>craft of fe"eralim,har"ly the biography of a peron# .ometime people create their ownfaca"e when they think they are re!ealing the interior cene# The

epington "iarie an" argot 4uithN are a pecie ofelf>portraiture in which the intimate "etail i mot re!ealing a anin"e+ of how the author like to think about themel!e#

But the mot intereting kin" of portraiture i that which ariepontaneouly in peopleN min"# When *ictoria came to the throne,ay r# .trachey, 8)ootnote3 Lytton .trachey, Fueen *ictoriaF,p# 15#< %among the outi"e public there wa a great wa!e ofenthuiam# .entiment an" romance were coming into fahion an" thepectacle of the little girl>ueen, innocent, mo"et, with fair hairan" pink cheek, "ri!ing through her capital, fille" the heart of thebehol"er with rapture of affectionate loyalty# What, abo!e all,truck e!erybo"y with o!erwhelming force wa the contrat betweenueen *ictoria an" her uncle# The naty ol" men, "ebauche" an"elfih, pighea"e" an" ri"iculou, with their perpetual bur"en of"ebt, confuion, an" "ireputabilitie>>they ha" !anihe" like thenow of winter an" here at lat, crowne" an" ra"iant, wa thepring#%

# Aean "e Pierrefeu 8)ootnote3 Aean "e Pierrefeu, FG# # G# Troian au Gran" uartier GeneralF, pp 07>0;#< aw hero>worhip atfirt han", for he wa an officer on AoffreN taff at the moment ofthat ol"ierN greatet fame3

%)or two year, the entire worl" pai" an almot "i!ine homage to the!ictor of the aine# The baggage>mater literally bent un"er theweight of the bo+e, of the package an" letter which unknown peopleent him with a frantic tetimonial of their a"miration# & think thatouti"e of General Aoffre, no comman"er in the war ha been able torealiHe a comparable i"ea of what glory i# They ent him bo+e ofcan"y from all the great confectioner of the worl", bo+e ofchampagne, fine wine of e!ery !intage, fruit, game, ornament an"utenil, clothe, moking material, inktan", paperweight# E!eryterritory ent it pecialty# The painter ent hi picture, theculptor hi tatuette, the "ear ol" la"y a comforter or ock, thehepher" in hi hut car!e" a pipe for hi ake# 4ll the manufacturerof the worl" who were hotile to Germany hippe" their pro"uct,-a!ana it cigar, Portugal it port wine# & ha!e known a hair"reerwho ha" nothing better to "o than to make a portrait of the Generalout of hair belonging to peron who were "ear to him a profeional

penman ha" the ame i"ea, but the feature were compoe" of thouan"of little phrae in tiny character which ang the praie of theGeneral# 4 to letter, he ha" them in all cript, from all



countrie, written in e!ery "ialect, affectionate letter, grateful,o!erflowing with lo!e, fille" with a"oration# They calle" him .a!iorof the Worl", )ather of hi Country, 4gent of Go", Benefactor of-umanity, etc#### 4n" not only )renchmen, but 4merican, 4rgentinian,4utralian, etc# etc#### Thouan" of little chil"ren, without theirparentN knowle"ge, took pen in han" an" wrote to tell him their lo!e3

mot of them calle" him Our )ather# 4n" there wa poignancy abouttheir effuion, their a"oration, thee igh of "eli!erance thatecape" from thouan" of heart at the "efeat of barbarim# To allthee naif little oul, Aoffre eeme" like .t# George cruhing the"ragon# Certainly he incarnate" for the concience of mankin" the!ictory of goo" o!er e!il, of light o!er "arkne#

Lunatic, impleton, the half>craHy an" the craHy turne" their"arkene" brain towar" him a towar" reaon itelf# & ha!e rea" theletter of a peron li!ing in .y"ney, who begge" the General to a!ehim from hi enemie another, a ew Kealan"er, reuete" him to en"ome ol"ier to the houe of a gentleman who owe" him ten poun" an"woul" not pay#

)inally, ome hun"re" of young girl, o!ercoming the timi"ity oftheir e+, ake" for engagement, their familie not to know about itother wihe" only to er!e him#%

Thi i"eal Aoffre wa compoun"e" out of the !ictory won by him, hitaff an" hi troop, the "epair of the war, the peronal orrow,an" the hope of future !ictory# But bei"e hero>worhip there i thee+orcim of "e!il# By the ame mechanim through which heroe areincarnate", "e!il are ma"e# &f e!erything goo" wa to come fromAoffre, )och, Wilon, or ooe!elt, e!erything e!il originate" in theDaier Wilhelm, Lenin an" Trotky# They were a omnipotent for e!il athe heroe were omnipotent for goo"# To many imple an" frightene"min" there wa no political re!ere, no trike, no obtruction, nomyteriou "eath or myteriou conflagration anywhere in the worl" ofwhich the caue "i" not win" back to thee peronal ource of e!il#

M

Worl"wi"e concentration of thi kin" on a ymbolic peronality i rareenough to be clearly remarkable, an" e!ery author ha a weakne forthe triking an" irrefutable e+ample# The !i!iection of war re!ealuch e+ample, but it "oe not make them out of nothing# &n a morenormal public life, ymbolic picture are no le go!ernant ofbeha!ior, but each ymbol i far le inclui!e becaue there are omany competing one# ot only i each ymbol charge" with le feelingbecaue at mot it repreent only a part of the population, but e!enwithin that part there i infinitely le uppreion of in"i!i"ual"ifference# The ymbol of public opinion, in time of mo"erateecurity, are ubject to check an" comparion an" argument# They comean" go, coalece an" are forgotten, ne!er organiHing perfectly theemotion of the whole group# There i, after all, jut one humanacti!ity left in which whole population accomplih the union acrQe#&t occur in thoe mi""le phae of a war when fear, pugnacity, an"hatre" ha!e ecure" complete "ominion of the pirit, either to cruhe!ery other intinct or to enlit it, an" before wearine i felt#

4t almot all other time, an" e!en in war when it i "ea"locke", aufficiently greater range of feeling i aroue" to etablihconflict, choice, heitation, an" compromie# The ymbolim of public

opinion uually bear, a we hall ee, 8)ootnote3 Part *#< the markof thi balancing of interet# Think, for e+ample, of how rapi"ly,after the armitice, the precariou an" by no mean uccefully



etablihe" ymbol of 4llie" nity "iappeare", how it wa followe"almot imme"iately by the break"own of each nationN ymbolic pictureof the other3 Britain the $efen"er of Public Law, )rance watching atthe )rontier of )ree"om, 4merica the Crua"er# 4n" think then of howwithin each nation the ymbolic picture of itelf fraye" out, a partyan" cla conflict an" peronal ambition began to tir potpone"

iue# 4n" then of how the ymbolic picture of the lea"er ga!e way,a one by one, Wilon, Clemenceau, Lloy" George, ceae" to be theincarnation of human hope, an" became merely the negotiator an"a"minitrator for a "iilluione" worl"#

Whether we regret thi a one of the oft e!il of peace or applau" ita a return to anity i ob!iouly no matter here# Our firt concernwith fiction an" ymbol i to forget their !alue to the e+itingocial or"er, an" to think of them imply a an important part of themachinery of human communication# ow in any ociety that i notcompletely elf>containe" in it interet an" o mall that e!eryonecan know all about e!erything that happen, i"ea "eal with e!entthat are out of ight an" har" to grap# i .herwin of Gopher

Prairie, 8)ootnote3 .ee .inclair Lewi, Fain .treetF#< i awarethat a war i raging in )rance an" trie to concei!e it# .he ha ne!erbeen to )rance, an" certainly he ha ne!er been along what i now thebattlefront#

Picture of )rench an" German ol"ier he ha een, but it iimpoible for her to imagine three million men# o one, in fact, canimagine them, an" the profeional "o not try# They think of them a,ay, two hun"re" "i!iion# But i .herwin ha no acce to theor"er of battle map, an" o if he i to think about the war, hefaten upon Aoffre an" the Daier a if they were engage" in aperonal "uel# Perhap if you coul" ee what he ee with her min"Neye, the image in it compoition might be not unlike an EighteenthCentury engra!ing of a great ol"ier# -e tan" there bol"ly unruffle"an" more than life iHe, with a ha"owy army of tiny little figurewin"ing off into the lan"cape behin"# or it eem are great menobli!iou to thee e+pectation# # "e Pierrefeu tell of aphotographerN !iit to Aoffre# The General wa in hi %mi""le claoffice, before the worktable without paper, where he at "own towrite hi ignature# .u""enly it wa notice" that there were no mapon the wall# But ince accor"ing to popular i"ea it i not poibleto think of a general without map, a few were place" in poition forthe picture, an" remo!e" oon afterwar"#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F,p# 00#<

The only feeling that anyone can ha!e about an e!ent he "oe note+perience i the feeling aroue" by hi mental image of that e!ent#That i why until we know what other think they know, we cannot trulyun"ertan" their act# & ha!e een a young girl, brought up in aPennyl!ania mining town, plunge" u""enly from entire cheerfulneinto a paro+ym of grief when a gut of win" cracke" the kitchenwin"ow>pane# )or hour he wa inconolable, an" to me incomprehenible#But when he wa able to talk, it tranpire" that if a win"ow>panebroke it meant that a cloe relati!e ha" "ie"# .he wa, therefore,mourning for her father, who ha" frightene" her into running awayfrom home# The father wa, of coure, uite thoroughly ali!e a atelegraphic inuiry oon pro!e"# But until the telegram came, thecracke" gla wa an authentic meage to that girl# Why it waauthentic only a prolonge" in!etigation by a kille" pychiatritcoul" how# But e!en the mot caual ober!er coul" ee that the girl,

enormouly upet by her family trouble, ha" hallucinate" a completefiction out of one e+ternal fact, a remembere" upertition, an" aturmoil of remore, an" fear an" lo!e for her father#



4bnormality in thee intance i only a matter of "egree# When an4ttorney>General, who ha been frightene" by a bomb e+plo"e" on hi"oortep, con!ince himelf by the rea"ing of re!olutionary literaturethat a re!olution i to happen on the firt of ay /056, we recogniHethat much the ame mechanim i at work# The war, of coure, furnihe"

many e+ample of thi pattern3 the caual fact, the creati!eimagination, the will to belie!e, an" out of thee three element, acounterfeit of reality to which there wa a !iolent intincti!erepone# )or it i clear enough that un"er certain con"ition menrepon" a powerfully to fiction a they "o to realitie, an" that inmany cae they help to create the !ery fiction to which theyrepon"# Let him cat the firt tone who "i" not belie!e in theuian army that pae" through Englan" in 4ugut, /0/7, "i" notaccept any tale of atrocitie without "irect proof, an" ne!er aw aplot, a traitor, or a py where there wa none# Let him cat a tonewho ne!er pae" on a the real ini"e truth what he ha" hear" omeoneay who knew no more than he "i"#

&n all thee intance we mut note particularly one common factor# &ti the inertion between man an" hi en!ironment of a peu"o>en!ironment#To that peu"o>en!ironment hi beha!ior i a repone# But becaue itFiF beha!ior, the coneuence, if they are act, operate not inthe peu"o>en!ironment where the beha!ior i timulate", but in thereal en!ironment where action e!entuate# &f the beha!ior i not apractical act, but what we call roughly thought an" emotion, it maybe a long time before there i any noticeable break in the te+ture ofthe fictitiou worl"# But when the timulu of the peu"o>fact reultin action on thing or other people, contra"iction oon "e!elop#Then come the enation of butting oneN hea" againt a tone wall,of learning by e+perience, an" witneing -erbert .pencerN trage"yof the mur"er of a Beautiful Theory by a Gang of Brutal )act, the"icomfort in hort of a mala"jutment# )or certainly, at the le!el ofocial life, what i calle" the a"jutment of man to hi en!ironmenttake place through the me"ium of fiction#

By fiction & "o not mean lie# & mean a repreentation of theen!ironment which i in leer or greater "egree ma"e by man himelf#The range of fiction e+ten" all the way from complete hallucinationto the cientitN perfectly elf>conciou ue of a chematic mo"el,or hi "eciion that for hi particular problem accuracy beyon" acertain number of "ecimal place i not important# 4 work of fictionmay ha!e almot any "egree of fi"elity, an" o long a the "egree offi"elity can be taken into account, fiction i not milea"ing# &nfact, human culture i !ery largely the election, the rearrangement,the tracing of pattern upon, an" the tyliHing of, what William Aamecalle" %the ran"om irra"iation an" reettlement of ouri"ea#% 8)ootnote3 Aame, FPrinciple of PychologyF, *ol# &&, p#:M?< The alternati!e to the ue of fiction i "irect e+poure to theebb an" flow of enation# That i not a real alternati!e, for howe!errefrehing it i to ee at time with a perfectly innocent eye,innocence itelf i not wi"om, though a ource an" correcti!e ofwi"om# )or the real en!ironment i altogether too big, too comple+,an" too fleeting for "irect acuaintance# We are not euippe" to "ealwith o much ubtlety, o much !ariety, o many permutation an"combination# 4n" although we ha!e to act in that en!ironment, we ha!eto recontruct it on a impler mo"el before we can manage with it# Totra!ere the worl" men mut ha!e map of the worl"# Their peritent"ifficulty i to ecure map on which their own nee", or omeone

eleN nee", ha not ketche" in the coat of Bohemia#

7



The analyt of public opinion mut begin then, by recogniHing thetriangular relationhip between the cene of action, the human pictureof that cene, an" the human repone to that picture working itelfout upon the cene of action# &t i like a play uggete" to theactor by their own e+perience, in which the plot i tranacte" in the

real li!e of the actor, an" not merely in their tage part# Themo!ing picture often emphaiHe with great kill thi "ouble "rama ofinterior moti!e an" e+ternal beha!ior# Two men are uarreling,otenibly about ome money, but their paion i ine+plicable# Thenthe picture fa"e out an" what one or the other of the two men eewith hi min"N eye i reRnacte"# 4cro the table they wereuarreling about money# &n memory they are back in their youth whenthe girl jilte" him for the other man# The e+terior "rama ie+plaine"3 the hero i not gree"y the hero i in lo!e#

4 cene not o "ifferent wa playe" in the nite" .tate .enate# 4tbreakfat on the morning of .eptember 50, /0/0, ome of the .enatorrea" a new "ipatch in the FWahington PotF about the lan"ing

of 4merican marine on the $almatian coat# The newpaper ai"3

)4CT. OW E.T4BL&.-E$

%The following important fact appear alrea"y Fetablihe"F# Theor"er to ear 4"miral 4n"rew comman"ing the 4merican na!al force inthe 4"riatic, came from the Britih 4"miralty !ia the War Council an"ear 4"miral Dnapp in Lon"on# The appro!al or "iappro!al of the4merican a!y $epartment wa not ake"####

W&T-OT $4&EL.N DOWLE$GE

%r# $aniel wa a"mitte"ly place" in a peculiar poition when cablereache" here tating that the force o!er which he i preume" to ha!ee+clui!e control were carrying on what amounte" to na!al warfarewithout hi knowle"ge# &t wa fully realiHe" that the FBritih4"miralty might "eire to iue or"er to ear 4"miral 4n"rewF toact on behalf of Great Britain an" her 4llie, becaue the ituationreuire" acrifice on the part of ome nation if $N4nnunHioNfollower were to be hel" in check#

%&t wa further realiHe" that Fun"er the new league of nation planforeigner woul" be in a poition to "irect 4merican a!al force inemergencieF with or without the conent of the 4merican a!y$epartment####% etc# =&talic mine@#

The firt .enator to comment i r# Dno+ of Pennyl!ania# &n"ignantlyhe "eman" in!etigation# &n r# Bran"egee of Connecticut, who pokene+t, in"ignation ha alrea"y timulate" cre"ulity# Where r# Dno+in"ignantly wihe to know if the report i true, r# Bran"egee, ahalf a minute later, woul" like to know what woul" ha!e happene" ifmarine ha" been kille"# r# Dno+, interete" in the uetion, forgetthat he ake" for an inuiry, an" replie# &f 4merican marine ha"been kille", it woul" be war# The moo" of the "ebate i tillcon"itional# $ebate procee"# r# cCormick of &llinoi remin" the.enate that the Wilon a"minitration i prone to the waging of mallunauthoriHe" war# -e repeat Theo"ore ooe!eltN uip about %wagingpeace#% ore "ebate# r# Bran"egee note that the marine acte" %un"eror"er of a .upreme Council itting omewhere,% but he cannot recallwho repreent the nite" .tate on that bo"y# The .upreme Council i

unknown to the Contitution of the nite" .tate# Therefore r# ew of&n"iana ubmit a reolution calling for the fact#



.o far the .enator till recogniHe !aguely that they are "icuing arumor# Being lawyer they till remember ome of the form ofe!i"ence# But a re">bloo"e" men they alrea"y e+perience all thein"ignation which i appropriate to the fact that 4merican marineha!e been or"ere" into war by a foreign go!ernment an" without theconent of Congre# Emotionally they want to belie!e it, becaue they

are epublican fighting the League of ation# Thi aroue the$emocratic lea"er, r# -itchcock of ebraka# -e "efen" the .upremeCouncil3 it wa acting un"er the war power# Peace ha not yet beenconclu"e" becaue the epublican are "elaying it# Therefore theaction wa neceary an" legal# Both i"e now aume that the reporti true, an" the concluion they "raw are the concluion of theirpartianhip# 'et thi e+traor"inary aumption i in a "ebate o!er areolution to in!etigate the truth of the aumption# &t re!eal how"ifficult it i, e!en for traine" lawyer, to upen" repone untilthe return are in# The repone i intantaneou# The fiction itaken for truth becaue the fiction i ba"ly nee"e"#

4 few "ay later an official report howe" that the marine were not

lan"e" by or"er of the Britih Go!ernment or of the .upreme Council#They ha" not been fighting the &talian# They ha" been lan"e" at thereuet of the &talian Go!ernment to protect &talian, an" the4merican comman"er ha" been officially thanke" by the &talianauthoritie# The marine were not at war with &taly# They ha" acte"accor"ing to an etablihe" international practice which ha" nothingto "o with the League of ation#

The cene of action wa the 4"riatic# The picture of that cene in the.enatorN hea" at Wahington wa furnihe", in thi cae probablywith intent to "ecei!e, by a man who care" nothing about the 4"riatic,but much about "efeating the League# To thi picture the .enaterepon"e" by a trengthening of it partian "ifference o!er theLeague#

;

Whether in thi particular cae the .enate wa abo!e or below itnormal tan"ar", it i not neceary to "eci"e# or whether the .enatecompare fa!orably with the -oue, or with other parliament# 4t themoment, & houl" like to think only about the worl">wi"e pectacle ofmen acting upon their en!ironment, mo!e" by timuli from theirpeu"o>en!ironment# )or when full allowance ha been ma"e for"eliberate frau", political cience ha till to account for uchfact a two nation attacking one another, each con!ince" that it iacting in elf>"efene, or two clae at war each certain that itpeak for the common interet# They li!e, we are likely to ay, in"ifferent worl"# ore accurately, they li!e in the ame worl", butthey think an" feel in "ifferent one#

&t i to thee pecial worl", it i to thee pri!ate or group, orcla, or pro!incial, or occupational, or national, or ectarianartifact, that the political a"jutment of mankin" in the Great.ociety take place# Their !ariety an" complication are impoible to"ecribe# 'et thee fiction "etermine a !ery great part of menNpolitical beha!ior# We mut think of perhap fifty o!ereignparliament coniting of at leat a hun"re" legilati!e bo"ie# Withthem belong at leat fifty hierarchie of pro!incial an" municipalaemblie, which with their e+ecuti!e, a"minitrati!e an" legilati!eorgan, contitute formal authority on earth# But that "oe not begin

to re!eal the comple+ity of political life# )or in each of theeinnumerable center of authority there are partie, an" thee partieare themel!e hierarchie with their root in clae, ection,



cliue an" clan an" within thee are the in"i!i"ual politician,each the peronal center of a web of connection an" memory an" fearan" hope#

.omehow or other, for reaon often necearily obcure, a the reultof "omination or compromie or a logroll, there emerge from thee

political bo"ie comman", which et armie in motion or make peace,concript life, ta+, e+ile, imprion, protect property or conficateit, encourage one kin" of enterprie an" "icourage another,facilitate immigration or obtruct it, impro!e communication or cenorit, etablih chool, buil" na!ie, proclaim %policie,% an"%"etiny,% raie economic barrier, make property or unmake it, bringone people un"er the rule of another, or fa!or one cla a againtanother# )or each of thee "eciion ome !iew of the fact i takento be conclui!e, ome !iew of the circumtance i accepte" a thebai of inference an" a the timulu of feeling# What !iew of thefact, an" why that oneI

4n" yet e!en thi "oe not begin to e+haut the real comple+ity# The

formal political tructure e+it in a ocial en!ironment, where thereare innumerable large an" mall corporation an" intitution,!oluntary an" emi>!oluntary aociation, national, pro!incial, urbanan" neighborhoo" grouping, which often a not make the "eciion thatthe political bo"y regiter# On what are thee "eciion bae"I

%o"ern ociety,% ay r# Cheterton, %i intrinically inecurebecaue it i bae" on the notion that all men will "o the ame thingfor "ifferent reaon#### 4n" a within the hea" of any con!ict may bethe hell of a uite olitary crime, o in the houe or un"er the hatof any uburban clerk may be the limbo of a uite eparate philoophy#The firt man may be a complete aterialit an" feel hi own bo"y a ahorrible machine manufacturing hi own min"# -e may liten to hithought a to the "ull ticking of a clock# The man ne+t "oor may be aChritian .cientit an" regar" hi own bo"y a omehow rather leubtantial than hi own ha"ow# -e may come almot to regar" hi ownarm an" leg a "eluion like mo!ing erpent in the "ream of"elirium tremen# The thir" man in the treet may not be a Chritian.cientit but, on the contrary, a Chritian# -e may li!e in a fairytale a hi neighbor woul" ay a ecret but oli" fairy tale full ofthe face an" preence of unearthly frien"# The fourth man may be atheoophit, an" only too probably a !egetarian an" & "o not ee why& houl" not gratify myelf with the fancy that the fifth man i a"e!il worhiper#### ow whether or not thi ort of !ariety i!aluable, thi ort of unity i haky# To e+pect that all men for alltime will go on thinking "ifferent thing, an" yet "oing the amething, i a "oubtful peculation# &t i not foun"ing ociety on acommunion, or e!en on a con!ention, but rather on a coinci"ence# )ourmen may meet un"er the ame lamp pot one to paint it pea green apart of a great municipal reform one to rea" hi bre!iary in thelight of it one to embrace it with acci"ental ar"our in a fit ofalcoholic enthuiam an" the lat merely becaue the pea green poti a conpicuou point of ren"eH!ou with hi young la"y# But toe+pect thi to happen night after night i unwie####% 8)ootnote3 G#D# Cheterton, %The a" -atter an" the .ane -ouehol"er,% F*anity)airF, Aanuary, /05/, p# ;7<

)or the four men at the lamp pot ubtitute the go!ernment, thepartie, the corporation, the ocietie, the ocial et, the tra"ean" profeion, uni!eritie, ect, an" nationalitie of the worl"#

Think of the legilator !oting a tatute that will affect "itantpeople, a tateman coming to a "eciion# Think of the PeaceConference recontituting the frontier of Europe, an ambaa"or in a



foreign country trying to "icern the intention of hi own go!ernmentan" of the foreign go!ernment, a promoter working a conceion in abackwar" country, an e"itor "eman"ing a war, a clergyman calling onthe police to regulate amuement, a club lounging>room making up itmin" about a trike, a ewing circle preparing to regulate thechool, nine ju"ge "eci"ing whether a legilature in Oregon may fi+

the working hour of women, a cabinet meeting to "eci"e on therecognition of a go!ernment, a party con!ention chooing a can"i"atean" writing a platform, twenty>e!en million !oter cating theirballot, an &rihman in Cork thinking about an &rihman in Belfat, aThir" &nternational planning to recontruct the whole of humanociety, a boar" of "irector confronte" with a et of theiremployeeN "eman", a boy chooing a career, a merchant etimatingupply an" "eman" for the coming eaon, a peculator pre"icting thecoure of the market, a banker "eci"ing whether to put cre"it behin" anew enterprie, the a"!ertier, the rea"er of a"!ertiment#### Thinkof the "ifferent ort of 4merican thinking about their notion of%The Britih Empire% or %)rance% or %uia% or %e+ico#% &t i not o"ifferent from r# ChetertonN four men at the pea green lamp pot#

:

4n" o before we in!ol!e ourel!e in the jungle of obcuritie aboutthe innate "ifference of men, we hall "o well to fi+ our attentionupon the e+traor"inary "ifference in what men know of the worl"#8)ootnote3 FCfF# Walla, FOur .ocial -eritageF, pp# 11 Fet eF#<& "o not "oubt that there are important biological "ifference# .inceman i an animal it woul" be trange if there were not# But arational being it i wore than hallow to generaliHe at allabout comparati!e beha!ior until there i a meaurable imilaritybetween the en!ironment to which beha!ior i a repone#

The pragmatic !alue of thi i"ea i that it intro"uce a much nee"e"refinement into the ancient contro!ery about nature an" nurture,innate uality an" en!ironment# )or the peu"o>en!ironment i a hybri"compoun"e" of %human nature% an" %con"ition#% To my min" it how theuelene of pontificating about what man i an" alway will be fromwhat we ober!e man to be "oing, or about what are the necearycon"ition of ociety# )or we "o not know how men woul" beha!e inrepone to the fact of the Great .ociety# 4ll that we really know ihow they beha!e in repone to what can fairly be calle" a motina"euate picture of the Great .ociety# o concluion about man orthe Great .ociety can honetly be ma"e on e!i"ence like that#

Thi, then, will be the clue to our inuiry# We hall aume that whateach man "oe i bae" not on "irect an" certain knowle"ge, but onpicture ma"e by himelf or gi!en to him# &f hi atla tell him thatthe worl" i flat he will not ail near what he belie!e to be thee"ge of our planet for fear of falling off# &f hi map inclu"e afountain of eternal youth, a Ponce "e Leon will go in uet of it# &fomeone "ig up yellow "irt that look like gol", he will for a timeact e+actly a if he ha" foun" gol"# The way in which the worl" iimagine" "etermine at any particular moment what men will "o# &t "oenot "etermine what they will achie!e# &t "etermine their effort,their feeling, their hope, not their accomplihment an" reult#The !ery men who mot lou"ly proclaim their %materialim% an" theircontempt for %i"eologue,% the ar+ian communit, place their entirehope on whatI On the formation by propagan"a of a cla>conciougroup# But what i propagan"a, if not the effort to alter the picture

to which men repon", to ubtitute one ocial pattern for anotherIWhat i cla concioune but a way of realiHing the worl"I ationalconcioune but another wayI 4n" Profeor Gi""ingN concioune





aying in effect either that ociety i the ort of thing whichcorrepon" to their i"ea of what i normal, or the ort of thingwhich correpon" to their i"ea of what i free# Both i"ea are merelypublic opinion, an" while the pychoanalyt a phyician may perhapaume them, the ociologit may not take the pro"uct of e+itingpublic opinion a criteria by which to tu"y public opinion#

1

The worl" that we ha!e to "eal with politically i out of reach, outof ight, out of min"# &t ha to be e+plore", reporte", an" imagine"#an i no 4ritotelian go" contemplating all e+itence at one glance#-e i the creature of an e!olution who can jut about pan aufficient portion of reality to manage hi ur!i!al, an" natch whaton the cale of time are but a few moment of inight an" happine#'et thi ame creature ha in!ente" way of eeing what no nake" eyecoul" ee, of hearing what no ear coul" hear, of weighing immenemae an" infiniteimal one, of counting an" eparating more itemthan he can in"i!i"ually remember# -e i learning to ee with hi min"

!at portion of the worl" that he coul" ne!er ee, touch, mell,hear, or remember# Gra"ually he make for himelf a trutworthypicture ini"e hi hea" of the worl" beyon" hi reach#

Thoe feature of the worl" outi"e which ha!e to "o with the beha!iorof other human being, in o far a that beha!ior croe our, i"epen"ent upon u, or i intereting to u, we call roughly publicaffair# The picture ini"e the hea" of thee human being, thepicture of themel!e, of other, of their nee", purpoe, an"relationhip, are their public opinion# Thoe picture which areacte" upon by group of people, or by in"i!i"ual acting in the nameof group, are Public Opinion with capital letter# 4n" o in thechapter which follow we hall inuire firt into ome of the reaonwhy the picture ini"e o often milea" men in their "ealing withthe worl" outi"e# n"er thi hea"ing we hall coni"er firt thechief factor which limit their acce to the fact# They are theartificial cenorhip, the limitation of ocial contact, thecomparati!ely meager time a!ailable in each "ay for paying attentionto public affair, the "itortion ariing becaue e!ent ha!e to becompree" into !ery hort meage, the "ifficulty of making a mall!ocabulary e+pre a complicate" worl", an" finally the fear of facingthoe fact which woul" eem to threaten the etablihe" routine ofmenN li!e#

The analyi then turn from thee more or le e+ternal limitationto the uetion of how thi trickle of meage from the outi"e iaffecte" by the tore" up image, the preconception, an" preju"icewhich interpret, fill them out, an" in their turn powerfully "irectthe play of our attention, an" our !iion itelf# )rom thi itprocee" to e+amine how in the in"i!i"ual peron the limite" meagefrom outi"e, forme" into a pattern of tereotype, are i"entifie"with hi own interet a he feel an" concei!e them# &n theuccee"ing ection it e+amine how opinion are crytalliHe" intowhat i calle" Public Opinion, how a ational Will, a Group in", a.ocial Purpoe, or whate!er you chooe to call it, i forme"#

The firt fi!e part contitute the "ecripti!e ection of the book#There follow an analyi of the tra"itional "emocratic theory ofpublic opinion# The ubtance of the argument i that "emocracy in itoriginal form ne!er eriouly face" the problem which arie becaue

the picture ini"e peopleN hea" "o not automatically correpon"with the worl" outi"e# 4n" then, becaue the "emocratic theory iun"er criticim by ocialit thinker, there follow an e+amination of





mot terrible hour of one of the great battle of hitory eem morelike a cene from The Chocolate .ol"ier than a page from life# 'et weknow at firt han" from the officer who e"ite" the )rench communiuQthat thee conference were a regular part of the buine of warthat in the wort moment of *er"un, General Aoffre an" hi cabinet metan" argue" o!er the noun, a"jecti!e, an" !erb that were to be

printe" in the newpaper the ne+t morning#

%The e!ening communiuQ of the twenty>thir" =)ebruary /0/:@% ay #"e Pierrefeu, 8)ootnote3 FG# # GF#, pp# /5:>/50#< %wa e"ite" ina "ramatic atmophere# # Berthelot, of the Prime initerN office,ha" jut telephone" by or"er of the miniter aking General Pelle totrengthen the report an" to emphaiHe the proportion of the enemyNattack# &t wa neceary to prepare the public for the wort outcomein cae the affair turne" into a catatrophe# Thi an+iety howe"clearly that neither at G# -# # nor at the initry of War ha" theGo!ernment foun" reaon for confi"ence# 4 # Berthelot poke, GeneralPelle ma"e note# -e han"e" me the paper on which he ha" written theGo!ernmentN wihe, together with the or"er of the "ay iue" by

General !on $eimling an" foun" on ome prioner, in which it watate" that thi attack wa the upreme offeni!e to ecure peace#.kilfully ue", all thi wa to "emontrate that Germany wa lettinglooe a gigantic effort, an effort without prece"ent, an" that fromit ucce he hope" for the en" of the war# The logic of thi wathat nobo"y nee" be urprie" at our with"rawal# When, a half hourlater, & went "own with my manucript, & foun" gathere" together inColonel Clau"elN office, he being away, the major>general, GeneralAanin, Colonel $upont, an" Lieutenant>Colonel enouar"# )earing that &woul" not uccee" in gi!ing the "eire" impreion, General PellQ ha"himelf prepare" a propoe" communiuQ# & rea" what & ha" jut "one#&t wa foun" to be too mo"erate# General PellQN, on the other han",eeme" too alarming# & ha" purpoely omitte" !on $eimlingN or"er ofthe "ay# To put it into the communiuQ Fwoul" be to break with theformula to which the public wa accutome"F, woul" be to tranformit into a kin" of plea"ing# &t woul" eem to ay3 N-ow "o you uppoewe can reitIN There wa reaon to fear that the public woul" be"itracte" by thi change of tone an" woul" belie!e that e!erythingwa lot# & e+plaine" my reaon an" uggete" gi!ing $eimlingN te+tto the newpaper in the form of a eparate note#

%Opinion being "i!i"e", General PellQ went to ak General "e Catelnauto come an" "eci"e finally# The General arri!e" miling, uiet an"goo" humore", ai" a few pleaant wor" about thi new kin" ofliterary council of war, an" looke" at the te+t# -e choe the implerone, ga!e more weight to the firt phrae, inerte" the wor" Na ha"been anticipate",N which upply a reauring uality, an" wa flatlyagaint inerting !on $eimlingN or"er, but wa for tranmitting it tothe pre in a pecial note ### % General Aoffre that e!ening rea" thecommuniuQ carefully an" appro!e" it#

Within a few hour thoe two or three hun"re" wor" woul" be rea" allo!er the worl"# They woul" paint a picture in menN min" of what wahappening on the lope of *er"un, an" in front of that picture peoplewoul" take heart or "epair# The hopkeeper in Bret, the peaant inLorraine, the "eputy in the Palai Bourbon, the e"itor in 4mter"am orinneapoli ha" to be kept in hope, an" yet prepare" to acceptpoible "efeat without yiel"ing to panic# They are tol", therefore,that the lo of groun" i no urprie to the )rench Comman"# They aretaught to regar" the affair a eriou, but not trange# ow, a a

matter of fact, the )rench General .taff wa not fully prepare" forthe German offeni!e# .upporting trenche ha" not been "ug,alternati!e roa" ha" not been built, barbe" wire wa lacking# But to



confe that woul" ha!e aroue" image in the hea" of ci!ilian thatmight well ha!e turne" a re!ere into a "iater# The -igh Comman"coul" be "iappointe", an" yet pull itelf together the people athome an" abroa", full of uncertaintie, an" with none of theprofeional manN inglene of purpoe, might on the bai of acomplete tory ha!e lot ight of the war in a melee of faction an"

counter>faction about the competence of the officer# &ntea",therefore, of letting the public act on all the fact which thegeneral knew, the authoritie preente" only certain fact, an" theeonly in uch a way a woul" be mot likely to tea"y the people#

&n thi cae the men who arrange" the peu"o>en!ironment knew what thereal one wa# But a few "ay later an inci"ent occurre" about whichthe )rench .taff "i" not know the truth# The German announce"8)ootnote3 On )ebruary 5:, /0/:# Pierrefeu, FG# # G#F, pp# /MMFet eF#< that on the pre!iou afternoon they ha" taken )ort$ouaumont by aault# 4t )rench hea"uarter in Chantilly no onecoul" un"ertan" thi new# )or on the morning of the twenty>fifth,after the engagement of the JJth corp, the battle ha" taken a turn

for the better# eport from the front ai" nothing about $ouaumont#But inuiry howe" that the German report wa true, though no one ayet knew how the fort ha" been taken# &n the meantime, the GermancommuniuQ wa being flahe" aroun" the worl", an" the )rench ha" toay omething# .o hea"uarter e+plaine"# %&n the mi"t of totalignorance at Chantilly about the way the attack ha" taken place, weimagine", in the e!ening communiuQ of the 5:th, a plan of the attackwhich certainly ha" a thouan" to one chance of being true#% ThecommuniuQ of thi imaginary battle rea"3

%4 bitter truggle i taking place aroun" )ort "e $ouaumont which ian a"!ance" pot of the ol" "efeni!e organiHation of *er"un# Thepoition taken thi morning by the enemy, Fafter e!eralunucceful aault that cot him !ery hea!y loeF, ha beenreache" again an" pae" by our troop whom the enemy ha not beenable to "ri!e back#% 8)ootnote3 Thi i my own tranlation3 theEnglih tranlation from Lon"on publihe" in the ew 'ork Time of.un"ay, )eb# 51, i a follow3

Lon"on, )eb# 5: =/0/:@# 4 furiou truggle ha been in progre aroun")ort "e $ouaumont which i an a"!ance element of the ol" "efeni!eorganiHation of *er"un fortree# The poition capture" thi morningby the enemy after e!eral fruitle aault which cot him e+tremelyhea!y loe, 8)ootnote3 The )rench te+t ay %perte tre ele!ee#%Thu the Englih tranlation e+aggerate the original te+t#< wareache" again an" gone beyon" by our troop, which all the attempt ofthe enemy ha!e not been able to puh back#%<

What ha" actually happene" "iffere" from both the )rench an" Germanaccount# While changing troop in the line, the poition ha" omehowbeen forgotten in a confuion of or"er# Only a battery comman"er an"a few men remaine" in the fort# .ome German ol"ier, eeing the "ooropen, ha" crawle" into the fort, an" taken e!eryone ini"e prioner# 4little later the )rench who were on the lope of the hill werehorrifie" at being hot at from the fort# There ha" been no battle at$ouaumont an" no loe# or ha" the )rench troop a"!ance" beyon" ita the communiuQ eeme" to ay# They were beyon" it on either i"e,to be ure, but the fort wa in enemy han"#

'et from the communiuQ e!eryone belie!e" that the fort wa half

urroun"e"# The wor" "i" not e+plicitly ay o, but %the pre, auual, force" the pace#% ilitary writer conclu"e" that the Germanwoul" oon ha!e to urren"er# &n a few "ay they began to ak



themel!e why the garrion, ince it lacke" foo", ha" not yeturren"ere"# %&t wa neceary through the pre bureau to reuetthem to "rop the encirclement theme#% 8)ootnote3 Pierrefeu, Fop#cit#F, pp# /M7>;#<

5

The e"itor of the )rench communiuQ tell u that a the battle"ragge" out, hi colleague an" he et out to neutraliHe thepertinacity of the German by continual initence on their terribleloe# &t i neceary to remember that at thi time, an" in factuntil late in /0/1, the ortho"o+ !iew of the war for all the 4llie"people wa that it woul" be "eci"e" by %attrition#% obo"y belie!e"in a war of mo!ement# &t wa inite" that trategy "i" not count, or"iplomacy# &t wa imply a matter of killing German# The generalpublic more or le belie!e" the "ogma, but it ha" contantly to beremin"e" of it in face of pectacular German uccee#

%4lmot no "ay pae" but the communiuQ#### acribe" to the German

with ome appearance of jutice hea!y loe, e+tremely hea!y, pokeof bloo"y acrifice, heap of corpe, hecatomb# Likewie thewirele contantly ue" the tatitic of the intelligence bureau at*er"un, whoe chief, ajor Cointet, ha" in!ente" a metho" ofcalculating German loe which ob!iouly pro"uce" mar!elou reult#E!ery fortnight the figure increae" a hun"re" thouan" or o# TheeM66,666, 766,666, ;66,666 caualtie put out, "i!i"e" into "aily,weekly, monthly loe, repeate" in all ort of way, pro"uce" atriking effect# Our formulae !arie" little3 Naccor"ing to prionerthe German loe in the coure of the attack ha!e been coni"erableN ###Nit i pro!e" that the loeN ### Nthe enemy e+haute" by hi loeha not renewe" the attackN ### Certain formulae, later aban"one"becaue they ha" been o!erworke", were ue" each "ay3 Nun"erour artillery an" machine gun fireN ### Nmowe" "own by our artilleryan" machine gun fireN ### Contant repetition impree" the neutralan" Germany itelf, an" helpe" to create a bloo"y backgroun" in piteof the "enial from auen =the German wirele@ which trie" !ainly to"etroy the ba" effect of thi perpetual repetition#% 8)ootnote3 FOp#cit#F, pp# /M?>/M0#<

The thei of the )rench Comman", which it wihe" to etablihpublicly by thee report, wa formulate" a follow for the gui"anceof the cenor3

%Thi offeni!e engage the acti!e force of our opponent whoemanpower i "eclining# We ha!e learne" that the cla of /0/: ialrea"y at the front# There will remain the /0/1 cla alrea"y beingcalle" up, an" the reource of the thir" category =men abo!eforty>fi!e, or con!alecent@# &n a few week, the German forcee+haute" by thi effort, will fin" themel!e confronte" with all theforce of the coalition =ten million againt e!en million@#%8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# /71#<

4ccor"ing to # "e Pierrefeu, the )rench comman" ha" con!erte" itelfto thi belief# %By an e+traor"inary aberration of min", only theattrition of the enemy wa een it appeare" that our force were notubject to attrition# General i!elle hare" thee i"ea# We aw thereult in /0/1#%

We ha!e learne" to call thi propagan"a# 4 group of men, who can

pre!ent in"epen"ent acce to the e!ent, arrange the new of it touit their purpoe# That the purpoe wa in thi cae patriotic "oenot affect the argument at all# They ue" their power to make the



4llie" public ee affair a they "eire" them to be een# Thecaualty figure of ajor Cointet which were prea" about the worl"are of the ame or"er# They were inten"e" to pro!oke a particular kin"of inference, namely that the war of attrition wa going in fa!or ofthe )rench# But the inference i not "rawn in the form of argument# &treult almot automatically from the creation of a mental picture of

en"le German laughtere" on the hill about *er"un# By putting the"ea" German in the focu of the picture, an" by omitting to mentionthe )rench "ea", a !ery pecial !iew of the battle wa built up# &twa a !iew "eigne" to neutraliHe the effect of German territoriala"!ance an" the impreion of power which the peritence of theoffeni!e wa making# &t wa alo a !iew that ten"e" to make thepublic acuiece in the "emoraliHing "efeni!e trategy impoe" uponthe 4llie" armie# )or the public, accutome" to the i"ea that warconit of great trategic mo!ement, flank attack, encirclement,an" "ramatic urren"er, ha" gra"ually to forget that picture in fa!orof the terrible i"ea that by matching li!e the war woul" be won#Through it control o!er all new from the front, the General .taffubtitute" a !iew of the fact that comporte" with thi trategy#

The General .taff of an army in the fiel" i o place" that withinwi"e limit it can control what the public will percei!e# &t controlthe election of correpon"ent who go to the front, control theirmo!ement at the front, rea" an" cenor their meage from thefront, an" operate the wire# The Go!ernment behin" the army by itcomman" of cable an" paport, mail an" cutom houe an" blocka"eincreae the control# &t emphaiHe it by legal power o!erpubliher, o!er public meeting, an" by it ecret er!ice# But inthe cae of an army the control i far from perfect# There i alwaythe enemyN communiuQ, which in thee "ay of wirele cannot be keptaway from neutral# 4bo!e all there i the talk of the ol"ier, whichblow back from the front, an" i prea" about when they are onlea!e# 8)ootnote3 )or week prior to the 4merican attack at .t# ihielan" in the 4rgonne>eue, e!erybo"y in )rance tol" e!erybo"y ele the"eep ecret#< 4n army i an unwiel"y thing# 4n" that i why the na!alan" "iplomatic cenorhip i almot alway much more complete# )ewerpeople know what i going on, an" their act are more eailyuper!ie"#

M

Without ome form of cenorhip, propagan"a in the trict ene of thewor" i impoible# &n or"er to con"uct a propagan"a there mut beome barrier between the public an" the e!ent# 4cce to the realen!ironment mut be limite", before anyone can create apeu"o>en!ironment that he think wie or "eirable# )or while peoplewho ha!e "irect acce can miconcei!e what they ee, no one ele can"eci"e how they hall miconcei!e it, unle he can "eci"e where theyhall look, an" at what# The military cenorhip i the implet formof barrier, but by no mean the mot important, becaue it i known toe+it, an" i therefore in certain meaure agree" to an" "icounte"#

4t "ifferent time an" for "ifferent ubject ome men impoe an"other men accept a particular tan"ar" of ecrecy# The frontierbetween what i conceale" becaue publication i not, a we ay,%compatible with the public interet% fa"e gra"ually into what iconceale" becaue it i belie!e" to be none of the publicN buine#The notion of what contitute a peronN pri!ate affair i elatic#Thu the amount of a manN fortune i coni"ere" a pri!ate affair, an"

careful pro!iion i ma"e in the income ta+ law to keep it a pri!atea poible# The ale of a piece of lan" i not pri!ate, but the pricemay be# .alarie are generally treate" a more pri!ate than wage,



income a more pri!ate than inheritance# 4 peronN cre"it rating igi!en only a limite" circulation# The profit of big corporation aremore public than thoe of mall firm# Certain kin" of con!eration,between man an" wife, lawyer an" client, "octor an" patient, prietan" communicant, are pri!ilege"# $irectorN meeting are generallypri!ate# .o are many political conference# ot of what i ai" at a

cabinet meeting, or by an ambaa"or to the .ecretary of .tate, or atpri!ate inter!iew, or "inner table, i pri!ate# any people regar"the contract between employer an" employee a pri!ate# There wa atime when the affair of all corporation were hel" to be a pri!atea a manN theology i to>"ay# There wa a time before that when hitheology wa hel" to be a public a matter a the color of hi eye#But infectiou "ieae, on the other han", were once a pri!ate athe procee of a manN "igetion# The hitory of the notion ofpri!acy woul" be an entertaining tale# .ometime the notion !iolentlyconflict, a they "i" when the bolhe!ik publihe" the ecrettreatie, or when r# -ughe in!etigate" the life inurancecompanie, or when omebo"yN can"al e+u"e from the page of TownTopic to the front page of r# -eartN newpaper#

Whether the reaon for pri!acy are goo" or ba", the barrier e+it#Pri!acy i inite" upon at all kin" of place in the area of what icalle" public affair# &t i often !ery illuminating, therefore, toak yourelf how you got at the fact on which you bae your opinion#Who actually aw, hear", felt, counte", name" the thing, about whichyou ha!e an opinionI Wa it the man who tol" you, or the man who tol"him, or omeone till further remo!e"I 4n" how much wa he permitte"to eeI When he inform you that )rance think thi an" that, whatpart of )rance "i" he watchI -ow wa he able to watch itI Where wa hewhen he watche" itI What )renchmen wa he permitte" to talk to, whatnewpaper "i" he rea", an" where "i" they learn what they ayI 'oucan ak yourelf thee uetion, but you can rarely anwer them# Theywill remin" you, howe!er, of the "itance which often eparate yourpublic opinion from the e!ent with which it "eal# 4n" the remin"er iitelf a protection#

C-4PTE &&&

COT4CT 4$ OPPOT&T'

/

While cenorhip an" pri!acy intercept much information at it ource,a !ery much larger bo"y of fact ne!er reache the whole public at all,or only !ery lowly# )or there are !ery "itinct limit upon thecirculation of i"ea#

4 rough etimate of the effort it take to reach %e!erybo"y% can beha" by coni"ering the Go!ernmentN propagan"a "uring the war#emembering that the war ha" run o!er two year an" a half before4merica entere" it, that million upon million of printe" page ha"been circulate" an" untol" peeche ha" been "eli!ere", let u turn tor# CreelN account of hi fight %for the min" of men, for theconuet of their con!iction% in or"er that %the gopel of4mericanim might be carrie" to e!ery corner of the globe#%8)ootnote3 George Creel, F-ow We 4"!ertie" 4merica#F<

r# Creel ha" to aemble machinery which inclu"e" a $i!iion of ewthat iue", he tell u, more than i+ thouan" releae, ha" to



enlit e!enty>fi!e thouan" )our inute en who "eli!ere" at leate!en hun"re" an" fifty>fi!e thouan", one hun"re" an" ninety peecheto an aggregate of o!er three hun"re" million people# Boy cout"eli!ere" annotate" copie of Prei"ent WilonN a""ree to thehouehol"er of 4merica# )ortnightly perio"ical were ent to i+hun"re" thouan" teacher# Two hun"re" thouan" lantern li"e were

furnihe" for illutrate" lecture# )ourteen hun"re" an" thirty>eight"ifferent "eign were turne" out for poter, win"ow car", newpapera"!ertiement, cartoon, eal an" button# The chamber of commerce,the churche, fraternal ocietie, chool, were ue" a channel of"itribution# 'et r# CreelN effort, to which & ha!e not begun to "ojutice, "i" not inclu"e r# c4"ooN tupen"ou organiHation for theLiberty Loan, nor r# -oo!erN far reaching propagan"a about foo",nor the campaign of the e" Cro, the '# # C# 4#, .al!ation 4rmy,Dnight of Columbu, Aewih Welfare Boar", not to mention thein"epen"ent work of patriotic ocietie, like the League to EnforcePeace, the League of )ree ation 4ociation, the ational .ecurityLeague, nor the acti!ity of the publicity bureau of the 4llie an" ofthe ubmerge" nationalitie#

Probably thi i the larget an" the mot inteni!e effort to carryuickly a fairly uniform et of i"ea to all the people of a nation#The ol"er proelyting worke" more lowly, perhap more urely, butne!er o inclui!ely# ow if it reuire" uch e+treme meaure toreach e!erybo"y in time of crii, how open are the more normalchannel to menN min"I The 4"minitration wa trying, an" while thewar continue" it !ery largely uccee"e", & belie!e, in creatingomething that might almot be calle" one public opinion all o!er4merica# But think of the "ogge" work, the complicate" ingenuity, themoney an" the peronnel that were reuire"# othing like that e+itin time of peace, an" a a corollary there are whole ection, thereare !at group, ghettoe, encla!e an" clae that hear only !aguelyabout much that i going on#

They li!e in groo!e, are hut in among their own affair, barre" outof larger affair, meet few people not of their own ort, rea" little#Tra!el an" tra"e, the mail, the wire, an" ra"io, railroa",highway, hip, motor car, an" in the coming generation aeroplane,are, of coure, of the utmot influence on the circulation of i"ea#Each of thee affect the upply an" the uality of information an"opinion in a mot intricate way# Each i itelf affecte" by technical,by economic, by political con"ition# E!ery time a go!ernment rela+ethe paport ceremonie or the cutom inpection, e!ery time a newrailway or a new port i opene", a new hipping line etablihe",e!ery time rate go up or "own, the mail mo!e fater or more lowly,the cable are uncenore" an" ma"e le e+peni!e, highway built, orwi"ene", or impro!e", the circulation of i"ea i influence"# Tariffche"ule an" ubi"ie affect the "irection of commercial enterprie,an" therefore the nature of human contract# 4n" o it may wellhappen, a it "i" for e+ample in the cae of .alem, aachuett,that a change in the art of hipbuil"ing will re"uce a whole city froma center where international influence con!erge to a genteelpro!incial town# 4ll the imme"iate effect of more rapi" tranit arenot necearily goo"# &t woul" be "ifficult to ay, for e+ample, thatthe railroa" ytem of )rance, o highly centraliHe" upon Pari, habeen an unmi+e" bleing to the )rench people#

&t i certainly true that problem ariing out of the mean ofcommunication are of the utmot importance, an" one of the mot

contructi!e feature of the program of the League of ation ha beenthe tu"y gi!en to railroa" tranit an" acce to the ea# ThemonopoliHing of cable, 8)ootnote3 -ence the wi"om of taking 'ap



eriouly#< of port, fuel tation, mountain pae, canal, trait,ri!er coure, terminal, market place mean a goo" "eal more thanthe enrichment of a group of buine men, or the pretige of ago!ernment# &t mean a barrier upon the e+change of new an" opinion#But monopoly i not the only barrier# Cot an" a!ailable upply aree!en greater one, for if the cot of tra!elling or tra"ing i

prohibiti!e, if the "eman" for facilitie e+cee" the upply, thebarrier e+it e!en without monopoly#

5

The iHe of a manN income ha coni"erable effect on hi acce tothe worl" beyon" hi neighborhoo"# With money he can o!ercome almote!ery tangible obtacle of communication, he can tra!el, buy book an"perio"ical, an" bring within the range of hi attention almot anyknown fact of the worl"# The income of the in"i!i"ual, an" the incomeof the community "etermine the amount of communication that ipoible# But menN i"ea "etermine how that income hall be pent,an" that in turn affect in the long run the amount of income they

will ha!e# Thu alo there are limitation, none the le real,becaue they are often elf>impoe" an" elf>in"ulgent#

There are portion of the o!ereign people who pen" mot of theirpare time an" pare money on motoring an" comparing motor car, onbri"ge>whit an" pot>mortem, on mo!ing>picture an" potboiler,talking alway to the ame people with minute !ariation on the ameol" theme# They cannot really be ai" to uffer from cenorhip, orecrecy, the high cot or the "ifficulty of communication# They ufferfrom anemia, from lack of appetite an" curioity for the human cene#Their i no problem of acce to the worl" outi"e# Worl" ofinteret are waiting for them to e+plore, an" they "o not enter#

They mo!e, a if on a leah, within a fi+e" ra"iu of acuaintanceaccor"ing to the law an" the gopel of their ocial et# 4mong men thecircle of talk in buine an" at the club an" in the moking car iwi"er than the et to which they belong# 4mong women the ocial etan" the circle of talk are freuently almot i"entical# &t i in theocial et that i"ea "eri!e" from rea"ing an" lecture an" from thecircle of talk con!erge, are orte" out, accepte", rejecte", ju"ge"an" anctione"# There it i finally "eci"e" in each phae of a"icuion which authoritie an" which ource of information area"miible, an" which not#

Our ocial et conit of thoe who figure a people in the phrae%people are aying% they are the people whoe appro!al matter motintimately to u# &n big citie among men an" women of wi"e interetan" with the mean for mo!ing about, the ocial et i not o rigi"ly"efine"# But e!en in big citie, there are uarter an" net of!illage containing elf>ufficing ocial et# &n maller communitiethere may e+it a freer circulation, a more genuine fellowhip fromafter breakfat to before "inner# But few people "o not know,ne!erthele, which et they really belong to, an" which not#

ually the "itinguihing mark of a ocial et i the preumptionthat the chil"ren may intermarry# To marry outi"e the et in!ol!e,at the !ery leat, a moment of "oubt before the engagement can beappro!e"# Each ocial et ha a fairly clear picture of it relati!epoition in the hierarchy of ocial et# Between et at the amele!el, aociation i eay, in"i!i"ual are uickly accepte",

hopitality i normal an" unembarrae"# But in contact between etthat are %higher% or %lower,% there i alway reciprocal heitation, afaint malaie, an" a concioune of "ifference# To be ure in a



ociety like that of the nite" .tate, in"i!i"ual mo!e omewhatfreely out of one et into another, epecially where there i noracial barrier an" where economic poition change o rapi"ly#

Economic poition, howe!er, i not meaure" by the amount of income#)or in the firt generation, at leat, it i not income that

"etermine ocial tan"ing, but the character of a manN work, an" itmay take a generation or two before thi fa"e out of the familytra"ition# Thu banking, law, me"icine, public utilitie, newpaper,the church, large retailing, brokerage, manufacture, are rate" at a"ifferent ocial !alue from alemanhip, uperinten"ence, e+perttechnical work, nuring, chool teaching, hop keeping an" thoe, inturn, are rate" a "ifferently from plumbing, being a chauffeur,"remaking, ubcontracting, or tenography, a thee are from being abutler, la"yN mai", a mo!ing picture operator, or a locomoti!eengineer# 4n" yet the financial return "oe not necearily coinci"ewith thee gra"ation#

M

Whate!er the tet of a"miion, the ocial et when forme" i not amere economic cla, but omething which more nearly reemble abiological clan# emberhip i intimately connecte" with lo!e,marriage an" chil"ren, or, to peak more e+actly, with the attitu"ean" "eire that are in!ol!e"# &n the ocial et, therefore, opinionencounter the canon of )amily Tra"ition, epectability, Propriety,$ignity, Tate an" )orm, which make up the ocial etN picture ofitelf, a picture ai"uouly implante" in the chil"ren# &n thipicture a large pace i tacitly gi!en to an authoriHe" !erion ofwhat each et i calle" upon inwar"ly to accept a the ocial tan"ingof the other# The more !ulgar pre for an outwar" e+preion of the"eference "ue, the other are "ecently an" eniti!ely ilent abouttheir own knowle"ge that uch "eference in!iibly e+it# But thatknowle"ge, becoming o!ert when there i a marriage, a war, or a ocialuphea!al, i the ne+u of a large bun"le of "ipoition claifie" byTrotter 8)ootnote3 W# Trotter, &ntinct of the -er" in War an" Peace#<un"er the general term intinct of the her"#

Within each ocial et there are augur like the !an "er Luy"en an"r# anon ingott in %The 4ge of &nnocence,% 8)ootnote3 E"ithWharton, FThe 4ge of &nnocence#F< who are recogniHe" a thecuto"ian an" the interpreter of it ocial pattern# 'ou are ma"e,they ay, if the !an "er Luy"en take you up# The in!itation to theirfunction are the high ign of arri!al an" tatu# The election tocollege ocietie, carefully gra"e" an" the gra"ation uni!erallyaccepte", "etermine who i who in college# The ocial lea"er,weighte" with the ultimate eugenic reponibility, are peculiarlyeniti!e# ot only mut they be watchfully aware of what make forthe integrity of their et, but they ha!e to culti!ate a pecial giftfor knowing what other ocial et are "oing# They act a a kin" ofminitry of foreign affair# Where mot of the member of a et li!ecomplacently within the et, regar"ing it for all practical purpoea the worl", the ocial lea"er mut combine an intimate knowle"ge ofthe anatomy of their own et with a peritent ene of it place inthe hierarchy of et#

The hierarchy, in fact, i boun" together by the ocial lea"er# 4tany one le!el there i omething which might almot be calle" a ocialet of the ocial lea"er# But !ertically the actual bin"ing together

of ociety, in o far a it i boun" together at all by ocialcontact, i accomplihe" by thoe e+ceptional people, freuentlyupect, who like Auliu Beaufort an" Ellen Olenka in %The 4ge of



&nnocence% mo!e in an" out# Thu there come to be etablihe" peronalchannel from one et to another, through which Tar"eN law ofimitation operate# But for large ection of the population there areno uch channel# )or them the patente" account of ociety an" themo!ing picture of high life ha!e to er!e# They may "e!elop a ocialhierarchy of their own, almot unnotice", a ha!e the egroe an" the

%foreign element,% but among that aimilate" ma which alwayconi"er itelf the %nation,% there i in pite of the greateparatene of et, a !ariety of peronal contact through which acirculation of tan"ar" take place#

.ome of the et are o place" that they become what Profeor oha calle" %ra"iant point of con!entionality#% 8)ootnote3 o,F.ocial PychologyF, Ch# &J, J, J&#< Thu the ocial uperior ilikely to be imitate" by the ocial inferior, the hol"er of power iimitate" by ubor"inate, the more ucceful by the le ucceful,the rich by the poor, the city by the country# But imitation "oe nottop at frontier# The powerful, ocially uperior, ucceful, rich,urban ocial et i fun"amentally international throughout the wetern

hemiphere, an" in many way Lon"on i it center# &t count among itmemberhip the mot influential people in the worl", containing a it"oe the "iplomatic et, high finance, the upper circle of the armyan" the na!y, ome prince of the church, a few great newpaperproprietor, their wi!e an" mother an" "aughter who wiel" thecepter of in!itation# &t i at once a great circle of talk an" a realocial et# But it importance come from the fact that here at latthe "itinction between public an" pri!ate affair practically"iappear# The pri!ate affair of thi et are public matter, an"public matter are it pri!ate, often it family affair# Theconfinement of argot 4uith like the confinement of royalty are,a the philoopher ay, in much the ame uni!ere of "icoure a atariff bill or a parliamentary "ebate#

There are large area of go!ernment in which thi ocial et i notinterete", an" in 4merica, at leat, it ha e+ercie" only afluctuating control o!er the national go!ernment# But it power inforeign affair i alway !ery great, an" in war time it pretige ienormouly enhance"# That i natural enough becaue theecomopolitan ha!e a contact with the outer worl" that mot people "onot poe# They ha!e "ine" with each other in the capital, an"their ene of national honor i no mere abtraction it i a concretee+perience of being nubbe" or appro!e" by their frien"# To $r#Dennicott of Gopher Prairie it matter mighty little what Wintonthink an" a great "eal what EHra .towbo"y think, but to r# ingottwith a "aughter marrie" to the Earl of .within it matter a lot whenhe !iit her "aughter, or entertain Winton himelf# $r# Dennicottan" r# ingott are both ocially eniti!e, but r# ingott ieniti!e to a ocial et that go!ern the worl", while $r#DennicottN ocial et go!ern only in Gopher Prairie# But in matterthat effect the larger relationhip of the Great .ociety, $r#Dennicott will often be foun" hol"ing what he think i purely hi ownopinion, though, a a matter of fact, it ha trickle" "own to GopherPrairie from -igh .ociety, tranmute" on it paage through thepro!incial ocial et#

7

&t i no part of our inuiry to attempt an account of the ocialtiue# We nee" only fi+ in min" how big i the part playe" by the

ocial et in our piritual contact with the worl", how it ten" tofi+ what i a"miible, an" to "etermine how it hall be ju"ge"#4ffair within it imme"iate competence each et more or le



"etermine for itelf# 4bo!e all it "etermine the "etaile"a"minitration of the ju"gment# But the ju"gment itelf i forme" onpattern 8)ootnote3 FCfF# Part &&&< that may be inherite" fromthe pat, tranmitte" or imitate" from other ocial et# The highetocial et conit of thoe who embo"y the lea"erhip of the Great.ociety# 4 againt almot e!ery other ocial et where the bulk of

the opinion are firt han" only about local affair, in thi -ighet.ociety the big "eciion of war an" peace, of ocial trategy an" theultimate "itribution of political power, are intimate e+periencewithin a circle of what, potentially at leat, are peronalacuaintance#

.ince poition an" contact play o big a part in "etermining what canbe een, hear", rea", an" e+perience", a well a what it ipermiible to ee, hear, rea", an" know, it i no won"er that moralju"gment i o much more common than contructi!e thought# 'et intruly effecti!e thinking the prime neceity i to liui"ateju"gment, regain an innocent eye, "ientangle feeling, be curiouan" open>hearte"# anN hitory being what it i, political opinion on

the cale of the Great .ociety reuire an amount of elfleeuanimity rarely attainable by any one for any length of time# We areconcerne" in public affair, but immere" in our pri!ate one# Thetime an" attention are limite" that we can pare for the labor of nottaking opinion for grante", an" we are ubject to contantinterruption#

C-4PTE &*

T&E 4$ 4TTET&O

4T4LL' it i poible to make a rough etimate only of the amountof attention people gi!e each "ay to informing themel!e about publicaffair# 'et it i intereting that three etimate that & ha!ee+amine" agree tolerably well, though they were ma"e at "ifferenttime, in "ifferent place, an" by "ifferent metho"# 8)ootnote3 Auly,/066# $# )# Wilco+, FThe 4merican ewpaper3 4 .tu"y in .ocialPychologyF, 4nnal of the 4merican 4ca"emy of Political an" .ocial.cience, !ol# +!i, p# ;:# =The tatitical table are repro"uce" inAame E"war" oger, FThe 4merican ewpaperF#@

/0/: =I@ W# $# .cott, FThe Pychology of 4"!ertiingF, pp#55:>57?# .ee alo -enry )oter 4"am, F4"!ertiing an" it entalLawF, Ch# &*#

/056 Fewpaper ea"ing -abit of College .tu"entF, by Prof#George Burton -otchki an" ichar" B# )ranken, publihe" by the4ociation of ational 4"!ertier, &nc#, /; Eat 5:th .treet, ew'ork City#<

4 uetionnaire wa ent by -otchki an" )ranken to /1:/ men an"women college tu"ent in ew 'ork City, an" anwer came from all buta few# .cott ue" a uetionnaire on four thouan" prominent buinean" profeional men in Chicago an" recei!e" replie from twenty>threehun"re"# Between e!enty an" e!enty>fi!e percent of all thoe whoreplie" to either inuiry thought they pent a uarter of an hour a"ay rea"ing newpaper# Only four percent of the Chicago group guee"

at le than thi an" twenty>fi!e percent guee" at more# 4mong theew 'orker a little o!er eight percent figure" their newpaperrea"ing at le than fifteen minute, an" e!enteen an" a half at



more#

*ery few people ha!e an accurate i"ea of fifteen minute, o thefigure are not to be taken literally# oreo!er, buine men,profeional people, an" college tu"ent are mot of them liable to acuriou little bia againt appearing to pen" too much time o!er the

newpaper, an" perhap alo to a faint upicion of a "eire to beknown a rapi" rea"er# 4ll that the figure can jutly be taken tomean i that o!er three uarter of thoe in the electe" group raterather low the attention they gi!e to printe" new of the outer worl"#

Thee time etimate are fairly well confirme" by a tet which i leubjecti!e# .cott ake" hi Chicagoan how many paper they rea" each"ay, an" wa tol" that

/7 percent rea" but one paper 7: % % two paper 5/ % % three paper /6 % % four paper

M % % fi!e paper 5 % % i+ paper M % % all the paper =eight at the time of thi inuiry@#

The two> an" three>paper rea"er are i+ty>e!en percent, which comefairly cloe to the e!enty>one percent in .cottN group who ratethemel!e at fifteen minute a "ay# The omni!orou rea"er of fromfour to eight paper coinci"e roughly with the twenty>fi!e percent whorate" themel!e at more than fifteen minute#

5

&t i till more "ifficult to gue how the time i "itribute"# Thecollege tu"ent were ake" to name %the fi!e feature which interetyou mot#% Aut un"er twenty percent !ote" for %general new,% jutun"er fifteen for e"itorial, jut un"er twel!e for %politic,% alittle o!er eight for finance, not two year after the armitice alittle o!er i+ for foreign new, three an" a half for local, nearlythree for buine, an" a uarter of one percent for new about%labor#% 4 cattering ai" they were mot interete" in port,pecial article, the theatre, a"!ertiement, cartoon, book re!iew,%accuracy,% muic, %ethical tone,% ociety, bre!ity, art, torie,hipping, chool new, %current new,% print# $iregar"ing thee,about i+ty>e!en an" a half percent picke" a the mot interetingfeature new an" opinion that "ealt with public affair#

Thi wa a mi+e" college group# The girl profee" greater interetthan the boy in general new, foreign new, local new, politic,e"itorial, the theatre, muic, art, torie, cartoon,a"!ertiement, an" %ethical tone#% The boy on the other han" weremore aborbe" in finance, port, buine page, %accuracy% an"%bre!ity#% Thee "icrimination correpon" a little too cloely withthe i"eal of what i culture" an" moral, manly an" "ecii!e, not tomake one upect the utter objecti!ity of the replie#

'et they agree fairly well with the replie of .cottN Chicagobuine an" profeional men# They were ake", not what featureinterete" them mot, but why they preferre" one newpaper to another#early e!enty>one percent bae" their conciou preference on local

new =/1#?S@, or political =/;#?S@ or financial =//#MS@, or foreign=0#;S@, or general =1#5S@, or e"itorial =0S@# The other thirtypercent "eci"e" on groun" not connecte" with public affair# They



range" from not uite e!en who "eci"e" for ethical tone, "own to onetwentieth of one percent who care" mot about humor#

-ow "o thee preference correpon" with the pace gi!en by newpaperto !ariou ubjectI nfortunately there are no "ata collecte" on thipoint for the newpaper rea" by the Chicago an" ew 'ork group at

the time the uetionnaire were ma"e# But there i an interetinganalyi ma"e o!er twenty year ago by Wilco+# -e tu"ie" one hun"re"an" ten newpaper in fourteen large citie, an" claifie" theubject matter of o!er nine thouan" column#

4!erage" for the whole country the !ariou newpaper matter wa foun"to fill3

=a@ War ew /1#0 )oreign /#5 =b@ General % 5/#? Politic :#7&# ew ;;#M Crime M#/ ic# //#/

Buine ?#5 =c@ .pecial % /;#: .port ;#/ .ociety 5#M

&&# &llutration M#/

&&&# Literature 5#7 =a@ E"itorial M#0&*# Opinion 1#/ =b@ Letter U E+change M#5

*# 4"!ertiement M5#/

&n or"er to bring thi table into a fair comparion, it i necearyto e+clu"e the pace gi!en to a"!ertiement, an" recompute thepercentage# )or the a"!ertiement occupie" only an infiniteimalpart of the conciou preference of the Chicago group or the collegegroup# & think thi i jutifiable for our purpoe becaue the preprint what a"!ertiement it can get, 8)ootnote3 E+cept thoe which itregar" a objectionable, an" thoe which, in rare intance, arecrow"e" out#< wherea the ret of the paper i "eigne" to the tateof it rea"er# The table woul" then rea"3

War ew 5:#7> )oreign /#?> &# ew ?/#7VGeneral ew M5#6V Political 0#7V Crime 7#:> ic# /:#MV Buine /5#/> .pecial % 5M#6> .porting 1#;V .ociety M#M> &&# &llutration 7#:>&&&# Literature M#;V &*# Opinion /6#;> E"itorial ;#?> Letter 7#1V

&n thi re!ie" table if you a"" up the item which may be uppoe" to

"eal with public affair, that i to ay war, foreign, political,micellaneou, buine new, an" opinion, you fin" a total of 1:#;Sof the e"ite" pace "e!ote" in /066 to the 16#:S of reaon gi!en by



Chicago buine men in /0/: for preferring a particular newpaper,an" to the fi!e feature which mot interete" :1#;S of the ew 'orkCollege tu"ent in /056#

Thi woul" eem to how that the tate of buine men an" collegetu"ent in big citie to>"ay till correpon" more or le to the

a!erage" ju"gment of newpaper e"itor in big citie twenty yearago# .ince that time the proportion of feature to new haun"oubte"ly increae", an" o ha the circulation an" the iHe ofnewpaper# Therefore, if to>"ay you coul" ecure accurate repliefrom more typical group than college tu"ent or buine an"profeional men, you woul" e+pect to fin" a maller percentage oftime "e!ote" to public affair, a well a a maller percentage ofpace# On the other han" you woul" e+pect to fin" that the a!erage manpen" more than the uarter of an hour on hi newpaper, an" thatwhile the percentage of pace gi!en to public affair i le thantwenty year ago the net amount i greater#

o elaborate "e"uction are to be "rawn from thee figure# They help

merely to make omewhat more concrete our notion of the effort thatgoe "ay by "ay into acuiring the "ata of our opinion# Thenewpaper are, of coure, not the only mean, but they are certainlythe principal one# agaHine, the public forum, the chautauua, thechurch, political gathering, tra"e union meeting, womenN club, an"new erial in the mo!ing picture houe upplement the pre# Buttaking it all at the mot fa!orable etimate, the time each "ay imall when any of u i "irectly e+poe" to information from ouruneen en!ironment#

C-4PTE *

.PEE$, WO$., 4$ CLE4E..

/

The uneen en!ironment i reporte" to u chiefly by wor"# Thee wor"are tranmitte" by wire or ra"io from the reporter to the e"itor whofit them into print# Telegraphy i e+peni!e, an" the facilitie areoften limite"# Pre er!ice new i, therefore, uually co"e"# Thu a"ipatch which rea",>>

%Wahington, $# C# Aune &#>>The nite" .tate regar" the uetion ofGerman hipping eiHe" in thi country at the outbreak of hotilitiea a cloe" inci"ent,%

may pa o!er the wire in the following form3

%Wahn i# The ni .ta rg" t of Ger pg eiHe" in t cou at t outbko ho+ a a clo" inci"ent#% 8)ootnote3 PhillipN Co"e#<

4 new item aying3

%Berlin, Aune /, Chancellor Wirth tol" the eichtag to>"ay inoutlining the Go!ernmentN program that Nretoration an"reconciliation woul" be the keynote of the new Go!ernmentN policy#N-e a""e" that the Cabinet wa "etermine" "iarmament houl" be carrie"

out loyally an" that "iarmament woul" not be the occaion of theimpoition of further penaltie by the 4llie#%



may be cable" in thi form3

%Berlin /# Chancellor Wirth tol" t eichtag t"y in outlining the g!tpgn tt n retoration U reconciliation w" b the keynote f new g!tpolicy# j -e a""e" ttt cabinet w "tm" "iarmament " b carrie" outloyally U tt "iarmament w" n b# the ocan f impoition of further

penaltie bi t ali#%

&n thi econ" item the ubtance ha been culle" from a long peechin a foreign tongue, tranlate", co"e", an" then "eco"e"# Theoperator who recei!e the meage trancribe them a they go along,an" & am tol" that a goo" operator can write fifteen thouan" or e!enmore wor" per eight hour "ay, with a half an hour out for lunch an"two ten minute perio" for ret#

5

4 few wor" mut often tan" for a whole ucceion of act, thought,feeling an" coneuence# We rea"3

%Wahington, $ec# 5M>>4 tatement charging Aapanee militaryauthoritie with "ee" more Nfrightful an" barbarouN than anythinge!er allege" to ha!e occurre" in Belgium "uring the war wa iue"here to>"ay by the Dorean Commiion, bae", the Commiion ai", onauthentic report recei!e" by it from anchuria#%

-ere eyewitnee, their accuracy unknown, report to the maker ofNauthentic reportN they in turn tranmit thee to a commiion fi!ethouan" mile away# &t prepare a tatement, probably much too longfor publication, from which a correpon"ent cull an item of printthree an" a half inche long# The meaning ha to be telecope" in ucha way a to permit the rea"er to ju"ge how much weight to gi!e to thenew#

&t i "oubtful whether a upreme mater of tyle coul" pack all theelement of truth that complete jutice woul" "eman" into a hun"re"wor" account of what ha" happene" in Dorea "uring the coure ofe!eral month# )or language i by no mean a perfect !ehicle ofmeaning# Wor", like currency, are turne" o!er an" o!er again, toe!oke one et of image to>"ay, another to>morrow# There i nocertainty whate!er that the ame wor" will call out e+actly the amei"ea in the rea"erN min" a it "i" in the reporterN# Theoretically,if each fact an" each relation ha" a name that wa uniue, an" ife!eryone ha" agree" on the name, it woul" be poible to communicatewithout miun"ertan"ing# &n the e+act cience there i an approachto thi i"eal, an" that i part of the reaon why of all form ofworl">wi"e cooperation, cientific inuiry i the mot effecti!e#

en comman" fewer wor" than they ha!e i"ea to e+pre, an" language,a Aean Paul ai", i a "ictionary of fa"e" metaphor# 8)ootnote3Cite" by White, Fechanim of Character )ormation#F< Thejournalit a""reing half a million rea"er of whom he ha only a "impicture, the peaker whoe wor" are flahe" to remote !illage an"o!erea, cannot hope that a few phrae will carry the whole bur"enof their meaning# %The wor" of Lloy" George, ba"ly un"ertoo" an"ba"ly tranmitte",% ai" # Brian" to the Chamber of $eputie,8)ootnote3 .pecial Cable to FThe ew 'ork Time,F ay 5;, /05/,by E"win L, Aame# < %eeme" to gi!e the Pan>Germanit the i"ea thatthe time ha" come to tart omething#% 4 Britih Prime initer,

peaking in Englih to the whole attenti!e worl", peak hi ownmeaning in hi own wor" to all kin" of people who will ee theirmeaning in thoe wor"# o matter how rich or ubtle>>or rather the



more rich an" the more ubtle that which he ha to ay, the more himeaning will uffer a it i luice" into tan"ar" peech an" then"itribute" again among alien min"# 8)ootnote3 &n ay of /05/,relation between Englan" an" )rance were traine" by the inurrectionof # Dorfanty in pper .ileia# The Lon"on Correpon"ence of theFancheter Guar"ianF =ay 56, /05/@, containe" the following

item3

%The )ranco>Englih E+change in Wor"#

%&n uarter well acuainte" with )rench way an" character & fin" aten"ency to think that un"ue enibility ha been hown by our prean" public opinion in the li!ely an" at time intemperate language ofthe )rench pre through the preent crii# The point wa put to meby a well>informe" neutral ober!er in the following manner#

%Wor", like money, are token of !alue# They repreent meaning,therefore, an" jut a money, their repreentati!e !alue goe up an""own# The )rench wor" NetonnantN wa ue" by Bouet with a terrible

weight of meaning which it ha lot to>"ay# 4 imilar thing can beober!e" with the Englih wor" Nawful#N .ome nation contitutionallyten" to un"ertate, other to o!ertate# What the Britih Tommy calle"an unhealthy place coul" only be "ecribe" by an &talian ol"ier bymean of a rich !ocabulary ai"e" with an e+uberant mimicry# ationthat un"ertate keep their wor">currency oun"# ation that o!ertateuffer from inflation in their language#

%E+preion uch a Na "itinguihe" cholar,N Na cle!er writer,Nmut be tranlate" into )rench a Na great a!ant,N Nan e+uiitemater#N &t i a mere matter of e+change, jut a in )rance one poun"pay 7: franc, an" yet one know that that "oe not increae it!alue at home# Englihmen rea"ing the )rench pre houl" en"ea!our towork out a mental operation imilar to that of the banker who putback franc into poun", an" not forget in o "oing that while innormal time the change wa 5; it i now 7: on account of the war# )orthere i a war fluctuation on wor" e+change a well a on moneye+change#

%The argument, one hope, work both way, an" )renchmen "o not failto realiHe that there i a much !alue behin" Englih reticence abehin" their own e+uberance of e+preion#%<

illion of thoe who are watching him can rea" har"ly at all#illion more can rea" the wor" but cannot un"ertan" them# Of thoewho can both rea" an" un"ertan", a goo" three>uarter we may aumeha!e ome part of half an hour a "ay to pare for the ubject# To themthe wor" o acuire" are the cue for a whole train of i"ea on whichultimately a !ote of untol" coneuence may be bae"# ecearily thei"ea which we allow the wor" we rea" to e!oke form the bigget partof the original "ata of our opinion# The worl" i !at, theituation that concern u are intricate, the meage are few, thebigget part of opinion mut be contructe" in the imagination#

When we ue the wor" %e+ico% what picture "oe it e!oke in a rei"entof ew 'orkI Likely a not, it i ome compoite of an", cactu, oilwell, greaer, rum>"rinking &n"ian, tety ol" ca!alier flourihingwhiker an" o!ereignty, or perhap an i"yllic peaantry la AeanAacue, aaile" by the propect of moky in"utrialim, an" fightingfor the ight of an# What "oe the wor" %Aapan% e!okeI & it a !ague

hor"e of lant>eye" yellow men, urroun"e" by 'ellow Peril, picturebri"e, fan, .amurai, banHai, art, an" cherry bloomI Or the wor"%alien%I 4ccor"ing to a group of ew Englan" college tu"ent, writing



in the year /056, an alien wa the following3 8)ootnote3 FThe ewepublicF3 $ecember 50, /056, p# /75# <

%4 peron hotile to thi country#%%4 peron againt the go!ernment#%%4 peron who i on the oppoite i"e#%

%4 nati!e of an unfrien"ly country#%%4 foreigner at war#%%4 foreigner who trie to "o harm to the country he i in#%%4n enemy from a foreign lan"#%%4 peron againt a country#% etc####

'et the wor" alien i an unuually e+act legal term, far more e+actthan wor" like o!ereignty, in"epen"ence, national honor, right,"efene, aggreion, imperialim, capitalim, ocialim, about whichwe o rea"ily take i"e %for% or %againt#%

M

The power to "iociate uperficial analogie, atten" to "ifferencean" appreciate !ariety i luci"ity of min"# &t i a relati!e faculty#'et the "ifference in luci"ity are e+teni!e, ay a between a newlyborn infant an" a botanit e+amining a flower# To the infant there ipreciou little "ifference between hi own toe, hi fatherN watch,the lamp on the table, the moon in the ky, an" a nice bright yellowe"ition of Guy "e aupaant# To many a member of the nion LeagueClub there i no remarkable "ifference between a $emocrat, a.ocialit, an anarchit, an" a burglar, while to a highlyophiticate" anarchit there i a whole uni!ere of "ifferencebetween Bakunin, Toltoi, an" Dropotkin# Thee e+ample how how"ifficult it might be to ecure a oun" public opinion about "eaupaant among babie, or about $emocrat in the nion League Club#

4 man who merely ri"e in other peopleN automobile may not rie tofiner "icrimination than between a )or", a ta+icab, an" anautomobile# But let that ame man own a car an" "ri!e it, let him, athe pychoanalyt woul" ay, project hi libi"o upon automobile, an"he will "ecribe a "ifference in carburetor by looking at the rearen" of a car a city block away# That i why it i often uch a reliefwhen the talk turn from %general topic% to a manN own hobby# &t ilike turning from the lan"cape in the parlor to the ploughe" fiel"out"oor# &t i a return to the three "imenional worl", after aojourn in the painterN portrayal of hi own emotional repone tohi own inattenti!e memory of what he imagine he ought to ha!e een#

We eaily i"entify, ay )erencHi, two only partially imilar thing38)ootnote3 &nternat# Keitchr, f# 4rHtl# Pychoanalye, /0/M#Tranlate" an" republihe" by $r# Ernet Aone in .# )erencHi,FContribution to PychoanalyiF, Ch# *&&&, F.tage in the$e!elopment of the .ene of ealityF#< the chil" more eaily thanthe a"ult, the primiti!e or arrete" min" more rea"ily than themature# 4 it firt appear in the chil", concioune eem to be anunmanageable mi+ture of enation# The chil" ha no ene of time,an" almot none of pace, it reache for the chan"elier with the ameconfi"ence that it reache for it motherN breat, an" at firt withalmot the ame e+pectation# Only !ery gra"ually "oe function "efineitelf# To complete ine+perience thi i a coherent an"un"ifferentiate" worl", in which, a omeone ha ai" of a chool ofphiloopher, all fact are born free an" eual# Thoe fact which

belong together in the worl" ha!e not yet been eparate" from thoewhich happen to lie i"e by i"e in the tream of concioune#



4t firt, ay )erencHi, the baby get ome of the thing it want bycrying for them# Thi i %the perio" of magical hallucinatoryomnipotence#% &n it econ" phae the chil" point to the thing itwant, an" they are gi!en to it# %Omnipotence by the help of magicgeture#% Later, the chil" learn to talk, ak for what it wihe,an" i partially ucceful# %The perio" of magic thought an" magic

wor"#% Each phae may perit for certain ituation, though o!erlai"an" only !iible at time, a for e+ample, in the little harmleupertition from which few of u are wholly free# &n each phae,partial ucce ten" to confirm that way of acting, while failureten" to timulate the "e!elopment of another# any in"i!i"ual,partie, an" e!en nation, rarely appear to trancen" the magicalorganiHation of e+perience# But in the more a"!ance" ection of themot a"!ance" people, trial an" error after repeate" failure ha le"to the in!ention of a new principle# The moon, they learn, i notmo!e" by baying at it# Crop are not raie" from the oil by pringfeti!al or epublican majoritie, but by unlight, moiture, ee",fertiliHer, an" culti!ation# 8)ootnote3 )erencHi, being a pathologit,"oe not "ecribe thi maturer perio" where e+perience i organiHe" a

euation, the phae of realim on the bai of cience#<

4llowing for the purely chematic !alue of )erencHiN categorie ofrepone, the uality which we note a critical i the power to"icriminate among cru"e perception an" !ague analogie# Thi powerha been tu"ie" un"er laboratory con"ition# 8)ootnote3 .ee, fore+ample, $iagnotiche 4oHiation .tu"ien, con"ucte" at thePychiatric ni!erity Clinic in Kurich un"er the "irection of $r# C#G# Aung# Thee tet were carrie" on principally un"er the o>calle"Drapelin>4chaffenburg claification# They how reaction time,claify repone to the timulant wor" a inner, outer, an" clang,how eparate reult for the firt an" econ" hun"re" wor", forreaction time an" reaction uality when the ubject i "itracte" byhol"ing an i"ea in min", or when he replie while beating time with ametronome# .ome of the reult are ummariHe" in Aung, F4nalyticalPychologyF, Ch# &&, tranl# by $r# Contance E# Long#< The Kurich4ociation .tu"ie in"icate clearly that light mental fatigue, aninner "iturbance of attention or an e+ternal "itraction, ten" to%flatten% the uality of the repone# 4n e+ample of the !ery %flat%type i the clang aociation =cat>hat@, a reaction to the oun" an"not to the ene of the timulant wor"# One tet, for e+ample, how a0S increae of clang in the econ" erie of a hun"re" reaction# owthe clang i almot a repetition, a !ery primiti!e form of analogy#

7

&f the comparati!ely imple con"ition of a laboratory can o rea"ilyflatten out "icrimination, what mut be the effect of city lifeI &nthe laboratory the fatigue i light enough, the "itraction rathertri!ial# Both are balance" in meaure by the ubjectN interet an"elf>concioune# 'et if the beat of a metronome will "epreintelligence, what "o eight or twel!e hour of noie, o"or, an" heatin a factory, or "ay upon "ay among chattering typewriter an"telephone bell an" lamming "oor, "o to the political ju"gmentforme" on the bai of newpaper rea" in treet>car an" ubwayI Cananything be hear" in the hubbub that "oe not hriek, or be een inthe general glare that "oe not flah like an electric ignI The lifeof the city "weller lack olitu"e, ilence, eae# The night arenoiy an" ablaHe# The people of a big city are aaulte" by inceantoun", now !iolent an" jagge", now falling into unfinihe" rhythm,

but en"le an" remorele# n"er mo"ern in"utrialim thought goeon in a bath of noie# &f it "icrimination are often flat an"foolih, here at leat i ome mall part of the reaon# The o!ereign





where it i "icolore" with preju"ice an" far fetche" analogy#

4 %broa" appeal% take account of the uality of aociation, an" ima"e to thoe uceptibilitie which are wi"ely "itribute"# 4%narrow% or a %pecial% appeal i one ma"e to thoe uceptibilitiewhich are uncommon# But the ame in"i!i"ual may repon" with !ery

"ifferent uality to "ifferent timuli, or to the ame timuli at"ifferent time# -uman uceptibilitie are like an alpine country#There are iolate" peak, there are e+teni!e but eparate" plateau,an" there are "eeper trata which are uite continuou for nearly allmankin"# Thu the in"i!i"ual whoe uceptibilitie reach therarefie" atmophere of thoe peak where there e+it an e+uiiti!e"ifference between )rege an" Peano, or between .aettaN earlier an"later perio", may be goo" tanch epublican at another le!el ofappeal, an" when they are tar!ing an" afrai", in"itinguihable fromany other tar!ing an" frightene" peron# o won"er that the magaHinewith the large circulation prefer the face of a pretty girl to anyother tra"e mark, a face, pretty enough to be alluring, but innocentenough to be acceptable# )or the %pychic le!el% on which the timulu

act "etermine whether the public i to be potentially a large or amall one#

:

Thu the en!ironment with which our public opinion "eal i refracte"in many way, by cenorhip an" pri!acy at the ource, by phyical an"ocial barrier at the other en", by canty attention, by the po!ertyof language, by "itraction, by unconciou contellation of feeling,by wear an" tear, !iolence, monotony# Thee limitation upon ouracce to that en!ironment combine with the obcurity an" comple+ityof the fact themel!e to thwart clearne an" jutice of perception,to ubtitute milea"ing fiction for workable i"ea, an" to "epri!eu of a"euate check upon thoe who conciouly tri!e to milea"#

P4T &&&

.TEEOT'PE.

C-4PTE :# .TEEOT'PE. % 1# .TEEOT'PE. 4. $E)E.E % ?# BL&$ .POT. 4$ T-E& *4LE % 0# CO$E. 4$ T-E& EE&E. % /6# T-E $ETECT&O O) .TEEOT'PE.

C-4PTE *&

.TEEOT'PE.

/

Each of u li!e an" work on a mall part of the earthN urface,mo!e in a mall circle, an" of thee acuaintance know only a fewintimately# Of any public e!ent that ha wi"e effect we ee at bet

only a phae an" an apect# Thi i a true of the eminent ini"erwho "raft treatie, make law, an" iue or"er, a it i of thoe whoha!e treatie frame" for them, law promulgate" to them, or"er gi!en



at them# &ne!itably our opinion co!er a bigger pace, a longer reachof time, a greater number of thing, than we can "irectly ober!e#They ha!e, therefore, to be piece" together out of what other ha!ereporte" an" what we can imagine#

'et e!en the eyewitne "oe not bring back a naQ!e picture of the

cene# 8)ootnote3 FE# g# cf#F E"mon" Locar", FLNEnuXte Criminelleet le Qtho"e .cientifiue#F 4 great "eal of intereting material habeen gathere" in late year on the cre"ibility of the witne, whichhow, a an able re!iewer of $r# Locar"N book ay in FTheTimeF =Lon"on@ Literary .upplement =4ugut /?, /05/@, thatcre"ibility !arie a to clae of witnee an" clae of e!ent,an" alo a to type of perception# Thu, perception of touch, o"or,an" tate ha!e low e!i"ential !alue# Our hearing i "efecti!e an"arbitrary when it ju"ge the ource an" "irection of oun", an" inlitening to the talk of other people %wor" which are not hear" willbe upplie" by the witne in all goo" faith# -e will ha!e a theory ofthe purport of the con!eration, an" will arrange the oun" he hear"to fit it#% E!en !iual perception are liable to great error, a in

i"entification, recognition, ju"gment of "itance, etimate ofnumber, for e+ample, the iHe of a crow"# &n the untraine" ober!er,the ene of time i highly !ariable# 4ll thee original weakneeare complicate" by trick of memory, an" the inceant creati!euality of the imagination# FCfF# alo .herrington, FThe &ntegrati!e4ction of the er!ou .ytemF, pp# M/?>M51#

The late Profeor -ugo Ynterberg wrote a popular book on thiubject calle" FOn the Witne .tan"F#< )or e+perience eem tohow that he himelf bring omething to the cene which later hetake away from it, that oftener than not what he imagine to be theaccount of an e!ent i really a tranfiguration of it# )ew fact inconcioune eem to be merely gi!en# ot fact in conciouneeem to be partly ma"e# 4 report i the joint pro"uct of the knoweran" known, in which the role of the ober!er i alway electi!e an"uually creati!e# The fact we ee "epen" on where we are place", an"the habit of our eye#

4n unfamiliar cene i like the babyN worl", %one great, blooming,buHHing confuion#% 8)ootnote3 Wm# Aame, FPrinciple ofPychologyF, *ol# &, p# 7??#< Thi i the way, ay r# Aohn $ewey,8)ootnote3 Aohn $ewey, F-ow We ThinkF, pg /5/#< that any newthing trike an a"ult, o far a the thing i really new an" trange#%)oreign language that we "o not un"ertan" alway eem jibbering,babbling, in which it i impoible to fi+ a "efinite, clear>cut,in"i!i"ualiHe" group of oun"# The countryman in the crow"e" treet,the lan"lubber at ea, the ignoramu in port at a contet betweene+pert in a complicate" game, are further intance# Put anine+perience" man in a factory, an" at firt the work eem to him ameaningle me"ley# 4ll tranger of another race pro!erbially lookalike to the !iiting tranger# Only gro "ifference of iHe orcolor are percei!e" by an outi"er in a flock of heep, each of whichi perfectly in"i!i"ualiHe" to the hepher"# 4 "iffui!e blur an" anin"icriminately hifting uction characteriHe what we "o notun"ertan"# The problem of the acuiition of meaning by thing, or=tate" in another way@ of forming habit of imple apprehenion, ithu the problem of intro"ucing =/@ F"efiniteneF an" F"itinctionFan" =5@ FconitencyF or FtabilityF of meaning into what iotherwie !ague an" wa!ering#%

But the kin" of "efinitene an" conitency intro"uce" "epen" uponwho intro"uce them# &n a later paage 8)ootnote3 Fop# cit#F, p#/MM#< $ewey gi!e an e+ample of how "ifferently an e+perience" layman



an" a chemit might "efine the wor" metal# %.moothne, har"ne,gloine, an" brilliancy, hea!y weight for it iHe ### theer!iceable propertie of capacity for being hammere" an" pulle"without breaking, of being oftene" by heat an" har"ene" by col", ofretaining the hape an" form gi!en, of reitance to preure an""ecay, woul" probably be inclu"e"% in the laymanN "efinition# But the

chemit woul" likely a not ignore thee ethetic an" utilitarianualitie, an" "efine a metal a %any chemical element that enterinto combination with o+ygen o a to form a bae#%

)or the mot part we "o not firt ee, an" then "efine, we "efinefirt an" then ee# &n the great blooming, buHHing confuion of theouter worl" we pick out what our culture ha alrea"y "efine" for u,an" we ten" to percei!e that which we ha!e picke" out in the formtereotype" for u by our culture# Of the great men who aemble" atPari to ettle the affair of mankin", how many were there who wereable to ee much of the Europe about them, rather than theircommitment about EuropeI Coul" anyone ha!e penetrate" the min" of #Clemenceau, woul" he ha!e foun" there image of the Europe of /0/0, or

a great e"iment of tereotype" i"ea accumulate" an" har"ene" in along an" pugnaciou e+itenceI $i" he ee the German of /0/0, or theGerman type a he ha" learne" to ee it ince /?1/I -e aw the type,an" among the report that came to him from Germany, he took to heartthoe report, an", it eem, thoe only, which fitte" the type thatwa in hi min"# &f a junker blutere", that wa an authentic Germanif a labor lea"er confee" the guilt of the empire, he wa not anauthentic German#

4t a Congre of Pychology in GZttingen an intereting e+periment wama"e with a crow" of preumably traine" ober!er# 8)ootnote3 4# !onGennep, FLa formation "e lQgen"eF, pp# /;?>/;0# Cite" )# !anLangenho!e, FThe Growth of a Legen"F, pp# /56>/55#<

%ot far from the hall in which the Congre wa itting there wa apublic fete with a make" ball# .u""enly the "oor of the hall wathrown open an" a clown ruhe" in ma"ly purue" by a negro, re!ol!erin han"# They toppe" in the mi""le of the room fighting the clownfell, the negro leapt upon him, fire", an" then both ruhe" out of thehall# The whole inci"ent har"ly late" twenty econ"#

%The Prei"ent ake" thoe preent to write imme"iately a report incethere wa ure to be a ju"icial inuiry# )orty report were ent in#Only one ha" le than 56S of mitake in regar" to the principalfact fourteen ha" 56S to 76S of mitake twel!e from 76S to ;6Sthirteen more than ;6S# oreo!er in twenty>four account /6S of the"etail were pure in!ention an" thi proportion wa e+cee"e" in tenaccount an" "iminihe" in i+# Briefly a uarter of the account werefale#

%&t goe without aying that the whole cene ha" been arrange" an"e!en photographe" in a"!ance# The ten fale report may then berelegate" to the category of tale an" legen" twenty>four accountare half legen"ary, an" i+ ha!e a !alue appro+imating to e+acte!i"ence#%

Thu out of forty traine" ober!er writing a reponible account of acene that ha" jut happene" before their eye, more than a majorityaw a cene that ha" not taken place# What then "i" they eeI Onewoul" uppoe it wa eaier to tell what ha" occurre", than to in!ent

omething which ha" not occurre"# They aw their tereotype of uch abrawl# 4ll of them ha" in the coure of their li!e acuire" a erieof image of brawl, an" thee image flickere" before their eye# &n



one man thee image "iplace" le than 56S of the actual cene, inthirteen men more than half# &n thirty>four out of the forty ober!erthe tereotype preempte" at leat one>tenth of the cene#

4 "itinguihe" art critic ha ai" 8)ootnote3 Bernar" Berenon,FThe Central &talian Painter of the enaianceF, pp# :6, Fet

eF#< that %what with the almot numberle hape aume" by anobject# ### What with our ineniti!ene an" inattention, thingcarcely woul" ha!e for u feature an" outline o "etermine" an"clear that we coul" recall them at will, but for the tereotype"hape art ha lent them#% The truth i e!en broa"er than that, forthe tereotype" hape lent to the worl" come not merely from art, inthe ene of painting an" culpture an" literature, but from our moralco"e an" our ocial philoophie an" our political agitation awell# .ubtitute in the following paage of r# BerenonN the wor"Npolitic,N Nbuine,N an" Nociety,N for the wor" NartN an" theentence will be no le true3 %### unle year "e!ote" to the tu"yof all chool of art ha!e taught u alo to ee with our own eye, weoon fall into the habit of moul"ing whate!er we look at into the

form borrowe" from the one art with which we are acuainte"# There iour tan"ar" of artitic reality# Let anyone gi!e u hape an" colorwhich we cannot intantly match in our paltry tock of hackneye" forman" tint, an" we hake our hea" at hi failure to repro"uce thinga we know they certainly are, or we accue him of inincerity#%

r# Berenon peak of our "ipleaure when a painter %"oe not!iualiHe object e+actly a we "o,% an" of the "ifficulty ofappreciating the art of the i""le 4ge becaue ince then %our mannerof !iualiHing form ha change" in a thouan" way#% 8)ootnote3FCf#F alo hi comment on F$anteN *iual &mage, an" hi Early&llutratorF in FThe .tu"y an" Criticim of &talian 4rtF =)irt.erie@, p# /M# %FWeF cannot help "reing *irgil a a oman,an" gi!ing him a Nclaical profileN an" Ntatueue carriage,N but$anteN !iual image of *irgil wa probably no le me"iae!al, nomore bae" on a critical recontruction of antiuity, than hi entireconception of the oman poet# )ourteenth Century illutrator make*irgil look like a me"iae!al cholar, "ree" in cap an" gown, an"there i no reaon why $anteN !iual image of him houl" ha!e beenother than thi#%< -e goe on to how how in regar" to the humanfigure we ha!e been taught to ee what we "o ee# %Create" by$onatello an" aaccio, an" anctione" by the -umanit, the new canonof the human figure, the new cat of feature ### preente" to theruling clae of that time the type of human being mot likely to winthe "ay in the combat of human force### Who ha" the power to breakthrough thi new tan"ar" of !iion an", out of the chao of thing,to elect hape more "efinitely e+prei!e of reality than thoefi+e" by men of geniuI o one ha" uch power# People ha" perforce toee thing in that way an" in no other, an" to ee only the hape"epicte", to lo!e only the i"eal preente"####% 8)ootnote3 FTheCentral &talian PainterF, pp# ::>:1#<

5

&f we cannot fully un"ertan" the act of other people, until we knowwhat they think they know, then in or"er to "o jutice we ha!e toappraie not only the information which ha been at their "ipoal,but the min" through which they ha!e filtere" it# )or the accepte"type, the current pattern, the tan"ar" !erion, interceptinformation on it way to concioune# 4mericaniHation, for e+ample,

i uperficially at leat the ubtitution of 4merican for Europeantereotype# Thu the peaant who might ee hi lan"lor" a if he werethe lor" of the manor, hi employer a he aw the local magnate, i



taught by 4mericaniHation to ee the lan"lor" an" employer accor"ingto 4merican tan"ar"# Thi contitute a change of min", which i, ineffect, when the inoculation uccee", a change of !iion# -i eyeee "ifferently# One kin"ly gentlewoman ha confee" that thetereotype are of uch o!erweening importance, that when her are notin"ulge", he at leat i unable to accept the brotherhoo" of man an"

the fatherhoo" of Go"3 %we are trangely affecte" by the clothe wewear# Garment create a mental an" ocial atmophere# What can behope" for the 4mericanim of a man who init on employing a Lon"ontailorI OneN !ery foo" affect hi 4mericanim# What kin" of 4mericanconcioune can grow in the atmophere of auerkraut an" LimburgercheeeI Or what can you e+pect of the 4mericanim of the man whoebreath alway reek of garlicI% 8)ootnote3 Cite" by r# E"war" -aleBierta"t, Few epublicF, Aune / /05/ p# 5/#<

Thi la"y might well ha!e been the patron of a pageant which a frien"of mine once atten"e"# &t wa calle" the elting Pot, an" it wa gi!enon the )ourth of Auly in an automobile town where many foreign>bornworker are employe"# &n the center of the baeball park at econ"

bae too" a huge woo"en an" can!a pot# There were flight of tepup to the rim on two i"e# 4fter the au"ience ha" ettle" itelf, an"the ban" ha" playe", a proceion came through an opening at one i"eof the fiel"# &t wa ma"e up of men of all the foreign nationalitieemploye" in the factorie# They wore their nati!e cotume, they wereinging their national ong they "ance" their folk "ance, an"carrie" the banner of all Europe# The mater of ceremonie wa theprincipal of the gra"e chool "ree" a ncle .am# -e le" them to thepot# -e "irecte" them up the tep to the rim, an" ini"e# -e calle"them out again on the other i"e# They came, "ree" in "erby hat,coat, pant, !et, tiff collar an" polka>"ot tie, un"oubte"ly, ai"my frien", each with an E!erharp pencil in hi pocket, an" allinging the .tar>.pangle" Banner#

To the promoter of thi pageant, an" probably to mot of the actor,it eeme" a if they ha" manage" to e+pre the mot intimate"ifficulty to frien"ly aociation between the ol"er people of4merica an" the newer# The contra"iction of their tereotypeinterfere" with the full recognition of their common humanity# Thepeople who change their name know thi# They mean to changethemel!e, an" the attitu"e of tranger towar" them#

There i, of coure, ome connection between the cene outi"e an" themin" through which we watch it, jut a there are ome long>haire" menan" hort>haire" women in ra"ical gathering# But to the hurrie"ober!er a light connection i enough# &f there are two bobbe" hea"an" four bear" in the au"ience, it will be a bobbe" an" bear"e"au"ience to the reporter who know beforehan" that uch gathering arecompoe" of people with thee tate in the management of their hair#There i a connection between our !iion an" the fact, but it ioften a trange connection# 4 man ha rarely looke" at a lan"cape,let u ay, e+cept to e+amine it poibilitie for "i!iion intobuil"ing lot, but he ha een a number of lan"cape hanging in theparlor# 4n" from them he ha learne" to think of a lan"cape a a royunet, or a a country roa" with a church teeple an" a il!er moon#One "ay he goe to the country, an" for hour he "oe not ee a inglelan"cape# Then the un goe "own looking roy# 4t once he recogniHea lan"cape an" e+claim that it i beautiful# But two "ay later,when he trie to recall what he aw, the o"" are that he willremember chiefly ome lan"cape in a parlor#

nle he ha been "runk or "reaming or inane he "i" ee a unet,but he aw in it, an" abo!e all remember from it, more of what the



oil painting taught him to ober!e, than what an impreionitpainter, for e+ample, or a culti!ate" Aapanee woul" ha!e een an"taken away with him# 4n" the Aapanee an" the painter in turn willha!e een an" remembere" more of the form they ha" learne", unlethey happen to be the !ery rare people who fin" freh ight formankin"# &n untraine" ober!ation we pick recogniHable ign out of

the en!ironment# The ign tan" for i"ea, an" thee i"ea we fillout with our tock of image# We "o not o much ee thi man an" thatunet rather we notice that the thing i man or unet, an" then eechiefly what our min" i alrea"y full of on thoe ubject#

M

There i economy in thi# )or the attempt to ee all thing frehlyan" in "etail, rather than a type an" generalitie, i e+hauting,an" among buy affair practically out of the uetion# &n a circle offrien", an" in relation to cloe aociate or competitor, there ino hortcut through, an" no ubtitute for, an in"i!i"ualiHe"un"ertan"ing# Thoe whom we lo!e an" a"mire mot are the men an"

women whoe concioune i people" thickly with peron rather thanwith type, who know u rather than the claification into which wemight fit# )or e!en without phraing it to ourel!e, we feelintuiti!ely that all claification i in relation to ome purpoe notnecearily our own that between two human being no aociation hafinal "ignity in which each "oe not take the other a an en" inhimelf# There i a taint on any contact between two people which "oenot affirm a an a+iom the peronal in!iolability of both#

But mo"ern life i hurrie" an" multifariou, abo!e all phyical"itance eparate men who are often in !ital contact with each other,uch a employer an" employee, official an" !oter# There i neithertime nor opportunity for intimate acuaintance# &ntea" we notice atrait which mark a well known type, an" fill in the ret of thepicture by mean of the tereotype we carry about in our hea"# -e ian agitator# That much we notice, or are tol"# Well, an agitator ithi ort of peron, an" o FheF i thi ort of peron# -e i anintellectual# -e i a plutocrat# -e i a foreigner# -e i a %.outhEuropean#% -e i from Back Bay# -e i a -ar!ar" an# -ow "ifferentfrom the tatement3 he i a 'ale an# -e i a regular fellow# -e i aWet Pointer# -e i an ol" army ergeant# -e i a Greenwich *illager3what "onNt we know about him then, an" about herI -e i aninternational banker# -e i from ain .treet#

The ubtlet an" mot per!ai!e of all influence ere thoe whichcreate an" maintain the repertory of tereotype# We are tol" aboutthe worl" before we ee it# We imagine mot thing before wee+perience them# 4n" thoe preconception, unle e"ucation ha ma"eu acutely aware, go!ern "eeply the whole proce of perception# Theymark out certain object a familiar or trange, emphaiHing the"ifference, o that the lightly familiar i een a !ery familiar,an" the omewhat trange a harply alien# They are aroue" by mallign, which may !ary from a true in"e+ to a !ague analogy# 4roue",they floo" freh !iion with ol"er image, an" project into the worl"what ha been reurrecte" in memory# Were there no practicaluniformitie in the en!ironment, there woul" be no economy an" onlyerror in the human habit of accepting foreight for ight# But thereare uniformitie ufficiently accurate, an" the nee" of economiHingattention i o ine!itable, that the aban"onment of all tereotypefor a wholly innocent approach to e+perience woul" impo!erih human

life#

What matter i the character of the tereotype, an" the gullibility



with which we employ them# 4n" thee in the en" "epen" upon thoeinclui!e pattern which contitute our philoophy of life# &f in thatphiloophy we aume that the worl" i co"ifie" accor"ing to a co"ewhich we poe, we are likely to make our report of what i goingon "ecribe a worl" run by our co"e# But if our philoophy tell uthat each man i only a mall part of the worl", that hi intelligence

catche at bet only phae an" apect in a coare net of i"ea,then, when we ue our tereotype, we ten" to know that they are onlytereotype, to hol" them lightly, to mo"ify them gla"ly# We ten",alo, to realiHe more an" more clearly when our i"ea tarte", wherethey tarte", how they came to u, why we accepte" them# 4ll uefulhitory i antieptic in thi fahion# &t enable u to know whatfairy tale, what chool book, what tra"ition, what no!el, play,picture, phrae, plante" one preconception in thi min", another inthat min"#

7

Thoe who wih to cenor art "o not at leat un"eretimate thi

influence# They generally miun"ertan" it, an" almot alway they areabur"ly bent on pre!enting other people from "ico!ering anything notanctione" by them# But at any rate, like Plato in hi argument aboutthe poet, they feel !aguely that the type acuire" through fictionten" to be impoe" on reality# Thu there can be little "oubt that themo!ing picture i tea"ily buil"ing up imagery which i then e!oke" bythe wor" people rea" in their newpaper# &n the whole e+perience ofthe race there ha been no ai" to !iualiHation comparable to thecinema# &f a )lorentine wihe" to !iualiHe the aint, he coul" go tothe frecoe in hi church, where he might ee a !iion of ainttan"ar"iHe" for hi time by Giotto# &f an 4thenian wihe" to!iualiHe the go" he went to the temple# But the number of objectwhich were picture" wa not great# 4n" in the Eat, where the piritof the econ" comman"ment wa wi"ely accepte", the portraiture ofconcrete thing wa e!en more meager, an" for that reaon perhap thefaculty of practical "eciion wa by o much re"uce"# &n the weternworl", howe!er, "uring the lat few centurie there ha been anenormou increae in the !olume an" cope of ecular "ecription, thewor" picture, the narrati!e, the illutrate" narrati!e, an" finallythe mo!ing picture an", perhap, the talking picture#

Photograph ha!e the kin" of authority o!er imagination to>"ay, whichthe printe" wor" ha" yeter"ay, an" the poken wor" before that# Theyeem utterly real# They come, we imagine, "irectly to u without humanme""ling, an" they are the mot effortle foo" for the min"concei!able# 4ny "ecription in wor", or e!en any inert picture,reuire an effort of memory before a picture e+it in the min"# Buton the creen the whole proce of ober!ing, "ecribing, reporting,an" then imagining, ha been accomplihe" for you# Without moretrouble than i nee"e" to tay awake the reult which your imaginationi alway aiming at i reele" off on the creen# The ha"owy i"eabecome !i!i" your haHy notion, let u ay, of the Du Dlu+ Dlan,thank to r# Griffith, take !i!i" hape when you ee the Birth of aation# -itorically it may be the wrong hape, morally it may be aperniciou hape, but it i a hape, an" & "oubt whether anyone whoha een the film an" "oe not know more about the Du Dlu+ Dlan thanr# Griffith, will e!er hear the name again without eeing thoewhite horemen#

;

4n" o when we peak of the min" of a group of people, of the )renchmin", the militarit min", the bolhe!ik min", we are liable to







no certain tet woul" ha!e remaine"# 4ritotle, therefore, e+clu"e"entirely that "etructi!e "oubt# Thoe who are la!e are inten"e" tobe la!e# Each la!e hol"er wa to look upon hi chattel a naturalla!e# When hi eye ha" been traine" to ee them that way, he wa tonote a confirmation of their er!ile character the fact that theyperforme" er!ile work, that they were competent to "o er!ile work,

an" that they ha" the mucle to "o er!ile work#

Thi i the perfect tereotype# &t hallmark i that it prece"e theue of reaon i a form of perception, impoe a certain character onthe "ata of our ene before the "ata reach the intelligence# Thetereotype i like the la!en"er win"ow>pane on Beacon .treet, likethe "oor>keeper at a cotume ball who ju"ge whether the guet ha anappropriate mauera"e# There i nothing o ob"urate to e"ucation orto criticim a the tereotype# &t tamp itelf upon the e!i"ence inthe !ery act of ecuring the e!i"ence# That i why the account ofreturning tra!eller are often an intereting tale of what thetra!eller carrie" abroa" with him on hi trip# &f he carrie" chieflyhi appetite, a Heal for tile" bathroom, a con!iction that the

Pullman car i the acme of human comfort, an" a belief that it iproper to tip waiter, ta+icab "ri!er, an" barber, but un"er nocircumtance tation agent an" uher, then hi O"yey will bereplete with goo" meal an" ba" meal, bathing a"!enture,compartment>train ecapa"e, an" !oraciou "eman" for money# Or if hei a more eriou oul he may while on tour ha!e foun" himelf atcelebrate" pot# -a!ing touche" bae, an" cat one furti!e glance atthe monument, he burie" hi hea" in Bae"eker, rea" e!ery wor" through,an" mo!e" on to the ne+t celebrate" pot an" thu returne" with acompact an" or"erly impreion of Europe, rate" one tar, or two#

&n ome meaure, timuli from the outi"e, epecially when they areprinte" or poken wor", e!oke ome part of a ytem of tereotype,o that the actual enation an" the preconception occupyconcioune at the ame time# The two are blen"e", much a if welooke" at re" through blue glae an" aw green# &f what we arelooking at correpon" uccefully with what we anticipate", thetereotype i reinforce" for the future, a it i in a man who knowin a"!ance that the Aapanee are cunning an" ha the ba" luck to runacro two "ihonet Aapanee#

&f the e+perience contra"ict the tereotype, one of two thinghappen# &f the man i no longer platic, or if ome powerful interetmake it highly incon!enient to rearrange hi tereotype, he pooh>pooh the contra"iction a an e+ception that pro!e the rule,"icre"it the witne, fin" a flaw omewhere, an" manage to forgetit# But if he i till curiou an" open>min"e", the no!elty i takeninto the picture, an" allowe" to mo"ify it# .ometime, if the inci"enti triking enough, an" if he ha felt a general "icomfort with hietablihe" cheme, he may be haken to uch an e+tent a to "itrutall accepte" way of looking at life, an" to e+pect that normally athing will not be what it i generally uppoe" to be# &n the e+tremecae, epecially if he i literary, he may "e!elop a paion forin!erting the moral canon by making Au"a, Bene"ict 4rnol", or CaearBorgia the hero of hi tale#

M

The role playe" by the tereotype can be een in the German taleabout Belgian niper# Thoe tale curiouly enough were firt refute"

by an organiHation of German Catholic priet known a Pa+# 8)ootnote3)ernan" !an Langenho!e, FThe Growth of a Legen"#F The author i aBelgian ociologit#< The e+itence of atrocity torie i itelf not



remarkable, nor that the German people gla"ly belie!e" them# But it iremarkable that a great coner!ati!e bo"y of patriotic German houl"ha!e et out a early a 4ugut /:, /0/7, to contra"ict a collectionof lan"er on the enemy, e!en though uch lan"er were of the utmot!alue in oothing the trouble" concience of their fellow countrymen#Why houl" the Aeuit or"er in particular ha!e et out to "etroy a

fiction o important to the fighting morale of GermanyI

& uote from # !an Langenho!eN account3

%-ar"ly ha" the German armie entere" Belgium when trange rumorbegan to circulate# They prea" from place to place, they wererepro"uce" by the pre, an" they oon permeate" the whole of Germany#&t wa ai" that the Belgian people, Fintigate" by the clergy,Fha" inter!ene" perfi"iouly in the hotilitie ha" attacke" byurprie iolate" "etachment ha" in"icate" to the enemy thepoition occupie" by the troop that ol" men, an" e!en chil"ren, ha"been guilty of horrible atrocitie upon woun"e" an" "efenele Germanol"ier, tearing out their eye an" cutting off finger, noe or

ear Fthat the priet from their pulpit ha" e+horte" the peopleto commit thee crime, promiing them a a rewar" the king"om ofhea!en, an" ha" e!en taken the lea" in thi barbarity#F

%Public cre"ulity accepte" thee torie# The highet power in thetate welcome" them without heitation an" en"ore" them with theirauthority###

%&n thi way public opinion in Germany wa "iturbe" an" a li!elyin"ignation manifete" itelf, F"irecte" epecially againt theprietF who were hel" reponible for the barbaritie attribute"to the Belgian### By a natural "i!erion Fthe angerF to whichthey were a prey Fwa "irecte"F by the German Fagaint theCatholic clergy generally#F Protetant allowe" the ol" religiouhatre" to be relighte" in their min" an" "eli!ere" themel!e toattack againt Catholic# 4 new FDulturkampfF wa let looe#

%The Catholic "i" not "elay in taking action againt thi hotileattitu"e#% =&talic mine@ 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, pp# ;>1<

There may ha!e been ome niping# &t woul" be e+traor"inary if e!eryangry Belgian ha" ruhe" to the library, opene" a manual ofinternational law, an" ha" informe" himelf whether he ha" a right totake pothot at the infernal nuiance tramping through hi treet# &twoul" be no le e+traor"inary if an army that ha" ne!er been un"erfire, "i" not regar" e!ery bullet that came it way a unauthoriHe",becaue it wa incon!enient, an" in"ee" a omehow a !iolation of therule of the Driegpiel, which then contitute" it only e+perience ofwar# One can imagine the more eniti!e bent on con!incing themel!ethat the people to whom they were "oing uch terrible thing mut beterrible people# 4n" o the legen" may ha!e been pun until it reache"the cenor an" propagan"it, who, whether they belie!e" it or not,aw it !alue, an" let it looe on the German ci!ilian# They too werenot altogether orry to fin" that the people they were outraging wereub>human# 4n", abo!e all, ince the legen" came from their heroe,they were not only entitle" to belie!e it, they were unpatriotic ifthey "i" not#

But where o much i left to the imagination becaue the cene ofaction i lot in the fog of war, there i no check an" no control#

The legen" of the ferociou Belgian priet oon tappe" an ol" hatre"#)or in the min" of mot patriotic protetant German, epecially ofthe upper clae, the picture of BimarckN !ictorie inclu"e" a long



uarrel with the oman Catholic# By a proce of aociation, Belgianpriet became priet, an" hatre" of Belgian a !ent for all theirhatre"# Thee German protetant "i" what ome 4merican "i" whenun"er the tre of war they create" a compoun" object of hatre" outof the enemy abroa" an" all their opponent at home# 4gaint thiynthetic enemy, the -un in Germany an" the -un within the Gate, they

launche" all the animoity that wa in them#

The Catholic reitance to the atrocity tale wa, of coure,"efeni!e# &t wa aime" at thoe particular fiction which aroue"animoity againt all Catholic, rather than againt Belgian Catholicalone# The F&nformation Pa+F, ay # !an Langenho!e, ha" onlyan eccleiatical bearing an" %confine" their attention almote+clui!ely to the reprehenible act attribute" to the priet#% 4n"yet one cannot help won"ering a little about what wa et in motion inthe min" of German Catholic by thi re!elation of what BimarckNempire meant in relation to them an" alo whether there wa anyobcure connection between that knowle"ge an" the fact that theprominent German politician who wa willing in the armitice to ign

the "eath warrant of the empire wa ErHberger, 8)ootnote3 .ince thiwa written, ErHberger ha been aainate"#< the lea"er of theCatholic Centre Party#

C-4PTE *&&&

BL&$ .POT. 4$ T-E& *4LE

/

& -4*E been peaking of tereotype rather than i"eal, becaue thewor" i"eal i uually reer!e" for what we coni"er the goo", the truean" the beautiful# Thu it carrie the hint that here i omething tobe copie" or attaine"# But our repertory of fi+e" impreion i wi"erthan that# &t contain i"eal win"ler, i"eal Tammany politician,i"eal jingoe, i"eal agitator, i"eal enemie# Our tereotype" worl"i not necearily the worl" we houl" like it to be# &t i imply thekin" of worl" we e+pect it to be# &f e!ent correpon" there i aene of familiarity, an" we feel that we are mo!ing with the mo!ementof e!ent# Our la!e mut be a la!e by nature, if we are 4thenianwho wih to ha!e no ualm# &f we ha!e tol" our frien" that we "oeighteen hole of golf in 0;, we tell them after "oing the coure in//6, that we are not ourel!e to>"ay# That i to ay, we are notacuainte" with the "uffer who fooHle" fifteen troke#

ot of u woul" "eal with affair through a rather haphaHar" an"hifting aortment of tereotype, if a comparati!ely few men in eachgeneration were not contantly engage" in arranging, tan"ar"iHing,an" impro!ing them into logical ytem, known a the Law ofPolitical Economy, the Principle of Politic, an" the like# Generallywhen we write about culture, tra"ition, an" the group min", we arethinking of thee ytem perfecte" by men of geniu# ow there i no"iputing the neceity of contant tu"y an" criticim of theei"ealiHe" !erion, but the hitorian of people, the politician, an"the publicity man cannot top there# )or what operate in hitory inot the ytematic i"ea a a geniu formulate" it, but hiftingimitation, replica, counterfeit, analogie, an" "itortion in

in"i!i"ual min"#

Thu ar+im i not necearily what Darl ar+ wrote in $a Dapital,



but whate!er it i that all the warring ect belie!e, who claim to bethe faithful# )rom the gopel you cannot "e"uce the hitory ofChritianity, nor from the Contitution the political hitory of4merica# &t i $a Dapital a concei!e", the gopel a preache" an"the preachment a un"ertoo", the Contitution a interprete" an"a"minitere", to which you ha!e to go# )or while there i a

reciprocating influence between the tan"ar" !erion an" the current!erion, it i thee current !erion a "itribute" among men whichaffect their beha!ior# 8)ootnote3 But unfortunately it i e!er o muchhar"er to know thi actual culture than it i to ummariHe an" tocomment upon the work of geniu# The actual culture e+it in peoplefar too buy to in"ulge in the trange tra"e of formulating theirbelief# They recor" them only inci"entally, an" the tu"ent rarelyknow how typical are hi "ata# Perhap the bet he can "o i tofollow Lor" BryceN uggetion 8Fo"ern $emocracieF, *ol# i, p#/;:< that he mo!e freely %among all ort an" con"ition of men,% toeek out the unbiae" peron in e!ery neighborhoo" who ha!e kill iniHing up# %There i a FflairF which long practie an" NympathetictouchN betow# The traine" ober!er learn how to profit by mall

in"ication, a an ol" eaman "icern, ooner than the lan"man,the ign of coming torm#% There i, in hort, a !at amount ofgue work in!ol!e", an" it i no won"er that cholar, who enjoypreciion, o often confine their attention to the neater formulationof other cholar#<

%The theory of elati!ity,% ay a critic whoe eyeli", like the La"yLiaN, are a little weary, %promie to "e!elop into a principle aa"euate to uni!eral application a wa the theory of E!olution# Thilatter theory, from being a technical biological hypothei, became aninpiring gui"e to worker in practically e!ery branch of knowle"ge3manner an" cutom, moral, religion, philoophie, art, teamengine, electric tramway>>e!erything ha" Ne!ol!e"#N NE!olutionNbecame a !ery general term it alo became imprecie until, in manycae, the original, "efinite meaning of the wor" wa lot, an" thetheory it ha" been e!oke" to "ecribe wa miun"ertoo"# We are har"yenough to prophey a imilar career an" fate for the theory ofelati!ity# The technical phyical theory, at preent imperfectlyun"ertoo", will become till more !ague an" "im# -itory repeatitelf, an" elati!ity, like E!olution, after recei!ing a number ofintelligible but omewhat inaccurate popular e+poition in itcientific apect, will be launche" on a worl">conuering career# Weugget that, by that time, it will probably be calle" Felati!imuF#any of thee larger application will "oubtle be jutifie" ome willbe abur" an" a coni"erable number will, we imagine, re"uce to truim#4n" the phyical theory, the mere ee" of thi mighty growth, will becomeonce more the purely technical concern of cientific men#% 8)ootnote3FThe TimeF =Lon"on@, FLiterary .upplementF, Aune 5, /05/, p#M;5# Profeor Eintein ai" when he wa in 4merica in /05/ thatpeople ten"e" to o!eretimate the influence of hi theory, an" toun"er>etimate it certainty#<

But for uch a worl">conuering career an i"ea mut correpon",howe!er impreciely, to omething# Profeor Bury how for how long atime the i"ea of progre remaine" a peculati!e toy# %&t i noteay,% he write, 8)ootnote3 A# B# Bury, FThe &"ea of ProgreF,p# M57#< %for a new i"ea of the peculati!e or"er to penetrate an"inform the general concioune of a community until it ha aume"ome e+ternal an" concrete embo"iment, or i recommen"e" by ometriking material e!i"ence# &n the cae of Progre both thee

con"ition were fulfille" =in Englan"@ in the perio" /?56>/?;6#% Themot triking e!i"ence wa furnihe" by the mechanical re!olution#%en who were born at the beginning of the century ha" een, before



they ha" pae" the age of thirty, the rapi" "e!elopment of teamna!igation, the illumination of town an" houe by ga, the openingof the firt railway#% &n the concioune of the a!erage houehol"ermiracle like thee forme" the pattern of hi belief in theperfectibility of the human race#

Tennyon, who wa in philoophical matter a fairly normal peron,tell u that when he went by the firt train from Li!erpool toancheter =/?M6@ he thought that the wheel ran in groo!e# Then hewrote thi line3

%Let the great worl" pin fore!er "own the ringing groo!e ofchange#% 8)ootnote3 5 Tennyon, Femoir by hi .onF, *ol# &, p#/0;# Cite" by Bury, Fop# citF#, p# M5:#<

4n" o a notion more or le applicable to a journey between Li!erpoolan" ancheter wa generaliHe" into a pattern of the uni!ere %fore!er#% Thi pattern, taken up by other, reinforce" by "aHHlingin!ention, impoe" an optimitic turn upon the theory of e!olution#

That theory, of coure, i, a Profeor Bury ay, neutral betweenpeimim an" optimim# But it promie" continual change, an" thechange !iible in the worl" marke" uch e+traor"inary conuet ofnature, that the popular min" ma"e a blen" of the two# E!olution firtin $arwin himelf, an" then more elaborately in -erbert .pencer, wa a%progre towar" perfection#%

5

The tereotype repreente" by uch wor" a %progre% an"%perfection% wa compoe" fun"amentally of mechanical in!ention# 4n"mechanical it ha remaine", on the whole, to thi "ay# &n 4merica morethan anywhere ele, the pectacle of mechanical progre ha ma"e o"eep an impreion, that it ha uffue" the whole moral co"e# 4n4merican will en"ure almot any inult e+cept the charge that he inot progrei!e# Be he of long nati!e ancetry, or a recent immigrant,the apect that ha alway truck hi eye i the immene phyicalgrowth of 4merican ci!iliHation# That contitute a fun"amentaltereotype through which he !iew the worl"3 the country !illage willbecome the great metropoli, the mo"et buil"ing a kycraper, what imall hall be big what i low hall be fat what i poor hall berich what i few hall be many whate!er i hall be more o#

ot e!ery 4merican, of coure, ee the worl" thi way# -enry 4"am"i"nNt, an" William 4llen White "oenNt# But thoe men "o, who in themagaHine "e!ote" to the religion of ucce appear a aker of4merica# They mean jut about that when they preach e!olution,progre, properity, being contructi!e, the 4merican way of "oingthing# &t i eay to laugh, but, in fact, they are uing a !ery greatpattern of human en"ea!or# )or one thing it a"opt an imperonalcriterion for another it a"opt an earthly criterion for a thir" iti habituating men to think uantitati!ely# To be ure the i"ealconfue e+cellence with iHe, happine with pee", an" human naturewith contraption# 'et the ame moti!e are at work which ha!e e!eractuate" any moral co"e, or e!er will# The "eire for the bigget, thefatet, the highet, or if you are a maker of writwatche ormicrocope the mallet the lo!e in hort of the uperlati!e an" the%peerle,% i in eence an" poibility a noble paion#

Certainly the 4merican !erion of progre ha fitte" an e+traor"inary

range of fact in the economic ituation an" in human nature# &tturne" an unuual amount of pugnacity, acuiiti!ene, an" lut ofpower into pro"ucti!e work# or ha it, until more recently perhap,



eriouly frutrate" the acti!e nature of the acti!e member of thecommunity# They ha!e ma"e a ci!iliHation which pro!i"e them who ma"eit with what they feel to be ample atifaction in work, mating an"play, an" the ruh of their !ictory o!er mountain, wil"ernee,"itance, an" human competition ha e!en "one "uty for that part ofreligiou feeling which i a ene of communion with the purpoe of

the uni!ere# The pattern ha been a ucce o nearly perfect in theeuence of i"eal, practice, an" reult, that any challenge to it icalle" un>4merican#

4n" yet, thi pattern i a !ery partial an" ina"euate way ofrepreenting the worl"# The habit of thinking about progre a%"e!elopment% ha meant that many apect of the en!ironment wereimply neglecte"# With the tereotype of %progre% before their eye,4merican ha!e in the ma een little that "i" not accor" with thatprogre# They aw the e+panion of citie, but not the accretion oflum they cheere" the cenu tatitic, but refue" to coni"ero!ercrow"ing they pointe" with pri"e to their growth, but woul" notee the "rift from the lan", or the unaimilate" immigration# They

e+pan"e" in"utry furiouly at reckle cot to their naturalreource they built up gigantic corporation without arranging forin"utrial relation# They grew to be one of the mot powerful nationon earth without preparing their intitution or their min" for theen"ing of their iolation# They tumble" into the Worl" War morallyan" phyically unrea"y, an" they tumble" out again, much"iilluione", but har"ly more e+perience"#

&n the Worl" War the goo" an" the e!il influence of the 4mericantereotype wa plainly !iible# The i"ea that the war coul" be won byrecruiting unlimite" armie, raiing unlimite" cre"it, buil"ing anunlimite" number of hip, pro"ucing unlimite" munition, an"concentrating without limit on thee alone, fitte" the tra"itionaltereotype, an" reulte" in omething like a phyical miracle#8)ootnote3 & ha!e in min" the tranportation an" upply of two milliontroop o!erea# Prof# Weley itchell point out that the totalpro"uction of goo" after our entrance into the war "i" not greatlyincreae in !olume o!er that of the year /0/: but that pro"uction forwar purpoe "i" increae#< But among thoe mot affecte" by thetereotype, there wa no place for the coni"eration of what thefruit of !ictory were, or how they were to be attaine"# Therefore,aim were ignore", or regar"e" a automatic, an" !ictory waconcei!e", becaue the tereotype "eman"e" it, a nothing but anannihilating !ictory in the fiel"# &n peace time you "i" not ak whatthe fatet motor car wa for, an" in war you "i" not ak what thecompletet !ictory wa for# 'et in Pari the pattern "i" not fit thefact# &n peace you can go on en"lely upplanting mall thing withbig one, an" big one with bigger one in war when you ha!e wonabolute !ictory, you cannot go on to a more abolute !ictory# 'ouha!e to "o omething on an entirely "ifferent pattern# 4n" if you lackuch a pattern, the en" of the war i to you what it wa to o manygoo" people, an anticlima+ in a "reary an" a!orle worl"#

Thi mark the point where the tereotype an" the fact, that cannotbe ignore", "efinitely part company# There i alway uch a point,becaue our image of how thing beha!e are impler an" more fi+e"than the ebb an" flow of affair# There come a time, therefore, whenthe blin" pot come from the e"ge of !iion into the center# Thenunle there are critic who ha!e the courage to oun" an alarm, an"lea"er capable of un"ertan"ing the change, an" a people tolerant by

habit, the tereotype, intea" of economiHing effort, an" focuingenergy a it "i" in /0/1 an" /0/?, may frutrate effort an" watemenN energy by blin"ing them, a it "i" for thoe people who crie"



for a Carthaginian peace in /0/0 an" "eplore" the Treaty of *eraillein /05/#

M

ncritically hel", the tereotype not only cenor out much that nee"

to be taken into account, but when the "ay of reckoning come, an" thetereotype i hattere", likely a not that which it "i" wiely takeinto account i hip>wrecke" with it# That i the punihment aee"by r# Bernar" .haw againt )ree Tra"e, )ree Contract, )reeCompetition, atural Liberty, LaieH>faire, an" $arwinim# 4 hun"re"year ago, when he woul" urely ha!e been one of the tartet a"!ocateof thee "octrine, he woul" not ha!e een them a he ee themto>"ay, in the &nfi"el -alf Century, 8)ootnote3 FBack toethuelahF# Preface#< to be e+cue for %N"oing the other fellow"ownN with impunity, all interference by a gui"ing go!ernment, allorganiHation e+cept police organiHation to protect legaliHe" frau"againt fiticuff, all attempt to intro"uce human purpoe an" "eignan" forethought into the in"utrial welter being Ncontrary to the law

of political economyN% -e woul" ha!e een, then, a one of thepioneer of the march to the plain of hea!en 8)ootnote3 FTheuinteence of &benimF< that, of the kin" of human purpoe an""eign an" forethought to be foun" in a go!ernment like that of ueen*ictoriaN uncle, the le the better# -e woul" ha!e een, not thetrong "oing the weak "own, but the foolih "oing the trong "own# -ewoul" ha!e een purpoe, "eign an" forethought at work,obtructing in!ention, obtructing enterprie, obtructing what hewoul" infallibly ha!e recogniHe" a the ne+t mo!e of Creati!eE!olution#

E!en now r# .haw i none too eager for the gui"ance of any gui"inggo!ernment he know, but in theory he ha turne" a full loop againtlaieH>faire# ot a"!ance" thinking before the war ha" ma"e the ameturn againt the etablihe" notion that if you unlooe" e!erything,wi"om woul" bubble up, an" etablih harmony# .ince the war, with it"efinite "emontration of gui"ing go!ernment, aite" by cenor,propagan"it, an" pie, oebuck am"en an" atural Liberty ha!ebeen rea"mitte" to the company of eriou thinker#

One thing i common to thee cycle# There i in each et oftereotype a point where effort ceae an" thing happen of their ownaccor", a you woul" like them to# The progrei!e tereotype,powerful to incite work, almot completely obliterate the attempt to"eci"e what work an" why that work# LaieH>faire, a blee" releaefrom tupi" official"om, aume that men will mo!e by pontaneoucombution towar" a pre>etablihe" harmony# Collecti!im, ananti"ote to ruthle elfihne, eem, in the ar+ian min", touppoe an economic "eterminim towar" efficiency an" wi"om on thepart of ocialit official# .trong go!ernment, imperialim at homean" abroa", at it bet "eeply conciou of the price of "ior"er,relie at lat on the notion that all that matter to the go!erne"will be known by the go!ernor# &n each theory there i a pot ofblin" automatim#

That pot co!er up ome fact, which if it were taken into account,woul" check the !ital mo!ement that the tereotype pro!oke# &f theprogrei!e ha" to ak himelf, like the Chinaman in the joke, what hewante" to "o with the time he a!e" by breaking the recor", if thea"!ocate of laieH>faire ha" to contemplate not only free an"

e+uberant energie of men, but what ome people call their humannature, if the collecti!it let the center of hi attention beoccupie" with the problem of how he i to ecure hi official, if the



imperialit "are" to "oubt hi own inpiration, you woul" fin" more-amlet an" le -enry the )ifth# )or thee blin" pot keep away"itracting image, which with their atten"ant emotion, might caueheitation an" infirmity of purpoe# Coneuently the tereotype notonly a!e time in a buy life an" i a "efene of our poition inociety, but ten" to preer!e u from all the bewil"ering effect of

trying to ee the worl" tea"ily an" ee it whole#

C-4PTE &J

CO$E. 4$ T-E& EE&E.

4'OE who ha too" at the en" of a railroa" platform waiting for afrien", will recall what ueer people he mitook for him# The hape ofa hat, a lightly characteritic gait, e!oke" the !i!i" picture in himin"N eye# &n leep a tinkle may oun" like the pealing of a great

bell the "itant troke of a hammer like a thun"erclap# )or ourcontellation of imagery will !ibrate to a timulu that i perhapbut !aguely imilar to ome apect of them# They may, inhallucination, floo" the whole concioune# They may enter !erylittle into perception, though & am incline" to think that uch ane+perience i e+tremely rare an" highly ophiticate", a when we gaHeblankly at a familiar wor" or object, an" it gra"ually ceae to befamiliar# Certainly for the mot part, the way we ee thing i acombination of what i there an" of what we e+pecte" to fin"# Thehea!en are not the ame to an atronomer a to a pair of lo!er apage of Dant will tart a "ifferent train of thought in a Dantian an"in a ra"ical empiricit the Tahitian belle i a better looking peronto her Tahitian uitor than to the rea"er of the FationalGeographic agaHineF#

E+pertne in any ubject i, in fact, a multiplication of the numberof apect we are prepare" to "ico!er, plu the habit of "icountingour e+pectation# Where to the ignoramu all thing look alike, an"life i jut one thing after another, to the pecialit thing arehighly in"i!i"ual# )or a chauffeur, an epicure, a connoieur, amember of the Prei"entN cabinet, or a profeorN wife, there aree!i"ent "itinction an" ualitie, not at all e!i"ent to the caualperon who "icue automobile, wine, ol" mater, epublican, an"college facultie#

But in our public opinion few can be e+pert, while life i, a r#Bernar" .haw ha ma"e plain, o hort# Thoe who are e+pert are o ononly a few topic# E!en among the e+pert ol"ier, a we learne""uring the war, e+pert ca!alrymen were not necearily brilliant withtrench>warfare an" tank# &n"ee", ometime a little e+pertne on amall topic may imply e+aggerate our normal human habit of trying toueeHe into our tereotype all that can be ueeHe", an" of catinginto outer "arkne that which "oe not fit#

Whate!er we recogniHe a familiar we ten", if we are not !ery careful,to !iualiHe with the ai" of image alrea"y in our min"# Thu in the4merican !iew of Progre an" .ucce there i a "efinite picture ofhuman nature an" of ociety# &t i the kin" of human nature an" thekin" of ociety which logically pro"uce the kin" of progre that iregar"e" a i"eal# 4n" then, when we eek to "ecribe or e+plain

actually ucceful men, an" e!ent that ha!e really happene", we rea"back into them the ualitie that are preuppoe" in the tereotype#





What i alien will be rejecte", what i "ifferent will fall uponuneeing eye# We "o not ee what our eye are not accutome" to takeinto account# .ometime conciouly, more often without knowing it, weare impree" by thoe fact which fit our philoophy#

M

Thi philoophy i a more or le organiHe" erie of image for"ecribing the uneen worl"# But not only for "ecribing it# )orju"ging it a well# 4n", therefore, the tereotype are loa"e" withpreference, uffue" with affection or "ilike, attache" to fear,lut, trong wihe, pri"e, hope# Whate!er in!oke the tereotype iju"ge" with the appropriate entiment# E+cept where we "eliberatelykeep preju"ice in upene, we "o not tu"y a man an" ju"ge him to beba"# We ee a ba" man# We ee a "ewy morn, a bluhing mai"en, aainte" priet, a humorle Englihman, a "angerou e", a carefreebohemian, a laHy -in"u, a wily Oriental, a "reaming .la!, a !olatile&rihman, a gree"y Aew, a /66S 4merican# &n the worka"ay worl" that ioften the real ju"gment, long in a"!ance of the e!i"ence, an" it

contain within itelf the concluion which the e!i"ence i prettycertain to confirm# either jutice, nor mercy, nor truth, enter intouch a ju"gment, for the ju"gment ha prece"e" the e!i"ence# 'et apeople without preju"ice, a people with altogether neutral !iion, io unthinkable in any ci!iliHation of which it i ueful to think,that no cheme of e"ucation coul" be bae" upon that i"eal# Preju"icecan be "etecte", "icounte", an" refine", but o long a finite menmut compre into a hort chooling preparation for "ealing with a!at ci!iliHation, they mut carry picture of it aroun" with them,an" ha!e preju"ice# The uality of their thinking an" "oing will"epen" on whether thoe preju"ice are frien"ly, frien"ly to otherpeople, to other i"ea, whether they e!oke lo!e of what i felt to bepoiti!ely goo", rather than hatre" of what i not containe" in their!erion of the goo"#

orality, goo" tate an" goo" form firt tan"ar"iHe an" thenemphaiHe certain of thee un"erlying preju"ice# 4 we a"jutourel!e to our co"e, we a"jut the fact we ee to that co"e#ationally, the fact are neutral to all our !iew of right an" wrong#4ctually, our canon "etermine greatly what we hall percei!e an" how#

)or a moral co"e i a cheme of con"uct applie" to a number of typicalintance# To beha!e a the co"e "irect i to er!e whate!er purpoethe co"e purue# &t may be Go"N will, or the kingN, in"i!i"ualal!ation in a goo", oli", three "imenional para"ie, ucce onearth, or the er!ice of mankin"# &n any e!ent the maker of the co"efi+ upon certain typical ituation, an" then by ome form ofreaoning or intuition, "e"uce the kin" of beha!ior which woul"pro"uce the aim they acknowle"ge# The rule apply where they apply#

But in "aily li!ing how "oe a man know whether hi pre"icament i theone the law>gi!er ha" in min"I -e i tol" not to kill# But if hichil"ren are attacke", may he kill to top a killingI The TenComman"ment are ilent on the point# Therefore, aroun" e!ery co"ethere i a clou" of interpreter who "e"uce more pecific cae#.uppoe, then, that the "octor of the law "eci"e that he may kill inelf>"efene# )or the ne+t man the "oubt i almot a great how "oehe know that he i "efining elf>"efene correctly, or that he ha notmiju"ge" the fact, imagine" the attack, an" i really the aggreorIPerhap he ha pro!oke" the attack# But what i a pro!ocationI E+actly

thee confuion infecte" the min" of mot German in 4ugut, /0/7#

)ar more eriou in the mo"ern worl" than any "ifference of moral co"e



i the "ifference in the aumption about fact to which the co"e iapplie"# eligiou, moral an" political formulae are nothing like ofar apart a the fact aume" by their !otarie# eful "icuion,then, intea" of comparing i"eal, ree+amine the !iion of thefact# Thu the rule that you houl" "o unto other a you woul" ha!ethem "o unto you ret on the belief that human nature i uniform# r#

Bernar" .hawN tatement that you houl" not "o unto other what youwoul" ha!e them "o unto you, becaue their tate may be "ifferent,ret on the belief that human nature i not uniform# The ma+im thatcompetition i the life of tra"e conit of a whole tome ofaumption about economic moti!e, in"utrial relation, an" theworking of a particular commercial ytem# The claim that 4merica willne!er ha!e a merchant marine, unle it i pri!ately owne" an"manage", aume a certain pro!e" connection between a certain kin" ofprofit>making an" incenti!e# The jutification by the bolhe!ikpropagan"it of the "ictatorhip, epionage, an" the terror, becaue%e!ery tate i an apparatu of !iolence% 8)ootnote3 .ee FTwo 'earof Conflict on the &nternal )rontF, publihe" by the uian.ocialit )e"erate" .o!iet epublic, ocow, /056# Tranlate" by

alcolm W# $a!i for the Few 'ork E!ening PotF, Aanuary /;,/05/#< i an hitorical ju"gment, the truth of which i by no meanelf>e!i"ent to a non>communit#

4t the core of e!ery moral co"e there i a picture of human nature, amap of the uni!ere, an" a !erion of hitory# To human nature =of theort concei!e"@, in a uni!ere =of the kin" imagine"@, after a hitory=o un"ertoo"@, the rule of the co"e apply# .o far a the fact ofperonality, of the en!ironment an" of memory are "ifferent, by o farthe rule of the co"e are "ifficult to apply with ucce# ow e!erymoral co"e ha to concei!e human pychology, the material worl", an"tra"ition ome way or other# But in the co"e that are un"er theinfluence of cience, the conception i known to be an hypothei,wherea in the co"e that come une+amine" from the pat or bubble upfrom the ca!ern of the min", the conception i not taken a anhypothei "eman"ing proof or contra"iction, but a a fiction accepte"without uetion# &n the one cae, man i humble about hi belief,becaue he know they are tentati!e an" incomplete in the other he i"ogmatic, becaue hi belief i a complete" myth# The moralit whoubmit to the cientific "icipline know that though he "oe notknow e!erything, he i in the way of knowing omething the "ogmatit,uing a myth, belie!e himelf to hare part of the inight ofomnicience, though he lack the criteria by which to tell truth fromerror# )or the "itinguihing mark of a myth i that truth an" error,fact an" fable, report an" fantay, are all on the ame plane ofcre"ibility#

The myth i, then, not necearily fale# &t might happen to be whollytrue# &t may happen to be partly true# &f it ha affecte" humancon"uct a long time, it i almot certain to contain much that iprofoun"ly an" importantly true# What a myth ne!er contain i thecritical power to eparate it truth from it error# )or that powercome only by realiHing that no human opinion, whate!er it uppoe"origin, i too e+alte" for the tet of e!i"ence, that e!ery opinion ionly omebo"yN opinion# 4n" if you ak why the tet of e!i"ence ipreferable to any other, there i no anwer unle you are willing toue the tet in or"er to tet it#

7

The tatement i, & think, uceptible of o!erwhelming proof, thatmoral co"e aume a particular !iew of the fact# n"er the termmoral co"e & inclu"e all kin"3 peronal, family, economic,



profeional, legal, patriotic, international# 4t the center of eachthere i a pattern of tereotype about pychology, ociology, an"hitory# The ame !iew of human nature, intitution or tra"itionrarely perit through all our co"e# Compare, for e+ample, theeconomic an" the patriotic co"e# There i a war uppoe" to affectall alike# Two men are partner in buine# One enlit, the other

take a war contract# The ol"ier acrifice e!erything, perhap e!enhi life# -e i pai" a "ollar a "ay, an" no one ay, no one belie!e,that you coul" make a better ol"ier out of him by any form ofeconomic incenti!e# That moti!e "iappear out of hi human nature#The contractor acrifice !ery little, i pai" a han"ome profit o!ercot, an" few ay or belie!e that he woul" pro"uce the munition ifthere were no economic incenti!e# That may be unfair to him# The pointi that the accepte" patriotic co"e aume one kin" of human nature,the commercial co"e another# 4n" the co"e are probably foun"e" ontrue e+pectation to thi e+tent, that when a man a"opt a certainco"e he ten" to e+hibit the kin" of human nature which the co"e"eman"#

That i one reaon why it i o "angerou to generaliHe about humannature# 4 lo!ing father can be a our bo, an earnet municipalreformer, an" a rapaciou jingo abroa"# -i family life, hi buinecareer, hi politic, an" hi foreign policy ret on totally "ifferent!erion of what other are like an" of how he houl" act# Thee!erion "iffer by co"e in the ame peron, the co"e "iffer omewhatamong peron in the ame ocial et, "iffer wi"ely a between ocialet, an" between two nation, or two color, may "iffer to the pointwhere there i no common aumption whate!er# That i why peopleprofeing the ame tock of religiou belief can go to war# Theelement of their belief which "etermine con"uct i that !iew of thefact which they aume#

That i where co"e enter o ubtly an" o per!ai!ely into the makingof public opinion# The ortho"o+ theory hol" that a public opinioncontitute a moral ju"gment on a group of fact# The theory & amuggeting i that, in the preent tate of e"ucation, a publicopinion i primarily a moraliHe" an" co"ifie" !erion of the fact# &am arguing that the pattern of tereotype at the center of our co"elargely "etermine what group of fact we hall ee, an" in what lightwe hall ee them# That i why, with the bet will in the worl", thenew policy of a journal ten" to upport it e"itorial policy why acapitalit ee one et of fact, an" certain apect of human nature,literally ee them hi ocialit opponent another et an" otherapect, an" why each regar" the other a unreaonable or per!ere,when the real "ifference between them i a "ifference of perception#That "ifference i impoe" by the "ifference between the capitalitan" ocialit pattern of tereotype# %There are no clae in4merica,% write an 4merican e"itor# %The hitory of all hithertoe+iting ociety i the hitory of cla truggle,% ay theCommunit anifeto# &f you ha!e the e"itorN pattern in your min",you will ee !i!i"ly the fact that confirm it, !aguely an"ineffecti!ely thoe that contra"ict# &f you ha!e the communitpattern, you will not only look for "ifferent thing, but you will eewith a totally "ifferent emphai what you an" the e"itor happen toee in common#

;

4n" ince my moral ytem ret on my accepte" !erion of the fact,

he who "enie either my moral ju"gment or my !erion of the fact, ito me per!ere, alien, "angerou# -ow hall & account for himI Theopponent ha alway to be e+plaine", an" the lat e+planation that we



e!er look for i that he ee a "ifferent et of fact# .uch ane+planation we a!oi", becaue it ap the !ery foun"ation of our ownaurance that we ha!e een life tea"ily an" een it whole# &t ionly when we are in the habit of recogniHing our opinion a a partiale+perience een through our tereotype that we become truly tolerantof an opponent# Without that habit, we belie!e in the abolutim of

our own !iion, an" coneuently in the treacherou character of alloppoition# )or while men are willing to a"mit that there are twoi"e to a %uetion,% they "o not belie!e that there are two i"e towhat they regar" a a %fact#% 4n" they ne!er "o belie!e it until afterlong critical e"ucation, they are fully conciou of how econ">han"an" ubjecti!e i their apprehenion of their ocial "ata#

.o where two faction ee !i!i"ly each it own apect, an" contri!etheir own e+planation of what they ee, it i almot impoible forthem to cre"it each other with honety# &f the pattern fit theire+perience at a crucial point, they no longer look upon it a aninterpretation# They look upon it a %reality#% &t may not reemblethe reality, e+cept that it culminate in a concluion which fit a

real e+perience# & may repreent my trip from ew 'ork to Boton by atraight line on a map, jut a a man may regar" hi triumph a theen" of a traight an" narrow path# The roa" by which & actually wentto Boton may ha!e in!ol!e" many "etour, much turning an" twiting,jut a hi roa" may ha!e in!ol!e" much bei"e pure enterprie, laboran" thrift# But pro!i"e" & reach Boton an" he uccee", the airlinean" the traight path will er!e a rea"y ma"e chart# Only whenomebo"y trie to follow them, an" "oe not arri!e, "o we ha!e toanwer objection# &f we init on our chart, an" he init onrejecting them, we oon ten" to regar" him a a "angerou fool, an" heto regar" u a liar an" hypocrite# Thu we gra"ually paintportrait of each other# )or the opponent preent himelf a the manwho ay, e!il be thou my goo"# -e i an annoyance who "oe not fitinto the cheme of thing# e!erthele he interfere# 4n" ince thatcheme i bae" in our min" on incontro!ertible fact fortifie" byirreitible logic, ome place ha to be foun" for him in the cheme#arely in politic or in"utrial "ipute i a place ma"e for him bythe imple a"miion that he ha looke" upon the ame reality an" eenanother apect of it# That woul" hake the whole cheme#

Thu to the &talian in Pari )iume wa &talian &t wa not merely acity that it woul" be "eirable to inclu"e within the &talian king"om#&t wa &talian# They fi+e" their whole min" upon the &talian majoritywithin the legal boun"arie of the city itelf# The 4merican"elegate, ha!ing een more &talian in ew 'ork than there are in)iume, without regar"ing ew 'ork a &talian, fi+e" their eye on)iume a a central European port of entry# They aw !i!i"ly theAugola! in the uburb an" the non>&talian hinterlan"# .ome of the&talian in Pari were therefore in nee" of a con!incing e+planationof the 4merican per!erity# They foun" it in a rumor which tarte", noone know where, that an influential 4merican "iplomat wa in thenare of a Augola! mitre# .he ha" been een#### -e ha" beeneen#### 4t *eraille jut off the boule!ar"# ### The !illa with thelarge tree#

Thi i a rather common way of e+plaining away oppoition# &n theirmore libelou form uch charge rarely reach the printe" page, an" aooe!elt may ha!e to wait year, or a -ar"ing month, before he canforce an iue, an" en" a whipering campaign that ha reache" intoe!ery circle of talk# Public men ha!e to en"ure a fearful amount of

poionou clubroom, "inner table, bou"oir lan"er, repeate",elaborate", chuckle" o!er, an" regar"e" a "eliciou# While thi ortof thing i, & belie!e, le pre!alent in 4merica than in Europe, yet



rare i the 4merican official about whom omebo"y i not repeating acan"al#

Out of the oppoition we make !illain an" conpiracie# &f price goup unmercifully the profiteer ha!e conpire" if the newpapermirepreent the new, there i a capitalit plot if the rich are too

rich, they ha!e been tealing if a cloely fought election i lot,the electorate wa corrupte" if a tateman "oe omething of whichyou "iappro!e, he ha been bought or influence" by ome "icre"itableperon# &f workingmen are retle, they are the !ictim of agitatorif they are retle o!er wi"e area, there i a conpiracy on foot#&f you "o not pro"uce enough aeroplane, it i the work of pie ifthere i trouble in &relan", it i German or Bolhe!ik %gol"#% 4n" ifyou go tark, taring ma" looking for plot, you ee all trike, thePlumb plan, &rih rebellion, ohamme"an unret, the retoration ofDing Contantine, the League of ation, e+ican "ior"er, themo!ement to re"uce armament, .un"ay mo!ie, hort kirt, e!aion ofthe liuor law, egro elf>aertion, a ub>plot un"er omegran"ioe plot engineere" either by ocow, ome, the )ree aon, the

Aapanee, or the El"er of Kion#

C-4PTE J

T-E $ETECT&O O) .TEEOT'PE.

/

.kille" "iplomatit, compelle" to talk out lou" to the warringpeople, learne" how to ue a large repertory of tereotype# Theywere "ealing with a precariou alliance of power, each of which wamaintaining it war unity only by the mot careful lea"erhip# Theor"inary ol"ier an" hi wife, heroic an" elfle beyon" anything inthe chronicle of courage, were till not heroic enough to face "eathgla"ly for all the i"ea which were ai" by the foreign office offoreign power to be eential to the future of ci!iliHation# Therewere port, an" mine, rocky mountain pae, an" !illage that fewol"ier woul" willingly ha!e croe" o anN Lan" to obtain fortheir allie#

ow it happene" in one nation that the war party which wa in controlof the foreign office, the high comman", an" mot of the pre, ha"claim on the territory of e!eral of it neighbor# Thee claim werecalle" the Greater uritania by the culti!ate" clae who regar"e"Dipling, Treitchke, an" aurice Barre a one hun"re" percenturitanian# But the gran"ioe i"ea aroue" no enthuiam abroa"# .ohol"ing thi finet flower of the uritanian geniu, a their poetlaureate ai", to their heart, uritaniaN tatemen went forth to"i!i"e an" conuer# They "i!i"e" the claim into ector# )or eachpiece they in!oke" that tereotype which ome one or more of theirallie foun" it "ifficult to reit, becaue that ally ha" claim forwhich it hope" to fin" appro!al by the ue of thi ame tereotype#

The firt ector happene" to be a mountainou region inhabite" byalien peaant# uritania "eman"e" it to complete her naturalgeographical frontier# &f you fi+e" your attention long enough on theineffable !alue of what i natural, thoe alien peaant jut

"iol!e" into fog, an" only the lope of the mountain wa !iible#The ne+t ector wa inhabite" by uritanian, an" on the principlethat no people ought to li!e un"er alien rule, they were re>anne+e"#



Then came a city of coni"erable commercial importance, not inhabite"by uritanian# But until the Eighteenth Century it ha" been part ofuritania, an" on the principle of -itoric ight it wa anne+e"#)arther on there wa a plen"i" mineral "epoit owne" by alien an"worke" by alien# On the principle of reparation for "amage it waanne+e"# Beyon" thi there wa a territory inhabite" 01S by alien,

contituting the natural geographical frontier of another nation,ne!er hitorically a part of uritania# But one of the pro!ince whichha" been fe"erate" into uritania ha" formerly tra"e" in thoemarket, an" the upper cla culture wa uritanian# On the principleof cultural uperiority an" the neceity of "efen"ing ci!iliHation,the lan" were claime"# )inally, there wa a port wholly "iconnecte"from uritania geographically, ethnically, economically, hitorically,tra"itionally# &t wa "eman"e" on the groun" that it wa nee"e" fornational "efene#

&n the treatie that conclu"e" the Great War you can multiply e+ampleof thi kin"# ow & "o not wih to imply that & think it wa poibleto reettle Europe conitently on any one of thee principle# & am

certain that it wa not# The !ery ue of thee principle, opretentiou an" o abolute, meant that the pirit of accommo"ation"i" not pre!ail an" that, therefore, the ubtance of peace wa notthere# )or the moment you tart to "icu factorie, mine,mountain, or e!en political authority, a perfect e+ample of omeeternal principle or other, you are not arguing, you are fighting#That eternal principle cenor out all the objection, iolate theiue from it backgroun" an" it conte+t, an" et going in you ometrong emotion, appropriate enough to the principle, highlyinappropriate to the "ock, warehoue, an" real etate# 4n" ha!ingtarte" in that moo" you cannot top# 4 real "anger e+it# To meet ityou ha!e to in!oke more abolute principle in or"er to "efen" what iopen to attack# Then you ha!e to "efen" the "efene, erect buffer,an" buffer for the buffer, until the whole affair i o cramble"that it eem le "angerou to fight than to keep on talking#

There are certain clue which often help in "etecting the faleabolutim of a tereotype# &n the cae of the uritanian propagan"athe principle blankete" each other o rapi"ly that one coul" rea"ilyee how the argument ha" been contructe"# The erie ofcontra"iction howe" that for each ector that tereotype waemploye" which woul" obliterate all the fact that interfere" with theclaim# Contra"iction of thi ort i often a goo" clue#

5

&nability to take account of pace i another# &n the pring of /0/?,for e+ample, large number of people, appalle" by the with"rawal ofuia, "eman"e" the %reetablihment of an Eatern )ront#% The war,a they ha" concei!e" it, wa on two front, an" when one of them"iappeare" there wa an intant "eman" that it be recreate"# Theunemploye" Aapanee army wa to man the front, ubtituting for theuian# But there wa one inuperable obtacle# Between *la"i!otokan" the eatern battleline there were fi!e thouan" mile of country,panne" by one broken "own railway# 'et thoe fi!e thouan" milewoul" not tay in the min" of the enthuiat# .o o!erwhelming watheir con!iction that an eatern front wa nee"e", an" o great theirconfi"ence in the !alor of the Aapanee army, that, mentally, they ha"projecte" that army from *la"i!otok to Polan" on a magic carpet# &n!ain our military authoritie argue" that to lan" troop on the rim of

.iberia ha" a little to "o with reaching the German, a climbingfrom the cellar to the roof of the Woolworth buil"ing ha" to "o withreaching the moon#



The tereotype in thi intance wa the war on two front# E!er incemen ha" begun to imagine the Great War they ha" concei!e" Germany hel"between )rance an" uia# One generation of trategit, an" perhaptwo, ha" li!e" with that !iual image a the tarting point of alltheir calculation# )or nearly four year e!ery battle>map they aw

ha" "eepene" the impreion that thi wa the war# When affair took anew turn, it wa not eay to ee them a they were then# They wereeen through the tereotype, an" fact which conflicte" with it, ucha the "itance from Aapan to Polan", were incapable of coming !i!i"lyinto concioune#

&t i intereting to note that the 4merican authoritie "ealt with thenew fact more realitically than the )rench# &n part, thi wabecaue =pre!iou to /0/7@ they ha" no preconception of a war upon thecontinent in part becaue the 4merican, engroe" in themobiliHation of their force, ha" a !iion of the wetern front whichwa itelf a tereotype that e+clu"e" from FtheirF conciouneany !ery !i!i" ene of the other theatre of war# &n the pring of

/0/? thi 4merican !iew coul" not compete with the tra"itional )rench!iew, becaue while the 4merican belie!e" enormouly in their ownpower, the )rench at that time =before Cantigny an" the .econ" arne@ha" the gra!et "oubt# The 4merican confi"ence uffue" the 4mericantereotype, ga!e it that power to poe concioune, thatli!eline an" enible pungency, that timulating effect upon thewill, that emotional interet a an object of "eire, that congruitywith the acti!ity in han", which Aame note a characteritic of whatwe regar" a %real#% 8)ootnote3 FPrinciple of PychologyF, *ol#&&, p# M66#< The )rench in "epair remaine" fi+e" on their accepte"image# 4n" when fact, gro geographical fact, woul" not fit withthe preconception, they were either cenore" out of min", or the factwere themel!e tretche" out of hape# Thu the "ifficulty of theAapanee reaching the German fi!e thouan" mile away wa, inmeaure, o!ercome by bringing the German more than half way to meetthem# Between arch an" Aune /0/?, there wa uppoe" to be a Germanarmy operating in Eatern .iberia# Thi phantom army conite" of omeGerman prioner actually een, more German prioner thought about,an" chiefly of the "eluion that thoe fi!e thouan" inter!ening mile"i" not really e+it# 8)ootnote3 .ee in thi connection r# CharleGratyN inter!iew with arhal )och, Few 'ork TimeF, )ebruary5:, /0/?# %Germany i walking through uia# 4merica an" Aapan, whoare in a poition to "o o, houl" go to meet her in .iberia#% .eealo the reolution by .enator Ding of tah, Aune /6, /0/?, an" r#TaftN tatement in the Few 'ork TimeF, Aune //, /0/?, an" theappeal to 4merica on ay ;, /0/?, by r# 4# A# .ack, $irector of theuian &nformation Bureau3 %&f Germany were in the 4llie" place###he woul" ha!e M,666,666 fighting on the Eat front within a year#%<

M

4 true conception of pace i not a imple matter# &f & "raw atraight line on a map between Bombay an" -ong Dong an" meaure the"itance, & ha!e learne" nothing whate!er about the "itance & houl"ha!e to co!er on a !oyage# 4n" e!en if & meaure the actual "itancethat & mut tra!ere, & till know !ery little until & know what hipare in the er!ice, when they run, how fat they go, whether & canecure accommo"ation an" affor" to pay for it# &n practical life pacei a matter of a!ailable tranportation, not of geometrical plane, athe ol" railroa" magnate knew when he threatene" to make gra grow in

the treet of a city that ha" offen"e" him# &f & am motoring an" akhow far it i to my "etination, & cure a an unmitigate" booby theman who tell me it i three mile, an" "oe not mention a i+ mile



"etour# &t "oe me no goo" to be tol" that it i three mile if youwalk# & might a well be tol" it i one mile a the crow flie# & "onot fly like a crow, an" & am not walking either# & mut know that iti nine mile for a motor car, an" alo, if that i the cae, that i+of them are rut an" pu""le# & call the pe"etrian a nuiance whotell me it i three mile an" think e!il of the a!iator who tol" me

it wa one mile# Both of them are talking about the pace they ha!e toco!er, not the pace & mut co!er#

&n the "rawing of boun"ary line abur" complication ha!e arienthrough failure to concei!e the practical geography of a region# n"erome general formula like elf>"etermination tatemen ha!e at !arioutime "rawn line on map, which, when ur!eye" on the pot, ranthrough the mi""le of a factory, "own the center of a !illage treet,"iagonally acro the na!e of a church, or between the kitchen an"be"room of a peaantN cottage# There ha!e been frontier in a graHingcountry which eparate" pature from water, pature from market, an"in an in"utrial country, railhea" from railroa"# On the colore"ethnic map the line wa ethnically jut, that i to ay, jut in the

worl" of that ethnic map#

7

But time, no le than pace, fare ba"ly# 4 common e+ample i that ofthe man who trie by making an elaborate will to control hi moneylong after hi "eath# %&t ha" been the purpoe of the firt WilliamAame,% write hi great>gran"on -enry Aame, 8)ootnote3 FTheLetter of William AameF, *ol# &, p# :#< %to pro!i"e that hichil"ren =e!eral of whom were un"er age when he "ie"@ houl" ualifythemel!e by in"utry an" e+perience to enjoy the large patrimonywhich he e+pecte" to beueath to them, an" with that in !iew he left awill which wa a !oluminou compoun" of retraint an" intruction#-e howe" thereby how great were both hi confi"ence in hi ownju"gment an" hi olicitu"e for the moral welfare of hi "ecen"ant#%The court upet the will# )or the law in it objection toperpetuitie recogniHe that there are "itinct limit to theuefulne of allowing anyone to impoe hi moral tencil upon anunknown future# But the "eire to impoe it i a !ery human trait, ohuman that the law permit it to operate for a limite" time after"eath#

The amen"ing claue of any contitution i a goo" in"e+ of theconfi"ence the author entertaine" about the reach of their opinionin the uccee"ing generation# There are, & belie!e, 4merican tatecontitution which are almot incapable of amen"ment# The men whoma"e them coul" ha!e ha" but little ene of the flu+ of time3 to themthe -ere an" ow wa o brilliantly certain, the -ereafter o !ague oro terrifying, that they ha" the courage to ay how life houl" runafter they were gone# 4n" then becaue contitution are "ifficult toamen", Healou people with a tate for mortmain ha!e lo!e" to write onthi imperihable bra all kin" of rule an" retriction that,gi!en any "ecent humility about the future, ought to be no morepermanent than an or"inary tatute#

4 preumption about time enter wi"ely into our opinion# To oneperon an intitution which ha e+ite" for the whole of hi concioulife i part of the permanent furniture of the uni!ere3 to another iti ephemeral# Geological time i !ery "ifferent from biological time#.ocial time i mot comple+# The tateman ha to "eci"e whether to

calculate for the emergency or for the long run# .ome "eciion ha!eto be ma"e on the bai of what will happen in the ne+t two hourother on what will happen in a week, a month, a eaon, a "eca"e,



when the chil"ren ha!e grown up, or their chil"renN chil"ren# 4nimportant part of wi"om i the ability to "itinguih thetime>conception that properly belong to the thing in han"# The peronwho ue the wrong time>conception range from the "reamer who ignorethe preent to the philitine who can ee nothing ele# 4 true caleof !alue ha a !ery acute ene of relati!e time#

$itant time, pat an" future, ha omehow to be concei!e"# But aAame ay, %of the longer "uration we ha!e no "irect NrealiHingNene#% 8)ootnote3 FPrinciple of PychologyF, *ol# &, p# :M?#<The longet "uration which we imme"iately feel i what i calle" the%peciou preent#% &t en"ure, accor"ing to Titchener, for about i+econ"# 8)ootnote3 Cite" by Warren, F-uman PychologyF, p# 5;;#<%4ll impreion within thi perio" of time are preent to u FatonceF# Thi make it poible for u to percei!e change an" e!enta well a tationary object# The perceptual preent i upplemente"by the i"eational preent# Through the combination of perception withmemory image, entire "ay, month, an" e!en year of the pat arebrought together into the preent#%

&n thi i"eational preent, !i!i"ne, a Aame ai", i proportionateto the number of "icrimination we percei!e within it# Thu a!acation in which we were bore" with nothing to "o pae lowly whilewe are in it, but eem !ery hort in memory# Great acti!ity killtime rapi"ly, but in memory it "uration i long# On the relationbetween the amount we "icriminate an" our time perpecti!e Aame haan intereting paage3 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, *ol# &, p# :M0#<

%We ha!e e!ery reaon to think that creature may poibly "ifferenormouly in the amount of "uration which they intuiti!ely feel, an"in the finene of the e!ent that may fill it# *on Baer ha in"ulge"in ome intereting computation of the effect of uch "ifference inchanging the apect of ature# .uppoe we were able, within the lengthof a econ", to note /6,666 e!ent "itinctly, intea" of barely /6 anow 8)ootnote3 &n the mo!ing picture thi effect i a"mirably pro"uce"by the ultra>rapi" camera#< if our life were then "etine" to hol" theame number of impreion, it might be /666 time a hort# We houl"li!e le than a month, an" peronally know nothing of the change ofeaon# &f born in winter, we houl" belie!e in ummer a we nowbelie!e in the heat of the carboniferou era# The motion of organicbeing woul" be o low to our ene a to be inferre", not een# Theun woul" tan" till in the ky, the moon be almot free from change,an" o on# But now re!ere the hypothei an" uppoe a being to getonly one /666th part of the enation we get in a gi!en time, an"coneuently to li!e /666 time a long# Winter an" ummer will beto him like uarter of an hour# uhroom an" the wifter growingplant will hoot into being o rapi"ly a to appear intantaneoucreation annual hrub will rie an" fall from the earth likeretle boiling water pring the motion of animal will be ain!iible a are to u the mo!ement of bullet an" cannon>ball theun will cour through the ky like a meteor, lea!ing a fiery trailbehin" him, etc#%

;

&n hi Outline of -itory r# Well ha ma"e a gallant effort to!iualiHe %the true proportion of hitorical to geological time%8)ootnote3 / *ol# &&, p# :6;# .ee alo Aame -ar!ey obinon, FTheew -itory,F p# 5M0#< On a cale which repreent the time from

Columbu to ourel!e by three inche of pace, the rea"er woul" ha!eto walk ;; feet to ee the "ate of the painter of the 4ltamara ca!e,;;6 feet to ee the earlier ean"erthaler, a mile or o to the lat



of the "inoaur# ore or le precie chronology "oe not begin untilafter /666 B#C#, an" at that time %.argon & of the 4kka"ian>.umerianEmpire wa a remote memory,### more remote than i Contantine theGreat from the worl" of the preent "ay#### -ammurabi ha" been "ea" athouan" year### .tonehe"ge in Englan" wa alrea"y a thouan" yearol"#%

r# Well wa writing with a purpoe# %&n the brief perio" of tenthouan" year thee unit =into which men ha!e combine"@ ha!e grownfrom the mall family tribe of the early neolithic culture to the !atunite" realm>>!at yet till too mall an" partial>>of the preenttime#% r# Well hope" by changing the time perpecti!e on our preentproblem to change the moral perpecti!e# 'et the atronomical meaureof time, the geological, the biological, any telecopic meaure whichminimiHe the preent i not %more true% than a microcopic# r#.imeon .trunky i right when he init that %if r# Well ithinking of hi ubtitle, The Probable )uture of ankin", he ientitle" to ak for any number of centurie to work out hi olution#&f he i thinking of the al!aging of thi wetern ci!iliHation,

reeling un"er the effect of the Great War, he mut think in "eca"ean" core of year#% 8)ootnote3 &n a re!iew of FThe .al!aging ofCi!iliHation, The Literary e!iew of the # '# E!ening PotF, Aune/?, /05/, p# ;#< &t all "epen" upon the practical purpoe for whichyou a"opt the meaure# There are ituation when the time perpecti!enee" to be lengthene", an" other when it nee" to be hortene"#

The man who ay that it "oe not matter if /;,666,666 Chinee "ie offamine, becaue in two generation the birthrate will make up thelo, ha ue" a time perpecti!e to e+cue hi inertia# 4 peron whopauperiHe a healthy young man becaue he i entimentallyo!erimpree" with an imme"iate "ifficulty ha lot ight of the"uration of the beggarN life# The people who for the ake of animme"iate peace are willing to buy off an aggrei!e empire byin"ulging it appetite ha!e allowe" a peciou preent to interferewith the peace of their chil"ren# The people who will not be patientwith a troubleome neighbor, who want to bring e!erything to a%how"own% are no le the !ictim of a peciou preent#

:

&nto almot e!ery ocial problem the proper calculation of timeenter# .uppoe, for e+ample, it i a uetion of timber# .ome treegrow fater than other# Then a oun" foret policy i one in whichthe amount of each pecie an" of each age cut in each eaon i ma"egoo" by replanting# &n o far a that calculation i correct thetruet economy ha been reache"# To cut le i wate, an" to cut morei e+ploitation# But there may come an emergency, ay the nee" foraeroplane pruce in a war, when the yearN allowance mut be e+cee"e"#4n alert go!ernment will recogniHe that an" regar" the retoration ofthe balance a a charge upon the future#

Coal in!ol!e a "ifferent theory of time, becaue coal, unlike a tree,i pro"uce" on the cale of geological time# The upply i limite"#Therefore a correct ocial policy in!ol!e intricate computation ofthe a!ailable reer!e of the worl", the in"icate" poibilitie, thepreent rate of ue, the preent economy of ue, an" the alternati!efuel# But when that computation ha been reache" it mut finally beuare" with an i"eal tan"ar" in!ol!ing time# .uppoe, for e+ample,that engineer conclu"e that the preent fuel are being e+haute" at

a certain rate that barring new "ico!erie in"utry will ha!e toenter a phae of contraction at ome "efinite time in the future# Weha!e then to "etermine how much thrift an" elf>"enial we will ue,



after all feaible economie ha!e been e+ercie", in or"er not to robpoterity# But what hall we coni"er poterityI Our gran"chil"renIOur great gran"chil"renI Perhap we hall "eci"e to calculate on ahun"re" year, belie!ing that to be ample time for the "ico!ery ofalternati!e fuel if the neceity i ma"e clear at once# The figureare, of coure, hypothetical# But in calculating that way we hall be

employing what reaon we ha!e# We hall be gi!ing ocial time itplace in public opinion# Let u now imagine a omewhat "ifferent cae3a contract between a city an" a trolley>car company# The company aythat it will not in!et it capital unle it i grante" a monopoly ofthe main highway for ninety>nine year# &n the min" of the men whomake that "eman" ninety>nine year i o long a to mean %fore!er#%But uppoe there i reaon to think that urface car, run from acentral power plant on track, are going out of fahion in twentyyear# Then it i a mot unwie contract to make, for you are!irtually con"emning a future generation to inferior tranportation#&n making uch a contract the city official lack a realiHing ene ofninety>nine year# )ar better to gi!e the company a ubi"y now inor"er to attract capital than to timulate in!etment by in"ulging a

fallaciou ene of eternity# o city official an" no company officialha a ene of real time when he talk about ninety>nine year#

Popular hitory i a happy hunting groun" of time confuion# To thea!erage Englihman, for e+ample, the beha!ior of Cromwell, thecorruption of the 4ct of nion, the )amine of /?71 are wrong uffere"by people long "ea" an" "one by actor long "ea" with whom no li!ingperon, &rih or Englih, ha any real connection# But in the min" ofa patriotic &rihman thee ame e!ent are almot contemporary# -imemory i like one of thoe hitorical painting, where *irgil an"$ante it i"e by i"e con!ering# Thee perpecti!e an"forehortening are a great barrier between people# &t i e!er o"ifficult for a peron of one tra"ition to remember what icontemporary in the tra"ition of another#

4lmot nothing that goe by the name of -itoric ight or -itoricWrong can be calle" a truly objecti!e !iew of the pat# Take, fore+ample, the )ranco>German "ebate about 4lace>Lorraine# &t all"epen" on the original "ate you elect# &f you tart with the auracian" .euani, the lan" are hitorically part of 4ncient Gaul# &f youprefer -enry &, they are hitorically a German territory if you take/51M they belong to the -oue of 4utria if you take /:7? an" thePeace of Wetphalia, mot of them are )rench if you take Loui J&*an" the year /:?? they are almot all )rench# &f you are uing theargument from hitory you are fairly certain to elect thoe "ate inthe pat which upport your !iew of what houl" be "one now#

4rgument about %race% an" nationalitie often betray the amearbitrary !iew of time# $uring the war, un"er the influence ofpowerful feeling, the "ifference between %Teuton% on the one han",an" %4nglo>.a+on% an" )rench on the other, wa popularly belie!e" tobe an eternal "ifference# They ha" alway been oppoing race# 'et ageneration ago, hitorian, like )reeman, were emphaiHing the commonTeutonic origin of the Wet European people, an" ethnologit woul"certainly init that the German, Englih, an" the greater part ofthe )rench are branche of what wa once a common tock# The generalrule i3 if you like a people to>"ay you come "own the branche to thetrunk if you "ilike them you init that the eparate branche areeparate trunk# &n one cae you fi+ your attention on the perio"before they were "itinguihable in the other on the perio" after

which they became "itinct# 4n" the !iew which fit the moo" i takena the %truth#%



4n amiable !ariation i the family tree# ually one couple areappointe" the original ancetor, if poible, a couple aociate"with an honorific e!ent like the orman Conuet# That couple ha!e noancetor# They are not "ecen"ant# 'et they were the "ecen"ant ofancetor, an" the e+preion that .o>an">.o wa the foun"er of hihoue mean not that he i the 4"am of hi family, but that he i the

particular ancetor from whom it i "eirable to tart, or perhap theearliet ancetor of which there i a recor"# But genealogical tablee+hibit a "eeper preju"ice# nle the female line happen to beepecially remarkable "ecent i trace" "own through the male# Thetree i male# 4t !ariou moment female accrue to it a itinerantbee light upon an ancient apple tree#

1

But the future i the mot illui!e time of all# Our temptation herei to jump o!er neceary tep in the euence an" a we arego!erne" by hope or "oubt, to e+aggerate or to minimiHe the timereuire" to complete !ariou part of a proce# The "icuion of the

role to be e+ercie" by wage>earner in the management of in"utry iri""le" with thi "ifficulty# )or management i a wor" that co!ermany function# 8)ootnote3 Cf# Carter L# Goo"rich, The )rontier ofControl#< .ome of thee reuire no training ome reuire a littletraining other can be learne" only in a lifetime# 4n" the truly"icriminating program of in"utrial "emocratiHation woul" be onebae" on the proper time euence, o that the aumption ofreponibility woul" run parallel to a complementary program ofin"utrial training# The propoal for a u""en "ictatorhip of theproletariat i an attempt to "o away with the inter!ening time ofpreparation the reitance to all haring of reponibility anattempt to "eny the alteration of human capacity in the coure oftime# Primiti!e notion of "emocracy, uch a rotation in office, an"contempt for the e+pert, are really nothing but the ol" myth that theGo""e of Wi"om prang mature an" fully arme" from the brow of Ao!e#They aume that what it take year to learn nee" not be learne" atall#

Whene!er the phrae %backwar" people% i ue" a the bai of apolicy, the conception of time i a "ecii!e element# The Co!enant ofthe League of ation ay, 8)ootnote3 4rticle J&J#< for e+ample, that%the character of the man"ate mut "iffer accor"ing to the tage ofthe "e!elopment of the people,% a well a on other groun"# Certaincommunitie, it aert, %ha!e reache" a tage of "e!elopment% wheretheir in"epen"ence can be pro!iionally recogniHe", ubject to a"!icean" aitance %until uch time a they are able to tan" alone#% Theway in which the man"atorie an" the man"ate" concei!e that time willinfluence "eeply their relation# Thu in the cae of Cuba theju"gment of the 4merican go!ernment !irtually coinci"e" with that ofthe Cuban patriot, an" though there ha been trouble, there i nofiner page in the hitory of how trong power ha!e "ealt with theweak# Oftener in that hitory the etimate ha!e not coinci"e"# Wherethe imperial people, whate!er it public e+preion, ha been "eeplycon!ince" that the backwar"ne of the backwar" wa o hopele a notto be worth reme"ying, or o profitable that it wa not "eirable toreme"y it, the tie ha fetere" an" poione" the peace of the worl"#There ha!e been a few cae, !ery few, where backwar"ne ha meant tothe ruling power the nee" for a program of forwar"ne, a program with"efinite tan"ar" an" "efinite etimate of time# )ar morefreuently, o freuently in fact a to eem the rule, backwar"ne

ha been concei!e" a an intrinic an" eternal mark of inferiority#4n" then e!ery attempt to be le backwar" ha been frowne" upon athe e"ition, which, un"er thee con"ition, it un"oubte"ly i# &n our



own race war we can ee ome of the reult of the failure to realiHethat time woul" gra"ually obliterate the la!e morality of the egro,an" that ocial a"jutment bae" on thi morality woul" begin to break"own#

&t i har" not to picture the future a if it obeye" our preent

purpoe, to annihilate whate!er "elay our "eire, or immortaliHewhate!er tan" between u an" our fear#

?

&n putting together our public opinion, not only "o we ha!e topicture more pace than we can ee with our eye, an" more time thanwe can feel, but we ha!e to "ecribe an" ju"ge more people, moreaction, more thing than we can e!er count, or !i!i"ly imagine# Weha!e to ummariHe an" generaliHe# We ha!e to pick out ample, an"treat them a typical#

To pick fairly a goo" ample of a large cla i not eay# The problem

belong to the cience of tatitic, an" it i a mot "ifficultaffair for anyone whoe mathematic i primiti!e, an" mine remainaHoic in pite of the half "oHen manual which & once "e!outlyimagine" that & un"ertoo"# 4ll they ha!e "one for me i to make me alittle more conciou of how har" it i to claify an" to ample, howrea"ily we prea" a little butter o!er the whole uni!ere#

.ome time ago a group of ocial worker in .heffiel", Englan", tarte"out to ubtitute an accurate picture of the mental euipment of theworker of that city for the impreionitic one they ha"# 8)ootnote3FThe Euipment of the WorkerF#< They wihe" to ay, with ome"ecent groun" for aying it, how the worker of .heffiel" wereeuippe"# They foun", a we all fin" the moment we refue to let ourfirt notion pre!ail, that they were beet with complication# Of thetet they employe" nothing nee" be ai" here e+cept that it wa alarge uetionnaire# )or the ake of the illutration, aume that theuetion were a fair tet of mental euipment for Englih city life#Theoretically, then, thoe uetion houl" ha!e been put to e!erymember of the working cla# But it i not o eay to know who are theworking cla# -owe!er, aume again that the cenu know how toclaify them# Then there were roughly /67,666 men an" /61,666 womenwho ought to ha!e been uetione"# They poee" the anwer whichwoul" jutify or refute the caual phrae about the %ignorant worker%or the %intelligent worker#% But nobo"y coul" think of uetioningthe whole two hun"re" thouan"#

.o the ocial worker conulte" an eminent tatitician, ProfeorBowley# -e a"!ie" them that not le than 76? men an" 76? women woul"pro!e to be a fair ample# 4ccor"ing to mathematical calculation thinumber woul" not how a greater "e!iation from the a!erage than / in55# 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# :;#< They ha", therefore, touetion at leat ?/: people before they coul" preten" to talk aboutthe a!erage workingman# But which ?/: people houl" they approachI %Wemight ha!e gathere" particular concerning worker to whom one oranother of u ha" a pre>inuiry acce we might ha!e worke" throughphilanthropic gentlemen an" la"ie who were in contact with certainection of worker at a club, a miion, an infirmary, a place ofworhip, a ettlement# But uch a metho" of election woul" pro"uceentirely worthle reult# The worker thu electe" woul" not be inany ene repreentati!e of what i popularly calle" Nthe a!erage run

of workerN they woul" repreent nothing but the little coterie towhich they belonge"#





M# &t FmayF be true e!en now

7# &t i FfitF to be true

;# &t FoughtF to be true

:# &t FmutF be true

1# &t FhallF be true, at any rate true for me#%

4n", a he a""e" in another place, 8)ootnote3 F4 Pluraliticni!ereF, p# M50#< %your acting thu may in certain pecial caebe a mean of making it ecurely true in the en"#% 'et no one woul"ha!e inite" more than he, that, o far a we know how, we mut a!oi"ubtituting the goal for the tarting point, mut a!oi" rea"ing backinto the preent what courage, effort an" kill might create in thefuture# 'et thi truim i inor"inately "ifficult to li!e by, becauee!ery one of u i o little traine" in the election of our ample#

&f we belie!e that a certain thing ought to be true, we can almotalway fin" either an intance where it i true, or omeone whobelie!e it ought to be true# &t i e!er o har" when a concrete factillutrate a hope to weigh that fact properly# When the firt i+people we meet agree with u, it i not eay to remember that they mayall ha!e rea" the ame newpaper at breakfat# 4n" yet we cannot en"out a uetionnaire to ?/: ran"om ample e!ery time we wih toetimate a probability# &n "ealing with any large ma of fact, thepreumption i againt our ha!ing picke" true ample, if we areacting on a caual impreion#

0

4n" when we try to go one tep further in or"er to eek the caue an"effect of uneen an" complicate" affair, haphaHar" opinion i !erytricky# There are few big iue in public life where caue an" effectare ob!iou at once# They are not ob!iou to cholar who ha!e "e!ote"year, let u ay, to tu"ying buine cycle, or price an" wagemo!ement, or the migration an" the aimilation of people, or the"iplomatic purpoe of foreign power# 'et omehow we are all uppoe"to ha!e opinion on thee matter, an" it i not urpriing that thecommonet form of reaoning i the intuiti!e, pot hoc ergo propterhoc#

The more untraine" a min", the more rea"ily it work out a theory thattwo thing which catch it attention at the ame time are cauallyconnecte"# We ha!e alrea"y "welt at ome length on the way thingreach our attention# We ha!e een that our acce to information iobtructe" an" uncertain, an" that our apprehenion i "eeplycontrolle" by our tereotype that the e!i"ence a!ailable to ourreaon i ubject to illuion of "efene, pretige, morality, pace,time, an" ampling# We mut note now that with thi initial taint,public opinion are till further beet, becaue in a erie of e!enteen motly through tereotype, we rea"ily accept euence orparallelim a eui!alent to caue an" effect#

Thi i mot likely to happen when two i"ea that come together arouethe ame feeling# &f they come together they are likely to aroue theame feeling an" e!en when they "o not arri!e together a powerfulfeeling attache" to one i likely to uck out of all the corner of

memory any i"ea that feel about the ame# Thu e!erything painfulten" to collect into one ytem of caue an" effect, an" likewiee!erything pleaant#



%&&" &&m =/:1;@ Thi "ay & hear that G8o"< ha hot an arrow into themi"t of thi Town# The mall po+ i in an or"inary ye ign of the.wan, the or"inary Deeper name i Win"or# -i "aughter i ick ofthe "ieae# &t i ober!able that thi "ieae begin at an alehoue,to tetify Go"N "ipleaure agt the in of "runkenne U yt of

multiplying alehoue2% 8)ootnote3 FThe -eart of the PuritanF, p#/11, e"ite" by EliHabeth $eering -ancom#<

Thu &ncreae ather, an" thu in the year /0/0 a "itinguihe"Profeor of Celetial echanic "icuing the Eintein theory3

%&t may well be that#### Bolhe!it upriing are in reality the!iible object of ome un"erlying, "eep, mental "iturbance,worl">wi"e in character#### Thi ame pirit of unret ha in!a"e"cience#% 8)ootnote3 Cite" in FThe ew epublicF, $ec# 57, /0/0,p# /56#<

&n hating one thing !iolently, we rea"ily aociate with it a caue

or effect mot of the other thing we hate or fear !iolently# They mayha!e no more connection than mallpo+ an" alehoue, or elati!ity an"Bolhe!im, but they are boun" together in the ame emotion# &n aupertitiou min", like that of the Profeor of Celetial echanic,emotion i a tream of molten la!a which catche an" imbe" whate!erit touche# When you e+ca!ate in it you fin", a in a burie" city, allort of object lu"icrouly entangle" in each other# 4nything can berelate" to anything ele, pro!i"e" it feel like it# or ha a min" inuch a tate any way of knowing how prepoterou it i# 4ncient fear,reinforce" by more recent fear, coagulate into a narl of fear whereanything that i "rea"e" i the caue of anything ele that i"rea"e"#

/6

Generally it all culminate in the fabrication of a ytem of alle!il, an" of another which i the ytem of all goo"# Then our lo!e ofthe abolute how itelf# )or we "o not like ualifyinga"!erb# 8)ootnote3 FCfF# )reu"N "icuion of abolutim in"ream, F&nterpretation of $reamF, Chapter *&, epecially pp#5??, Fet eF#< They clutter up entence, an" interfere withirreitible feeling# We prefer mot to more, leat to le, we"ilike the wor" rather, perhap, if, or, but, towar", not uite,almot, temporarily, partly# 'et nearly e!ery opinion about publicaffair nee" to be "eflate" by ome wor" of thi ort# But in ourfree moment e!erything ten" to beha!e abolutely,>>one hun"re"percent, e!erywhere, fore!er#

&t i not enough to ay that our i"e i more right than the enemyN,that our !ictory will help "emocracy more than hi# One mut initthat our !ictory will en" war fore!er, an" make the worl" afe for"emocracy# 4n" when the war i o!er, though we ha!e thwarte" a greatere!il than thoe which till afflict u, the relati!ity of the reultfa"e out, the abolutene of the preent e!il o!ercome our pirit,an" we feel that we are helple becaue we ha!e not beenirreitible# Between omnipotence an" impotence the pen"ulum wing#

eal pace, real time, real number, real connection, real weightare lot# The perpecti!e an" the backgroun" an" the "imenion ofaction are clippe" an" froHen in the tereotype#



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BT the human min" i not a film which regiter once an" for all eachimpreion that come through it hutter an" lene# The human min"

i en"lely an" peritently creati!e# The picture fa"e or combine,are harpene" here, con"ene" there, a we make them more completelyour own# They "o not lie inert upon the urface of the min", but arereworke" by the poetic faculty into a peronal e+preion ofourel!e# We "itribute the emphai an" participate in the action#

&n or"er to "o thi we ten" to peronaliHe uantitie, an" to"ramatiHe relation# 4 ome ort of allegory, e+cept in acutelyophiticate" min", the affair of the worl" are repreente"# .ocialo!ement, Economic )orce, ational &nteret, Public Opinion aretreate" a peron, or peron like the Pope, the Prei"ent, Lenin,organ or the Ding become i"ea an" intitution# The "eepet of allthe tereotype i the human tereotype which impute human nature toinanimate or collecti!e thing#

The bewil"ering !ariety of our impreion, e!en after they ha!e beencenore" in all kin" of way, ten" to force u to a"opt the greatereconomy of the allegory# .o great i the multitu"e of thing that wecannot keep them !i!i"ly in min"# ually, then, we name them, an" letthe name tan" for the whole impreion# But a name i porou# Ol"meaning lip out an" new one lip in, an" the attempt to retain thefull meaning of the name i almot a fatiguing a trying to recallthe original impreion# 'et name are a poor currency for thought#They are too empty, too abtract, too inhuman# 4n" o we begin to eethe name through ome peronal tereotype, to rea" into it, finally toee in it the incarnation of ome human uality#

'et human ualitie are themel!e !ague an" fluctuating# They arebet remembere" by a phyical ign# 4n" therefore, the human ualitiewe ten" to acribe to the name of our impreion, themel!e ten" tobe !iualiHe" in phyical metaphor# The people of Englan", thehitory of Englan", con"ene into Englan", an" Englan" become AohnBull, who i jo!ial an" fat, not too cle!er, but well able to takecare of himelf# The migration of a people may appear to ome a themean"ering of a ri!er, an" to other like a "e!atating floo"# Thecourage people "iplay may be objectifie" a a rock their purpoe aa roa", their "oubt a fork of the roa", their "ifficultie a rutan" rock, their progre a a fertile !alley# &f they mobiliHe their"rea">naught they unheath a wor"# &f their army urren"er they arethrown to earth# &f they are oppree" they are on the rack or un"er

the harrow#

When public affair are populariHe" in peeche, hea"line, play,





&n popular repreentation the han"le for i"entification are almotalway marke"# 'ou know who the hero i at once# 4n" no work promieto be eaily popular where the marking i not "efinite an" the choiceclear# 8)ootnote3 4 fact which bear hea!ily on the character of new#FCfF# Part *&&#< But that i not enough# The au"ience mut ha!eomething to "o, an" the contemplation of the true, the goo" an" the

beautiful i not omething to "o# &n or"er not to it inertly in thepreence of the picture, an" thi applie a much to newpaper toriea to fiction an" the cinema, the au"ience mut be e+ercie" by theimage# ow there are two form of e+ercie which far trancen" allother, both a to eae with which they are aroue", an" eagernewith which timuli for them are ought# They are e+ual paion an"fighting, an" the two ha!e o many aociation with each other, blen"into each other o intimately, that a fight about e+ outrank e!eryother theme in the brea"th of it appeal# There i none o engroingor o carele of all "itinction of culture an" frontier#

The e+ual motif figure har"ly at all in 4merican political imagery#E+cept in certain minor ectaie of war, in an occaional can"al, or

in phae of the racial conflict with egroe or 4iatic, to peak ofit at all woul" eem far>fetche"# Only in mo!ing picture, no!el, an"ome magaHine fiction are in"utrial relation, buine competition,politic, an" "iplomacy tangle" up with the girl an" the other woman#But the fighting motif appear at e!ery turn# Politic i interetingwhen there i a fight, or a we ay, an iue# 4n" in or"er to makepolitic popular, iue ha!e to be foun", e!en when in truth an"jutice, there are none,>>none, in the ene that the "ifference ofju"gment, or principle, or fact, "o not call for the enlitment ofpugnacity# 8)ootnote3 FCfF# )rance Taylor Patteron, FCinemaCraftmanhipF, pp# M/>M5# %&&&# &f the plot lack upene3 /# 4""an antagonit, 5# 4"" an obtacle, M# 4"" a problem, 7# EmphaiHe oneof the uetion in the min" of the pectator#,##%<

But where pugnacity i not enlite", thoe of u who are not "irectlyin!ol!e" fin" it har" to keep up our interet# )or thoe who arein!ol!e" the aborption may be real enough to hol" them e!en when noiue i in!ol!e"# They may be e+ercie" by heer joy in acti!ity, orby ubtle ri!alry or in!ention# But for thoe to whom the wholeproblem i e+ternal an" "itant, thee other facultie "o not eailycome into play# &n or"er that the faint image of the affair hall meanomething to them, they mut be allowe" to e+ercie the lo!e oftruggle, upene, an" !ictory#

i Patteron 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, pp# :>1#< init that%upene### contitute the "ifference between the materpiece inthe etropolitan ueum of 4rt an" the picture at the i!oli or theialto Theatre#% -a" he ma"e it clear that the materpiece lackeither an eay mo"e of i"entification or a theme popular for thigeneration, he woul" be wholly right in aying that thi %e+plainwhy the people traggle into the etropolitan by two an" three an"truggle into the ialto an" i!oli by hun"re"# The two an" threelook at a picture in the 4rt ueum for le than ten minute>>unlethey chance to be art tu"ent, critic, or connoieur# The hun"re"in the i!oli or the ialto look at the picture for more than an hour#4 far a beauty i concerne" there can be no comparion of the meritof the two picture# 'et the motion picture "raw more people an"hol" them at attention longer than "o the materpiece, not throughany intrinic merit of it own, but becaue it "epict unfol"inge!ent, the outcome of which the au"ience i breathlely waiting# &t

poee the element of truggle, which ne!er fail to aroueupene#%



&n or"er then that the "itant ituation hall not be a gray flickeron the e"ge of attention, it houl" be capable of tranlation intopicture in which the opportunity for i"entification i recogniHable#nle that happen it will interet only a few for a little while# &twill belong to the ight een but not felt, to the enation thatbeat on our ene organ, an" are not acknowle"ge"# We ha!e to take

i"e# We ha!e to be able to take i"e# &n the recee of our beingwe mut tep out of the au"ience on to the tage, an" wretle a thehero for the !ictory of goo" o!er e!il# We mut breathe into theallegory the breath of our life#

M

4n" o, in pite of the critic, a !er"ict i ren"ere" in the ol"contro!ery about realim an" romanticim# Our popular tate i toha!e the "rama originate in a etting realitic enough to makei"entification plauible an" to ha!e it terminate in a ettingromantic enough to be "eirable, but not o romantic a to beinconcei!able# &n between the beginning an" the en" the canon are

liberal, but the true beginning an" the happy en"ing are lan"mark#The mo!ing picture au"ience reject fantay logically "e!elope",becaue in pure fantay there i no familiar foothol" in the age ofmachine# &t reject realim relentlely purue" becaue it "oe notenjoy "efeat in a truggle that ha become it own#

What will be accepte" a true, a realitic, a goo", a e!il, a"eirable, i not eternally fi+e"# Thee are fi+e" by tereotype,acuire" from earlier e+perience an" carrie" o!er into ju"gment oflater one# 4n", therefore, if the financial in!etment in each filman" in popular magaHine were not o e+orbitant a to reuire intantan" wi"eprea" popularity, men of pirit an" imagination woul" be ableto ue the creen an" the perio"ical, a one might "ream of theirbeing ue", to enlarge an" to refine, to !erify an" criticiHe therepertory of image with which our imagination work# But, gi!en thepreent cot, the men who make mo!ing picture, like the church an"the court painter of other age, mut a"here to the tereotype thatthey fin", or pay the price of frutrating e+pectation# Thetereotype can be altere", but not in time to guarantee ucce whenthe film i releae" i+ month from now#

The men who "o alter the tereotype, the pioneering artit an"critic, are naturally "epree" an" angere" at manager an" e"itorwho protect their in!etment# They are riking e!erything, then whynot the otherI That i not uite fair, for in their righteou furythey ha!e forgotten their own rewar", which are beyon" any that theiremployer can hope to feel# They coul" not, an" woul" not if theycoul", change place# 4n" they ha!e forgotten another thing in theunceaing war with Philitia# They ha!e forgotten that they aremeauring their own ucce by tan"ar" that artit an" wie men ofthe pat woul" ne!er ha!e "reame" of in!oking# They are aking forcirculation an" au"ience that were ne!er coni"ere" by any artituntil the lat few generation# 4n" when they "o not get them, theyare "iappointe"#

Thoe who catch on, like .inclair Lewi in %ain .treet,% are men whoha!e uccee"e" in projecting "efinitely what great number of otherpeople were obcurely trying to ay ini"e their hea"# %'ou ha!e ai"it for me#% They etablih a new form which i then en"lely copie"until it, too, become a tereotype of perception# The ne+t pioneer

fin" it "ifficult to make the public ee ain .treet any other way#4n" he, like the forerunner of .inclair Lewi, ha a uarrel with thepublic#



Thi uarrel i "ue not only to the conflict of tereotype, but tothe pioneering artitN re!erence for hi material# Whate!er the planehe chooe, on that plane he remain# &f he i "ealing with theinwar"ne of an e!ent he follow it to it concluion regar"le ofthe pain it caue# -e will not tag hi fantay to help anyone, or cry

peace where there i no peace# There i hi 4merica# But big au"ienceha!e no tomach for uch e!erity# They are more interete" inthemel!e than in anything ele in the worl"# The el!e in whichthey are interete" are the el!e that ha!e been re!eale" by choolan" by tra"ition# They init that a work of art hall be a !ehiclewith a tep where they can climb aboar", an" that they hall ri"e, notaccor"ing to the contour of the country, but to a lan" where for anhour there are no clock to punch an" no "ihe to wah# To atifythee "eman" there e+it an interme"iate cla of artit who areable an" willing to confue the plane, to piece together arealitic>romantic compoun" out of the in!ention of greater men, an",a i Patteron a"!ie, gi!e %what real life o rarely "oe>thetriumphant reolution of a et of "ifficultie the anguih of !irtue

an" the triumph of in### change" to the glorification of !irtue an"the eternal punihment of it enemy#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p#7:# %The hero an" heroine mut in general poe youth, beauty,goo"ne, e+alte" elf>acrifice, an" unalterable contancy#%<

7

The i"eologie of politic obey thee rule# The foothol" of realimi alway there# The picture of ome real e!il, uch a the Germanthreat or cla conflict, i recogniHable in the argument# There i a"ecription of ome apect of the worl" which i con!incing becaue itagree with familiar i"ea# But a the i"eology "eal with an uneenfuture, a well a with a tangible preent, it oon croeimperceptibly the frontier of !erification# &n "ecribing the preentyou are more or le tie" "own to common e+perience# &n "ecribingwhat nobo"y ha e+perience" you are boun" to let go# 'ou tan" at4rmage""on, more or le, but you battle for the Lor", perhap#### 4true beginning, true accor"ing to the tan"ar" pre!ailing, an" ahappy en"ing# E!ery ar+it i har" a nail about the brutalitie ofthe preent, an" motly unhine about the "ay after the "ictatorhip#.o were the war propagan"it3 there wa not a betial uality inhuman nature they "i" not fin" e!erywhere eat of the hine, or wetof it if they were German# The betiality wa there all right# Butafter the !ictory, eternal peace# Plenty of thi i uite cynically"eliberate# )or the kilful propagan"it know that while you muttart with a plauible analyi, you mut not keep on analyHing,becaue the te"ium of real political accomplihment will oon "etroyinteret# .o the propagan"it e+haut the interet in reality by atolerably plauible beginning, an" then toke up energy for a long!oyage by bran"ihing a paport to hea!en#

The formula work when the public fiction enmehe itelf with apri!ate urgency# But once enmehe", in the heat of battle, theoriginal elf an" the original tereotype which effecte" the junctionmay be wholly lot to ight#

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T-EE)OE, the i"entical tory i not the ame tory to all who hearit# Each will enter it at a lightly "ifferent point, ince no twoe+perience are e+actly alike he will reenact it in hi own way, an"tranfue it with hi own feeling# .ometime an artit of compelling

kill will force u to enter into li!e altogether unlike our own,li!e that eem at firt glance "ull, repuli!e, or eccentric# Butthat i rare# &n almot e!ery tory that catche our attention webecome a character an" act out the role with a pantomime of our own#The pantomime may be ubtle or gro, may be ympathetic to the tory,or only cru"ely analogou but it will conit of thoe feeling whichare aroue" by our conception of the role# 4n" o, the original themea it circulate, i tree", twite", an" embroi"ere" by all themin" through which it goe# &t i a if a play of .hakepeareN wererewritten each time it i performe" with all the change of emphaian" meaning that the actor an" au"ience inpire"#

.omething !ery like that eem to ha!e happene" to the torie in the

aga before they were "efiniti!ely written "own# &n our time theprinte" recor", uch a it i, check the e+uberance of eachin"i!i"ualN fancy# But againt rumor there i little or no check an"the original tory, true or in!ente", grow wing an" horn, hoof an"beak, a the artit in each goip work upon it# The firtnarratorN account "oe not keep it hape an" proportion# &t ie"ite" an" re!ie" by all who playe" with it a they hear" it, ue" itfor "ay "ream, an" pae" it on# 8)ootnote3 )or an interetinge+ample, ee the cae "ecribe" by C# A# Aung, FKentralblatt fYrPychoanalyeF, /0//, *ol# &, p# ?/# Tranlate" by Contance Long,in F4nalytical PychologyF, Ch# &*#<

Coneuently the more mi+e" the au"ience, the greater will be the!ariation in the repone# )or a the au"ience grow larger, thenumber of common wor" "iminihe# Thu the common factor in thetory become more abtract# Thi tory, lacking precie character ofit own, i hear" by people of highly !arie" character# They gi!e ittheir own character#

5

The character they gi!e it !arie not only with e+ an" age, race an"religion an" ocial poition, but within thee cru"er claification,accor"ing to the inherite" an" acuire" contitution of thein"i!i"ual, hi facultie, hi career, the progre of hi career, anemphaiHe" apect of hi career, hi moo" an" tene, or hi place onthe boar" in any of the game of life that he i playing# What reachehim of public affair, a few line of print, ome photograph,anec"ote, an" ome caual e+perience of hi own, he concei!e throughhi et pattern an" recreate with hi own emotion# -e "oe not takehi peronal problem a partial ample of the greater en!ironment#-e take hi torie of the greater en!ironment a a mimic enlargementof hi pri!ate life#

But not necearily of that pri!ate life a he woul" "ecribe it tohimelf# )or in hi pri!ate life the choice are narrow, an" much ofhimelf i ueeHe" "own an" out of ight where it cannot "irectlygo!ern hi outwar" beha!ior# 4n" thu, bei"e the more a!erage peoplewho project the happine of their own li!e into a general goo" will,or their unhappine into upicion an" hate, there are the outwar"ly

happy people who are brutal e!erywhere but in their own circle, awell a the people who, the more they "etet their familie, theirfrien", their job, the more they o!erflow with lo!e for mankin"#



4 you "ecen" from generalitie to "etail, it become more apparentthat the character in which men "eal with their affair i not fi+e"#Poibly their "ifferent el!e ha!e a common tem an" commonualitie, but the branche an" the twig ha!e many form# obo"yconfront e!ery ituation with the ame character# -i character

!arie in ome "egree through the heer influence of time an"accumulating memory, ince he i not an automaton# -i character!arie, not only in time, but accor"ing to circumtance# The legen" ofthe olitary Englihman in the .outh .ea, who in!ariably ha!e an"put on a black tie for "inner, bear witne to hi own intuiti!e an"ci!iliHe" fear of loing the character which he ha acuire"# .o "o"iarie, an" album, an" ou!enir, ol" letter, an" ol" clothe, an"the lo!e of unchanging routine tetify to our ene of how har" it ito tep twice in the -eraclitan ri!er#

There i no one elf alway at work# 4n" therefore it i of greatimportance in the formation of any public opinion, what elf iengage"# The Aapanee ak the right to ettle in California# Clearly

it make a whole lot of "ifference whether you concei!e the "eman" aa "eire to grow fruit or to marry the white manN "aughter# &f twonation are "iputing a piece of territory, it matter greatly whetherthe people regar" the negotiation a a real etate "eal, an attemptto humiliate them, or, in the e+cite" an" pro!ocati!e language whichuually enclou" thee argument, a a rape# )or the elf which takecharge of the intinct when we are thinking about lemon or "itantacre i !ery "ifferent from the elf which appear when we arethinking e!en potentially a the outrage" hea" of a family# &n onecae the pri!ate feeling which enter into the opinion i tepi", inthe other, re" hot# 4n" o while it i o true a to be mere tautologythat %elf>interet% "etermine opinion, the tatement i notilluminating, until we know which elf out of many elect an" "irectthe interet o concei!e"#

eligiou teaching an" popular wi"om ha!e alway "itinguihe"e!eral peronalitie in each human being# They ha!e been calle" the-igher an" Lower, the .piritual an" the aterial, the $i!ine an" theCarnal an" although we may not wholly accept thi claification, wecannot fail to ober!e that "itinction e+it# &ntea" of twoantithetic el!e, a mo"ern man woul" probably note a goo" many not oharply eparate"# -e woul" ay that the "itinction "rawn bytheologian wa arbitrary an" e+ternal, becaue many "ifferent el!ewere groupe" together a higher pro!i"e" they fitte" into thetheologianN categorie, but he woul" recogniHe ne!erthele that herewa an authentic clue to the !ariety of human nature#

We ha!e learne" to note many el!e, an" to be a little le rea"y toiue ju"gment upon them# We un"ertan" that we ee the ame bo"y, butoften a "ifferent man, "epen"ing on whether he i "ealing with aocial eual, a ocial inferior, or a ocial uperior on whether hei making lo!e to a woman he i eligible to marry, or to one whom hei not on whether he i courting a woman, or whether he coni"erhimelf her proprietor on whether he i "ealing with hi chil"ren,hi partner, hi mot trute" ubor"inate, the bo who can make himor break him on whether he i truggling for the neceitie of life,or ucceful on whether he i "ealing with a frien"ly alien, or a"epie" one on whether he i in great "anger, or in perfectecurity on whether he i alone in Pari or among hi family inPeoria#

People "iffer wi"ely, of coure, in the conitency of theircharacter, o wi"ely that they may co!er the whole gamut of







o"ern war, a r# -erbert Croly ha ai", i inherent in thepolitical tructure of mo"ern ociety, but outlawe" by it i"eal# )orthe ci!ilian population there e+it no i"eal co"e of con"uct in war,uch a the ol"ier till poee an" chi!alry once precribe"# Theci!ilian are without tan"ar", e+cept thoe that the bet of them

manage to impro!ie# The only tan"ar" they poe make war anaccure" thing# 'et though the war may be a neceary one, no moraltraining ha prepare" them for it# Only their higher el!e ha!e aco"e an" pattern, an" when they ha!e to act in what the higherregar" a a lower character profoun" "iturbance reult#

The preparation of character for all the ituation in which men mayfin" themel!e i one function of a moral e"ucation# Clearly then, it"epen" for it ucce upon the incerity an" knowle"ge with whichthe en!ironment ha been e+plore"# )or in a worl" falely concei!e",our own character are falely concei!e", an" we mibeha!e# .o themoralit mut chooe3 either he mut offer a pattern of con"uct fore!ery phae of life, howe!er "itateful ome of it phae may be, or

he mut guarantee that hi pupil will ne!er be confronte" by theituation he "iappro!e# Either he mut abolih war, or teach peoplehow to wage it with the greatet pychic economy either he mutabolih the economic life of man an" fee" him with tar"ut an" "ew,or he mut in!etigate all the perple+itie of economic life an" offerpattern of con"uct which are applicable in a worl" where no man ielf>upporting# But that i jut what the pre!ailing moral culture ogenerally refue to "o# &n it bet apect it i "iffi"ent at theawful complication of the mo"ern worl"# &n it wort, it i jutcowar"ly# ow whether the moralit tu"y economic an" politic an"pychology, or whether the ocial cientit e"ucate the moralit ino great matter# Each generation will go unprepare" into the mo"ernworl", unle it ha been taught to concei!e the kin" of peronalityit will ha!e to be among the iue it will mot likely meet#

7

ot of thi the nai!e !iew of elf>interet lea!e out of account# &tforget that elf an" interet are both concei!e" omehow, an" thatfor the mot part they are con!entionally concei!e"# The or"inary"octrine of elf>interet uually omit altogether the cogniti!efunction# .o initent i it on the fact that human being finallyrefer all thing to themel!e, that it "oe not top to notice thatmenN i"ea of all thing an" of themel!e are not intincti!e# Theyare acuire"#

Thu it may be true enough, a Aame a"ion wrote in the tenth paperof the )e"eralit, that %a lan"e" interet, a manufacturing interet,a mercantile interet, a moneye" interet, with many leer interet,grow up of neceity in ci!iliHe" nation, an" "i!i"e them into"ifferent clae, actuate" by "ifferent entiment an" !iew#% But ifyou e+amine the conte+t of a"ionN paper, you "ico!er omethingwhich & think throw light upon that !iew of intincti!e fatalim,calle" ometime the economic interpretation of hitory# a"ion waarguing for the fe"eral contitution, an" %among the numeroua"!antage of the union% he et forth %it ten"ency to break an"control the !iolence of faction#% )action wa what worrie" a"ion#4n" the caue of faction he trace" to %the nature of man,% wherelatent "ipoition are %brought into "ifferent "egree of acti!ity,accor"ing to the "ifferent circumtance of ci!il ociety# 4 Heal for

"ifferent opinion concerning religion, concerning go!ernment an" manyother point, a well of peculation a of practice an attachment to"ifferent lea"er ambitiouly conten"ing for preeminence an" power, or



to peron of other "ecription whoe fortune ha!e been interetingto the human paion, ha!e, in turn, "i!i"e" mankin" into partie,inflame" them with mutual animoity, an" ren"ere" them much more"ipoe" to !e+ an" oppre each other, than to cooperate for theircommon goo"# .o trong i thi propenity of mankin" to fall intomutual animoitie, that where no ubtantial occaion preent

itelf, the mot fri!olou an" fanciful "itinction ha!e beenufficient to kin"le their unfrien"ly paion an" e+cite their mot!iolent conflict# But the Fmot commonF an" F"urableF ourceof faction ha been the !ariou an" uneual "itribution of property#%

a"ionN theory, therefore, i that the propenity to faction may bekin"le" by religiou or political opinion, by lea"er, but motcommonly by the "itribution of property# 'et note that a"ion claimonly that men are "i!i"e" by their relation to property# -e "oe notay that their property an" their opinion are caue an" effect, butthat "ifference of property are the caue of "ifference of opinion#The pi!otal wor" in a"ionN argument i %"ifferent#% )rom thee+itence of "iffering economic ituation you can tentati!ely infer a

probable "ifference of opinion, but you cannot infer what thoeopinion will necearily be#

Thi reer!ation cut ra"ically into the claim of the theory a thattheory i uually hel"# That the reer!ation i neceary, theenormou contra"iction between "ogma an" practice among ortho"o+ocialit bear witne# They argue that the ne+t tage in ociale!olution i the ine!itable reult of the preent tage# But in or"erto pro"uce that ine!itable ne+t tage they organiHe an" agitate topro"uce %cla concioune#% Why, one ak, "oe not the economicituation pro"uce concioune of cla in e!erybo"yI &t jut"oenNt, that i all# 4n" therefore the prou" claim will not tan"that the ocialit philoophy ret on prophetic inight into "etiny#&t ret on an hypothei about human nature# 8)ootnote3 FCf#FThortein *eblen, %The .ocialit Economic of Darl ar+ an" -i)ollower,% in FThe Place of .cience in o"ern Ci!iliHation,Fep# pp# 7/M>7/?#<

The ocialit practice i bae" on a belief that if men areeconomically ituate" in "ifferent way, they can then be in"uce" tohol" certain !iew# n"oubte"ly they often come to belie!e, or can bein"uce" to belie!e "ifferent thing, a they are, for e+ample,lan"lor" or tenant, employee or employer, kille" or unkille"laborer, wageworker or alarie" men, buyer or eller, farmer ormi""le>men, e+porter or importer, cre"itor or "ebtor# $ifferenceof income make a profoun" "ifference in contact an" opportunity# enwho work at machine will ten", a r# Thortein *eblen ha obrilliantly "emontrate", 8)ootnote3 FThe Theory of BuineEnterprieF#< to interpret e+perience "ifferently from han"icraftmenor tra"er# &f thi were all that the materialitic conception of politicaerte", the theory woul" be an immenely !aluable hypothei thate!ery interpreter of opinion woul" ha!e to ue# But he woul" oftenha!e to aban"on the theory, an" he woul" alway ha!e to be onguar"# )or in trying to e+plain a certain public opinion, it i rarelyob!iou which of a manN many ocial relation i effecting a particularopinion# $oe .mithN opinion arie from hi problem a a lan"lor",an importer, an owner of railway hare, or an employerI $oeAoneN opinion, Aone being a wea!er in a te+tile mill, come fromthe attitu"e of hi bo, the competition of new immigrant, hi wifeNgrocery bill, or the e!er preent contract with the firm which i

elling him a )or" car an" a houe an" lot on the intalment planIWithout pecial inuiry you cannot tell# The economic "eterminitcannot tell#



4 manN !ariou economic contact limit or enlarge the range of hiopinion# But which of the contact, in what guie, on what theory,the materialitic conception of politic cannot pre"ict# &t canpre"ict, with a high "egree of probability, that if a man own afactory, hi ownerhip will figure in thoe opinion which eem to

ha!e ome bearing on that factory# But how the function of being anowner will figure, no economic "eterminit a uch, can tell you#There i no fi+e" et of opinion on any uetion that go with beingthe owner of a factory, no !iew on labor, on property, on management,let alone !iew on le imme"iate matter# The "eterminit can pre"ictthat in ninety>nine cae out of a hun"re" the owner will reitattempt to "epri!e him of ownerhip, or that he will fa!orlegilation which he think will increae hi profit# But ince therei no magic in ownerhip which enable a buine man to know whatlaw will make him proper, there i no chain of caue an" effect"ecribe" in economic materialim which enable anyone to propheywhether the owner will take a long !iew or a hort one, a competiti!eor a cooperati!e#

$i" the theory ha!e the !ali"ity which i o often claime" for it, itwoul" enable u to prophey# We coul" analyHe the economic interetof a people, an" "e"uce what the people wa boun" to "o# ar+ trie"that, an" after a goo" gue about the trut, went wholly wrong# Thefirt ocialit e+periment came, not a he pre"icte", out of theculmination of capitalit "e!elopment in the Wet, but out of thecollape of a pre>capitalit ytem in the Eat# Why "i" he go wrongIWhy "i" hi greatet "iciple, Lenin, go wrongI Becaue the ar+ianthought that menN economic poition woul" irreitibly pro"uce aclear conception of their economic interet# They thought theythemel!e poee" that clear conception, an" that what they knewthe ret of mankin" woul" learn# The e!ent ha hown, not only that aclear conception of interet "oe not arie automatically in e!eryone,but that it "i" not arie e!en in ar+ an" Lenin themel!e# 4fter allthat ar+ an" Lenin ha!e written, the ocial beha!ior of mankin" itill obcure# &t ought not to be, if economic poition alone"etermine" public opinion# Poition ought, if their theory werecorrect, not only to "i!i"e mankin" into clae, but to upply eachcla with a !iew of it interet an" a coherent policy for obtainingit# 'et nothing i more certain than that all clae of men are incontant perple+ity a to what their interet are# 8)ootnote3 4 amatter of fact, when it came to the tet, Lenin completely aban"one"the materialitic interpretation of politic# -a" he hel" incerely tothe ar+ian formula when he eiHe" power in /0/1, he woul" ha!e ai"to himelf3 accor"ing to the teaching of ar+, ocialim will "e!elopout of a mature capitalim### here am &, in control of a nation thati only entering upon a capitalit "e!elopment### it i true that & ama ocialit, but & am a cientific ocialit### it follow that forthe preent all i"ea of a ocialit republic i out of the uetion###we mut a"!ance capitalim in or"er that the e!olution which ar+pre"icte" may take place# But Lenin "i" nothing of the ort# &ntea"of waiting for e!olution to e!ol!e, he trie" by will, force, an"e"ucation, to "efy the hitorical proce which hi philoophyaume"#

.ince thi wa written Lenin ha aban"one" communim on the groun"that uia "oe not poe the neceary bai in a maturecapitalim# -e now ay that uia mut create capitalim, which willcreate a proletariat, which will ome "ay create communim# Thi i at

leat conitent with ar+it "ogma# But it how how little"eterminim there i in the opinion of a "eterminit#<





common mitake to ignore the cogniti!e an" affecti!e apect of theintincti!e mental proce#% )ootnote Fop# cit#F, p# 50#<

&t i only the %central part of the "ipoition% 8)ootnote3 p# M7#<ay r# c$ougall further, %that retain it pecific character an"remain common to all in"i!i"ual an" all ituation in which the

intinct i e+cite"#% The cogniti!e procee, an" the actual bo"ilymo!ement by which the intinct achie!e it en" may be in"efinitelycomplicate"# &n other wor", man ha an intinct of fear, but what hewill fear an" how he will try to ecape, i "etermine" not from birth,but by e+perience#

&f it were not for thi !ariability, it woul" be "ifficult to concei!ethe inor"inate !ariety of human nature# But when you coni"er that allthe important ten"encie of the creature, hi appetite, hi lo!e,hi hate, hi curioity, hi e+ual cra!ing, hi fear, an"pugnacity, are freely attachable to all ort of object a timulu,an" to all kin" of object a gratification, the comple+ity of humannature i not o inconcei!able# 4n" when you think that each new

generation i the caual !ictim of the way a pre!iou generation wacon"itione", a well a the inheritor of the en!ironment thatreulte", the poible combination an" permutation are enormou#

There i no prima facie cae then for uppoing that becaue peroncra!e ome particular thing, or beha!e in ome particular way, humannature i fatally contitute" to cra!e that an" act thu# The cra!ingan" the action are both learne", an" in another generation might belearne" "ifferently# 4nalytic pychology an" ocial hitory unite inupporting thi concluion# Pychology in"icate how eentiallycaual i the ne+u between the particular timulu an" the particularrepone# 4nthropology in the wi"et ene reinforce the !iew by"emontrating that the thing which ha!e e+cite" menN paion, an"the mean which they ha!e ue" to realiHe them, "iffer en"lely fromage to age an" from place to place#

en purue their interet# But how they hall purue it i not fatally"etermine", an", therefore, within whate!er limit of time thi planetwill continue to upport human life, man can et no term upon thecreati!e energie of men# -e can iue no "oom of automatim# -e canay, if he mut, that for hi life there will be no change which hecan recogniHe a goo"# But in aying that he will be confining hilife to what he can ee with hi eye, rejecting what he might ee withhi min" he will be taking a the meaure of goo" a meaure which ionly the one he happen to poe# -e can fin" no groun" foraban"oning hi highet hope an" rela+ing hi conciou effort unlehe chooe to regar" the unknown a the unknowable, unle he electto belie!e that what no one know no one will know, an" that whatomeone ha not yet learne" no one will e!er be able to teach#

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Thi goe to how that there are many !ariable in each manN

impreion of the in!iible worl"# The point of contact !ary, thetereotype" e+pectation !ary, the interet enlite" !arie motubtly of all# The li!ing impreion of a large number of people areto an immeaurable "egree peronal in each of them, an" unmanageablycomple+ in the ma# -ow, then, i any practical relationhipetablihe" between what i in peopleN hea" an" what i out therebeyon" their ken in the en!ironmentI -ow in the language of "emocratictheory, "o great number of people feeling each o pri!ately about oabtract a picture, "e!elop any common willI -ow "oe a imple an"contant i"ea emerge from thi comple+ of !ariableI -ow are thoething known a the Will of the People, or the ational Purpoe, orPublic Opinion crytalliHe" out of uch fleeting an" caual imageryI

That there i a real "ifficulty here wa hown by an angry tilt in thepring of /05/ between the 4merican 4mbaa"or to Englan" an" a !erylarge number of other 4merican# r# -ar!ey, peaking at a Britih"inner table, ha" aure" the worl" without the leat ign ofheitancy what were the moti!e of 4merican in /0/1# 8)ootnote3 Few'ork TimeF, ay 56, /05/#< 4 he "ecribe" them, they were not themoti!e which Prei"ent Wilon ha" inite" upon when FheFenunciate" the 4merican min"# ow, of coure, neither r# -ar!ey norr# Wilon, nor the critic an" frien" of either, nor any one ele,can know uantitati!ely an" ualitati!ely what went on in thirty orforty million a"ult min"# But what e!erybo"y know i that a war wafought an" won by a multitu"e of effort, timulate", no one know inwhat proportion, by the moti!e of Wilon an" the moti!e of -ar!eyan" all kin" of hybri" of the two# People enlite" an" fought,worke", pai" ta+e, acrifice" to a common en", an" yet no one canbegin to ay e+actly what mo!e" each peron to "o each thing that he"i"# &t i no ue, then, r# -ar!ey telling a ol"ier who thought thiwa a war to en" war that the ol"ier "i" not think any uch thing#The ol"ier who thought that Fthought thatF# 4n" r# -ar!ey, whothought omething ele, thought Fomething eleF#

&n the ame peech r# -ar!ey formulate" with eual clarity what the!oter of /056 ha" in their min"# That i a rah thing to "o, an", ifyou imply aume that all who !ote" your ticket !ote" a you "i",then it i a "iingenuou thing to "o# The count how that i+teenmillion !ote" epublican, an" nine million $emocratic# They !ote",ay r# -ar!ey, for an" againt the League of ation, an" in upportof thi claim, he can point to r# WilonN reuet for a referen"um,an" to the un"eniable fact that the $emocratic party an" r# Co+inite" that the League wa the iue# But then, aying that theLeague wa the iue "i" not make the League the iue, an" bycounting the !ote on election "ay you "o not know the real "i!iionof opinion about the League# There were, for e+ample, nine million$emocrat# 4re you entitle" to belie!e that all of them are taunchupporter of the LeagueI Certainly you are not# )or your knowle"ge of4merican politic tell you that many of the million !ote", a theyalway "o, to maintain the e+iting ocial ytem in the .outh, an"that whate!er their !iew on the League, they "i" not !ote to e+pretheir !iew# Thoe who wante" the League were no "oubt pleae" thatthe $emocratic party wante" it too# Thoe who "ilike" the League may

ha!e hel" their noe a they !ote"# But both group of .outherner!ote" the ame ticket#



Were the epublican more unanimouI 4nybo"y can pick epublican!oter enough out of hi circle of frien" to co!er the whole gamut ofopinion from the irreconcilability of .enator Aohnon an" Dno+ to thea"!ocacy of .ecretary -oo!er an" Chief Autice Taft# o one can ay"efinitely how many people felt in any particular way about theLeague, nor how many people let their feeling on that ubject

"etermine their !ote# When there are only two way of e+preing ahun"re" !arietie of feeling, there i no certain way of knowing whatthe "ecii!e combination wa# .enator Borah foun" in the epublicanticket a reaon for !oting epublican, but o "i" Prei"ent Lowell#The epublican majority wa compoe" of men an" women who thought aepublican !ictory woul" kill the League, plu thoe who thought itthe mot practical way to ecure the League, plu thoe who thought itthe uret way offere" to obtain an amen"e" League# 4ll thee !oterwere ine+tricably entangle" with their own "eire, or the "eire ofother !oter to impro!e buine, or put labor in it place, or topunih the $emocrat for going to war, or to punih them for notha!ing gone ooner, or to get ri" of r# Burleon, or to impro!e theprice of wheat, or to lower ta+e, or to top r# $aniel from

outbuil"ing the worl", or to help r# -ar"ing "o the ame thing#

4n" yet a ort of "eciion emerge" r# -ar"ing mo!e" into the White-oue# )or the leat common "enominator of all the !ote wa that the$emocrat houl" go an" the epublican come in# That wa the onlyfactor remaining after all the contra"iction ha" cancelle" each otherout# But that factor wa enough to alter policy for four year# Theprecie reaon why change wa "eire" on that o!ember "ay in /056are not recor"e", not e!en in the memorie of the in"i!i"ual !oter#The reaon are not fi+e"# They grow an" change an" melt into otherreaon, o that the public opinion r# -ar"ing ha to "eal with arenot the opinion that electe" him# That there i no ine!itableconnection between an aortment of opinion an" a particular line ofaction e!eryone aw in /0/:# Electe" apparently on the cry that hekept u out of war, r# Wilon within fi!e month le" the country intowar#

The working of the popular will, therefore, ha alway calle" fore+planation# Thoe who ha!e been mot impree" by it erratic workingha!e foun" a prophet in # LeBon, an" ha!e welcome" generaliHationabout what .ir obert Peel calle" %that great compoun" of folly,weakne, preju"ice, wrong feeling, right feeling, obtinacy an"newpaper paragraph which i calle" public opinion#% Other ha!econclu"e" that ince out of "rift an" incoherence, ettle" aim "oappear, there mut be a myteriou contri!ance at work omewhere o!eran" abo!e the inhabitant of a nation# They in!oke a collecti!e oul,a national min", a pirit of the age which impoe or"er upon ran"omopinion# 4n o!eroul eem to be nee"e", for the emotion an" i"ea inthe member of a group "o not "icloe anything o imple an" ocrytalline a the formula which thoe ame in"i!i"ual will accept aa true tatement of their Public Opinion#

5

But the fact can, & think, be e+plaine" more con!incingly without thehelp of the o!eroul in any of it "iguie# 4fter all, the art ofin"ucing all ort of people who think "ifferently to !ote alike ipractice" in e!ery political campaign# &n /0/:, for e+ample, theepublican can"i"ate ha" to pro"uce epublican !ote out of many"ifferent kin" of epublican# Let u look at r# -ugheN firt

peech after accepting the nomination# 8)ootnote3 $eli!ere" at Carnegie-all, ew 'ork City, Auly M/, /0/:#< The conte+t i till clear enoughin our min" to ob!iate much e+planation yet the iue are no longer



contentiou# The can"i"ate wa a man of unuually plain peech, whoha" been out of politic for e!eral year an" wa not peronallycommitte" on the iue of the recent pat# -e ha", moreo!er, none ofthat wiHar"ry which popular lea"er like ooe!elt, Wilon, or Lloy"George poe, none of that hitrionic gift by which uch menimperonate the feeling of their follower# )rom that apect of

politic he wa by temperament an" by training remote# But yet he knewby calculation what the politicianN technic i# -e wa one of thoepeople who know jut how to "o a thing, but who can not uite "o itthemel!e# They are often better teacher than the !irtuoo to whomthe art i o much econ" nature that he himelf "oe not know how he"oe it# The tatement that thoe who can, "o thoe who cannot,teach, i not nearly o much of a reflection on the teacher a itoun"#

r# -ughe knew the occaion wa momentou, an" he ha" prepare" himanucript carefully# &n a bo+ at Theo"ore ooe!elt jut back fromiouri# 4ll o!er the houe at the !eteran of 4rmage""on in !arioutage of "oubt an" "imay# On the platform an" in the other bo+e the

e+>white" epulchre an" e+>econ">tory men of /0/5 were to be een,ob!iouly in the bet of health an" in a melting moo"# Out beyon" thehall there were powerful pro>German an" powerful pro>4llie a warparty in the Eat an" in the big citie a peace party in the mi""lean" far Wet# There wa trong feeling about e+ico# r# -ughe ha" toform a majority againt the $emocrat out of people "i!i"e" into allort of combination on Taft !# ooe!elt, pro>German !#pro>4llie, war !# neutrality, e+ican inter!ention !#non>inter!ention#

4bout the morality or the wi"om of the affair we are, of coure, notconcerne" here# Our only interet i in the metho" by which a lea"erof heterogeneou opinion goe about the buine of ecuring ahomogeneou !ote#

%Thi Frepreentati!eF gathering i a happy augury# &t mean thetrength of Freunion#F &t mean that the party of FLincolnFi retore"####%

The italiciHe" wor" are bin"er3 FLincolnF in uch a peech haof coure, no relation to 4braham Lincoln# &t i merely a tereotypeby which the piety which urroun" that name can be tranferre" to theepublican can"i"ate who now tan" in hi hoe# Lincoln remin" theepublican, Bull ooe an" Ol" Guar", that before the chim they ha"a common hitory# 4bout the chim no one can affor" to peak# But iti there, a yet unheale"#

The peaker mut heal it# ow the chim of /0/5 ha" arien o!er"ometic uetion the reunion of /0/: wa, a r# ooe!elt ha""eclare", to be bae" on a common in"ignation againt r# WilonNcon"uct of international affair# But international affair were aloa "angerou ource of conflict# &t wa neceary to fin" an openingubject which woul" not only ignore /0/5 but woul" a!oi" alo thee+ploi!e conflict of /0/:# The peaker kilfully electe" the poilytem in "iplomatic appointment# %$eer!ing $emocrat% wa a"icre"iting phrae, an" r# -ughe at once e!oke it# The recor"being in"efenible, there i no heitation in the !igor of the attack#Logically it wa an i"eal intro"uction to a common moo"#

r# -ughe then turn to e+ico, beginning with an hitorical re!iew#

-e ha" to coni"er the general entiment that affair were going ba"lyin e+ico alo, a no le general entiment that war houl" bea!oi"e" an" two powerful current of opinion, one of which ai"



Prei"ent Wilon wa right in not recogniHing -uerta, the other whichpreferre" -uerta to CarranHa, an" inter!ention to both# -uerta wa thefirt ore pot in the recor"###

%-e wa certainly in fact the hea" of the Go!ernment in e+ico#%

But the moralit who regar"e" -uerta a a "runken mur"erer ha" to beplacate"#

%Whether or not he houl" be recogniHe" wa a uetion to be"etermine" in the e+ercie of a oun" "icretion, but accor"ing tocorrect principle#%

.o intea" of aying that -uerta houl" ha!e been recogniHe", thecan"i"ate ay that correct principle ought to be applie"# E!erybo"ybelie!e in correct principle, an" e!erybo"y, of coure, belie!e hepoee them# To blur the iue till further Prei"ent WilonNpolicy i "ecribe" a %inter!ention#% &t wa that in law, perhap,but not in the ene then currently meant by the wor"# By tretching

the wor" to co!er what r# Wilon ha" "one, a well a what the realinter!entionit wante", the iue between the two faction wa to berepree"#

-a!ing got by the two e+ploi!e point %F-uertaF% an"%Finter!entionF% by letting the wor" mean all thing to all men,the peech pae for a while to afer groun"# The can"i"ate tell thetory of Tampico, *era CruH, *illa, .anta 'abel, Columbu an"CarriHal# r# -ughe i pecific, either becaue the fact a knownfrom the newpaper are irritating, or becaue the true e+planationi, a for e+ample in regar" to Tampico, too complicate"# o contrarypaion coul" be aroue" by uch a recor"# But at the en" thecan"i"ate ha" to take a poition# -i au"ience e+pecte" it# Thein"ictment wa r# ooe!eltN# Woul" r# -ughe a"opt hi reme"y,inter!entionI

%The nation ha no policy of aggreion towar" e+ico# We ha!e no"eire for any part of her territory# We wih her to ha!e peace,tability an" properity# We houl" be rea"y to ai" her in bin"ing upher woun", in relie!ing her from tar!ation an" "itre, in gi!ingher in e!ery practicable way the benefit of our "iinterete"frien"hip# The con"uct of thi a"minitration ha create""ifficultie which we hall ha!e to urmount#### FWe hall ha!e toa"opt a new policy,F a policy of FfirmneF an" conitencythrough which alone we can promote an en"uring Ffrien"hip#F%

The theme frien"hip i for the non>inter!entionit, the theme %newpolicy% an" %firmne% i for the inter!entionit# On thenon>contentiou recor", the "etail i o!erwhelming on the iuee!erything i clou"y#

Concerning the European war r# -ughe employe" an ingeniou formula3

%& tan" for the unflinching maintenance of FallF 4merican righton lan" an" ea#%

&n or"er to un"ertan" the force of that tatement at the time it wapoken, we mut remember how each faction "uring the perio" ofneutrality belie!e" that the nation it oppoe" in Europe were alone!iolating 4merican right# r# -ughe eeme" to ay to the pro>4llie3

& woul" ha!e coerce" Germany# But the pro>German ha" been initingthat Britih ea power wa !iolating mot of our right# The formulaco!er two "iametrically oppoe" purpoe by the ymbolic phrae



%4merican right#%

But there wa the Luitania# Like the /0/5 chim, it wa anin!incible obtacle to harmony#

%### & am confi"ent that there woul" ha!e been no "etruction of

4merican li!e by the inking of the Luitania#%

Thu, what cannot be compromie" mut be obliterate", when there i auetion on which we cannot all hope to get together, let u preten"that it "oe not e+it# 4bout the future of 4merican relation withEurope r# -ughe wa ilent# othing he coul" ay woul" poiblypleae the two irreconcilable faction for whoe upport he wabi""ing#

&t i har"ly neceary to ay that r# -ughe "i" not in!ent thitechnic an" "i" not employ it with the utmot ucce# But heillutrate" how a public opinion contitute" out of "i!ergent opinioni clou"e" how it meaning approache the neutral tint forme" out of

the blen"ing of many color# Where uperficial harmony i the aim an"conflict the fact, obcurantim in a public appeal i the uualreult# 4lmot alway !aguene at a crucial point in public "ebate ia ymptom of cro>purpoe#

M

But how i it that a !ague i"ea o often ha the power to unite "eeplyfelt opinionI Thee opinion, we recall, howe!er "eeply they may befelt, are not in continual an" pungent contact with the fact theyprofe to treat# On the uneen en!ironment, e+ico, the European war,our grip i light though our feeling may be intene# The originalpicture an" wor" which aroue" it ha!e not anything like the forceof the feeling itelf# The account of what ha happene" out of ightan" hearing in a place where we ha!e ne!er been, ha not an" ne!er canha!e, e+cept briefly a in a "ream or fantay, all the "imenion ofreality# But it can aroue all, an" ometime e!en more emotion thanthe reality# )or the trigger can be pulle" by more than one timulu#

The timulu which originally pulle" the trigger may ha!e been aerie of picture in the min" aroue" by printe" or poken wor"#Thee picture fa"e an" are har" to keep tea"y their contour an"their pule fluctuate# Gra"ually the proce et in of knowing whatyou feel without being entirely certain why you feel it# The fa"ingpicture are "iplace" by other picture, an" then by name orymbol# But the emotion goe on, capable now of being aroue" by theubtitute" image an" name# E!en in e!ere thinking theeubtitution take place, for if a man i trying to compare twocomplicate" ituation, he oon fin" e+hauting the attempt to hol"both fully in min" in all their "etail# -e employ a horthan" ofname an" ign an" ample# -e ha to "o thi if he i to a"!ance atall, becaue he cannot carry the whole baggage in e!ery phrae throughe!ery tep he take# But if he forget that he ha ubtitute" an"implifie", he oon lape into !erbalim, an" begin to talk aboutname regar"le of object# 4n" then he ha no way of knowing whenthe name "i!orce" from it firt thing i carrying on a mialliancewith ome other thing# &t i more "ifficult till to guar" againtchangeling in caual politic#

)or by what i known to pychologit a con"itione" repone, an

emotion i not attache" merely to one i"ea# There are no en" of thingwhich can aroue the emotion, an" no en" of thing which can atifyit# Thi i particularly true where the timulu i only "imly an"



in"irectly percei!e", an" where the objecti!e i likewie in"irect#)or you can aociate an emotion, ay fear, firt with omethingimme"iately "angerou, then with the i"ea of that thing, then withomething imilar to that i"ea, an" o on an" on# The whole tructureof human culture i in one repect an elaboration of the timuli an"repone of which the original emotional capacitie remain a fairly

fi+e" center# o "oubt the uality of emotion ha change" in thecoure of hitory, but with nothing like the pee", or elaboration,that ha characteriHe" the con"itioning of it#

People "iffer wi"ely in their uceptibility to i"ea# There are omein whom the i"ea of a tar!ing chil" in uia i practically a !i!i"a a tar!ing chil" within ight# There are other who are almotincapable of being e+cite" by a "itant i"ea# There are manygra"ation between# 4n" there are people who are ineniti!e to fact,an" aroue" only by i"ea# But though the emotion i aroue" by thei"ea, we are unable to atify the emotion by acting ourel!e uponthe cene itelf# The i"ea of the tar!ing uian chil" e!oke a"eire to fee" the chil"# But the peron o aroue" cannot fee" it# -e

can only gi!e money to an imperonal organiHation, or to aperonification which he call r# -oo!er# -i money "oe not reachthat chil"# &t goe to a general pool from which a ma of chil"renare fe"# 4n" o jut a the i"ea i econ" han", o are the effect ofthe action econ" han"# The cognition i in"irect, the conation iin"irect, only the effect i imme"iate# Of the three part of theproce, the timulu come from omewhere out of ight, the reponereache omewhere out of ight, only the emotion e+it entirelywithin the peron# Of the chil"N hunger he ha only an i"ea, of thechil"N relief he ha only an i"ea, but of hi own "eire to help heha a real e+perience# &t i the central fact of the buine, theemotion within himelf, which i firt han"#

Within limit that !ary, the emotion i tranferable both a regar"timulu an" repone# Therefore, if among a number of people,poeing !ariou ten"encie to repon", you can fin" a timuluwhich will aroue the ame emotion in many of them, you can ubtituteit for the original timuli# &f, for e+ample, one man "ilike theLeague, another hate r# Wilon, an" a thir" fear labor, you may beable to unite them if you can fin" ome ymbol which i the antitheiof what they all hate# .uppoe that ymbol i 4mericanim# The firtman may rea" it a meaning the preer!ation of 4merican iolation, ora he may call it, in"epen"ence the econ" a the rejection of apolitician who clahe with hi i"ea of what an 4merican prei"enthoul" be, the thir" a a call to reit re!olution# The ymbol initelf ignifie literally no one thing in particular, but it can beaociate" with almot anything# 4n" becaue of that it can become thecommon bon" of common feeling, e!en though thoe feeling wereoriginally attache" to "iparate i"ea#

When political partie or newpaper "eclare for 4mericanim,Progrei!im, Law an" Or"er, Autice, -umanity, they hope toamalgamate the emotion of conflicting faction which woul" urely"i!i"e, if, intea" of thee ymbol, they were in!ite" to "icu apecific program# )or when a coalition aroun" the ymbol ha beeneffecte", feeling flow towar" conformity un"er the ymbol rather thantowar" critical crutiny of the meaure# &t i, & think, con!enientan" technically correct to call multiple phrae like thee ymbolic#They "o not tan" for pecific i"ea, but for a ort of truce orjunction between i"ea# They are like a trategic railroa" center

where many roa" con!erge regar"le of their ultimate origin or theirultimate "etination# But he who capture the ymbol by which publicfeeling i for the moment containe", control by that much the



approache of public policy# 4n" a long a a particular ymbol hathe power of coalition, ambitiou faction will fight for poeion#Think, for e+ample, of LincolnN name or of ooe!eltN# 4 lea"er oran interet that can make itelf mater of current ymbol i materof the current ituation# There are limit, of coure# Too !iolentabue of the actualitie which group of people think the ymbol

repreent, or too great reitance in the name of that ymbol to newpurpoe, will, o to peak, burt the ymbol# &n thi manner, "uringthe year /0/1, the impoing ymbol of -oly uia an" the Little)ather burt un"er the impact of uffering an" "efeat#

7

The tremen"ou coneuence of uiaN collape were felt on all thefront an" among all the people# They le" "irectly to a trikinge+periment in the crytalliHation of a common opinion out of the!arietie of opinion churne" up by the war# The )ourteen Point werea""ree" to all the go!ernment, allie", enemy, neutral, an" to allthe people# They were an attempt to knit together the chief

impon"erable of a worl" war# ecearily thi wa a new "eparture,becaue thi wa the firt great war in which all the "eci"ingelement of mankin" coul" be brought to think about the ame i"ea, orat leat about the ame name for i"ea, imultaneouly# Withoutcable, ra"io, telegraph, an" "aily pre, the e+periment of the)ourteen Point woul" ha!e been impoible# &t wa an attempt toe+ploit the mo"ern machinery of communication to tart the return to a%common concioune% throughout the worl"#

But firt we mut e+amine ome of the circumtance a they preente"themel!e at the en" of /0/1# )or in the form which the "ocumentfinally aume", all thee coni"eration are omehow repreente"#$uring the ummer an" autumn a erie of e!ent ha" occurre" whichprofoun"ly affecte" the temper of the people an" the coure of thewar# &n Auly the uian ha" ma"e a lat offeni!e, ha" been"iatrouly beaten, an" the proce of "emoraliHation which le" tothe Bolhe!ik re!olution of o!ember ha" begun# .omewhat earlier the)rench ha" uffere" a e!ere an" almot "iatrou "efeat in Champagnewhich pro"uce" mutinie in the army an" a "efeatit agitation amongthe ci!ilian# Englan" wa uffering from the effect of the ubmarinerai", from the terrible loe of the )lan"er battle, an" ino!ember at Cambrai the Britih armie met a re!ere that appalle" thetroop at the front an" the lea"er at home# E+treme war wearineper!a"e" the whole of wetern Europe#

&n effect, the agony an" "iappointment ha" jarre" looe menNconcentration on the accepte" !erion of the war# Their interet wereno longer hel" by the or"inary official pronouncement, an" theirattention began to wan"er, fi+ing now upon their own uffering, nowupon their party an" cla purpoe, now upon general reentmentagaint the go!ernment# That more or le perfect organiHation ofperception by official propagan"a, of interet an" attention by thetimuli of hope, fear, an" hatre", which i calle" morale, wa by wayof breaking "own# The min" of men e!erywhere began to earch for newattachment that promie" relief#

.u""enly they behel" a tremen"ou "rama# On the Eatern front therewa a Chritma truce, an en" of laughter, an en" of noie, a promieof peace# 4t Bret>Lito!k the "ream of all imple people ha" come tolife3 it wa poible to negotiate, there wa ome other way to en"

the or"eal than by matching li!e with the enemy# Timi"ly, but withrapt attention, people began to turn to the Eat# Why not, they ake"IWhat i it all forI $o the politician know what they are "oingI 4re



we really fighting for what they ayI & it poible, perhap, toecure it without fightingI n"er the ban of the cenorhip, little ofthi wa allowe" to how itelf in print, but, when Lor" Lan"ownepoke, there wa a repone from the heart# The earlier ymbol of thewar ha" become hackneye", an" ha" lot their power to unify# Beneaththe urface a wi"e chim wa opening up in each 4llie" country#

.omething imilar wa happening in Central Europe# There too theoriginal impule of the war wa weakene" the union acrQe wa broken#The !ertical clea!age along the battle front were cut acro byhoriHontal "i!iion running in all kin" of unforeeeable way# Themoral crii of the war ha" arri!e" before the military "eciion wain ight# 4ll thi Prei"ent Wilon an" hi a"!ier realiHe"# Theyha" not, of coure, a perfect knowle"ge of the ituation, but what &ha!e ketche" they knew#

They knew alo that the 4llie" Go!ernment were boun" by a erie ofengagement that in letter an" in pirit ran counter to the popularconception of what the war wa about# The reolution of the Pari

Economic Conference were, of coure, public property, an" the networkof ecret treatie ha" been publihe" by the Bolhe!ik in o!ember of/0/1# 8)ootnote3 Prei"ent Wilon tate" at hi conference with the.enator that he ha" ne!er hear" of thee treatie until he reache"Pari# That tatement i perple+ing# The )ourteen Point, a the te+thow, coul" not ha!e been formulate" without a knowle"ge of theecret treatie# The ubtance of thoe treatie wa before thePrei"ent when he an" Colonel -oue prepare" the final publihe" te+tof the )ourteen Point#< Their term were only !aguely known to thepeople, but it wa "efinitely belie!e" that they "i" not comport withthe i"ealitic logan of elf>"etermination, no anne+ation an" noin"emnitie# Popular uetioning took the form of aking how manythouan" Englih li!e 4lace>Lorraine or $almatia were worth, howmany )rench li!e Polan" or eopotamia were worth# or wa uchuetioning entirely unknown in 4merica# The whole 4llie" caue ha"been put on the "efeni!e by the refual to participate atBret>Lito!k#

-ere wa a highly eniti!e tate of min" which no competent lea"ercoul" fail to coni"er# The i"eal repone woul" ha!e been jointaction by the 4llie# That wa foun" to be impoible when it waconi"ere" at the &nterallie" Conference of October# But by $ecemberthe preure ha" become o great that r# George an" r# Wilon weremo!e" in"epen"ently to make ome repone# The form electe" by thePrei"ent wa a tatement of peace term un"er fourteen hea"# Thenumbering of them wa an artifice to ecure preciion, an" to createat once the impreion that here wa a buine>like "ocument# Thei"ea of tating %peace term% intea" of %war aim% aroe from theneceity of etablihing a genuine alternati!e to the Bret>Lito!knegotiation# They were inten"e" to compete for attention byubtituting for the pectacle of uo>German parley the muchgran"er pectacle of a public worl">wi"e "ebate#

-a!ing enlite" the interet of the worl", it wa neceary to hol"that interet unifie" an" fle+ible for all the "ifferent poibilitiewhich the ituation containe"# The term ha" to be uch that themajority among the 4llie woul" regar" them a worth while# They ha"to meet the national apiration of each people, an" yet to limitthoe apiration o that no one nation woul" regar" itelf a acatpaw for another# The term ha" to atify official interet o a

not to pro!oke official "iunion, an" yet they ha" to meet popularconception o a to pre!ent the prea" of "emoraliHation# They ha",in hort, to preer!e an" confirm 4llie" unity in cae the war wa to



go on#

But they ha" alo to be the term of a poible peace, o that in caethe German center an" left were ripe for agitation, they woul" ha!e ate+t with which to mite the go!erning cla# The term ha",therefore, to puh the 4llie" go!ernor nearer to their people, "ri!e

the German go!ernor away from their people, an" etablih a line ofcommon un"ertan"ing between the 4llie, the non>official German, an"the ubject people of 4utria>-ungary# The )ourteen Point were a"aring attempt to raie a tan"ar" to which almot e!eryone mightrepair# &f a ufficient number of the enemy people were rea"y therewoul" be peace if not, then the 4llie woul" be better prepare" toutain the hock of war#

4ll thee coni"eration entere" into the making of the )ourteenPoint# o one man may ha!e ha" them all in min", but all the menconcerne" ha" ome of them in min"# 4gaint thi backgroun" let ue+amine certain apect of the "ocument# The firt fi!e point an" thefourteenth "eal with %open "iplomacy,% %free"om of the ea,% %eual

tra"e opportunitie,% %re"uction of armament,% no imperialitanne+ation of colonie, an" the League of ation# They might be"ecribe" a a tatement of the popular generaliHation in whiche!eryone at that time profee" to belie!e# But number three i morepecific# &t wa aime" conciouly an" "irectly at the reolution ofthe Pari Economic Conference, an" wa meant to relie!e the Germanpeople of their fear of uffocation#

umber i+ i the firt point "ealing with a particular nation# &t wainten"e" a a reply to uian upicion of the 4llie, an" theelouence of it promie wa attune" to the "rama of Bret>Lito!k#umber e!en "eal with Belgium, an" i a unualifie" in form an"purpoe a wa the con!iction of practically the whole worl",inclu"ing !ery large ection of Central Europe# O!er number eight wemut paue# &t begin with an abolute "eman" for e!acuation an"retoration of )rench territory, an" then pae on to the uetion of4lace>Lorraine# The phraing of thi claue mot perfectlyillutrate the character of a public tatement which mut con"ene a!at comple+ of interet in a few wor"# %4n" the wrong "one to)rance by Pruia in /?1/ in the matter of 4lace>Lorraine, which haunettle" the peace of the worl" for nearly fifty year, houl" berighte"# ###% E!ery wor" here wa choen with meticulou care# Thewrong "one houl" be righte" why not ay that 4lace>Lorraine houl"be retore"I &t wa not ai", becaue it wa not certain that all ofthe )rench Fat that timeF woul" fight on in"efinitely forreanne+ation if they were offere" a plebicite an" becaue it wae!en le certain whether the Englih an" &talian woul" fight on# Theformula ha", therefore, to co!er both contingencie# The wor"%righte"% guarantee" atifaction to )rance, but "i" not rea" a acommitment to imple anne+ation# But why peak of the wrong "one byFPruiaF in F/?1/FI The wor" Pruia wa, of coure, inten"e"to remin" the .outh German that 4lace>Lorraine belonge" not tothem but to Pruia# Why peak of peace unettle" for %fifty year,%an" why the ue of %/?1/%I &n the firt place, what the )rench an"the ret of the worl" remembere" wa /?1/# That wa the no"alpoint of their grie!ance# But the formulator of the )ourteen Pointknew that )rench official"om planne" for more than the 4lace>Lorraineof /?1/# The ecret memoran"a that ha" pae" between the CHarNminiter an" )rench official in /0/: co!ere" the anne+ation of the.aar *alley an" ome ort of "imemberment of the hinelan"# &t wa

planne" to inclu"e the .aar *alley un"er the term %4lace>Lorraine%becaue it ha" been part of 4lace>Lorraine in /?/7, though it ha"been "etache" in /?/;, an" wa no part of the territory at the cloe



of the )ranco>Pruian war# The official )rench formula for anne+ingthe .aar wa to ubume it un"er %4lace>Lorraine% meaning the4lace>Lorraine of /?/7>/?/;# By initence on %/?1/% the Prei"entwa really "efining the ultimate boun"ary between Germany an" )rance,wa a"!erting to the ecret treaty, an" wa cating it ai"e#

umber nine, a little le ubtly, "oe the ame thing in repect to&taly# %Clearly recogniHable line of nationality% are e+actly whatthe line of the Treaty of Lon"on were not# Thoe line were partlytrategic, partly economic, partly imperialitic, partly ethnic# Theonly part of them that coul" poibly procure allie" ympathy wa thatwhich woul" reco!er the genuine &talia &rre"enta# 4ll the ret, ae!eryone who wa informe" knew, merely "elaye" the impen"ing Augola!re!olt#

;

&t woul" be a mitake to uppoe that the apparently unanimouenthuiam which greete" the )ourteen Point repreente" agreement on

a program# E!eryone eeme" to fin" omething that he like" an"tree" thi apect an" that "etail# But no one rike" a "icuion#The phrae, o pregnant with the un"erlying conflict of theci!iliHe" worl", were accepte"# They too" for oppoing i"ea, butthey e!oke" a common emotion# 4n" to that e+tent they playe" a part inrallying the wetern people for the "eperate ten month of war whichthey ha" till to en"ure#

4 long a the )ourteen Point "ealt with that haHy an" happy futurewhen the agony wa to be o!er, the real conflict of interpretationwere not ma"e manifet# They were plan for the ettlement of a whollyin!iible en!ironment, an" becaue thee plan inpire" all groupeach with it own pri!ate hope, all hope ran together a a publichope# )or harmoniHation, a we aw in r# -ugheN peech, i ahierarchy of ymbol# 4 you acen" the hierarchy in or"er to inclu"emore an" more faction you may for a time preer!e the emotionalconnection though you loe the intellectual# But e!en the emotionbecome thinner# 4 you go further away from e+perience, you go higherinto generaliHation or ubtlety# 4 you go up in the balloon you throwmore an" more concrete object o!erboar", an" when you ha!e reache"the top with ome phrae like the ight of -umanity or the Worl" a"e.afe for $emocracy, you ee far an" wi"e, but you ee !ery little# 'etthe people whoe emotion are entraine" "o not remain pai!e# 4 thepublic appeal become more an" more all thing to all men, a theemotion i tirre" while the meaning i "ipere", their !ery pri!atemeaning are gi!en a uni!eral application# Whate!er you want ba"ly ithe ight of -umanity# )or the phrae, e!er more !acant, capable ofmeaning almot anything, oon come to mean pretty nearly e!erything#r# WilonN phrae were un"ertoo" in en"lely "ifferent way ine!ery corner of the earth# o "ocument negotiate" an" ma"e of publicrecor" e+ite" to correct the confuion# 8)ootnote3 The 4mericaninterpretation of the fourteen point wa e+plaine" to the allie"tatemen jut before the armitice#< 4n" o, when the "ay ofettlement came, e!erybo"y e+pecte" e!erything# The European authorof the treaty ha" a large choice, an" they choe to realiHe thoee+pectation which were hel" by thoe of their countrymen who wiel"e"the mot power at home#

They came "own the hierarchy from the ight of -umanity to the ightof )rance, Britain an" &taly# They "i" not aban"on the ue of ymbol#

They aban"one" only thoe which after the war ha" no permanent rootin the imagination of their contituent# They preer!e" the unity of)rance by the ue of ymbolim, but they woul" not rik anything for



the unity of Europe# The ymbol )rance wa "eeply attache", the ymbolEurope ha" only a recent hitory# e!erthele the "itinction betweenan omnibu like Europe an" a ymbol like )rance i not harp# Thehitory of tate an" empire re!eal time when the cope of theunifying i"ea increae an" alo time when it hrink# One cannot aythat men ha!e mo!e" conitently from maller loyaltie to larger

one, becaue the fact will not bear out the claim# The oman Empirean" the -oly oman Empire bellie" out further than thoe nationalunification in the ineteenth Century from which belie!er in a Worl".tate argue by analogy# e!erthele, it i probably true that thereal integration ha increae" regar"le of the temporary inflationan" "eflation of empire#

:

.uch a real integration ha un"oubte"ly occurre" in 4merican hitory#&n the "eca"e before /1?0 mot men, it eem, felt that their tatean" their community were real, but that the confe"eration of tatewa unreal# The i"ea of their tate, it flag, it mot conpicuou

lea"er, or whate!er it wa that repreente" aachuett, or*irginia, were genuine ymbol# That i to ay, they were fe" byactual e+perience from chil"hoo", occupation, rei"ence, an" thelike# The pan of menN e+perience ha" rarely tra!ere" the imaginaryboun"arie of their tate# The wor" *irginian wa relate" to prettynearly e!erything that mot *irginian ha" e!er known or felt# &t wathe mot e+teni!e political i"ea which ha" genuine contact with theire+perience#

Their e+perience, not their nee"# )or their nee" aroe out of theirreal en!ironment, which in thoe "ay wa at leat a large a thethirteen colonie# They nee"e" a common "efene# They nee"e" afinancial an" economic regime a e+teni!e a the Confe"eration# Buta long a the peu"o>en!ironment of the tate encompae" them, thetate ymbol e+haute" their political interet# 4n intertate i"ea,like the Confe"eration, repreente" a powerle abtraction# &t wa anomnibu, rather than a ymbol, an" the harmony among "i!ergent group,which the omnibu create, i tranient#

& ha!e ai" that the i"ea of confe"eration wa a powerleabtraction# 'et the nee" of unity e+ite" in the "eca"e before theContitution wa a"opte"# The nee" e+ite", in the ene that affairwere akew unle the nee" of unity wa taken into account# Gra"uallycertain clae in each colony began to break through the tatee+perience# Their peronal interet le" acro the tate line tointertate e+perience, an" gra"ually there wa contructe" in theirmin" a picture of the 4merican en!ironment which wa truly nationalin cope# )or them the i"ea of fe"eration became a true ymbol, an"ceae" to be an omnibu# The mot imaginati!e of thee men wa4le+an"er -amilton# &t happene" that he ha" no primiti!e attachment toany one tate, for he wa born in the Wet &n"ie, an" ha", from the!ery beginning of hi acti!e life, been aociate" with the commoninteret of all the tate# Thu to mot men of the time the uetionof whether the capital houl" be in *irginia or in Phila"elphia wa ofenormou importance, becaue they were locally min"e"# To -amiltonthi uetion wa of no emotional coneuence what he wante" wa theaumption of the tate "ebt becaue they woul" further nationaliHethe propoe" union# .o he gla"ly tra"e" the ite of the capitol fortwo neceary !ote from men who repreente" the Potomac "itrict# To-amilton the nion wa a ymbol that repreente" all hi interet an"

hi whole e+perience to White an" Lee from the Potomac, the ymbol oftheir pro!ince wa the highet political entity they er!e", an" theyer!e" it though they hate" to pay the price# They agree", ay



Aefferon, to change their !ote, %White with a re!ulion of tomachalmot con!uli!e#% 8)ootnote3 FWork,F *ol# &J, p# ?1# Cite" byBear", FEconomic Origin of Aefferonian $emocracy,F p# /15#<

&n the crytalliHing of a common will, there i alway an 4le+an"er-amilton at work#

C-4PTE J&*

'E. O O

/

.ymbol are often o ueful an" o myteriouly powerful that the wor"itelf e+hale a magical glamor# &n thinking about ymbol it itempting to treat them a if they poee" in"epen"ent energy# 'et no

en" of ymbol which once pro!oke" ectay ha!e uite ceae" to affectanybo"y# The mueum an" the book of folklore are full of "ea"emblem an" incantation, ince there i no power in the ymbol,e+cept that which it acuire by aociation in the human min"# Theymbol that ha!e lot their power, an" the ymbol inceantlyuggete" which fail to take root, remin" u that if we were patientenough to tu"y in "etail the circulation of a ymbol, we houl"behol" an entirely ecular hitory#

&n the -ughe campaign peech, in the )ourteen Point, in -amiltonNproject, ymbol are employe"# But they are employe" by omebo"y at aparticular moment# The wor" themel!e "o not crytalliHe ran"omfeeling# The wor" mut be poken by people who are trategicallyplace", an" they mut be poken at the opportune moment# Otherwiethey are mere win"# The ymbol mut be earmarke"# )or in themel!ethey mean nothing, an" the choice of poible ymbol i alway ogreat that we houl", like the "onkey who too" eui"itant betweentwo bale of hay, perih from heer in"eciion among the ymbol thatcompete for our attention#

-ere, for e+ample, are the reaon for their !ote a tate" by certainpri!ate citiHen to a newpaper jut before the election of /056#

)or -ar"ing3

%The patriotic men an" women of to>"ay, who cat their ballot for-ar"ing an" Cooli"ge will be hel" by poterity to ha!e igne" our.econ" $eclaration of &n"epen"ence#%

r# Wilmot>>, in!entor#

%-e will ee to it that the nite" .tate "oe not enter intoNentangling alliance,N Wahington a a city will benefit by changingthe control of the go!ernment from the $emocrat to the epublican#%

r# Clarence>>, aleman#

)or Co+3

%The people of the nite" .tate realiHe that it i our "uty ple"ge"

on the fiel" of )rance, to join the League of ation# We muthoul"er our hare of the bur"en of enforcing peace throughout theworl"#%



i arie>>, tenographer#

%We houl" loe our own repect an" the repect of other nation werewe to refue to enter the League of ation in obtaining internationalpeace#%

r# .pencer>>, tatitician#

The two et of phrae are eually noble, eually true, an" almotre!erible# Woul" Clarence an" Wilmot ha!e a"mitte" for an intantthat they inten"e" to "efault in our "uty ple"ge" on the fiel" of)rance or that they "i" not "eire international peaceI Certainlynot# Woul" arie an" .pencer ha!e a"mitte" that they were in fa!or ofentangling alliance or the urren"er of 4merican in"epen"enceI Theywoul" ha!e argue" with you that the League wa, a Prei"ent Wiloncalle" it, a "ientangling alliance, a well a a $eclaration of&n"epen"ence for all the worl", plu a onroe $octrine for the planet#

5

.ince the offering of ymbol i o generou, an" the meaning that canbe impute" i o elatic, how "oe any particular ymbol take root inany particular peronN min"I &t i plante" there by another humanbeing whom we recogniHe a authoritati!e# &f it i plante" "eeplyenough, it may be that later we hall call the peron authoritati!ewho wa!e that ymbol at u# But in the firt intance ymbol arema"e congenial an" important becaue they are intro"uce" to u bycongenial an" important people#

)or we are not born out of an egg at the age of eighteen with arealitic imagination we are till, a r# .haw recall, in the eraof Burge an" Lubin, where in infancy we are "epen"ent upon ol"erbeing for our contact# 4n" o we make our connection with the outerworl" through certain belo!e" an" authoritati!e peron# They are thefirt bri"ge to the in!iible worl"# 4n" though we may gra"uallymater for ourel!e many phae of that larger en!ironment, therealway remain a !ater one that i unknown# To that we till relateourel!e through authoritie# Where all the fact are out of ight atrue report an" a plauible error rea" alike, oun" alike, feel alike#

E+cept on a few ubject where our own knowle"ge i great, we cannotchooe between true an" fale account# .o we chooe betweentrutworthy an" untrutworthy reporter# 8)ootnote3 .ee anintereting, rather uaint ol" book3 George Cornewall Lewi, F4nEay on the &nfluence of 4uthority in atter of OpinionF#<

Theoretically we ought to chooe the mot e+pert on each ubject# Butthe choice of the e+pert, though a goo" "eal eaier than the choice oftruth, i till too "ifficult an" often impracticable# The e+pertthemel!e are not in the leat certain who among them i the mote+pert# 4n" at that, the e+pert, e!en when we can i"entify him, i,likely a not, too buy to be conulte", or impoible to get at# Butthere are people whom we can i"entify eaily enough becaue they arethe people who are at the hea" of affair# Parent, teacher, an"materful frien" are the firt people of thi ort we encounter# &ntothe "ifficult uetion of why chil"ren trut one parent rather thananother, the hitory teacher rather than the .un"ay chool teacher, wenee" not try to enter# or how trut gra"ually prea" through a

newpaper or an acuaintance who i interete" in public affair topublic peronage# The literature of pychoanalyi i rich inuggeti!e hypothei#



4t any rate we "o fin" ourel!e truting certain people, whocontitute our mean of junction with pretty nearly the whole realm ofunknown thing# .trangely enough, thi fact i ometime regar"e" ainherently un"ignifie", a e!i"ence of our heep>like, ape>likenature# But complete in"epen"ence in the uni!ere i imply

unthinkable# &f we coul" not take practically e!erything for grante",we houl" pen" our li!e in utter tri!iality# The nearet thing to awholly in"epen"ent a"ult i a hermit, an" the range of a hermitNaction i !ery hort# 4cting entirely for himelf, he can act onlywithin a tiny ra"iu an" for imple en"# &f he ha time to thinkgreat thought we can be certain that he ha accepte" withoutuetion, before he went in for being a hermit, a whole repertory ofpainfully acuire" information about how to keep warm an" how to keepfrom being hungry, an" alo about what the great uetion are#

On all but a !ery few matter for hort tretche in our li!e, theutmot in"epen"ence that we can e+ercie i to multiply theauthoritie to whom we gi!e a frien"ly hearing# 4 congenital amateur

our uet for truth conit in tirring up the e+pert, an" forcingthem to anwer any herey that ha the accent of con!iction# &n uch a"ebate we can often ju"ge who ha won the "ialectical !ictory, but weare !irtually "efenele againt a fale premie that none of the"ebater ha challenge", or a neglecte" apect that none of them habrought into the argument# We hall ee later how the "emocratictheory procee" on the oppoite aumption an" aume for thepurpoe of go!ernment an unlimite" upply of elf>ufficientin"i!i"ual#

The people on whom we "epen" for contact with the outer worl" arethoe who eem to be running it# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F Bryce, Fo"ern$emocracieF *ol# &&, pp# ;77>;7;#< They may be running only a!ery mall part of the worl"# The nure fee" the chil", bathe it, an"put it to be"# That "oe not contitute the nure an authority onphyic, Hoology, an" the -igher Criticim# r# .mith run, or at leathire, the man who run the factory# That "oe not make him anauthority on the Contitution of the nite" .tate, nor on the effect]of the )or"ney tariff# r# .moot run the epublican party in the .tateof tah# That in itelf "oe not pro!e he i the bet man to conultabout ta+ation# But the nure may ne!erthele "etermine for a whilewhat Hoology the chil" hall learn, r# .mith will ha!e much to ay onwhat the Contitution hall mean to hi wife, hi ecretary, an" perhape!en to hi paron, an" who hall "efine the limit of .enator .mootNauthorityI

The priet, the lor" of the manor, the captain an" the king, theparty lea"er, the merchant, the bo, howe!er thee men are choen,whether by birth, inheritance, conuet or election, they an" theirorganiHe" following a"miniter human affair# They are the officer,an" although the ame man may be fiel" marhal at home, econ"lieutenant at the office, an" crub pri!ate in politic, although in manyintitution the hierarchy of rank i !ague or conceale", yet in e!eryintitution that reuire the cooperation of many peron, ome uchhierarchy e+it# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F # Otrogorki, F$emocracy an" theOrganiHation of Political Partie, paimF # ichel, FPolitical Partie,paimF an" Bryce, Fo"ern $emocracie,F particularly Chap#LJJ* alo o, FPrinciple of .ociology,F Chap# JJ&&>JJ&*# <&n 4merican politic we call it a machine, or %the organiHation#%

M

There are a number of important "itinction between the member of



the machine an" the rank an" file# The lea"er, the teering committeean" the inner circle, are in "irect contact with their en!ironment#They may, to be ure, ha!e a !ery limite" notion of what they ought to"efine a the en!ironment, but they are not "ealing almot wholly withabtraction# There are particular men they hope to ee electe",particular balance heet they wih to ee impro!e", concrete

objecti!e that mut be attaine"# & "o not mean that they ecape thehuman propenity to tereotype" !iion# Their tereotype often makethem abur" routineer# But whate!er their limitation, the chief arein actual contact with ome crucial part of that larger en!ironment#They "eci"e# They gi!e or"er# They bargain# 4n" omething "efinite,perhap not at all what they imagine", actually happen#

Their ubor"inate are not tie" to them by a common con!iction# Thati to ay the leer member of a machine "o not "ipoe their loyaltyaccor"ing to in"epen"ent ju"gment about the wi"om of the lea"er# &nthe hierarchy each i "epen"ent upon a uperior an" i in turnuperior to ome cla of hi "epen"ent# What hol" the machinetogether i a ytem of pri!ilege# Thee may !ary accor"ing to the

opportunitie an" the tate of thoe who eek them, from nepotim an"patronage in all their apect to clannihne, hero>worhip or afi+e" i"ea# They !ary from military rank in armie, through lan" an"er!ice in a feu"al ytem, to job an" publicity in a mo"ern"emocracy# That i why you can breakup a particular machine byabolihing it pri!ilege# But the machine in e!ery coherent group i,& belie!e, certain to reappear# )or pri!ilege i entirely relati!e,an" uniformity i impoible# &magine the mot abolute communim ofwhich your min" i capable, where no one poee" any object thate!eryone ele "i" not poe, an" till, if the communit group ha"to take any action whate!er, the mere pleaure of being the frien" ofthe man who wa going to make the peech that ecure" the mot !ote,woul", & am con!ince", be enough to crytalliHe an organiHation ofini"er aroun" him#

&t i not neceary, then, to in!ent a collecti!e intelligence inor"er to e+plain why the ju"gment of a group are uually morecoherent, an" often more true to form than the remark of the man inthe treet# One min", or a few can purue a train of thought, but agroup trying to think in concert can a a group "o little more thanaent or "ient# The member of a hierarchy can ha!e a corporatetra"ition# 4 apprentice they learn the tra"e from the mater, whoin turn learne" it when they were apprentice, an" in any en"uringociety, the change of peronnel within the go!erning hierarchie ilow enough to permit the tranmiion of certain great tereotypean" pattern of beha!ior# )rom father to on, from prelate to no!ice,from !eteran to ca"et, certain way of eeing an" "oing are taught#Thee way become familiar, an" are recogniHe" a uch by the ma ofouti"er#

7

$itance alone len" enchantment to the !iew that mae of humanbeing e!er cooperate in any comple+ affair without a central machinemanage" by a !ery few people# %o one,% ay Bryce, 8)ootnote3 FOp#cit#F, *ol# &&, p# ;75#< %can ha!e ha" ome yearN e+perience ofthe con"uct of affair in a legilature or an a"minitration withoutober!ing how e+tremely mall i the number of peron by whom theworl" i go!erne"#% -e i referring, of coure, to affair of tate#To be ure if you coni"er all the affair of mankin" the number of

people who go!ern i coni"erable, but if you take any particularintitution, be it a legilature, a party, a tra"e union, anationalit mo!ement, a factory, or a club, the number of thoe who



go!ern i a !ery mall percentage of thoe who are theoreticallyuppoe" to go!ern#

Lan"li"e can turn one machine out an" put another in re!olutionometime abolih a particular machine altogether# The "emocraticre!olution et up two alternating machine, each of which in the

coure of a few year reap the a"!antage from the mitake of theother# But nowhere "oe the machine "iappear# owhere i the i"yllictheory of "emocracy realiHe"# Certainly not in tra"e union, nor inocialit partie, nor in communit go!ernment# There i an innercircle, urroun"e" by concentric circle which fa"e out gra"ually intothe "iinterete" or uninterete" rank an" file#

$emocrat ha!e ne!er come to term with thi commonplace of grouplife# They ha!e in!ariably regar"e" it a per!ere# )or there are two!iion of "emocracy3 one preuppoe the elf>ufficient in"i!i"ualthe other an O!eroul regulating e!erything#

Of the two the O!eroul ha ome a"!antage becaue it "oe at leat

recogniHe that the ma make "eciion that are not pontaneoulyborn in the breat of e!ery member# But the O!eroul a prei"inggeniu in corporate beha!ior i a uperfluou mytery if we fi+ ourattention upon the machine# The machine i a uite proaic reality# &tconit of human being who wear clothe an" li!e in houe, who canbe name" an" "ecribe"# They perform all the "utie uually aigne"to the O!eroul#

;

The reaon for the machine i not the per!erity of human nature# &ti that out of the pri!ate notion of any group no common i"ea emergeby itelf# )or the number of way i limite" in which a multitu"e ofpeople can act "irectly upon a ituation beyon" their reach# .ome ofthem can migrate, in one form or another, they can trike or boycott,they can applau" or hi# They can by thee mean occaionally reitwhat they "o not like, or coerce thoe who obtruct what they "eire#But by ma action nothing can be contructe", "e!ie", negotiate", ora"minitere"# 4 public a uch, without an organiHe" hierarchy aroun"which it can gather, may refue to buy if the price are too high, orrefue to work if wage are too low# 4 tra"e union can by ma actionin a trike break an oppoition o that the union official cannegotiate an agreement# &t may win, for e+ample, the FrightF tojoint control# But it cannot e+ercie the right e+cept through anorganiHation# 4 nation can clamor for war, but when it goe to war itmut put itelf un"er or"er from a general taff#

The limit of "irect action i for all practical purpoe the power toay 'e or o on an iue preente" to the ma# 8)ootnote3 FCfF#Aame, F.ome Problem of PhiloophyF, p# 551# %But for mot ofour emergencie, fractional olution are impoible# .el"om can weact fractionally#% FCfF# Lowell, FPublic Opinion an" PopularGo!ernmentF, pp# 0/, 05#< )or only in the !ery implet cae "oean iue preent itelf in the ame form pontaneouly an"appro+imately at the ame time to all the member of a public# Thereare unorganiHe" trike an" boycott, not merely in"utrial one,where the grie!ance i o plain that !irtually without lea"erhip theame reaction take place in many people# But e!en in theeru"imentary cae there are peron who know what they want to "o moreuickly than the ret, an" who become impromptu ringlea"er# Where

they "o not appear a crow" will mill about aimlely beet by all itpri!ate aim, or tan" by fatalitically, a "i" a crow" of fiftyperon the other "ay, an" watch a man commit uici"e#



)or what we make out of mot of the impreion that come to u fromthe in!iible worl" i a kin" of pantomime playe" out in re!ery# Thenumber of time i mall that we conciouly "eci"e anything aboute!ent beyon" our ight, an" each manN opinion of what he coul"accomplih if he trie", i light# There i rarely a practical iue,

an" therefore no great habit of "eciion# Thi woul" be more e!i"entwere it not that mot information when it reache u carrie with itan aura of uggetion a to how we ought to feel about the new# Thatuggetion we nee", an" if we "o not fin" it in the new we turn tothe e"itorial or to a trute" a"!ier# The re!ery, if we feelourel!e implicate", i uncomfortable until we know where we tan",that i, until the fact ha!e been formulate" o that we can feel 'eor o in regar" to them#

When a number of people all ay 'e they may ha!e all kin" of reaonfor aying it# They generally "o# )or the picture in their min" are,a we ha!e alrea"y note", !arie" in ubtle an" intimate way# But thiubtlety remain within their min" it become repreente" publicly

by a number of ymbolic phrae which carry the in"i!i"ual emotionafter e!acuating mot of the intention# The hierarchy, or, if it i acontet, then the two hierarchie, aociate the ymbol with a"efinite action, a !ote of 'e or o, an attitu"e pro or con# Then.mith who wa againt the League an" Aone who wa againt 4rticle J,an" Brown who wa againt r# Wilon an" all hi work, each for hiown reaon, all in the name of more or le the ame ymbolic phrae,regiter a !ote FagaintF the $emocrat by !oting for theepublican# 4 common will ha been e+pree"#

4 concrete choice ha" to be preente", the choice ha" to be connecte",by the tranfer of interet through the ymbol, with in"i!i"ualopinion# The profeional politician learne" thi long before the"emocratic philoopher# 4n" o they organiHe" the caucu, thenominating con!ention, an" the teering committee, a the mean offormulating a "efinite choice# E!eryone who wihe to accomplihanything that reuire the cooperation of a large number of peoplefollow their e+ample# .ometime it i "one rather brutally a whenthe Peace Conference re"uce" itelf to the Council of Ten, an" theCouncil of Ten to the Big Three or )our an" wrote a treaty which theminor allie, their own contituent, an" the enemy were permitte" totake or lea!e# ore conultation than that i generally poible an""eirable# But the eential fact remain that a mall number of hea"preent a choice to a large group#

:

The abue of the teering committee ha!e le" to !ariou propoaluch a the initiati!e, referen"um an" "irect primary# But theemerely potpone" or obcure" the nee" for a machine by complicatingthe election, or a -# G# Well once ai" with crupulou accuracy,the election# )or no amount of balloting can ob!iate the nee" ofcreating an iue, be it a meaure or a can"i"ate, on which the !otercan ay 'e, or o# There i, in fact, no uch thing a %"irectlegilation#% )or what happen where it i uppoe" to e+itI ThecitiHen goe to the poll, recei!e a ballot on which a number ofmeaure are printe", almot alway in abbre!iate" form, an", if heay anything at all, he ay 'e or o# The mot brilliant amen"mentin the worl" may occur to him# -e !ote 'e or o on that bill an" noother# 'ou ha!e to commit !iolence againt the Englih language to

call that legilation# & "o not argue, of coure, that there are nobenefit, whate!er you call the proce# & think that for certainkin" of iue there are "itinct benefit# But the neceary



implicity of any ma "eciion i a !ery important fact in !iew ofthe ine!itable comple+ity of the worl" in which thoe "eciionoperate# The mot complicate" form of !oting that anyone propoe i,& uppoe, the preferential ballot# 4mong a number of can"i"atepreente" the !oter un"er that ytem, intea" of aying ye to onecan"i"ate an" no to all the other, tate the or"er of hi choice#

But e!en here, immenely more fle+ible though it i, the action of thema "epen" upon the uality of the choice preente"# 8)ootnote3FCf#F -# A# Laki, F)oun"ation of .o!ereignty,F p# 557# %###proportional repreentation### by lea"ing, a it eem to lea", to thegroup ytem### may "epri!e the elector of their choice of lea"er#%The group ytem un"oubte"ly ten", a r# Laki ay, to make theelection of the e+ecuti!e more in"irect, but there i no "oubt alothat it ten" to pro"uce legilati!e aemblie in which current ofopinion are more fully repreente"# Whether that i goo" or ba"cannot be "etermine" a priori# But one can ay that uccefulcooperation an" reponibility in a more accurately repreentati!eaembly reuire a higher organiHation of political intelligence an"political habit, than in a rigi" two>party houe# &t i a more comple+

political form an" may therefore work le well#< 4n" thoe choiceare preente" by the energetic coterie who hutle about withpetition an" roun" up the "elegate# The any can elect after the )ewha!e nominate"#

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BEC4.E of their trancen"ent practical importance, no uccefullea"er ha e!er been too buy to culti!ate the ymbol which organiHehi following# What pri!ilege "o within the hierarchy, ymbol "o forthe rank an" file# They coner!e unity# )rom the totem pole to thenational flag, from the woo"en i"ol to Go" the &n!iible Ding, fromthe magic wor" to ome "ilute" !erion of 4"am .mith or Bentham,ymbol ha!e been cherihe" by lea"er, many of whom were themel!eunbelie!er, becaue they were focal point where "ifference merge"#The "etache" ober!er may corn the %tar>pangle"% ritual whichhe"ge the ymbol, perhap a much a the king who tol" himelf thatPari wa worth a few mae# But the lea"er know by e+perience thatonly when ymbol ha!e "one their work i there a han"le he can ue tomo!e a crow"# &n the ymbol emotion i "icharge" at a common target,an" the i"ioyncray of real i"ea blotte" out# o won"er he hatewhat he call "etructi!e criticim, ometime calle" by free piritthe elimination of buncombe# %4bo!e all thing,% ay Bagehot, %ourroyalty i to be re!erence", an" if you begin to poke about it youcannot re!erence it#% 8)ootnote3 FThe Englih Contitution,F p#/51# $# 4ppleton U Company, /0/7#< )or poking about with clear"efinition an" can"i" tatement er!e all high purpoe known toman, e+cept the eay coner!ation of a common will# Poking about, ae!ery reponible lea"er upect, ten" to break the tranference ofemotion from the in"i!i"ual min" to the intitutional ymbol# 4n" thefirt reult of that i, a he rightly ay, a chao of in"i!i"ualiman" warring ect# The "iintegration of a ymbol, like -oly uia,or the &ron $iaH, i alway the beginning of a long uphea!al#

Thee great ymbol poe by tranference all the minute an""etaile" loyaltie of an ancient an" tereotype" ociety# They e!oke





to be mitaken for apoleon>>at a "itance####&t become almotimpoible to "iplace thee apoleon, whate!er their incompetence,becaue of the enormou public upport create" by hi"ing or gloingfailure, an" e+aggerating or in!enting ucce#### But the motini"iou an" wort effect of thi o highly organiHe" fality i onthe general themel!e3 mo"et an" patriotic a they motly are, an"

a mot men mut be to take up an" follow the noble profeion ofarm, they themel!e are ultimately affecte" by thee uni!eralilluion, an" rea"ing it e!ery morning in the paper, they alo growperua"e" they are thun"erbolt of war an" infallible, howe!er muchthey fail, an" that their maintenance in comman" i an en" o acre"that it jutifie the ue of any mean#### Thee !ariou con"ition,of which thi great "eceit i the greatet, at lat emancipate allGeneral .taff from all control# They no longer li!e for the nation3the nation li!e, or rather "ie, for them# *ictory or "efeat ceaeto be the prime interet# What matter to thee emi>o!ereigncorporation i whether "ear ol" Willie or poor ol" -arry i going tobe at their hea", or the Chantilly party pre!ail o!er the Boule!ar""e &n!ali"e party#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, pp# 0?, /6/>/6;#<

'et Captain Wright who can be o elouent an" o "icerning about the"anger of ilence i force" ne!erthele to appro!e the ilence of)och in not publicly "etroying the illuion# There i here acomplicate" para"o+, ariing a we hall ee more fully later on,becaue the tra"itional "emocratic !iew of life i concei!e", not foremergencie an" "anger, but for tranuillity an" harmony# 4n" owhere mae of people mut cooperate in an uncertain an" erupti!een!ironment, it i uually neceary to ecure unity an" fle+ibilitywithout real conent# The ymbol "oe that# &t obcure peronalintention, neutraliHe "icrimination, an" obfucate in"i!i"ualpurpoe# &t immobiliHe peronality, yet at the ame time itenormouly harpen the intention of the group an" wel" that group,a nothing ele in a crii can wel" it, to purpoeful action# &tren"er the ma mobile though it immobiliHe peronality# The ymboli the intrument by which in the hort run the ma ecape from itown inertia, the inertia of in"eciion, or the inertia of hea"longmo!ement, an" i ren"ere" capable of being le" along the HigHag of acomple+ ituation#

5

But in the longer run, the gi!e an" take increae between the lea"eran" the le"# The wor" mot often ue" to "ecribe the tate of min" inthe rank an" file about it lea"er i morale# That i ai" to be goo"when the in"i!i"ual "o the part allotte" to them with all theirenergy when each manN whole trength i e!oke" by the comman" fromabo!e# &t follow that e!ery lea"er mut plan hi policy with thi inmin"# -e mut coni"er hi "eciion not only on %the merit,% but aloin it effect on any part of hi following whoe continue" upport hereuire# &f he i a general planning an attack, he know that hiorganiHe" military unit will catter into mob if the percentage ofcaualtie rie too high#

&n the Great War pre!iou calculation were upet to an e+traor"inary"egree, for %out of e!ery nine men who went to )rance fi!e becamecaualtie#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# citF#, p# M1# )igure taken byCaptain Wright from the tatitical abtract of the war in the4rchi!e of the War Office# The figure refer apparently to theEnglih loe alone, poibly to the Englih an" )rench#< The limit

of en"urance wa far greater than anyone ha" uppoe"# But there wa alimit omewhere# 4n" o, partly becaue of it effect on the enemy,but alo in great meaure becaue of it effect on the troop an"



their familie, no comman" in thi war "are" to publih a can"i"tatement of it loe# &n )rance the caualty lit were ne!erpublihe"# &n Englan", 4merica, an" Germany publication of the loeof a big battle were prea" out o!er long perio" o a to "etroy aunifie" impreion of the total# Only the ini"er knew until longafterwar" what the .omme ha" cot, or the )lan"er battle

8)ootnote3 FOp cit#F, p# M7, the .omme cot nearly ;66,666caualtie the 4rra an" )lan"er offeni!e of /0/1 cot :;6,666Britih caualtie#< an" Lu"en"orff un"oubte"ly ha" a !ery much moreaccurate i"ea of thee caualtie than any pri!ate peron in Lon"on,Pari or Chicago# 4ll the lea"er in e!ery camp "i" their bet tolimit the amount of actual war which any one ol"ier or ci!ilian coul"!i!i"ly concei!e# But, of coure, among ol" !eteran like the )renchtroop of /0/1, a great "eal more i known about war than e!er reachethe public# .uch an army begin to ju"ge it comman"er in term ofit own uffering# 4n" then, when another e+tra!agant promie of!ictory turn out to be the cutomary bloo"y "efeat, you may fin" thata mutiny break out o!er ome comparati!ely minor blun"er, 8)ootnote3The 4llie uffere" many bloo"ier "efeat than that on the Chemin "e

$ame#< like i!elleN offeni!e of /0/1, becaue it i a cumulati!eblun"er# e!olution an" mutinie generally follow a mall ample of abig erie of e!il# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F PierrefeuN account, Fop#cit#F, on the caue of the .oion mutinie, an" the metho"a"opte" by PQtain to "eal with them# *ol# &, Part &&&, Fet e#F<

The inci"ence of policy "etermine the relation between lea"er an"following# &f thoe whom he nee" in hi plan are remote from theplace where the action take place, if the reult are hi""en orpotpone", if the in"i!i"ual obligation are in"irect or not yet "ue,abo!e all if aent i an e+ercie of ome pleaurable emotion, thelea"er i likely to ha!e a free han"# Thoe program are imme"iatelymot popular, like prohibition among teetotaler, which "o not at onceimpinge upon the pri!ate habit of the follower# That i one greatreaon why go!ernment ha!e uch a free han" in foreign affair# otof the friction between two tate in!ol!e a erie of obcure an"long>win"e" contention, occaionally on the frontier, but far moreoften in region about which chool geographie ha!e upplie" noprecie i"ea# &n CHecholo!akia 4merica i regar"e" a the Liberatorin 4merican newpaper paragraph an" muical come"y, in 4mericancon!eration by an" large, it ha ne!er been finally ettle" whetherthe country we liberate" i CHechola!ia or Augolo!akia#

&n foreign affair the inci"ence of policy i for a !ery long timeconfine" to an uneen en!ironment# othing that happen out there ifelt to be wholly real# 4n" o, becaue in the ante>bellum perio",nobo"y ha to fight an" nobo"y ha to pay, go!ernment go alongaccor"ing to their light without much reference to their people# &nlocal affair the cot of a policy i more eaily !iible# 4n"therefore, all but the mot e+ceptional lea"er prefer policie inwhich the cot are a far a poible in"irect#

They "o not like "irect ta+ation# They "o not like to pay a they go#They like long term "ebt# They like to ha!e the !oter belie!e thatthe foreigner will pay# They ha!e alway been compelle" to calculateproperity in term of the pro"ucer rather than in term of theconumer, becaue the inci"ence on the conumer i "itribute" o!er omany tri!ial item# Labor lea"er ha!e alway preferre" an increae ofmoney wage to a "ecreae in price# There ha alway been morepopular interet in the profit of millionaire, which are !iible but

comparati!ely unimportant, than in the wate of the in"utrialytem, which are huge but elui!e# 4 legilature "ealing with ahortage of houe, uch a e+it when thi i written, illutrate



thi rule, firt by "oing nothing to increae the number of houe,econ" by miting the gree"y lan"lor" on the hip, thir" byin!etigating the profiteering buil"er an" working men# )or acontructi!e policy "eal with remote an" unintereting factor, whilea gree"y lan"lor", or a profiteering plumber i !iible an" imme"iate#

But while people will rea"ily belie!e that in an unimagine" future an"in uneen place a certain policy will benefit them, the actualworking out of policy follow a "ifferent logic from their opinion# 4nation may be in"uce" to belie!e that jacking up the freight ratewill make the railroa" properou# But that belief will not make theroa" properou, if the impact of thoe rate on farmer an" hipperi uch a to pro"uce a commo"ity price beyon" what the conumer canpay# Whether the conumer will pay the price "epen" not upon whetherhe no""e" hi hea" nine month pre!iouly at the propoal to raierate an" a!e buine, but on whether he now want a new hat or anew automobile enough to pay for them#

M

Lea"er often preten" that they ha!e merely unco!ere" a program whiche+ite" in the min" of their public# When they belie!e it, they areuually "ecei!ing themel!e# Program "o not in!ent themel!eynchronouly in a multitu"e of min"# That i not becaue a multitu"eof min" i necearily inferior to that of the lea"er, but becauethought i the function of an organim, an" a ma i not an organim#

Thi fact i obcure" becaue the ma i contantly e+poe" touggetion# &t rea" not the new, but the new with an aura ofuggetion about it, in"icating the line of action to be taken# &thear report, not objecti!e a the fact are, but alrea"y tereotype"to a certain pattern of beha!ior# Thu the otenible lea"er oftenfin" that the real lea"er i a powerful newpaper proprietor# But if,a in a laboratory, one coul" remo!e all uggetion an" lea"ing fromthe e+perience of a multitu"e, one woul", & think, fin" omething likethi3 4 ma e+poe" to the ame timuli woul" "e!elop repone thatcoul" theoretically be charte" in a polygon of error# There woul" be acertain group that felt ufficiently alike to be claifie" together#There woul" be !ariant of feeling at both en"# Thee claificationwoul" ten" to har"en a in"i!i"ual in each of the claificationma"e their reaction !ocal# That i to ay, when the !ague feeling ofthoe who felt !aguely ha" been put into wor", they woul" know more"efinitely what they felt, an" woul" then feel it more "efinitely#

Lea"er in touch with popular feeling are uickly conciou of theereaction# They know that high price are preing upon the ma, orthat certain clae of in"i!i"ual are becoming unpopular, or thatfeeling towar" another nation i frien"ly or hotile# But, alwaybarring the effect of uggetion which i merely the aumption oflea"erhip by the reporter, there woul" be nothing in the feeling ofthe ma that fatally "etermine" the choice of any particular policy#4ll that the feeling of the ma "eman" i that policy a it i"e!elope" an" e+poe" hall be, if not logically, then by analogy an"aociation, connecte" with the original feeling#

.o when a new policy i to be launche", there i a preliminary bi" forcommunity of feeling, a in ark 4ntonyN peech to the follower ofBrutu# 8)ootnote3 E+cellently analyHe" in artin, FThe Beha!ior ofCrow",F pp# /M6>/M5,< &n the firt phae, the lea"er !ocaliHe the

pre!alent opinion of the ma# -e i"entifie himelf with the familiarattitu"e of hi au"ience, ometime by telling a goo" tory,ometime by bran"ihing hi patriotim, often by pinching a



grie!ance# )in"ing that he i trutworthy, the multitu"e millinghither an" thither may turn in towar" him# -e will then be e+pecte"to et forth a plan of campaign# But he will not fin" that plan in thelogan which con!ey the feeling of the ma# &t will not e!en alwaybe in"icate" by them# Where the inci"ence of policy i remote, allthat i eential i that the program hall be !erbally an"

emotionally connecte" at the tart with what ha become !ocal in themultitu"e# Trute" men in a familiar role ubcribing to the accepte"ymbol can go a !ery long way on their own initiati!e withoute+plaining the ubtance of their program#

But wie lea"er are not content to "o that# Pro!i"e" they thinkpublicity will not trengthen oppoition too much, an" that "ebatewill not "elay action too long, they eek a certain meaure ofconent# They take, if not the whole ma, then the ubor"inate ofthe hierarchy ufficiently into their confi"ence to prepare them forwhat might happen, an" to make them feel that they ha!e freely wille"the reult# But howe!er incere the lea"er may be, there i alway,when the fact are !ery complicate", a certain amount of illuion in

thee conultation# )or it i impoible that all the contingenciehall be a !i!i" to the whole public a they are to the moree+perience" an" the more imaginati!e# 4 fairly large percentage areboun" to agree without ha!ing taken the time, or without poeingthe backgroun", for appreciating the choice which the lea"er preentto them# o one, howe!er, can ak for more# 4n" only theorit "o# &fwe ha!e ha" our "ay in court, if what we ha" to ay wa hear", an"then if what i "one come out well, mot of u "o not top toconi"er how much our opinion affecte" the buine in han"#

4n" therefore, if the etablihe" power are eniti!e an"well>informe", if they are !iibly trying to meet popular feeling, an"actually remo!ing ome of the caue of "iatifaction, no matter howlowly they procee", pro!i"e" they are een to be procee"ing, theyha!e little to fear# &t take tupen"ou an" peritent blun"ering,plu almot infinite tactlene, to tart a re!olution from below#Palace re!olution, inter"epartmental re!olution, are a "ifferentmatter# .o, too, i "emagogy# That top at relie!ing the tenion bye+preing the feeling# But the tateman know that uch relief itemporary, an" if in"ulge" too often, unanitary# -e, therefore, eeto it that he aroue no feeling which he cannot luice into a programthat "eal with the fact to which the feeling refer#

But all lea"er are not tatemen, all lea"er hate to reign, an"mot lea"er fin" it har" to belie!e that ba" a thing are, the otherfellow woul" not make them wore# They "o not pai!ely wait for thepublic to feel the inci"ence of policy, becaue the inci"ence of that"ico!ery i generally upon their own hea"# They are, therefore,intermittently engage" in men"ing their fence an" conoli"ating theirpoition#

The men"ing of fence conit in offering an occaional capegoat, inre"reing a minor grie!ance affecting a powerful in"i!i"ual orfaction, rearranging certain job, placating a group of people whowant an arenal in their home town, or a law to top omebo"yN !ice#.tu"y the "aily acti!ity of any public official who "epen" onelection an" you can enlarge thi lit# There are Congremen electe"year after year who ne!er think of "iipating their energy on publicaffair# They prefer to "o a little er!ice for a lot of people on alot of little ubject, rather than to engage in trying to "o a big

er!ice out there in the !oi"# But the number of people to whom anyorganiHation can be a ucceful !alet i limite", an" hrew"politician take care to atten" either the influential, or omebo"y o





4le+i "e Tocue!ille#

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.&CE Public Opinion i uppoe" to be the prime mo!er in "emocracie,

one might reaonably e+pect to fin" a !at literature# One "oe notfin" it# There are e+cellent book on go!ernment an" partie, that i,on the machinery which in theory regiter public opinion after theyare forme"# But on the ource from which thee public opinion arie,on the procee by which they are "eri!e", there i relati!elylittle# The e+itence of a force calle" Public Opinion i in the maintaken for grante", an" 4merican political writer ha!e been motinterete" either in fin"ing out how to make go!ernment e+pre thecommon will, or in how to pre!ent the common will from ub!erting thepurpoe for which they belie!e the go!ernment e+it# 4ccor"ing totheir tra"ition they ha!e wihe" either to tame opinion or to obeyit# Thu the e"itor of a notable erie of te+t>book write that %themot "ifficult an" the mot momentou uetion of go!ernment =i@ howto tranmit the force of in"i!i"ual opinion into publicaction#% 8)ootnote3 4lbert Buhnell -art in the &ntro"uctory note to 4#Lawrence LowellN FPublic Opinion an" Popular Go!ernment# F<

But urely there i a till more momentou uetion, the uetion ofhow to !ali"ate our pri!ate !erion of the political cene# There i,a & hall try to in"icate further on, the propect of ra"icalimpro!ement by the "e!elopment of principle alrea"y in operation# Butthi "e!elopment will "epen" on how well we learn to ue knowle"ge ofthe way opinion are put together to watch o!er our own opinion whenthey are being put together# )or caual opinion, being the pro"uct ofpartial contact, of tra"ition, an" peronal interet, cannot in thenature of thing take kin"ly to a metho" of political thought which ibae" on e+act recor", meaurement, analyi an" comparion# Autthoe ualitie of the min" which "etermine what hall eemintereting, important, familiar, peronal, an" "ramatic, are theualitie which in the firt intance realitic opinion frutrate#Therefore, unle there i in the community at large a growingcon!iction that preju"ice an" intuition are not enough, the workingout of realitic opinion, which take time, money, labor, concioueffort, patience, an" euanimity, will not fin" enough upport# Thatcon!iction grow a elf>criticim increae, an" make u conciouof buncombe, contemptuou of ourel!e when we employ it, an" on guar"to "etect it# Without an ingraine" habit of analyHing opinion when werea", talk, an" "eci"e, mot of u woul" har"ly upect the nee" ofbetter i"ea, nor be interete" in them when they appear, nor be ableto pre!ent the new technic of political intelligence from being

manipulate"#

'et "emocracie, if we are to ju"ge by the ol"et an" mot powerful of



them, ha!e ma"e a mytery out of public opinion# There ha!e beenkille" organiHer of opinion who un"ertoo" the mytery well enoughto create majoritie on election "ay# But thee organiHer ha!e beenregar"e" by political cience a low fellow or a %problem,% not apoeor of the mot effecti!e knowle"ge there wa on how to createan" operate public opinion# The ten"ency of the people who ha!e !oice"

the i"ea of "emocracy, e!en when they ha!e not manage" it action,the ten"ency of tu"ent, orator, e"itor, ha been to look uponPublic Opinion a men in other ocietie looke" upon the uncannyforce to which they acribe" the lat wor" in the "irection ofe!ent#

)or in almot e!ery political theory there i an incrutable elementwhich in the hey"ay of that theory goe une+amine"# Behin" theappearance there i a )ate, there are Guar"ian .pirit, or an"ateto a Choen People, a $i!ine onarchy, a *ice>egent of -ea!en, or aCla of the Better Born# The more ob!iou angel, "emon, an" kingare gone out of "emocratic thinking, but the nee" for belie!ing thatthere are reer!e power of gui"ance perit# &t perite" for thoe

thinker of the Eighteenth Century who "eigne" the matri+ of"emocracy# They ha" a pale go", but warm heart, an" in the "octrineof popular o!ereignty they foun" the anwer to their nee" of aninfallible origin for the new ocial or"er# There wa the mytery, an"only enemie of the people touche" it with profane an" curiou han"#

5

They "i" not remo!e the !eil becaue they were practical politicianin a bitter an" uncertain truggle# They ha" themel!e felt theapiration of "emocracy, which i e!er o much "eeper, more intimatean" more important than any theory of go!ernment# They were engage",a againt the preju"ice of age, in the aertion of human "ignity#What poee" them wa not whether Aohn .mith ha" oun" !iew on anypublic uetion, but that Aohn .mith, cion of a tock that ha" alwaybeen coni"ere" inferior, woul" now ben" hi knee to no other man# &twa thi pectacle that ma"e it bli %in that "awn to be ali!e#% Bute!ery analyt eem to "egra"e that "ignity, to "eny that all men arereaonable all the time, or e"ucate", or informe", to note that peopleare foole", that they "o not alway know their own interet, an" thatall men are not eually fitte" to go!ern#

The critic were about a welcome a a mall boy with a "rum# E!eryone of thee ober!ation on the fallibility of man wa beinge+ploite" a" naueam# -a" "emocrat a"mitte" there wa truth in any ofthe aritocratic argument they woul" ha!e opene" a breach in the"efene# 4n" o jut a 4ritotle ha" to init that the la!e wa ala!e by nature, the "emocrat ha" to init that the free man wa alegilator an" a"minitrator by nature# They coul" not top to e+plainthat a human oul might not yet ha!e, or in"ee" might ne!er ha!e, thitechnical euipment, an" that ne!erthele it ha" an inalienable rightnot to be ue" a the unwilling intrument of other men# The uperiorpeople were till too trong an" too uncrupulou to ha!e refraine"from capitaliHing o can"i" a tatement#

.o the early "emocrat inite" that a reaone" righteoune welle"up pontaneouly out of the ma of men# 4ll of them hope" that itwoul", many of them belie!e" that it "i", although the cle!eret, likeThoma Aefferon, ha" all ort of pri!ate reer!ation# But one thingwa certain3 if public opinion "i" not come forth pontaneouly,

nobo"y in that age belie!e" it woul" come forth at all# )or in onefun"amental repect the political cience on which "emocracy wa bae"wa the ame cience that 4ritotle formulate"# &t wa the ame



cience for "emocrat an" aritocrat, royalit an" republican, in thatit major premie aume" the art of go!ernment to be a naturalen"owment# en "iffere" ra"ically when they trie" to name the men oen"owe" but they agree" in thinking that the greatet uetion of allwa to fin" thoe in whom political wi"om wa innate# oyalit wereure that king were born to go!ern# 4le+an"er -amilton thought that

while %there are trong min" in e!ery walk of life### therepreentati!e bo"y, with too few e+ception to ha!e any influence onthe pirit of the go!ernment, will be compoe" of lan"hol"er,merchant, an" men of the learne" profeion#% 8)ootnote3 FThe)e"eralitF, o# M;, M:# FCfF# comment by -enry Aone )or" inhi Fie an" Growth of 4merican PoliticF# Ch# *#< Aefferonthought the political facultie were "epoite" by Go" in farmer an"planter, an" ometime poke a if they were foun" in all the people#8)ootnote3 .ee below p# 5:?#< The main premie wa the ame3 to go!ernwa an intinct that appeare", accor"ing to your ocial preference,in one man or a choen few, in all male, or only in male who werewhite an" twenty>one, perhap e!en in all men an" all women#

&n "eci"ing who wa mot fit to go!ern, knowle"ge of the worl" wataken for grante"# The aritocrat belie!e" that thoe who "ealt withlarge affair poee" the intinct, the "emocrat aerte" that allmen poee" the intinct an" coul" therefore "eal with largeaffair# &t wa no part of political cience in either cae to thinkout how knowle"ge of the worl" coul" be brought to the ruler# &f youwere for the people you "i" not try to work out the uetion of how tokeep the !oter informe"# By the age of twenty>one he ha" hi politicalfacultie# What counte" wa a goo" heart, a reaoning min", a balance"ju"gment# Thee woul" ripen with age, but it wa not neceary toconi"er how to inform the heart an" fee" the reaon# en took intheir fact a they took in their breath#

M

But the fact men coul" come to poe in thi effortle way werelimite"# They coul" know the cutom an" more ob!iou character of theplace where they li!e" an" worke"# But the outer worl" they ha" toconcei!e, an" they "i" not concei!e it intincti!ely, nor aborbtrutworthy knowle"ge of it jut by li!ing# Therefore, the onlyen!ironment in which pontaneou politic were poible wa oneconfine" within the range of the rulerN "irect an" certain knowle"ge#There i no ecaping thi concluion, where!er you foun" go!ernment onthe natural range of menN facultie# %&f,% a 4ritotle ai",8)ootnote3 FPoliticF, Bk# *&&, Ch# 7#< %the citiHen of a tateare to ju"ge an" "itribute office accor"ing to merit, then they mutknow each otherN character where they "o not poe thiknowle"ge, both the election to office an" the "eciion of law uitwill go wrong#%

Ob!iouly thi ma+im wa bin"ing upon e!ery chool of politicalthought# But it preente" peculiar "ifficultie to the "emocrat#Thoe who belie!e" in cla go!ernment coul" fairly claim that in thecourt of the king, or in the country houe of the gentry, men "i"know each otherN character, an" a long a the ret of mankin" wapai!e, the only character one nee"e" to know were the character ofmen in the ruling cla# But the "emocrat, who wante" to raie the"ignity of all men, were imme"iately in!ol!e" by the immene iHe an"confuion of their ruling cla>>the male electorate# Their ciencetol" them that politic wa an intinct, an" that the intinct worke"

in a limite" en!ironment# Their hope ba"e them init that all men ina !ery large en!ironment coul" go!ern# &n thi "ea"ly conflict betweentheir i"eal an" their cience, the only way out wa to aume without



much "icuion that the !oice of the people wa the !oice of Go"#

The para"o+ wa too great, the take too big, their i"eal toopreciou for critical e+amination# They coul" not how how a citiHenof Boton wa to tay in Boton an" concei!e the !iew of a *irginian,how a *irginian in *irginia coul" ha!e real opinion about the

go!ernment at Wahington, how Congremen in Wahington coul" ha!eopinion about China or e+ico# )or in that "ay it wa not poiblefor many men to ha!e an uneen en!ironment brought into the fiel" oftheir ju"gment# There ha" been ome a"!ance, to be ure, ince4ritotle# There were a few newpaper, an" there were book, betterroa" perhap, an" better hip# But there wa no great a"!ance, an"the political aumption of the Eighteenth Century ha" eentially tobe thoe that ha" pre!aile" in political cience for two thouan"year# The pioneer "emocrat "i" not poe the material forreol!ing the conflict between the known range of manN attention an"their illimitable faith in hi "ignity#

Their aumption ante"ate" not only the mo"ern newpaper, the

worl">wi"e pre er!ice, photography an" mo!ing picture, but, whati really more ignificant, they ante"ate" meaurement an" recor",uantitati!e an" comparati!e analyi, the canon of e!i"ence, an" theability of pychological analyi to correct an" "icount thepreju"ice of the witne# & "o not mean to ay that our recor" areatifactory, our analyi unbiae", our meaurement oun"# & "o meanto ay that the key in!ention ha!e been ma"e for bringing the uneenworl" into the fiel" of ju"gment# They ha" not been ma"e in the timeof 4ritotle, an" they were not yet important enough to be !iible forpolitical theory in the age of oueau, onteuieu, or ThomaAefferon# &n a later chapter & think we hall ee that e!en in thelatet theory of human recontruction, that of the Englih Guil".ocialit, all the "eeper premie ha!e been taken o!er from thiol"er ytem of political thought#

That ytem, whene!er it wa competent an" honet, ha" to aume thatno man coul" ha!e more than a !ery partial e+perience of publicaffair# &n the ene that he can gi!e only a little time to them,that aumption i till true, an" of the utmot coneuence# Butancient theory wa compelle" to aume, not only that men coul" gi!elittle attention to public uetion, but that the attention a!ailablewoul" ha!e to be confine" to matter cloe at han"# &t woul" ha!e been!iionary to uppoe that a time woul" come when "itant an"complicate" e!ent coul" concei!ably be reporte", analyHe", an"preente" in uch a form that a really !aluable choice coul" be ma"eby an amateur# That time i now in ight# There i no longer any "oubtthat the continuou reporting of an uneen en!ironment i feaible# &ti often "one ba"ly, but the fact that it i "one at all how that itcan be "one, an" the fact that we begin to know how ba"ly it i often"one, how that it can be "one better# With !arying "egree of killan" honety "itant comple+itie are reporte" e!ery "ay by engineeran" accountant for buine men, by ecretarie an" ci!il er!antfor official, by intelligence officer for the General .taff, by omejournalit for ome rea"er# Thee are cru"e beginning but ra"ical,far more ra"ical in the literal meaning of that wor" than therepetition of war, re!olution, ab"ication an" retoration ara"ical a the change in the cale of human life which ha ma"e itpoible for r# Lloy" George to "icu Welh coal mining afterbreakfat in Lon"on, an" the fate of the 4rab before "inner in Pari#

)or the poibility of bringing any apect of human affair within therange of ju"gment break the pell which ha lain upon politicali"ea# There ha!e, of coure, been plenty of men who "i" not realiHe



that the range of attention wa the main premie of political cience#They ha!e built on an"# They ha!e "emontrate" in their own peronthe effect of a !ery limite" an" elf>centere" knowle"ge of theworl"# But for the political thinker who ha!e counte", from Plato an"4ritotle through achia!elli an" -obbe to the "emocratic theorit,peculation ha re!ol!e" aroun" the elf>centere" man who ha" to ee

the whole worl" by mean of a few picture in hi hea"#

C-4PTE J*&&

T-E .EL)>COT4&E$ CO&T'

/

T-4T group of elf>centere" people woul" engage in a truggle fore+itence if they rubbe" againt each other ha alway been e!i"ent#

Thi much truth there i at any rate in that famou paage in theLe!iathan where -obbe ay that %though there ha" ne!er been any timewherein particular men were in a con"ition of war one againt another,yet at all time king an" FperonF of Fo!ereign authoritybecaueF of their Fin"epen"encyF, are in continual jealouiean" in the tate an" poture of gla"iator, ha!ing their weaponpointing, an" their eye fi+e" on one another###% 8)ootnote3FLe!iathanF, Ch# J&&&# Of the atural Con"ition of ankin" aconcerning their )elicity an" iery#<

5

To circum!ent thi concluion one great branch of human thought, whichha" an" ha many chool, procee"e" in thi fahion3 it concei!e" ani"eally jut pattern of human relation in which each peron ha" well"efine" function an" right# &f he concientiouly fille" the roleallotte" to him, it "i" not matter whether hi opinion were right orwrong# -e "i" hi "uty, the ne+t man "i" hi, an" all the "utifulpeople together ma"e a harmoniou worl"# E!ery cate ytemillutrate thi principle you fin" it in PlatoN epublic an" in4ritotle, in the feu"al i"eal, in the circle of $anteN Para"ie, inthe bureaucratic type of ocialim, an" in laieH>faire, to anamaHing "egree in yn"icalim, guil" ocialim, anarchim, an" in theytem of international law i"ealiHe" by r# obert Laning# 4ll ofthem aume a pre>etablihe" harmony, inpire", impoe", or innate,by which the elf>opinionate" peron, cla, or community iorchetrate" with the ret of mankin"# The more authoritarian imaginea con"uctor for the ymphony who ee to it that each man play hipart the anarchitic are incline" to think that a more "i!ine concor"woul" be hear" if each player impro!ie" a he went along#

But there ha!e alo been philoopher who were bore" by thee chemeof right an" "utie, took conflict for grante", an" trie" to ee howtheir i"e might come out on top# They ha!e alway eeme" morerealitic, e!en when they eeme" alarming, becaue all they ha" to "owa to generaliHe the e+perience that nobo"y coul" ecape# achia!ellii the claic of thi chool, a man mot mercilely maligne",becaue he happene" to be the firt naturalit who ue" plain languagein a fiel" hitherto preempte" by upernaturalit# 8)ootnote3 )# .#Oli!er in hi F4le+an"er -amiltonF, ay of achia!elli =p# /17@3

%4uming the con"ition which e+it>>the nature of man an" ofthing>>to be unchangeable, he procee" in a calm, unmoral way, like alecturer on frog, to how how a !aliant an" agaciou ruler can bet



turn e!ent to hi own a"!antage an" the ecurity of hi "ynaty#%< -eha a wore name an" more "iciple than any political thinker whoe!er li!e"# -e truly "ecribe" the technic of e+itence for theelf>containe" tate# That i why he ha the "iciple# -e ha the ba"name chiefly becaue he cocke" hi eye at the e"ici family, "reame"in hi tu"y at night where he wore hi %noble court "re% that

achia!elli wa himelf the Prince, an" turne" a pungent "ecriptionof the way thing are "one into an eulogy on that way of "oing them#

&n hi mot infamou chapter 8)ootnote3 FThe PrinceF, Ch# J*&&&#%Concerning the way in which Prince houl" keep faith#% Tranlationby W# D# arriott#< he wrote that %a prince ought to take care that hene!er let anything lip from hi lip that i not replete with theabo!e>name" fi!e ualitie, that he may appear to him who hear an"ee him altogether merciful, faithful, humane, upright, an"religiou# There i nothing more neceary to appear to ha!e than thilat uality, inamuch a men ju"ge generally more by the eye than bythe han", becaue it belong to e!erybo"y to ee you, to few to comein touch with you# E!eryone ee what you appear to be, few really

know what you are, an" thoe few "are not oppoe themel!e to theopinion of the many, who ha!e the majety of the tate to "efen" theman" in the action of all men, an" epecially of prince, which it inot pru"ent to challenge, one ju"ge by the reult#### One prince ofthe preent time, whom it i not well to name, ne!er preache anythingele but peace an" goo" faith, an" to both he i mot hotile, an"either, if he ha" kept it, woul" ha!e "epri!e" him of reputation an"king"om many a time#%

That i cynical# But it i the cynicim of a man who aw truly withoutknowing uite why he aw what he aw# achia!elli i thinking of therun of men an" prince %who ju"ge generally more by the eye than bythe han",% which i hi way of aying that their ju"gment areubjecti!e# -e wa too cloe to earth to preten" that the &talian ofhi "ay aw the worl" tea"ily an" aw it whole# -e woul" not in"ulgein fantaie, an" he ha" not the material for imagining a race of menthat ha" learne" how to correct their !iion#

The worl", a he foun" it, wa compoe" of people whoe !iion coul"rarely be correcte", an" achia!elli knew that uch people, ince theyee all public relation in a pri!ate way, are in!ol!e" in perpetualtrife# What they ee i their own peronal, cla, "ynatic, ormunicipal !erion of affair that in reality e+ten" far beyon" theboun"arie of their !iion# They ee their apect# They ee it aright# But they cro other people who are imilarly elf>centere"#Then their !ery e+itence i en"angere", or at leat what they, forunupecte" pri!ate reaon, regar" a their e+itence an" take to bea "anger# The en", which i impregnably bae" on a real though pri!atee+perience jutifie the mean# They will acrifice any one of theei"eal to a!e all of them,### %one ju"ge by the reult###%

M

Thee elemental truth confronte" the "emocratic philoopher#Conciouly or otherwie, they knew that the range of politicalknowle"ge wa limite", that the area of elf>go!ernment woul" ha!e tobe limite", an" that elf>containe" tate when they rubbe" againteach other were in the poture of gla"iator# But they knew jut acertainly, that there wa in men a will to "eci"e their own fate, an"to fin" a peace that wa not impoe" by force# -ow coul" they

reconcile the wih an" the factI

They looke" about them# &n the city tate of Greece an" &taly they



foun" a chronicle of corruption, intrigue an" war# 8)ootnote3%$emocracie ha!e e!er been pectacle of turbulence an" contention###an" ha!e in general been a hort in their li!e a they ha!e been!iolent in their "eath#% a"ion, F)e"eralitF, o# /6#< &ntheir own citie they aw faction, artificiality, fe!er# Thi wa noen!ironment in which the "emocratic i"eal coul" proper, no place

where a group of in"epen"ent an" eually competent people manage"their own affair pontaneouly# They looke" further, gui"e" omewhatperhap by Aean Aacue oueau, to remote, unpoile" country!illage# They aw enough to con!ince themel!e that there the i"ealwa at home# Aefferon in particular felt thi, an" Aefferon morethan any other man formulate" the 4merican image of "emocracy# )romthe townhip ha" come the power that ha" carrie" the 4mericane!olution to !ictory# )rom the townhip were to come the !ote thatcarrie" AefferonN party to power# Out there in the farmingcommunitie of aachuett an" *irginia, if you wore glae thatobliterate" the la!e, you coul" ee with your min"N eye the imageof what "emocracy wa to be#

%The 4merican e!olution broke out,% ay "e Tocue!ille, 8)ootnote3F$emocracy in 4merica,F *ol# &, p# ;/# Thir" E"ition< %an" the"octrine of the o!ereignty of the people, which ha" been nurture" inthe townhip, took poeion of the tate#% &t certainly tookpoeion of the min" of thoe men who formulate" an" populariHe"the tereotype of "emocracy# %The cherihment of the people wa ourprinciple,% wrote Aefferon# 8)ootnote3 Cite" in Charle Bear",FEconomic Origin of Aefferonian $emocracy#F Ch# J&*# < But thepeople he cherihe" almot e+clui!ely were the mall lan"owningfarmer3 %Thoe who labor in the earth are the choen people of Go",if e!er -e ha" a choen people, whoe breat -e ha ma"e hi peculiar"epoit for ubtantial an" genuine !irtue# &t i the focu in which-e keep ali!e that acre" fire, which otherwie might ecape from theface of the earth# Corruption of moral in the ma of culti!ator ia phenomenon of which no age nor nation ha furnihe" an e+ample#%

-owe!er much of the romantic return to nature may ha!e entere" intothi e+clamation, there wa alo an element of oli" ene# Aefferonwa right in thinking that a group of in"epen"ent farmer come nearerto fulfilling the reuirement of pontaneou "emocracy than any otherhuman ociety# But if you are to preer!e the i"eal, you mut fenceoff thee i"eal communitie from the abomination of the worl"# &f thefarmer are to manage their own affair, they mut confine affair tothoe they are accutome" to managing# Aefferon "rew all theelogical concluion# -e "iappro!e" of manufacture, of foreigncommerce, an" a na!y, of intangible form of property, an" in theoryof any form of go!ernment that wa not centere" in the mallelf>go!erning group# -e ha" critic in hi "ay3 one of them remarke"that %wrapt up in the fullne of elf>coneuence an" trong enough,in reality, to "efen" ourel!e againt e!ery in!a"er, we might enjoyan eternal ruticity an" li!e, fore!er, thu apathiHe" an" !ulgarun"er the helter of a elfih, atifie" in"ifference#% 8)ootnote3FOp# citF#, p# 75:#<

7

The "emocratic i"eal, a Aefferon moul"e" it, coniting of an i"ealen!ironment an" a electe" cla, "i" not conflict with the politicalcience of hi time# &t "i" conflict with the realitie# 4n" when thei"eal wa tate" in abolute term, partly through e+uberance an"

partly for campaign purpoe, it wa oon forgotten that the theorywa originally "e!ie" for !ery pecial con"ition# &t became thepolitical gopel, an" upplie" the tereotype through which 4merican



of all partie ha!e looke" at politic#

That gopel wa fi+e" by the neceity that in AefferonN time no onecoul" ha!e concei!e" public opinion that were not pontaneou an"ubjecti!e# The "emocratic tra"ition i therefore alway trying to eea worl" where people are e+clui!ely concerne" with affair of which

the caue an" effect all operate within the region they inhabit#e!er ha "emocratic theory been able to concei!e itelf in theconte+t of a wi"e an" unpre"ictable en!ironment# The mirror iconca!e# 4n" although "emocrat recogniHe that they are in contactwith e+ternal affair, they ee uite urely that e!ery contactouti"e that elf>containe" group i a threat to "emocracy aoriginally concei!e"# That i a wie fear# &f "emocracy i to bepontaneou, the interet of "emocracy mut remain imple,intelligible, an" eaily manage"# Con"ition mut appro+imate thoe ofthe iolate" rural townhip if the upply of information i to be leftto caual e+perience# The en!ironment mut be confine" within therange of e!ery manN "irect an" certain knowle"ge#

The "emocrat ha un"ertoo" what an analyi of public opinion eemto "emontrate3 that in "ealing with an uneen en!ironment "eciion%are manifetly ettle" at haphaHar", which clearly they ought not tobe#% 8)ootnote3 4ritotle, FPoliticF, Bk# *&&, Ch# &*#< .o heha alway trie" in one way or another to minimiHe the importance ofthat uneen en!ironment# -e feare" foreign tra"e becaue tra"ein!ol!e foreign connection he "itrute" manufacture becaue theypro"uce" big citie an" collecte" crow" if he ha" ne!erthele toha!e manufacture, he wante" protection in the interet ofelf>ufficiency# When he coul" not fin" thee con"ition in the realworl", he went paionately into the wil"erne, an" foun"e" topiancommunitie far from foreign contact# -i logan re!eal hipreju"ice# -e i for .elf>Go!ernment, .elf>$etermination,&n"epen"ence# ot one of thee i"ea carrie with it any notion ofconent or community beyon" the frontier of the elf>go!erninggroup# The fiel" of "emocratic action i a circumcribe" area# Withinprotecte" boun"arie the aim ha been to achie!e elf>ufficiency an"a!oi" entanglement# Thi rule i not confine" to foreign policy, butit i plainly e!i"ent there, becaue life outi"e the nationalboun"arie i more "itinctly alien than any life within# 4n" ahitory how, "emocracie in their foreign policy ha!e ha" generallyto chooe between plen"i" iolation an" a "iplomacy that !iolate"their i"eal# The mot ucceful "emocracie, in fact, .witHerlan",$enmark, 4utralia, ew Kealan", an" 4merica until recently, ha!e ha"no foreign policy in the European ene of that phrae# E!en a rulelike the onroe $octrine aroe from the "eire to upplement the twoocean by a glaci of tate that were ufficiently republican to ha!eno foreign policy#

Wherea "anger i a great, perhap an in"ipenable con"ition ofautocracy, 8)ootnote3 )iher 4me, frightene" by the "emocraticre!olution of /?66, wrote to ufu Ding in /?653 %We nee", a allnation "o, the compreion on the outi"e of our circle of aformi"able neighbor, whoe preence hall at all time e+cite trongerfear than "emagogue can inpire the people with towar" theirgo!ernment#% Cite" by )or", Fie an" Growth of 4mericanPolitic,F p# :0#< ecurity wa een to be a neceity if "emocracywa to work# There mut be a little "iturbance a poible of thepremie of a elf>containe" community# &necurity in!ol!e urprie#&t mean that there are people acting upon your life, o!er whom you

ha!e no control, with whom you cannot conult# &t mean that forceare at large which "iturb the familiar routine, an" preent no!elproblem about which uick an" unuual "eciion are reuire"# E!ery



"emocrat feel in hi bone that "angerou crie are incompatiblewith "emocracy, becaue he know that the inertia of mae i uchthat to act uickly a !ery few mut "eci"e an" the ret follow ratherblin"ly# Thi ha not ma"e non>reitant out of "emocrat, but it hareulte" in all "emocratic war being fought for pacifit aim# E!enwhen the war are in fact war of conuet, they are incerely

belie!e" to be war in "efene of ci!iliHation#

Thee !ariou attempt to encloe a part of the earthN urface werenot inpire" by cowar"ice, apathy, or, what one of AefferonN criticcalle" a willingne to li!e un"er monkih "icipline# The "emocratha" caught ight of a "aHHling poibility, that e!ery human beinghoul" rie to hi full tature, free" from man>ma"e limitation# Withwhat they knew of the art of go!ernment, they coul", no more than4ritotle before them, concei!e a ociety of autonomou in"i!i"ual,e+cept an encloe" an" imple one# They coul", then, elect no otherpremie if they were to reach the concluion that all the people coul"pontaneouly manage their public affair#

;

-a!ing a"opte" the premie becaue it wa neceary to their keenethope, they "rew other concluion a well# .ince in or"er to ha!epontaneou elf>go!ernment, you ha" to ha!e a imple elf>containe"community, they took it for grante" that one man wa a competent athe ne+t to manage thee imple an" elf>containe" affair# Where thewih i father to the thought uch logic i con!incing# oreo!er, the"octrine of the omnicompetent citiHen i for mot practical purpoetrue in the rural townhip# E!erybo"y in a !illage ooner or latertrie hi han" at e!erything the !illage "oe# There i rotation inoffice by men who are jack of all tra"e# There wa no erioutrouble with the "octrine of the omnicompetent citiHen until the"emocratic tereotype wa uni!erally applie", o that men looke" at acomplicate" ci!iliHation an" aw an encloe" !illage#

ot only wa the in"i!i"ual citiHen fitte" to "eal with all publicaffair, but he wa conitently public>pirite" an" en"owe" withunflagging interet# -e wa public>pirite" enough in the townhip,where he knew e!erybo"y an" wa interete" in e!erybo"yN buine#The i"ea of enough for the townhip turne" eaily into the i"ea ofenough for any purpoe, for a we ha!e note", uantitati!e thinking"oe not uit a tereotype# But there wa another turn to the circle#.ince e!erybo"y wa aume" to be interete" enough in importantaffair, only thoe affair came to eem important in which e!erybo"ywa interete"#

Thi meant that men forme" their picture of the worl" outi"e from theunchallenge" picture in their hea"# Thee picture came to them welltereotype" by their parent an" teacher, an" were little correcte"by their own e+perience# Only a few men ha" affair that took themacro tate line# E!en fewer ha" reaon to go abroa"# ot !oterli!e" their whole li!e in one en!ironment, an" with nothing but a fewfeeble newpaper, ome pamphlet, political peeche, their religioutraining, an" rumor to go on, they ha" to concei!e that largeren!ironment of commerce an" finance, of war an" peace# The number ofpublic opinion bae" on any objecti!e report wa !ery mall inproportion to thoe bae" on caual fancy#

4n" o for many "ifferent reaon, elf>ufficiency wa a piritual

i"eal in the formati!e perio"# The phyical iolation of the townhip,the loneline of the pioneer, the theory of "emocracy, the Protetanttra"ition, an" the limitation of political cience all con!erge" to



make men belie!e that out of their own concience they mut e+tricatepolitical wi"om# &t i not trange that the "e"uction of law fromabolute principle houl" ha!e uurpe" o much of their free energy#The 4merican political min" ha" to li!e on it capital# &n legalim itfoun" a tete" bo"y of rule from which new rule coul" be punwithout the labor of earning new truth from e+perience# The formulae

became o curiouly acre" that e!ery goo" foreign ober!er ha beenamaHe" at the contrat between the "ynamic practical energy of the4merican people an" the tatic theorim of their public life# Thattea"fat lo!e of fi+e" principle wa imply the only way known ofachie!ing elf>ufficiency# But it meant that the public opinion ofany one community about the outer worl" conite" chiefly of a fewtereotype" image arrange" in a pattern "e"uce" from their legal an"their moral co"e, an" animate" by the feeling aroue" by locale+perience#

Thu "emocratic theory, tarting from it fine !iion of ultimatehuman "ignity, wa force" by lack of the intrument of knowle"ge forreporting it en!ironment, to fall back upon the wi"om an" e+perience

which happene" to ha!e accumulate" in the !oter# Go" ha", in the wor"of Aefferon, ma"e menN breat %-i peculiar "epoit for ubtantialan" genuine !irtue#% Thee choen people in their elf>containe"en!ironment ha" all the fact before them# The en!ironment wa ofamiliar that one coul" take it for grante" that men were talkingabout ubtantially the ame thing# The only real "iagreement,therefore, woul" be in ju"gment about the ame fact# There wa nonee" to guarantee the ource of information# They were ob!iou, an"eually acceible to all men# or wa there nee" to trouble about theultimate criteria# &n the elf>containe" community one coul" aume,or at leat "i" aume, a homogeneou co"e of moral# The only place,therefore, for "ifference of opinion wa in the logical applicationof accepte" tan"ar" to accepte" fact# 4n" ince the reaoningfaculty wa alo well tan"ar"iHe", an error in reaoning woul" beuickly e+poe" in a free "icuion# &t followe" that truth coul" beobtaine" by liberty within thee limit# The community coul" take itupply of information for grante" it co"e it pae" on throughchool, church, an" family, an" the power to "raw "e"uction from apremie, rather than the ability to fin" the premie, wa regar"e" athe chief en" of intellectual training#

C-4PTE J*&&&

T-E OLE O) )OCE, P4TO4GE 4$ P&*&LEGE

/

%&T ha happene" a wa to ha!e been foreeen,% wrote -amilton,8)ootnote3 F)e"eralit,F o# /;< %the meaure of the nion ha!enot been e+ecute" the "elinuencie of the .tate ha!e, tep by tep,mature" themel!e to an e+treme which ha at length arrete" all thewheel of the national go!ernment an" brought them to an awfultan"#%### )or %in our cae the concurrence of thirteen "itincto!ereign will i reuiite, un"er the confe"eration, to the completee+ecution of e!ery important meaure that procee" from the nion#%-ow coul" it be otherwie, he ake"3 %The ruler of the repecti!emember### will un"ertake to ju"ge of the propriety of the meaure

themel!e# They will coni"er the conformity of the thing propoe" orreuire" to their imme"iate interet or aim the momentarycon!enience or incon!enience that woul" atten" it a"option# 4ll



thi will be "one, an" in a pirit of interete" an" upicioucrutiny, without that knowle"ge of national circumtance an" reaonof tate which i eential to right ju"gment, an" with that trongpre"ilection in fa!or of local object which can har"ly fail tomilea" the "eciion# The ame proce mut be repeate" in e!erymember of which the bo"y i contitute" an" the e+ecution of the

plan frame" by the council of the whole, will alway fluctuate onthe "icretion of the ill>informe" an" preju"ice" opinion of e!erypart# Thoe who ha!e been con!erant in the procee"ing of popularaemblie, who ha!e een how "ifficult it often i, when there i noe+terior preure of circumtance, to bring them to harmonioureolution on important point, will rea"ily concei!e how impoibleit mut be to in"uce a number of uch aemblie, "eliberating at a"itance from each other, at "ifferent time, an" un"er "ifferentimpreion, long to cooperate in the ame !iew an" puruit#%

O!er ten year of torm an" tre with a congre that wa, a Aohn4"am ai", 8)ootnote3 )or", Fop# cit#F, p# M:#< %only a "iplomaticaembly,% ha" furnihe" the lea"er of the re!olution %with an

intructi!e but afflicting leon% 8)ootnote3 F)e"eralitF, o# /;#<in what happen when a number of elf>centere" communitieare entangle" in the ame en!ironment# 4n" o, when they wentto Phila"elphia in ay of /1?1, otenibly to re!ie the 4rticle ofConfe"eration, they were really in full reaction againt thefun"amental premie of Eighteenth Century "emocracy# ot onlywere the lea"er conciouly oppoe" to the "emocratic pirit ofthe time, feeling, a a"ion ai", that %"emocracie ha!e e!erbeen pectacle of turbulence an" contention,% but within thenational frontier they were "etermine" to offet a far a they coul"the i"eal of elf>go!erning communitie in elf>containe" en!ironment#The colliion an" failure of conca!e "emocracy, where menpontaneouly manage" all their own affair, were before their eye#The problem a they aw it, wa to retore go!ernment a againt"emocracy# They un"ertoo" go!ernment to be the power to makenational "eciion an" enforce them throughout the nation"emocracy they belie!e" wa the initence of localitie an" claeupon elf>"etermination in accor"ance with their imme"iate interetan" aim#

They coul" not coni"er in their calculation the poibility of uchan organiHation of knowle"ge that eparate communitie woul" actimultaneouly on the ame !erion of the fact# We jut begin toconcei!e thi poibility for certain part of the worl" where therei free circulation of new an" a common language, an" then only forcertain apect of life# The whole i"ea of a !oluntary fe"eralim inin"utry an" worl" politic i till o ru"imentary, that, a we eein our own e+perience, it enter only a little, an" only !erymo"etly, into practical politic# What we, more than a century later,can only concei!e a an incenti!e to generation of intellectualeffort, the author of the Contitution ha" no reaon to concei!e atall# &n or"er to et up national go!ernment, -amilton an" hicolleague ha" to make plan, not on the theory that men woul"cooperate becaue they ha" a ene of common interet, but on thetheory that men coul" be go!erne", if pecial interet were kept ineuilibrium by a balance of power# %4mbition,% a"ion ai",8)ootnote3 F)e"eralitF, o# ;/, cite" by )or", Fop# cit#F,p# :6#< %mut be ma"e to counteract ambition#%

They "i" not, a ome writer ha!e uppoe", inten" to balance e!ery

interet o that the go!ernment woul" be in a perpetual "ea"lock# Theyinten"e" to "ea"lock local an" cla interet to pre!ent thee fromobtructing go!ernment# %&n framing a go!ernment which i to be



a"minitere" by men o!er men,% wrote a"ion, 8)ootnote3 F&"F#<%the great "ifficulty lie in thi3 Fyou mut firt enable thego!ernment to control the go!erne"F, an" in the ne+t place, obligeit to control itelf#% &n one !ery important ene, then, the "octrineof check an" balance wa the reme"y of the fe"eralit lea"er forthe problem of public opinion# They aw no other way to ubtitute

%the mil" influence of the magitracy% for the %anguinary agency ofthe wor"% 8)ootnote3 F)e"eralit, o# /;#< e+cept by "e!iing aningeniou machine to neutraliHe local opinion# They "i" not un"ertan"how to manipulate a large electorate, any more than they aw thepoibility of common conent upon the bai of common information# &ti true that 4aron Burr taught -amilton a leon which impree" him agoo" "eal when he eiHe" control of ew 'ork City in /?66 by the ai"of Tammany -all# But -amilton wa kille" before he wa able to takeaccount of thi new "ico!ery, an", a r# )or" ay, 8)ootnote3 )or",Fop# cit#F, p# //0#< BurrN pitol blew the brain out of the)e"eral party#

5

When the contitution wa written, %politic coul" till be manage" byconference an" agreement among gentlemen% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F,p# /77< an" it wa to the gentry that -amilton turne" for ago!ernment# &t wa inten"e" that they houl" manage national affairwhen local preju"ice ha" been brought into euilibrium by thecontitutional check an" balance# o "oubt -amilton, who belonge" tothi cla by a"option, ha" a human preju"ice in their fa!or# But thatby itelf i a thin e+planation of hi tatecraft# Certainly there canbe no uetion of hi conuming paion for union, an" it i, & think,an in!erion of the truth to argue that he ma"e the nion to protectcla pri!ilege, intea" of aying that he ue" cla pri!ilege tomake the nion# %We mut take man a we fin" him,% -amilton ai", %an"if we e+pect him to er!e the public we mut interet hi paion in"oing o#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# 71< -e nee"e" men to go!ern,whoe paion coul" be mot uickly attache" to a national interet#Thee were the gentry, the public cre"itor, manufacturer, hipper,an" tra"er, 8)ootnote3 Bear", FEconomic &nterpretation of theContitution, paim#F< an" there i probably no better intance inhitory of the a"aptation of hrew" mean to clear en", than in theerie of fical meaure, by which -amilton attache" the pro!incialnotable to the new go!ernment#

4lthough the contitutional con!ention worke" behin" cloe" "oor, an"although ratification wa engineere" by %a !ote of probably not morethan one>i+th of the a"ult male,% 8)ootnote3 Bear", Fop# cit#F,p# M5;#< there wa little or no pretence# The )e"eralit argue" forunion, not for "emocracy, an" e!en the wor" republic ha" an unpleaantoun" to George Wahington when he ha" been for more than two year arepublican prei"ent# The contitution wa a can"i" attempt to limitthe phere of popular rule the only "emocratic organ it wa inten"e"the go!ernment houl" poe wa the -oue, bae" on a uffragehighly limite" by property ualification# 4n" e!en at that, the-oue, it wa belie!e", woul" be o licentiou a part of thego!ernment, that it wa carefully checke" an" balance" by the .enate,the electoral college, the Prei"ential !eto, an" by ju"icialinterpretation#

Thu at the moment when the )rench e!olution wa kin"ling popularfeeling the worl" o!er, the 4merican re!olutionit of /11: came un"er

a contitution which went back, a far a it wa e+pe"ient, to theBritih onarchy for a mo"el# Thi coner!ati!e reaction coul" noten"ure# The men who ha" ma"e it were a minority, their moti!e were



un"er upicion, an" when Wahington went into retirement, thepoition of the gentry wa not trong enough to ur!i!e the ine!itabletruggle for the ucceion# The anomaly between the original plan ofthe )ather an" the moral feeling of the age wa too wi"e not to becapitaliHe" by a goo" politician#

M

Aefferon referre" to hi election a %the great re!olution of /?66,%but more than anything ele it wa a re!olution in the min"# o greatpolicy wa altere", but a new tra"ition wa etablihe"# )or it waAefferon who firt taught the 4merican people to regar" theContitution a an intrument of "emocracy, an" he tereotype" theimage, the i"ea, an" e!en many of the phrae, in which 4mericane!er ince ha!e "ecribe" politic to each other# .o complete wa themental !ictory, that twenty>fi!e year later "e Tocue!ille, who warecei!e" in )e"eralit home, note" that e!en thoe who were %galle"by it continuance%>>were not uncommonly hear" to %lau" the "elightof a republican go!ernment, an" the a"!antage of "emocratic

intitution when they are in public#% 8)ootnote3 F$emocracy in4mericaF, *ol# &, Ch# J =Thir" E"ition, /?M?@, p# 5/:#<

The Contitutional )ather with all their agacity ha" faile" to eethat a frankly un"emocratic contitution woul" not long be tolerate"#The bol" "enial of popular rule wa boun" to offer an eay point ofattack to a man, like Aefferon, who o far a hi contitutionalopinion ran, wa not a bit more rea"y than -amilton to turn o!ergo!ernment to the %unrefine"% will of the people# 8)ootnote3FCf#F hi plan for the Contitution of *irginia, hi i"ea for aenate of property hol"er, an" hi !iew on the ju"icial !eto# Bear",FEconomic Origin of Aefferonian $emocracyF, pp# 7;6 Fete#F< The )e"eralit lea"er ha" been men of "efinite con!ictionwho tate" them bluntly# There wa little real "icrepancy betweentheir public an" their pri!ate !iew# But AefferonN min" wa a maof ambiguitie, not olely becaue of it "efect, a -amilton an" hibiographer ha!e thought, but becaue he belie!e" in a union an" hebelie!e" in pontaneou "emocracie, an" in the political cience ofhi age there wa no atifactory way to reconcile the two# Aefferonwa confue" in thought an" action becaue he ha" a !iion of a newan" tremen"ou i"ea that no one ha" thought out in all it bearing#But though popular o!ereignty wa not clearly un"ertoo" by anybo"y,it eeme" to imply o great an enhancement of human life, that nocontitution coul" tan" which frankly "enie" it# The frank "enialwere therefore e+punge" from concioune, an" the "ocument, which ion it face an honet e+ample of limite" contitutional "emocracy, watalke" an" thought about a an intrument for "irect popular rule#Aefferon actually reache" the point of belie!ing that the )e"eralitha" per!erte" the Contitution, of which in hi fancy they were nolonger the author# 4n" o the Contitution wa, in pirit, rewritten#Partly by actual amen"ment, partly by practice, a in the cae of theelectoral college, but chiefly by looking at it through another et oftereotype, the faca"e wa no longer permitte" to look oligarchic#

The 4merican people came to belie!e that their Contitution wa a"emocratic intrument, an" treate" it a uch# They owe that fictionto the !ictory of Thoma Aefferon, an" a great coner!ati!e fictionit ha been# &t i a fair gue that if e!eryone ha" alway regar"e"the Contitution a "i" the author of it, the Contitution woul" ha!ebeen !iolently o!erthrown, becaue loyalty to the Contitution an"

loyalty to "emocracy woul" ha!e eeme" incompatible# Aefferonreol!e" that para"o+ by teaching the 4merican people to rea" theContitution a an e+preion of "emocracy# -e himelf toppe" there#



But in the coure of twenty>fi!e year or o ocial con"ition ha"change" o ra"ically, that 4n"rew Aackon carrie" out the politicalre!olution for which Aefferon ha" prepare" the tra"ition# 8)ootnote3The rea"er who ha any "oubt a to the e+tent of the re!olution thateparate" -amiltonN opinion from AackonN practice houl" turn tor# -enry Aone )or"N Fie an" Growth of 4merican PoliticF#<

7

The political center of that re!olution wa the uetion of patronage#By the men who foun"e" the go!ernment public office wa regar"e" a apecie of property, not lightly to be "iturbe", an" it waun"oubte"ly their hope that the office woul" remain in the han" oftheir ocial cla# But the "emocratic theory ha" a one of it mainprinciple the "octrine of the omnicompetent citiHen# Therefore, whenpeople began to look at the Contitution a a "emocratic intrument,it wa certain that permanence in office woul" eem un"emocratic# Thenatural ambition of men coinci"e" here with the great moral impuleof their age# Aefferon ha" populariHe" the i"ea without carrying it

ruthlely into practice, an" remo!al on party groun" werecomparati!ely few un"er the *irginian Prei"ent# &t wa Aackon whofoun"e" the practice of turning public office into patronage#

Curiou a it oun" to u, the principle of rotation in office withhort term wa regar"e" a a great reform# ot only "i" itacknowle"ge the new "ignity of the a!erage man by treating him a fitfor any office, not only "i" it "etroy the monopoly of a mall ocialcla an" appear to open career to talent, but %it ha" been a"!ocate"for centurie a a o!ereign reme"y for political corruption,% an" athe one way to pre!ent the creation of a bureaucracy# 8)ootnote3 )or",Fop# cit#F, p# /:0#< The practice of rapi" change in publicoffice wa the application to a great territory of the image of"emocracy "eri!e" from the elf>containe" !illage#

aturally it "i" not ha!e the ame reult in the nation that it ha"in the i"eal community on which the "emocratic theory wa bae"# &tpro"uce" uite une+pecte" reult, for it foun"e" a new go!erningcla to take the place of the ubmerge" fe"eralit# nintentionally,patronage "i" for a large electorate what -amiltonN fical meaureha" "one for the upper clae# We often fail to realiHe how much ofthe tability of our go!ernment we owe to patronage# )or it wapatronage that weane" natural lea"er from too much attachment to theelf>centere" community, it wa patronage that weakene" the localpirit an" brought together in ome kin" of peaceful cooperation, the!ery men who, a pro!incial celebritie, woul", in the abence of aene of common interet, ha!e torn the union apart#

But of coure, the "emocratic theory wa not uppoe" to pro"uce a newgo!erning cla, an" it ha ne!er accommo"ate" itelf to the fact#When the "emocrat wante" to abolih monopoly of office, to ha!erotation an" hort term, he wa thinking of the townhip where anyonecoul" "o a public er!ice, an" return humbly to hi own farm# The i"eaof a pecial cla of politician wa jut what the "emocrat "i" notlike# But he coul" not ha!e what he "i" like, becaue hi theory wa"eri!e" from an i"eal en!ironment, an" he wa li!ing in a real one#The more "eeply he felt the moral impule of "emocracy, the le rea"yhe wa to ee the profoun" truth of -amiltonN tatement thatcommunitie "eliberating at a "itance an" un"er "ifferent impreioncoul" not long coZperate in the ame !iew an" puruit# )or that

truth potpone anything like the full realiHation of "emocracy inpublic affair until the art of obtaining common conent ha beenra"ically impro!e"# 4n" o while the re!olution un"er Aefferon an"



Aackon pro"uce" the patronage which ma"e the two party ytem, whichcreate" a ubtitute for the rule of the gentry, an" a "icipline forgo!erning the "ea"lock of the check an" balance, all that happene",a it were, in!iibly#

Thu, rotation in office might be the otenible theory, in practice

the office ocillate" between the henchmen# Tenure might not be apermanent monopoly, but the profeional politician wa permanent#Go!ernment might be, a Prei"ent -ar"ing once ai", a imple thing,but winning election wa a ophiticate" performance# The alarie inoffice might be a otentatiouly frugal a AefferonN home>pun, butthe e+pene of party organiHation an" the fruit of !ictory were inthe gran" manner# The tereotype of "emocracy controlle" the !iiblego!ernment the correction, the e+ception an" a"aptation of the4merican people to the real fact of their en!ironment ha!e ha" to bein!iible, e!en when e!erybo"y knew all about them# &t wa only thewor" of the law, the peeche of politician, the platform, an" theformal machinery of a"minitration that ha!e ha" to conform to thepritine image of "emocracy#

;

&f one ha" ake" a philoophical "emocrat how thee elf>containe"communitie were to cooperate, when their public opinion were oelf>centere", he woul" ha!e pointe" to repreentati!e go!ernmentembo"ie" in the Congre# 4n" nothing woul" urprie him more than the"ico!ery of how tea"ily the pretige of repreentati!e go!ernmentha "ecline", while the power of the Prei"ency ha grown#

.ome critic ha!e trace" thi to the cutom of en"ing only localcelebritie to Wahington# They ha!e thought that if Congre coul"conit of the nationally eminent men, the life of the capital woul"be more brilliant# &t woul" be, of coure, an" it woul" be a !ery goo"thing if retiring Prei"ent an" Cabinet officer followe" the e+ampleof Aohn uincy 4"am# But the abence of thee men "oe not e+plainthe plight of Congre, for it "ecline began when it wa relati!elythe mot eminent branch of the go!ernment# &n"ee" it i more probablethat the re!ere i true, an" that Congre ceae" to attract theeminent a it lot "irect influence on the haping of national policy#

The main reaon for the "icre"it, which i worl" wi"e, i, & think,to be foun" in the fact that a congre of repreentati!e ieentially a group of blin" men in a !at, unknown worl"# With omee+ception, the only metho" recogniHe" in the Contitution or in thetheory of repreentati!e go!ernment, by which Congre can informitelf, i to e+change opinion from the "itrict# There i noytematic, a"euate, an" authoriHe" way for Congre to know what igoing on in the worl"# The theory i that the bet man of each"itrict bring the bet wi"om of hi contituent to a centralplace, an" that all thee wi"om combine" are all the wi"om thatCongre nee"# ow there i no nee" to uetion the !alue ofe+preing local opinion an" e+changing them# Congre ha great!alue a the market>place of a continental nation# &n the coatroom,the hotel lobbie, the boar"ing houe of Capitol -ill, at thetea>partie of the Congreional matron, an" from occaional entrieinto the "rawing room of comopolitan Wahington, new !ita areopene", an" wi"er horiHon# But e!en if the theory were applie", an"the "itrict alway ent their wiet men, the um or a combinationof local impreion i not a wi"e enough bae for national policy,

an" no bae at all for the control of foreign policy# .ince the realeffect of mot law are ubtle an" hi""en, they cannot be un"ertoo"by filtering local e+perience through local tate of min"# They can



be known only by controlle" reporting an" objecti!e analyi# 4n" juta the hea" of a large factory cannot know how efficient it i bytalking to the foreman, but mut e+amine cot heet an" "ata thatonly an accountant can "ig out for him, o the lawmaker "oe notarri!e at a true picture of the tate of the union by putting togethera moaic of local picture# -e nee" to know the local picture, but

unle he poee intrument for calibrating them, one picture ia goo" a the ne+t, an" a great "eal better#

The Prei"ent "oe come to the aitance of Congre by "eli!eringmeage on the tate of the nion# -e i in a poition to "o thatbecaue he prei"e o!er a !at collection of bureau an" theiragent, which report a well a act# But he tell Congre what hechooe to tell it# -e cannot be heckle", an" the cenorhip a towhat i compatible with the public interet i in hi han"# &t i awholly one>i"e" an" tricky relationhip, which ometime reache uchheight of abur"ity, that Congre, in or"er to ecure an important"ocument ha to thank the enterprie of a Chicago newpaper, or thecalculate" in"icretion of a ubor"inate official# .o ba" i the

contact of legilator with neceary fact that they are force" torely either on pri!ate tip or on that legaliHe" atrocity, theCongreional in!etigation, where Congremen, tar!e" of theirlegitimate foo" for thought, go on a wil" an" fe!erih man>hunt, an""o not top at cannibalim#

E+cept for the little that thee in!etigation yiel", the occaionalcommunication from the e+ecuti!e "epartment, interete" an""iinterete" "ata collecte" by pri!ate peron, uch newpaper,perio"ical, an" book a Congremen rea", an" a new an" e+cellentpractice of calling for help from e+pert bo"ie like the &ntertateCommerce Commiion, the )e"eral Tra"e Commiion, an" the TariffCommiion, the creation of Congreional opinion i incetuou# )romthi it follow either that legilation of a national character iprepare" by a few informe" ini"er, an" put through by partianforce or that the legilation i broken up into a collection of localitem, each of which i enacte" for a local reaon# Tariff che"ule,na!y yar", army pot, ri!er an" harbor, pot office an" fe"eralbuil"ing, penion an" patronage3 thee are fe" out to conca!ecommunitie a tangible e!i"ence of the benefit of national life#Being conca!e, they can ee the white marble buil"ing which rie outof fe"eral fun" to raie local realty !alue an" employ localcontractor more rea"ily than they can ju"ge the cumulati!e cot ofthe pork barrel# &t i fair to ay that in a large aembly of men,each of whom ha practical knowle"ge only of hi own "itrict, law"ealing with tranlocal affair are rejecte" or accepte" by the maof Congremen without creati!e participation of any kin"# Theyparticipate only in making thoe law that can be treate" a a bun"leof local iue# )or a legilature without effecti!e mean ofinformation an" analyi mut ocillate between blin" regularity,tempere" by occaional inurgency, an" logrolling# 4n" it i thelogrolling which make the regularity palatable, becaue it i bylogrolling that a Congreman pro!e to hi more acti!e contituentthat he i watching their interet a they concei!e them#

Thi i no fault of the in"i!i"ual CongremanN, e+cept when he icomplacent about it# The cle!eret an" mot in"utriou repreentati!ecannot hope to un"ertan" a fraction of the bill on which he !ote#The bet he can "o i to pecialiHe on a few bill, an" takeomebo"yN wor" about the ret# & ha!e known Congremen, when they

were boning up on a ubject, to tu"y a they ha" not tu"ie" incethey pae" their final e+amination, many large cup of black coffee,wet towel an" all# They ha" to "ig for information, weat o!er



arranging an" !erifying fact, which, in any conciouly organiHe"go!ernment, houl" ha!e been eaily a!ailable in a form uitable for"eciion# 4n" e!en when they really knew a ubject, their an+ietieha" only begun# )or back home the e"itor, the boar" of tra"e, thecentral fe"erate" union, an" the womenN club ha" pare" themel!ethee labor, an" were prepare" to !iew the CongremanN performance

through local pectacle#

:

What patronage "i" to attach political chieftain to the nationalgo!ernment, the infinite !ariety of local ubi"ie an" pri!ilege "ofor elf>centere" communitie# Patronage an" pork amalgamate an"tabiliHe thouan" of pecial opinion, local "icontent, pri!ateambition# There are but two other alternati!e# One i go!ernment byterror an" obe"ience, the other i go!ernment bae" on uch a highly"e!elope" ytem of information, analyi, an" elf>concioune that%the knowle"ge of national circumtance an" reaon of tate% ie!i"ent to all men# The autocratic ytem i in "ecay, the !oluntary

ytem i in it !ery earliet "e!elopment an" o, in calculating thepropect of aociation among large group of people, a League ofation, in"utrial go!ernment, or a fe"eral union of tate, the"egree to which the material for a common concioune e+it,"etermine how far cooperation will "epen" upon force, or upon themil"er alternati!e to force, which i patronage an" pri!ilege# Theecret of great tate>buil"er, like 4le+an"er -amilton, i that theyknow how to calculate thee principle#

C-4PTE J&J

T-E OL$ &4GE & 4 EW )O3 G&L$ .OC&4L&.#

Whene!er the uarrel of elf>centere" group become unbearable,reformer in the pat foun" themel!e force" to chooe between twogreat alternati!e# They coul" take the path to ome an" impoe aoman peace upon the warring tribe# They coul" take the path toiolation, to autonomy an" elf>ufficiency# 4lmot alway they choethat path which they ha" leat recently tra!elle"# &f they ha" trie"out the "ea"ening monotony of empire, they cherihe" abo!e all otherthing the imple free"om of their own community# But if they ha" eenthi imple free"om uan"ere" in parochial jealouie they longe" forthe paciou or"er of a great an" powerful tate#

Whiche!er choice they ma"e, the eential "ifficulty wa the ame# &f"eciion were "ecentraliHe" they oon floun"ere" in a chao of localopinion# &f they were centraliHe", the policy of the tate wa bae"on the opinion of a mall ocial et at the capital# &n any caeforce wa neceary to "efen" one local right againt another, or toimpoe law an" or"er on the localitie, or to reit cla go!ernmentat the center, or to "efen" the whole ociety, centraliHe" or"ecentraliHe", againt the outer barbarian#

o"ern "emocracy an" the in"utrial ytem were both born in a time ofreaction againt king, crown go!ernment, an" a regime of "etaile"economic regulation# &n the in"utrial phere thi reaction took theform of e+treme "e!olution, known a laieH>faire in"i!i"ualim# Each

economic "eciion wa to be ma"e by the man who ha" title to theproperty in!ol!e"# .ince almot e!erything wa owne" by omebo"y,there woul" be omebo"y to manage e!erything# Thi wa plural



o!ereignty with a !engeance#

&t wa economic go!ernment by anybo"yN economic philoophy, though itwa uppoe" to be controlle" by immutable law of political economythat mut in the en" pro"uce harmony# &t pro"uce" many plen"i"thing, but enough or"i" an" terrible one to tart counter>current#

One of thee wa the trut, which etablihe" a kin" of oman peacewithin in"utry, an" a oman pre"atory imperialim outi"e# Peopleturne" to the legilature for relief# They in!oke" repreentati!ego!ernment, foun"e" on the image of the townhip farmer, to regulatethe emi>o!ereign corporation# The working cla turne" to labororganiHation# There followe" a perio" of increaing centraliHation an"a ort of race of armament# The trut interlocke", the craft unionfe"erate" an" combine" into a labor mo!ement, the political ytemgrew tronger at Wahington an" weaker in the tate, a the reformertrie" to match it trength againt big buine#

&n thi perio" practically all the chool of ocialit thought fromthe ar+ian left to the ew ationalit aroun" Theo"ore ooe!elt,

looke" upon centraliHation a the firt tage of an e!olution whichwoul" en" in the aborption of all the emi>o!ereign power ofbuine by the political tate# The e!olution ne!er took place,e+cept for a few month "uring the war# That wa enough, an" there waa turn of the wheel againt the omni!orou tate in fa!or of e!eralnew form of pluralim# But thi time ociety wa to wing back not tothe atomic in"i!i"ualim of 4"am .mithN economic man an" ThomaAefferonN farmer, but to a ort of molecular in"i!i"ualim of!oluntary group#

One of the intereting thing about all thee ocillation of theoryi that each in turn promie a worl" in which no one will ha!e tofollow achia!elli in or"er to ur!i!e# They are all etablihe" byome form of coercion, they all e+ercie coercion in or"er to maintainthemel!e, an" they are all "icar"e" a a reult of coercion# 'etthey "o not accept coercion, either phyical power or pecialpoition, patronage, or pri!ilege, a part of their i"eal# Thein"i!i"ualit ai" that elf>enlightene" elf>interet woul" bringinternal an" e+ternal peace# The ocialit i ure that the moti!e toaggreion will "iappear# The new pluralit hope theywill# 8)ootnote3 .ee G# $# -# Cole, F.ocial Theory,F p# /75#<Coercion i the ur" in almot all ocial theory, e+cept theachia!ellian# The temptation to ignore it, becaue it i abur",ine+preible, an" unmanageable, become o!erwhelming in any man whoi trying to rationaliHe human life#

5

The length to which a cle!er man will ometime go in or"er to ecapea full recognition of the role of force i hown by r# G# $# -#ColeN book on Guil" .ocialim# The preent tate, he ay, %iprimarily an intrument of coercion% 8)ootnote3 Cole, FGuil".ocialimF, p# /61#< in a guil" ocialit ociety there will be noo!ereign power, though there will be a coor"inating bo"y# -e callthi bo"y the Commune#

-e then begin to enumerate the power of the Commune, which, werecall, i to be primarily not an intrument of coercion# 8)ootnote3FOp# cit#F Ch# *&&&#< &t ettle price "ipute# .ometime itfi+e price, allocate the urplu or "itribute the lo# &t

allocate natural reource, an" control the iue of cre"it# &t alo%allocate communal labor>power#% &t ratifie the bu"get of theguil" an" the ci!il er!ice# &t le!ie ta+e# %4ll uetion of



income% fall within it juri"iction# &t %allocate% income to thenon>pro"ucti!e member of the community# &t i the final arbiter inall uetion of policy an" juri"iction between the guil"# &t paecontitutional law fi+ing the function of the functional bo"ie# &tappoint the ju"ge# &t confer coerci!e power upon the guil", an"ratifie their by>law where!er thee in!ol!e coercion# &t "eclare

war an" make peace# &t control the arme" force# &t i the upremerepreentati!e of the nation abroa"# &t ettle boun"ary uetionwithin the national tate# &t call into e+itence new functionalbo"ie, or "itribute new function to ol" one# &t run the police#&t make whate!er law are neceary to regulate peronal con"uct an"peronal property#

Thee power are e+ercie" not by one commune, but by a fe"eraltructure of local an" pro!incial commune with a ational commune atthe top# r# Cole i, of coure, welcome to init that thi i not ao!ereign tate, but if there i a coerci!e power now enjoye" by anymo"ern go!ernment for which he ha forgotten to make room, & cannotthink of it#

-e tell u, howe!er, that Guil" ociety will be non>coerci!e3 %wewant to buil" a new ociety which will be concei!e" in the pirit, notof coercion, but of free er!ice#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p#/7/#< E!eryone who hare that hope, a mot men an" women "o, willtherefore look cloely to ee what there i in the Guil" .ocialitplan which promie to re"uce coercion to it lowet limit, e!enthough the Guil"men of to>"ay ha!e alrea"y reer!e" for theircommune the wi"et kin" of coerci!e power# &t i acknowle"ge" at oncethat the new ociety cannot be brought into e+itence by uni!eralconent# r# Cole i too honet to hirk the element of force reuire"to make the tranition# 8)ootnote3 FCf# op# cit#F, Ch# J# < 4n"while ob!iouly he cannot pre"ict how much ci!il war there might be,he i uite clear that there woul" ha!e to be a perio" of "irectaction by the tra"e union#

M

But lea!ing ai"e the problem of tranition, an" any coni"eration ofwhat the effect i on their future action, when men ha!e hacke" theirway through to the promie" lan", let u imagine the Guil" .ociety inbeing# What keep it running a a non>coerci!e ocietyI

r# Cole ha two anwer to thi uetion# One i the ortho"o+ ar+iananwer that the abolition of capitalit property will remo!e themoti!e to aggreion# 'et he "oe not really belie!e that, becaue ifhe "i", he woul" care a little a "oe the a!erage ar+ian how theworking cla i to run the go!ernment, once it i in control# &f hi"iagnoi were correct, the ar+ian woul" be uite right3 if the"ieae were the capitalit cla an" only the capitalit cla,al!ation woul" automatically follow it e+tinction# But r# Cole ienormouly concerne" about whether the ociety which follow there!olution i to be run by tate collecti!im, by guil" orcooperati!e ocietie, by a "emocratic parliament or by functionalrepreentation# &n fact, it i a a new theory of repreentati!ego!ernment that guil" ocialim challenge attention#

The guil"men "o not e+pect a miracle to reult from the "iappearanceof capitalit property right# They "o e+pect, an" of coure uiterightly, that if euality of income were the rule, ocial relation

woul" be profoun"ly altere"# But they "iffer, a far a & can makeout, from the ortho"o+ uian communit in thi repect3 Thecommunit propoe to etablih euality by force of the "ictatorhip



of the proletariat, belie!ing that if once people were eualiHe" bothin income an" in er!ice, they woul" then loe the incenti!e toaggreion# The guil"men alo propoe to etablih euality by force,but are hrew" enough to ee that if an euilibrium i to bemaintaine" they ha!e to pro!i"e intitution for maintaining it#Guil"men, therefore, put their faith in what they belie!e to be a new

theory of "emocracy#

Their object, ay r# Cole, i %to get the mechanim right, an" toa"jut it a far a poible to the e+preion of menN ocial will#%8eference3 FOp# cit#F, p# /:#< Thee will nee" to be gi!enopportunity for elf>e+preion in elf>go!ernment %in any an" e!eryform of ocial action#% Behin" thee wor" i the true "emocraticimpule, the "eire to enhance human "ignity, a well a thetra"itional aumption that thi human "ignity i impugne", unleeach peronN will enter into the management of e!erything thataffect him# The guil"man, like the earlier "emocrat therefore, lookabout him for an en!ironment in which thi i"eal of elf>go!ernmentcan be realiHe"# 4 hun"re" year an" more ha!e pae" ince oueau

an" Aefferon, an" the center of interet ha hifte" from the countryto the city# The new "emocrat can no longer turn to the i"ealiHe"rural townhip for the image of "emocracy# -e turn now to theworkhop# %The pirit of aociation mut be gi!en free play in thephere in which it i bet able to fin" e+preion# Thi i manifetlythe factory, in which men ha!e the habit an" tra"ition of workingtogether# The factory i the natural an" fun"amental unit ofin"utrial "emocracy# Thi in!ol!e, not only that the factory mut befree, a far a poible, to manage it own affair, but alo that the"emocratic unit of the factory mut be ma"e the bai of the larger"emocracy of the Guil", an" that the larger organ of Guil"a"minitration an" go!ernment mut be bae" largely on the principleof factory repreentation#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# 76#<

)actory i, of coure, a !ery looe wor", an" r# Cole ak u to takeit a meaning mine, hipyar", "ock, tation, an" e!ery place whichi %a natural center of pro"uction#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p#7/< But a factory in thi ene i uite a "ifferent thing from anin"utry# The factory, a r# Cole concei!e it, i a work place wheremen are really in peronal contact, an en!ironment mall enough to beknown "irectly to all the worker# %Thi "emocracy if it i to bereal, mut come home to, an" be e+erciable "irectly by, e!eryin"i!i"ual member of the Guil"#% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# 76#<Thi i important, becaue r# Cole, like Aefferon, i eeking anatural unit of go!ernment# The only natural unit i a perfectlyfamiliar en!ironment# ow a large plant, a railway ytem, a greatcoal fiel", i not a natural unit in thi ene# nle it i a !erymall factory in"ee", what r# Cole i really thinking about i thehop# That i where men can be uppoe" to ha!e %the habit an"tra"ition of working together#% The ret of the plant, the ret of thein"utry, i an inferre" en!ironment#

7

4nybo"y can ee, an" almot e!erybo"y will a"mit, that elf>go!ernmentin the purely internal affair of the hop i go!ernment of affairthat %can be taken in at a ingle !iew#% 8)ootnote3 4ritotle,FPoliticF, Bk# *&&, Ch# &*#< But "ipute woul" arie a to whatcontitute the internal affair of a hop# Ob!iouly the biggetinteret, like wage, tan"ar" of pro"uction, the purchae of

upplie, the marketing of the pro"uct, the larger planning of work,are by no mean purely internal# The hop "emocracy ha free"om,ubject to enormou limiting con"ition from the outi"e# &t can "eal



to a certain e+tent with the arrangement of work lai" out for thehop, it can "eal with the temper an" temperament of in"i!i"ual, itcan a"miniter petty in"utrial jutice, an" act a a court of firtintance in omewhat larger in"i!i"ual "ipute# 4bo!e all it can acta a unit in "ealing with other hop, an" perhap with the plant a awhole# But iolation i impoible# The unit of in"utrial "emocracy

i thoroughly entangle" in foreign affair# 4n" it i the managementof thee e+ternal relation that contitute the tet of the guil"ocialit theory#

They ha!e to be manage" by repreentati!e go!ernment arrange" in afe"eral or"er from the hop to the plant, the plant to the in"utry,the in"utry to the nation, with inter!ening regional grouping ofrepreentati!e# But all thi tructure "eri!e from the hop, an" allit peculiar !irtue are acribe" to thi ource# The repreentati!ewho chooe the repreentati!e who chooe the repreentati!e whofinally %coor"inate% an" %regulate% the hop are electe", r# Coleaert, by a true "emocracy# Becaue they come originally from aelf>go!erning unit, the whole fe"eral organim will be inpire" by

the pirit an" the reality of elf>go!ernment# epreentati!e willaim to carry out the workerN %actual will a un"ertoo" by themel!e,%8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# 75#< that i, a un"ertoo" by thein"i!i"ual in the hop#

4 go!ernment run literally on thi principle woul", if hitory i anygui"e, be either a perpetual logroll, or a chao of warring hop# )orwhile the worker in the hop can ha!e a real opinion about matterentirely within the hop, hi %will% about the relation of that hopto the plant, the in"utry, an" the nation i ubject to all thelimitation of acce, tereotype, an" elf>interet that urroun" anyother elf>centere" opinion# -i e+perience in the hop at bet bringonly apect of the whole to hi attention# -i opinion of what iright within the hop he can reach by "irect knowle"ge of theeential fact# -i opinion of what i right in the great complicate"en!ironment out of ight i more likely to be wrong than right if iti a generaliHation from the e+perience of the in"i!i"ual hop# 4 amatter of e+perience, the repreentati!e of a guil" ociety woul"fin", jut a the higher tra"e union official fin" to"ay, that on agreat number of uetion which they ha!e to "eci"e there i no%actual will a un"ertoo"% by the hop#

;

The guil"men init, howe!er, that uch criticim i blin" becaue itignore a great political "ico!ery# 'ou may be uite right, theywoul" ay, in thinking that the repreentati!e of the hop woul"ha!e to make up their own min" on many uetion about which thehop ha!e no opinion# But you are imply entangle" in an ancientfallacy3 you are looking for omebo"y to repreent a group of people#-e cannot be foun"# The only repreentati!e poible i one who actfor %ome particular function,% 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, pp# 5M>57#<an" therefore each peron mut help chooe a many repreentati!e %athere are "itinct eential group of function to be performe"#%

4ume then that the repreentati!e peak, not for the men in thehop, but for certain function in which the men are interete"# Theyare, min" you, "iloyal if they "o not carry out the will of the groupabout the function, a un"ertoo" by the group# 8)ootnote3 FCf#FPart *, %The aking of a Common Will#%< Thee functional

repreentati!e meet# Their buine i to coor"inate an" regulate# Bywhat tan"ar" "oe each ju"ge the propoal of the other, auming, awe mut, that there i conflict of opinion between the hop, ince if



there were not, there woul" be no nee" to coor"inate an" regulateI

ow the peculiar !irtue of functional "emocracy i uppoe" to be thatmen !ote can"i"ly accor"ing to their own interet, which it iaume" they know by "aily e+perience# They can "o that within theelf>containe" group# But in it e+ternal relation the group a a

whole, or it repreentati!e, i "ealing with matter that trancen"imme"iate e+perience# The hop "oe not arri!e pontaneouly at a !iewof the whole ituation# Therefore, the public opinion of a hop aboutit right an" "utie in the in"utry an" in ociety, are matter ofe"ucation or propagan"a, not the automatic pro"uct of hop>concioune#Whether the guil"men elect a "elegate, or a repreentati!e, they "onot ecape the problem of the ortho"o+ "emocrat# Either the groupa a whole, or the electe" pokeman, mut tretch hi min" beyon"the limit of "irect e+perience# -e mut !ote on uetion coming upfrom other hop, an" on matter coming from beyon" the frontier ofthe whole in"utry# The primary interet of the hop "oe not e!enco!er the function of a whole in"utrial !ocation# The function of a!ocation, a great in"utry, a "itrict, a nation i a concept, not an

e+perience, an" ha to be imagine", in!ente", taught an" belie!e"#4n" e!en though you "efine function a carefully a poible, onceyou a"mit that the !iew of each hop on that function will notnecearily coinci"e with the !iew of other hop, you are ayingthat the repreentati!e of one interet i concerne" in the propoalma"e by other interet# 'ou are aying that he mut concei!e acommon interet# 4n" in !oting for him you are chooing a man whowill not imply repreent your !iew of your function, which i all thatyou know at firt han", but a man who will repreent your !iewabout other peopleN !iew of that function# 'ou are !oting ain"efinitely a the ortho"o+ "emocrat#

:

The guil"men in their own min" ha!e ol!e" the uetion of how toconcei!e a common interet by playing with the wor" function# Theyimagine a ociety in which all the main work of the worl" ha beenanalye" into function, an" thee function in turn yntheiHe"harmoniouly# 8)ootnote3 FCf# op# cit#F, Ch# J&J#< They uppoeeential agreement about the purpoe of ociety a a whole, an"eential agreement about the role of e!ery organiHe" group incarrying out thoe purpoe# &t wa a nice entiment, therefore, whichle" them to take the name of their theory from an intitution thataroe in a Catholic feu"al ociety# But they houl" remember that thecheme of function which the wie men of that age aume" wa notworke" out by mortal man# &t i unclear how the guil"men think thecheme i going to be worke" out an" ma"e acceptable in the mo"ernworl"# .ometime they eem to argue that the cheme will "e!elop fromtra"e union organiHation, at other time that the commune will "efinethe contitutional function of the group# But it make a coni"erablepractical "ifference whether they belie!e that the group "efine theirown function or not#

&n either cae, r# Cole aume that ociety can be carrie" on by aocial contract bae" on an accepte" i"ea of %"itinct eentialgroup of function#% -ow "oe one recogniHe thee "itinct eentialgroupI .o far a & can make out, r# Cole think that a function iwhat a group of people are interete" in# %The eence of functional"emocracy i that a man houl" count a many time o!er a there arefunction in which he i interete"#% 8)ootnote3 F.ocial Theory,F

p# /65 Fet e#F< ow there are at leat two meaning to the wor"interete"# 'ou can ue it to mean that a man i in!ol!e", or that himin" i occupie"# Aohn .mith, for e+ample, may ha!e been tremen"ouly



interete" in the .tillman "i!orce cae# -e may ha!e rea" e!ery wor"of the new in e!ery lobter e"ition# On the other han", young Guy.tillman, whoe legitimacy wa at take, probably "i" not troublehimelf at all# Aohn .mith wa interete" in a uit that "i" notaffect hi %interet,% an" Guy wa uninterete" in one that woul""etermine the whole coure of hi life# r# Cole, & am afrai", lean

towar" Aohn .mith# -e i anwering the %!ery foolih objection% thatto !ote by function i to be !oting !ery often3 %&f a man i notinterete" enough to !ote, an" cannot be aroue" to interet enough tomake him !ote, on, ay, a "oHen "itinct ubject, he wai!e hi rightto !ote an" the reult i no le "emocratic than if he !ote" blin"lyan" without interet#%

r# Cole think that the unintructe" !oter %wai!e hi right to!ote#% )rom thi it follow that the !ote of the intructe" re!ealtheir interet, an" their interet "efine the function# 8)ootnote3FCf#F Ch# J*&&& of thi book# %.ince e!erybo"y wa aume" to beinterete" enough in important affair, only thoe affair came toeem important in which e!erybo"y wa interete"#%< %Brown, Aone, an"

obinon mut therefore ha!e, not one !ote each, but a many "ifferentfunctional !ote a there are "ifferent uetion calling foraociati!e action in which they are interete"#% 8)ootnote3 FGuil".ocialim,F p# 57# < & am coni"erably in "oubt whether r# Colethink that Brown, Aone an" obinon houl" ualify in any electionwhere they aert that they are interete", or that omebo"y ele, notname", pick the function in which they are entitle" to beinterete"# &f & were ake" to ay what & belie!e r# Cole think, itwoul" be that he ha moothe" o!er the "ifficulty by the enormoulytrange aumption that it i the unintructe" !oter who wai!e hiright to !ote an" ha conclu"e" that whether functional !oting iarrange" by a higher power, or %from below% on the principle that aman may !ote when it interet him to !ote, only the intructe" willbe !oting anyway, an" therefore the intitution will work#

But there are two kin" of unintructe" !oter# There i the man who"oe not know an" know that he "oe not know# -e i generally anenlightene" peron# -e i the man who wai!e hi right to !ote# Butthere i alo the man who i unintructe" an" "oe not know that hei, or care# -e can alway be gotten to the poll, if the partymachinery i working# -i !ote i the bai of the machine# 4n" incethe commune of the guil" ociety ha!e large power o!er ta+ation,wage, price, cre"it, an" natural reource, it woul" be prepoterouto aume that election will not be fought at leat a paionatelya our own#

The way people e+hibit their interet will not then "elimit thefunction of a functional ociety# There are two other way thatfunction might be "efine"# One woul" be by the tra"e union whichfought the battle that brought guil" ocialim into being# .uch atruggle woul" har"en group of men together in ome ort offunctional relation, an" thee group woul" then become the !ete"interet of the guil" ocialit ociety# .ome of them, like theminer an" railroa" men, woul" be !ery trong, an" probably "eeplyattache" to the !iew of their function which they learne" from thebattle with capitalim# &t i not at all unlikely that certainfa!orably place" tra"e union woul" un"er a ocialit tate become thecenter of coherence an" go!ernment# But a guil" ociety woul"ine!itably fin" them a tough problem to "eal with, for "irect actionwoul" ha!e re!eale" their trategic power, an" ome of their lea"er

at leat woul" not offer up thi power rea"ily on the altar offree"om# &n or"er to %coor"inate% them, guil" ociety woul" ha!e togather together it trength, an" fairly oon one woul" fin", & think,



that the ra"ical un"er guil" ocialim woul" be aking for communetrong enough to "efine the function of the guil"#

But if you are going to ha!e the go!ernment =commune@ "efinefunction, the premie of the theory "iappear# &t ha" to uppoethat a cheme of function wa ob!iou in or"er that the conca!e hop

woul" !oluntarily relate themel!e to ociety# &f there i no ettle"cheme of function in e!ery !oterN hea", he ha no better way un"erguil" ocialim than un"er ortho"o+ "emocracy of turning aelf>centere" opinion into a ocial ju"gment# 4n", of coure, therecan be no uch ettle" cheme, becaue, e!en if r# Cole an" hifrien" "e!ie" a goo" one, the hop "emocracie from which all power"eri!e, woul" ju"ge the cheme in operation by what they learn of itan" by what they can imagine# The guil" woul" ee the ame cheme"ifferently# 4n" o intea" of the cheme being the keleton thatkeep guil" ociety together, the attempt to "efine what the chemeought to be, woul" be un"er guil" ocialim a elewhere, the mainbuine of politic# &f we coul" allow r# Cole hi cheme offunction we coul" allow him almot e!erything# nfortunately he ha

inerte" in hi premie what he wihe a guil" ociety to"e"uce# 8)ootnote3 & ha!e "ealt with r# ColeN theory rather than withthe e+perience of .o!iet uia becaue, while the tetimony ifragmentary, all competent ober!er eem to agree that uia in /05/"oe not illutrate a communit tate in working or"er# uia i inre!olution, an" what you can learn from uia i what a re!olution ilike# 'ou can learn !ery little about what a communit ociety woul"be like# &t i, howe!er, immenely ignificant that, firt apractical re!olutionit an" then a public official, the uiancommunit ha!e relie" not upon the pontaneou "emocracy of theuian people, but on the "icipline, pecial interet an" thenoblee oblige of a pecialiHe" cla>the loyal an" in"octrinate"member of the Communit party# &n the %tranition,% on which no timelimit ha been et, & belie!e, the cure for cla go!ernment an" thecoerci!e tate i trictly homeopathic#

There i alo the uetion of why & electe" r# ColeN book ratherthan the much more cloely reaone" %Contitution for the .ocialitCommonwealth of Great Britain% by .i"ney an" Beatrice Webb# & a"mirethat book !ery much but & ha!e not been able to con!ince myelf thatit i not an intellectual tour "e force# r# Cole eem to me far moreauthentically in the pirit of the ocialit mo!ement, an" therefore,a better witne#<

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T-E leon i, & think, a fairly clear one# &n the abence ofintitution an" e"ucation by which the en!ironment i o uccefullyreporte" that the realitie of public life tan" out harply againtelf>centere" opinion, the common interet !ery largely elu"e publicopinion entirely, an" can be manage" only by a pecialiHe" cla whoeperonal interet reach beyon" the locality# Thi cla iirreponible, for it act upon information that i not common

property, in ituation that the public at large "oe not concei!e,an" it can be hel" to account only on the accomplihe" fact#



The "emocratic theory by failing to a"mit that elf>centere" opinionare not ufficient to procure goo" go!ernment, i in!ol!e" inperpetual conflict between theory an" practice# 4ccor"ing to thetheory, the full "ignity of man reuire that hi will houl" be, ar# Cole ay, e+pree" %in any an" e!ery form of ocial action#% &ti uppoe" that the e+preion of their will i the conuming paion

of men, for they are aume" to poe by intinct the art ofgo!ernment# But a a matter of plain e+perience, elf>"etermination ionly one of the many interet of a human peronality# The "eire tobe the mater of oneN own "etiny i a trong "eire, but it ha toa"jut itelf to other eually trong "eire, uch a the "eire fora goo" life, for peace, for relief from bur"en# &n the originalaumption of "emocracy it wa hel" that the e+preion of each manNwill woul" pontaneouly atify not only hi "eire forelf>e+preion, but hi "eire for a goo" life, becaue the intinctto e+pre oneN elf in a goo" life wa innate#

The emphai, therefore, ha alway been on the mechanim fore+preing the will# The "emocratic El $ora"o ha alway been ome

perfect en!ironment, an" ome perfect ytem of !oting an"repreentation, where the innate goo" will an" intincti!etatemanhip of e!ery man coul" be tranlate" into action# &n limite"area an" for brief perio" the en!ironment ha been o fa!orable,that i to ay o iolate", an" o rich in opportunity, that thetheory worke" well enough to confirm men in thinking that it wa oun"for all time an" e!erywhere# Then when the iolation en"e", an"ociety became comple+, an" men ha" to a"jut themel!e cloely toone another, the "emocrat pent hi time trying to "e!ie more perfectunit of !oting, in the hope that omehow he woul", a r# Cole ay,%get the mechanim right, an" a"jut it a far a poible to menNocial will#% But while the "emocratic theorit wa buy at thi, hewa far away from the actual interet of human nature# -e waaborbe" by one interet3 elf>go!ernment# ankin" wa interete" inall kin" of other thing, in or"er, in it right, in properity, inight an" oun" an" in not being bore"# &n o far a pontaneou"emocracy "oe not atify their other interet, it eem to mot menmot of the time to be an empty thing# Becaue the art of uccefulelf>go!ernment i not intincti!e, men "o not long "eireelf>go!ernment for it own ake# They "eire it for the ake of thereult# That i why the impule to elf>go!ernment i alwaytronget a a protet againt ba" con"ition#

The "emocratic fallacy ha been it preoccupation with the origin ofgo!ernment rather than with the procee an" reult# The "emocratha alway aume" that if political power coul" be "eri!e" in theright way, it woul" be beneficent# -i whole attention ha been on theource of power, ince he i hypnotiHe" by the belief that the greatthing i to e+pre the will of the people, firt becaue e+preioni the highet interet of man, an" econ" becaue the will iintincti!ely goo"# But no amount of regulation at the ource of ari!er will completely control it beha!ior, an" while "emocrat ha!ebeen aborbe" in trying to fin" a goo" mechanim for originatingocial power, that i to ay a goo" mechanim of !oting an"repreentation, they neglecte" almot e!ery other interet of men# )orno matter how power originate, the crucial interet i in how poweri e+ercie"# What "etermine the uality of ci!iliHation i the uema"e of power# 4n" that ue cannot be controlle" at the ource#

&f you try to control go!ernment wholly at the ource, you ine!itably

make all the !ital "eciion in!iible# )or ince there i no intinctwhich automatically make political "eciion that pro"uce a goo"life, the men who actually e+ercie power not only fail to e+pre the



will of the people, becaue on mot uetion no will e+it, but theye+ercie power accor"ing to opinion which are hi""en from theelectorate#

&f, then, you root out of the "emocratic philoophy the wholeaumption in all it ramification that go!ernment i intincti!e,

an" that therefore it can be manage" by elf>centere" opinion, whatbecome of the "emocratic faith in the "ignity of manI &t take afreh leae of life by aociating itelf with the whole peronalityintea" of with a meager apect of it# )or the tra"itional "emocratrike" the "ignity of man on one !ery precariou aumption, that hewoul" e+hibit that "ignity intincti!ely in wie law an" goo"go!ernment# *oter "i" not "o that, an" o the "emocrat wa fore!erbeing ma"e to look a little illy by tough>min"e" men# But if, intea"of hanging human "ignity on the one aumption about elf>go!ernment,you init that manN "ignity reuire a tan"ar" of li!ing, in whichhi capacitie are properly e+ercie", the whole problem change# Thecriteria which you then apply to go!ernment are whether it ipro"ucing a certain minimum of health, of "ecent houing, of material

neceitie, of e"ucation, of free"om, of pleaure, of beauty, notimply whether at the acrifice of all thee thing, it !ibrate tothe elf>centere" opinion that happen to be floating aroun" in menNmin"# &n the "egree to which thee criteria can be ma"e e+act an"objecti!e, political "eciion, which i ine!itably the concern ofcomparati!ely few people, i actually brought into relation with theinteret of men#

There i no propect, in any time which we can concei!e, that thewhole in!iible en!ironment will be o clear to all men that they willpontaneouly arri!e at oun" public opinion on the whole buine ofgo!ernment# 4n" e!en if there were a propect, it i e+tremely"oubtful whether many of u woul" wih to be bothere", or woul" takethe time to form an opinion on %any an" e!ery form of ocial action%which affect u# The only propect which i not !iionary i thateach of u in hi own phere will act more an" more on a realiticpicture of the in!iible worl", an" that we hall "e!elop more an"more men who are e+pert in keeping thee picture realitic# Outi"ethe rather narrow range of our own poible attention, ocial control"epen" upon "e!iing tan"ar" of li!ing an" metho" of au"it bywhich the act of public official an" in"utrial "irector aremeaure"# We cannot ourel!e inpire or gui"e all thee act, a themytical "emocrat ha alway imagine"# But we can tea"ily increaeour real control o!er thee act by initing that all of them hallbe plainly recor"e", an" their reult objecti!ely meaure"# & houl"ay, perhap, that we can progrei!ely hope to init# )or theworking out of uch tan"ar" an" of uch au"it ha only begun#

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C-4PTE JJ&

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T-E i"ea that men ha!e to go forth an" tu"y the worl" in or"er togo!ern it, ha playe" a !ery minor part in political thought# &t coul"figure !ery little, becaue the machinery for reporting the worl" inany way ueful to go!ernment ma"e comparati!ely little progre fromthe time of 4ritotle to the age in which the premie of "emocracywere etablihe"#

Therefore, if you ha" ake" a pioneer "emocrat where the informationwa to come from on which the will of the people wa to be bae", hewoul" ha!e been puHHle" by the uetion# &t woul" ha!e eeme" a littlea if you ha" ake" him where hi life or hi oul came from# The willof the people, he almot alway aume", e+it at all time the "utyof political cience wa to work out the in!ention of the ballot an"

repreentati!e go!ernment# &f they were properly worke" out an"applie" un"er the right con"ition, uch a e+it in theelf>containe" !illage or the elf>containe" hop, the mechanim woul"omehow o!ercome the bre!ity of attention which 4ritotle ha"ober!e", an" the narrowne of it range, which the theory of aelf>containe" community tacitly acknowle"ge"# We ha!e een how e!enat thi late "ate the guil" ocialit are tranfi+e" by the notionthat if only you can buil" on the right unit of !oting an"repreentation, an intricate cooperati!e commonwealth i poible#

Con!ince" that the wi"om wa there if only you coul" fin" it,"emocrat ha!e treate" the problem of making public opinion a aproblem in ci!il libertie# 8)ootnote3 The bet tu"y i Prof#Kechariah ChafeeN, F)ree"om of .peechF#< %Who e!er knew Truthput to the wore, in a free an" open encounterI% 8)ootnote3 ilton,F4reopagiticaF, cite" at the opening of r# ChafeeN book# )orcomment on thi claic "octrine of liberty a tate" by ilton, Aohn.tuart ill, an" r# Bertran" uel, ee my FLiberty an" theewF, Ch# &&#< .uppoing that no one ha e!er een it put to thewore, are we to belie!e then that the truth i generate" by theencounter, like fire by rubbing two tickI Behin" thi claic"octrine of liberty, which 4merican "emocrat embo"ie" in their Billof ight, there are, in fact, e!eral "ifferent theorie of theorigin of truth# One i a faith that in the competition of opinion,the truet will win becaue there i a peculiar trength in the truth#Thi i probably oun" if you allow the competition to e+ten" o!er aufficiently long time# When men argue in thi !ein they ha!e in min"the !er"ict of hitory, an" they think pecifically of hereticperecute" when they li!e", canoniHe" after they were "ea"# iltonNuetion ret alo on a belief that the capacity to recogniHe truthi inherent in all men, an" that truth freely put in circulation willwin acceptance# &t "eri!e no le from the e+perience, which hahown that men are not likely to "ico!er truth if they cannot peakit, e+cept un"er the eye of an uncomprehen"ing policeman#

o one can poibly o!eretimate the practical !alue of thee ci!illibertie, nor the importance of maintaining them# When they are injeopar"y, the human pirit i in jeopar"y, an" houl" there come atime when they ha!e to be curtaile", a "uring a war, the uppreionof thought i a rik to ci!iliHation which might pre!ent it reco!ery

from the effect of war, if the hyteric, who e+ploit the neceity,were numerou enough to carry o!er into peace the taboo of war#)ortunately, the ma of men i too tolerant long to enjoy the



profeional inuiitor, a gra"ually, un"er the criticim of men notwilling to be terroriHe", they are re!eale" a mean>pirite" creaturewho nine>tenth of the time "o not know what they are talkingabout# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F for e+ample, the publication of the LukCommittee in ew 'ork, an" the public tatement an" prophecie of r#itchell Palmer, who wa 4ttorney>General of the nite" .tate "uring

the perio" of Prei"ent WilonN illne#<

But in pite of it fun"amental importance, ci!il liberty in thiene "oe not guarantee public opinion in the mo"ern worl"# )or italway aume, either that truth i pontaneou, or that the mean ofecuring truth e+it when there i no e+ternal interference# But whenyou are "ealing with an in!iible en!ironment, the aumption ifale# The truth about "itant or comple+ matter i not elf>e!i"ent,an" the machinery for aembling information i technical an"e+peni!e# 'et political cience, an" epecially "emocratic politicalcience, ha ne!er free" itelf from the original aumption of4ritotleN politic ufficiently to retate the premie, o thatpolitical thought might come to grip with the problem of how to make

the in!iible worl" !iible to the citiHen of a mo"ern tate#

.o "eep i the tra"ition, that until uite recently, for e+ample,political cience wa taught in our college a if newpaper "i" note+it# & am not referring to chool of journalim, for they are tra"echool, inten"e" to prepare men an" women for a career# & amreferring to political cience a e+poun"e" to future buine men,lawyer, public official, an" citiHen at large# &n that cience atu"y of the pre an" the ource of popular information foun" noplace# &t i a curiou fact# To anyone not immere" in the routineinteret of political cience, it i almot ine+plicable that no4merican tu"ent of go!ernment, no 4merican ociologit, ha e!erwritten a book on new>gathering# There are occaional reference tothe pre, an" tatement that it i not, or that it ought to be,%free% an" %truthful#% But & can fin" almot nothing ele# 4n" thi"i"ain of the profeional fin" it counterpart in public opinion#ni!erally it i a"mitte" that the pre i the chief mean ofcontact with the uneen en!ironment# 4n" practically e!erywhere it iaume" that the pre houl" "o pontaneouly for u what primiti!e"emocracy imagine" each of u coul" "o pontaneouly for himelf, thate!ery "ay an" twice a "ay it will preent u with a true picture ofall the outer worl" in which we are interete"#

5

Thi initent an" ancient belief that truth i not earne", butinpire", re!eale", upplie" grati, come out !ery plainly in oureconomic preju"ice a rea"er of newpaper# We e+pect the newpaperto er!e u with truth howe!er unprofitable the truth may be# )or thi"ifficult an" often "angerou er!ice, which we recogniHe afun"amental, we e+pecte" to pay until recently the mallet cointurne" out by the mint# We ha!e accutome" ourel!e now to paying twoan" e!en three cent on week"ay, an" on .un"ay, for an illutrate"encyclope"ia an" !au"e!ille entertainment attache", we ha!e crewe"ourel!e up to paying a nickel or e!en a "ime# obo"y think for amoment that he ought to pay for hi newpaper# -e e+pect thefountain of truth to bubble, but he enter into no contract, legal ormoral, in!ol!ing any rik, cot or trouble to himelf# -e will pay anominal price when it uit him, will top paying whene!er it uithim, will turn to another paper when that uit him# .omebo"y ha ai"

uite aptly that the newpaper e"itor ha to be re>electe" e!ery "ay#

Thi caual an" one>i"e" relationhip between rea"er an" pre i an



anomaly of our ci!iliHation# There i nothing ele uite like it, an"it i, therefore, har" to compare the pre with any other buine orintitution# &t i not a buine pure an" imple, partly becaue thepro"uct i regularly ol" below cot, but chiefly becaue thecommunity applie one ethical meaure to the pre an" another totra"e or manufacture# Ethically a newpaper i ju"ge" a if it were a

church or a chool# But if you try to compare it with thee you failthe ta+payer pay for the public chool, the pri!ate chool i en"owe"or upporte" by tuition fee, there are ubi"ie an" collection forthe church# 'ou cannot compare journalim with law, me"icine orengineering, for in e!ery one of thee profeion the conumer payfor the er!ice# 4 free pre, if you ju"ge by the attitu"e of therea"er, mean newpaper that are !irtually gi!en away#

'et the critic of the pre are merely !oicing the moral tan"ar" ofthe community, when they e+pect uch an intitution to li!e on theame plane a that on which the chool, the church, an" the"iinterete" profeion are uppoe" to li!e# Thi illutrate againthe conca!e character of "emocracy# o nee" for artificially acuire"

information i felt to e+it# The information mut come naturally,that i to ay grati, if not out of the heart of the citiHen, thengrati out of the newpaper# The citiHen will pay for hi telephone,hi railroa" ri"e, hi motor car, hi entertainment# But he "oe notpay openly for hi new#

-e will, howe!er, pay han"omely for the pri!ilege of ha!ing omeonerea" about him# -e will pay "irectly to a"!ertie# 4n" he will payin"irectly for the a"!ertiement of other people, becaue thatpayment, being conceale" in the price of commo"itie i part of anin!iible en!ironment that he "oe not effecti!ely comprehen"# &twoul" be regar"e" a an outrage to ha!e to pay openly the price of agoo" ice cream o"a for all the new of the worl", though the publicwill pay that an" more when it buy the a"!ertie" commo"itie# Thepublic pay for the pre, but only when the payment i conceale"#

M

Circulation i, therefore, the mean to an en"# &t become an aetonly when it can be ol" to the a"!ertier, who buy it with re!enueecure" through in"irect ta+ation of the rea"er# 8)ootnote3 %4netablihe" newpaper i entitle" to fi+ it a"!ertiing rate o thatit net receipt from circulation may be left on the cre"it i"e ofthe profit an" lo account# To arri!e at net receipt, & woul" "e"uctfrom the gro the cot of promotion, "itribution, an" other e+peneinci"ental to circulation#% )rom an a""re by r# 4"olph .# Och,publiher of Fthe ew 'ork Time,F at the Phila"elphia Con!entionof the 4ociate" 4"!ertiing Club of The Worl", Aune 5:, /0/:#Cite", Elmer $a!i, F-itory of The ew 'ork Time,F /?;/>/05/,pp# M01>M0?#< The kin" of circulation which the a"!ertier will buy"epen" on what he ha to ell# &t may be %uality% or %ma#% On thewhole there i no harp "i!i"ing line, for in repect to motcommo"itie ol" by a"!ertiing, the cutomer are neither the mallcla of the !ery rich nor the !ery poor# They are the people withenough urplu o!er bare neceitie to e+ercie "icretion in theirbuying# The paper, therefore, which goe into the home of the fairlyproperou i by an" large the one which offer mot to thea"!ertier# &t may alo go into the home of the poor, but e+cept forcertain line of goo", an analytical a"!ertiing agent "oe not ratethat circulation a a great aet, unle, a eem to be the cae

with certain of r# -eartN propertie, the circulation i enormou#

4 newpaper which anger thoe whom it pay bet to reach through



a"!ertiement i a ba" me"ium for an a"!ertier# 4n" ince no onee!er claime" that a"!ertiing wa philanthropy, a"!ertier buy pacein thoe publication which are fairly certain to reach their futurecutomer# One nee" not pen" much time worrying about the unreporte"can"al of the "ry>goo" merchant# They repreent nothing reallyignificant, an" inci"ent of thi ort are le common than many

critic of the pre uppoe# The real problem i that the rea"er ofa newpaper, unaccutome" to paying the cot of newgathering, can becapitaliHe" only by turning them into circulation that can be ol" tomanufacturer an" merchant# 4n" thoe whom it i mot important tocapitaliHe are thoe who ha!e the mot money to pen"# .uch a pre iboun" to repect the point of !iew of the buying public# &t i forthi buying public that newpaper are e"ite" an" publihe", forwithout that upport the newpaper cannot li!e# 4 newpaper can floutan a"!ertier, it can attack a powerful banking or traction interet,but if it alienate the buying public, it loe the one in"ipenableaet of it e+itence#

r# Aohn L# Gi!en, 8)ootnote3 Faking a ewpaperF, p# /M# Thi

i the bet technical book & know, an" houl" be rea" by e!eryone whoun"ertake to "icu the pre# r# G# B# $iblee, who wrote the!olume on FThe ewpaperF in the -ome ni!erity Library ay =p#5;M@, that %on the pre for premen & only know of one goo" book,r# Gi!enN#%< formerly of the ew 'ork E!ening .un, tate" in /0/7that out of o!er two thouan" three hun"re" "ailie publihe" in thenite" .tate, there were about one hun"re" an" e!enty>fi!e printe"in citie ha!ing o!er one hun"re" thouan" inhabitant# Theecontitute the pre for %general new#% They are the key paper whichcollect the new "ealing with great e!ent, an" e!en the people who "onot rea" any one of the one hun"re" an" e!enty>fi!e "epen" ultimatelyupon them for new of the outer worl"# )or they make up the greatpre aociation which cooperate in the e+change of new# Each i,therefore, not only the informant of it own rea"er, but it i thelocal reporter for the newpaper of other citie# The rural pre an"the pecial pre by an" large, take their general new from thee keypaper# 4n" among thee there are ome !ery much richer than other,o that for international new, in the main, the whole pre of thenation may "epen" upon the report of the pre aociation an" thepecial er!ice of a few metropolitan "ailie#

oughly peaking, the economic upport for general new gathering iin the price pai" for a"!ertie" goo" by the fairly properouection of citie with more than one hun"re" thouan" inhabitant#Thee buying public are compoe" of the member of familie, who"epen" for their income chiefly on tra"e, merchan"iing, the "irectionof manufacture, an" finance# They are the clientele among whom it paybet to a"!ertie in a newpaper# They wiel" a concentrate" purchaingpower, which may be le in !olume than the aggregate for farmer an"workingmen but within the ra"iu co!ere" by a "aily newpaper theyare the uicket aet#

7

They ha!e, moreo!er, a "ouble claim to attention# They are not onlythe bet cutomer for the a"!ertier, they inclu"e the a"!ertier#Therefore the impreion ma"e by the newpaper on thi public matter"eeply# )ortunately thi public i not unanimou# &t may be%capitalitic% but it contain "i!ergent !iew on what capitalim i,an" how it i to be run# E+cept in time of "anger, thi repectable

opinion i ufficiently "i!i"e" to permit of coni"erable "ifferenceof policy# Thee woul" be greater till if it were not that publiherare themel!e uually member of thee urban communitie, an"



honetly ee the worl" through the lene of their aociate an"frien"#

They are engage" in a peculati!e buine, 8)ootnote3 .ometime opeculati!e that in or"er to ecure cre"it the publiher ha to gointo bon"age to hi cre"itor# &nformation on thi point i !ery

"ifficult to obtain, an" for that reaon it general importance ioften much e+aggerate"#< which "epen" on the general con"ition oftra"e, an" more peculiarly on a circulation bae" not on a marriagecontract with their rea"er, but on free lo!e# The object of e!erypubliher i, therefore, to turn hi circulation from a me"ley ofcatch>a>catch>can new tan" buyer into a "e!ote" ban" of contantrea"er# 4 newpaper that can really "epen" upon the loyalty of itrea"er i a in"epen"ent a a newpaper can be, gi!en the economicof mo"ern journalim# 8)ootnote3 %&t i an a+iom in newpaperpublihing>>Nmore rea"er, more in"epen"ence of the influence ofa"!ertier fewer rea"er an" more "epen"ence on the a"!ertierN &tmay eem like a contra"iction =yet it i the truth@ to aert3 thegreater the number of a"!ertier, the le influence they are

in"i!i"ually able to e+ercie with the publiher#% 4"olph .# Och,Fof# upra#F< 4 bo"y of rea"er who tay by it through thick an"thin i a power greater than any which the in"i!i"ual a"!ertier canwiel", an" a power great enough to break up a combination ofa"!ertier# Therefore, whene!er you fin" a newpaper betraying itrea"er for the ake of an a"!ertier, you can be fairly certaineither that the publiher incerely hare the !iew of thea"!ertier, or that he think, perhap mitakenly, he cannot countupon the upport of hi rea"er if he openly reit "ictation# &t ia uetion of whether the rea"er, who "o not pay in cah for theirnew, will pay for it in loyalty#

C-4PTE JJ&&

T-E CO.T4T E4$E

&

T-E loyalty of the buying public to a newpaper i not tipulate" inany bon"# &n almot e!ery other enterprie the peron who e+pect tobe er!e" enter into an agreement that control hi paing whim# 4tleat he pay for what he obtain# &n the publihing of perio"icalthe nearet approach to an agreement for a "efinite time i the pai"ubcription, an" that i not, & belie!e, a great factor in theeconomy of a metropolitan "aily# The rea"er i the ole an" the "ailyju"ge of hi loyalty, an" there can be no uit againt him for breachof promie or nonupport#

Though e!erything turn on the contancy of the rea"er, there "oe note+it e!en a !ague tra"ition to call that fact to the rea"erN min"#-i contancy "epen" on how he happen to feel, or on hi habit# 4n"thee "epen" not imply on the uality of the new, but more often ona number of obcure element that in our caual relation to the pre,we har"ly take the trouble to make conciou# The mot important ofthee i that each of u ten" to ju"ge a newpaper, if we ju"ge it atall, by it treatment of that part of the new in which we feelourel!e in!ol!e"# The newpaper "eal with a multitu"e of e!ent

beyon" our e+perience# But it "eal alo with ome e!ent within oure+perience# 4n" by it han"ling of thoe e!ent we mot freuently"eci"e to like it or "ilike it, to trut it or refue to ha!e the



heet in the houe# &f the newpaper gi!e a atifactory account ofthat which we think we know, our buine, our church, our party, iti fairly certain to be immune from !iolent criticim by u# Whatbetter criterion "oe the man at the breakfat table poe than thatthe newpaper !erion check up with hi own opinionI Therefore, motmen ten" to hol" the newpaper mot trictly accountable in their

capacity, not of general rea"er, but of pecial plea"er on matterof their own e+perience#

arely i anyone but the interete" party able to tet the accuracy ofa report# &f the new i local, an" if there i competition, thee"itor know that he will probably hear from the man who think hiportrait unfair an" inaccurate# But if the new i not local, thecorrecti!e "iminihe a the ubject matter rece"e into the "itance#The only people who can correct what they think i a fale picture ofthemel!e printe" in another city are member of group well enoughorganiHe" to hire publicity men#

ow it i intereting to note that the general rea"er of a newpaper

ha no tan"ing in law if he think he i being mile" by the new# &ti only the aggrie!e" party who can ue for lan"er or libel, an" heha to pro!e a material injury to himelf# The law embo"ie thetra"ition that general new i not a matter of common concern,8)ootnote3 The rea"er will not mitake thi a a plea for cenorhip#&t might, howe!er, be a goo" thing if there were competent tribunal,preferably not official one, where charge of untruthfulne an"unfairne in the general new coul" be ifte"# FCf# Liberty an" theew,F pp# 1M>1:# < e+cept a to matter which i !aguely "ecribe"a immoral or e"itiou#

But the bo"y of the new, though unchecke" a a whole by the"iinterete" rea"er, conit of item about which ome rea"er ha!e!ery "efinite preconception# Thoe item are the "ata of hiju"gment, an" new which men rea" without thi peronal criterion,they ju"ge by ome other tan"ar" than their tan"ar" of accuracy#They are "ealing here with a ubject matter which to them iin"itinguihable from fiction# The canon of truth cannot be applie"#They "o not boggle o!er uch new if it conform to their tereotype,an" they continue to rea" it if it interet them# 8)ootnote3 ote, fore+ample, how abent i in"ignation in r# pton .inclair againtocialit paper, e!en thoe which are a malignantly unfair toemployer a certain of the paper cite" by him are unfair tora"ical#<

5

There are newpaper, e!en in large citie, e"ite" on the principlethat the rea"er wih to rea" about themel!e# The theory i that ifenough people ee their own name in the paper often enough, can rea"about their we""ing, funeral, ociable, foreign tra!el, lo"gemeeting, chool priHe, their fiftieth birth"ay, their i+tiethbirth"ay, their il!er we""ing, their outing an" clambake, theywill make a reliable circulation#

The claic formula for uch a newpaper i containe" in a letterwritten by -orace Greeley on 4pril M, /?:6, to %)rien" )letcher% whowa about to tart a country newpaper3 8)ootnote3 Cite", Aame el!inLee, FThe -itory of 4merican Aournalim,F p# 76;#<

%&# Begin with a clear conception that the ubject of "eepet interetto an a!erage human being i himelf ne+t to that he i motconcerne" about hi neighbor# 4ia an" the Tongo &lan" tan" a long



way after thee in hi regar"#### $o not let a new church beorganiHe", or new member be a""e" to one alrea"y e+iting, a farm beol", a new houe raie", a mill et in motion, a tore opene", noranything of interet to a "oHen familie occur, without ha!ing thefact "uly, though briefly, chronicle" in your column# &f a farmercut a big tree, or grow a mammoth beet, or har!et a bounteou

yiel" of wheat or corn, et forth the fact a conciely an"une+ceptionally a poible#%

The function of becoming, a r# Lee put it, %the printe" "iary ofthe home town% i one that e!ery newpaper no matter where it ipublihe" mut in ome meaure fill# 4n" where, a in a great citylike ew 'ork, the general newpaper circulate" broa"cat cannot fillit, there e+it mall newpaper publihe" on GreeleyN pattern forection of the city# &n the borough of anhattan an" the Bron+ thereare perhap twice a many local "ailie a there are generalnewpaper# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F Aohn L# Gi!en, Faking a ewpaper,Fp# /M#< 4n" they are upplemente" by all kin" of pecial publication fortra"e, religion, nationalitie#

Thee "iarie are publihe" for people who fin" their own li!eintereting# But there are alo great number of people who fin" theirown li!e "ull, an" wih, like -e""a Gabler, to li!e a more thrillinglife# )or them there are publihe" a few whole newpaper, an"ection of other, "e!ote" to the peronal li!e of a et ofimaginary people, with whoe gorgeou !ice the rea"er can in hifancy afely i"entify himelf# r# -eartN unflagging interet inhigh ociety cater to people who ne!er hope to be in high ociety,an" yet manage to "eri!e ome enhancement out of the !ague feelingthat they are part of the life that they rea" about# &n the greatcitie %the printe" "iary of the home town% ten" to be the printe""iary of a mart et#

4n" it i, a we ha!e alrea"y note", the "ailie of the citie whichcarry the bur"en of bringing "itant new to the pri!ate citiHen# Butit i not primarily their political an" ocial new which hol" thecirculation# The interet in that i intermittent, an" few publihercan bank on it alone# The newpaper, therefore, take to itelf a!ariety of other feature, all primarily "eigne" to hol" a bo"y ofrea"er together, who o far a big new i concerne", are not able tobe critical# oreo!er, in big new the competition in any onecommunity i not !ery eriou# The pre er!ice tan"ar"iHe the maine!ent it i only once in a while that a great coop i ma"e therei apparently not a !ery great rea"ing public for uch mai!ereporting a ha ma"e the ew 'ork Time of recent year in"ipenableto men of all ha"e of opinion# &n or"er to "ifferentiate themel!ean" collect a tea"y public mot paper ha!e to go outi"e the fiel"of general new# They go to the "aHHling le!el of ociety, to can"alan" crime, to port, picture, actree, a"!ice to the lo!elorn,highchool note, womenN page, buyerN page, cooking receipt,che, whit, gar"ening, comic trip, thun"ering partianhip, notbecaue publiher an" e"itor are interete" in e!erything but new,but becaue they ha!e to fin" ome way of hol"ing on to that allege"hot of paionately interete" rea"er, who are uppoe" by omecritic of the pre to be clamoring for the truth an" nothing but thetruth#

The newpaper e"itor occupie a trange poition# -i enterprie"epen" upon in"irect ta+ation le!ie" by hi a"!ertier upon hi

rea"er the patronage of the a"!ertier "epen" upon the e"itorNkill in hol"ing together an effecti!e group of cutomer# Theecutomer "eli!er ju"gment accor"ing to their pri!ate e+perience an"



their tereotype" e+pectation, for in the nature of thing they ha!eno in"epen"ent knowle"ge of mot new they rea"# &f the ju"gment inot unfa!orable, the e"itor i at leat within range of a circulationthat pay# But in or"er to ecure that circulation, he cannot relywholly upon new of the greater en!ironment# -e han"le that ainteretingly a he can, of coure, but the uality of the general

new, epecially about public affair, i not in itelf ufficient tocaue !ery large number of rea"er to "icriminate among the "ailie#

Thi omewhat left>han"e" relationhip between newpaper an" publicinformation i reflecte" in the alarie of newpaper men# eporting,which theoretically contitute the foun"ation of the wholeintitution, i the mot poorly pai" branch of newpaper work, an" ithe leat regar"e"# By an" large, able men go into it only byneceity or for e+perience, an" with the "efinite intention of beinggra"uate" a oon a poible# )or traight reporting i not a careerthat offer many great rewar"# The rewar" in journalim go topecialty work, to igne" correpon"ence which ha e"itorial uality,to e+ecuti!e, an" to men with a knack an" fla!or of their own# Thi

i "ue, no "oubt, to what economit call the rent of ability# Butthi economic principle operate with uch peculiar !iolence injournalim that newgathering "oe not attract to itelf anything likethe number of traine" an" able men which it public importance woul"eem to "eman"# The fact that the able men take up %traightreporting% with the intention of lea!ing it a oon a poible i, &think, the chief reaon why it ha ne!er "e!elope" in ufficientmeaure thoe corporate tra"ition that gi!e to a profeion pretigean" a jealou elf>repect# )or it i thee corporate tra"ition whichengen"er the pri"e of craft, which ten" to raie the tan"ar" ofa"miion, punih breache of the co"e, an" gi!e men the trength toinit upon their tatu in ociety#

M

'et all thi "oe not go to the root of the matter# )or while theeconomic of journalim i uch a to "epre the !alue of newreporting, it i, & am certain, a fale "eterminim which woul"aban"on the analyi at that point# The intrinic power of thereporter appear to be o great, the number of !ery able men who pathrough reporting i o large, that there mut be ome "eeper reaonwhy, comparati!ely peaking, o little eriou effort ha gone intoraiing the !ocation to the le!el ay of me"icine, engineering, orlaw#

r# pton .inclair peak for a large bo"y of opinion in4merica, 8)ootnote3 r# -ilaire Belloc make practically the ameanalyi for Englih newpaper# FCf# The )ree Pre#F< when heclaim that in what he call %The Bra Check% he ha foun" thi"eeper reaon3

%The Bra Check i foun" in your pay en!elope e!ery week>>you whowrite an" print an" "itribute our newpaper an" magaHine# The Bracheck i the price of your hame>>you who take the fair bo"y of truthan" ell it in the market place, who betray the !irgin hope ofmankin" into the loathome brothel of Big Buine#% 8)ootnote3 pton.inclair, FThe Bra Check# 4 .tu"y of 4merican Aournalim#F p#//:#<

&t woul" eem from thi that there e+it a bo"y of known truth, an" a

et of well foun"e" hope, which are protitute" by a more or leconciou conpiracy of the rich owner of newpaper# &f thi theoryi correct, then a certain concluion follow# &t i that the fair





illuminating chapter in r# Aohn L# Gi!enN book, alrea"y cite", on%nco!ering the ew,% Ch# *#< They ha!e watcher tatione" at certainplace, like Police -ea"uarter, the CoronerN Office, the CountyClerkN Office, City -all, the White -oue, the .enate, -oue ofepreentati!e, an" o forth# They watch, or rather in the majorityof cae they belong to aociation which employ men who watch %a

comparati!ely mall number of place where it i ma"e known when thelife of anyone### "epart from or"inary path, or when e!ent worthtelling about occur# )or e+ample, Aohn .mith, let it be uppoe",become a broker# )or ten year he purue the e!en tenor of hi wayan" e+cept for hi cutomer an" hi frien" no one gi!e him athought# To the newpaper he i a if he were not# But in theele!enth year he uffer hea!y loe an", at lat, hi reource allgone, ummon hi lawyer an" arrange for the making of an aignment#The lawyer pot off to the County ClerkN office, an" a clerk theremake the neceary entrie in the official "ocket# -ere in tep thenewpaper# While the clerk i writing .mithN buine obituary areporter glance o!er hi houl"er an" a few minute later thereporter know .mithN trouble an" are a well informe" concerning

hi buine tatu a they woul" be ha" they kept a reporter at hi"oor e!ery "ay for o!er ten year# 8)ootnote3 FOp# cit#F, p# ;1#<

When r# Gi!en ay that the newpaper know %.mithN trouble% an"%hi buine tatu,% he "oe not mean that they know them a .mithknow them, or a r# 4rnol" Bennett woul" know them if he ha" ma"e.mith the hero of a three !olume no!el# The newpaper know only %in afew minute% the bal" fact which are recor"e" in the County ClerkNOffice# That o!ert act %unco!er% the new about .mith# Whether thenew will be followe" up or not i another matter# The point i thatbefore a erie of e!ent become new they ha!e uually to makethemel!e noticeable in ome more or le o!ert act# Generally too,in a cru"ely o!ert act# .mithN frien" may ha!e known for year thathe wa taking rik, rumor may e!en ha!e reache" the financial e"itorif .mithN frien" were talkati!e# But apart from the fact that noneof thi coul" be publihe" becaue it woul" be libel, there i inthee rumor nothing "efinite on which to peg a tory# .omething"efinite mut occur that ha unmitakable form# &t may be the act ofgoing into bankruptcy, it may be a fire, a colliion, an aault, ariot, an arret, a "enunciation, the intro"uction of a bill, a peech,a !ote, a meeting, the e+pree" opinion of a well known citiHen, ane"itorial in a newpaper, a ale, a wage>che"ule, a price change, thepropoal to buil" a bri"ge#### There mut be a manifetation# Thecoure of e!ent mut aume a certain "efinable hape, an" until iti in a phae where ome apect i an accomplihe" fact, new "oe noteparate itelf from the ocean of poible truth#

5

aturally there i room for wi"e "ifference of opinion a to whene!ent ha!e a hape that can be reporte"# 4 goo" journalit will fin"new oftener than a hack# &f he ee a buil"ing with a "angerou lit,he "oe not ha!e to wait until it fall into the treet in or"er torecogniHe new# &t wa a great reporter who guee" the name of thene+t &n"ian *iceroy when he hear" that Lor" .o>an">.o wa inuiringabout climate# There are lucky hot but the number of men who canmake them i mall# ually it i the tereotype" hape aume" by ane!ent at an ob!iou place that unco!er the run of the new# The motob!iou place i where peopleN affair touch public authority# $eminimi non curat le+# &t i at thee place that marriage, birth,

"eath, contract, failure, arri!al, "eparture, lawuit,"ior"er, epi"emic an" calamitie are ma"e known#



&n the firt intance, therefore, the new i not a mirror of ocialcon"ition, but the report of an apect that ha obtru"e" itelf# Thenew "oe not tell you how the ee" i germinating in the groun", butit may tell you when the firt prout break through the urface# &tmay e!en tell you what omebo"y ay i happening to the ee" un"ergroun"# &t may tell you that the prout "i" not come up at the time it

wa e+pecte"# The more point, then, at which any happening can befi+e", objectifie", meaure", name", the more point there are atwhich new can occur#

.o, if ome "ay a legilature, ha!ing e+haute" all other way ofimpro!ing mankin", houl" forbi" the coring of baeball game, itmight till be poible to play ome ort of game in which the umpire"eci"e" accor"ing to hi own ene of fair play how long the gamehoul" lat, when each team houl" go to bat, an" who houl" beregar"e" a the winner# &f that game were reporte" in the newpaperit woul" conit of a recor" of the umpireN "eciion, plu thereporterN impreion of the hoot an" cheer of the crow", plu atbet a !ague account of how certain men, who ha" no pecifie" poition

on the fiel" mo!e" aroun" for a few hour on an unmarke" piece of o"#The more you try to imagine the logic of o abur" a pre"icament, themore clear it become that for the purpoe of newgathering, =letalone the purpoe of playing the game@ it i impoible to "o muchwithout an apparatu an" rule for naming, coring, recor"ing# Becauethat machinery i far from perfect, the umpireN life i often a"itracte" one# any crucial play he ha to ju"ge by eye# The lat!etige of "ipute coul" be taken out of the game, a it ha beentaken out of che when people obey the rule, if omebo"y thought itworth hi while to photograph e!ery play# &t wa the mo!ing picturewhich finally ettle" a real "oubt in many reporterN min", owing tothe lowne of the human eye, a to jut what blow of $empeyNknocke" out Carpentier#

Where!er there i a goo" machinery of recor", the mo"ern new er!icework with great preciion# There i one on the tock e+change, an"the new of price mo!ement i flahe" o!er ticker with "epen"ableaccuracy# There i a machinery for election return, an" when thecounting an" tabulating are well "one, the reult of a nationalelection i uually known on the night of the election# &n ci!iliHe"communitie "eath, birth, marriage an" "i!orce are recor"e", an"are known accurately e+cept where there i concealment or neglect# Themachinery e+it for ome, an" only ome, apect of in"utry an"go!ernment, in !arying "egree of preciion for ecuritie, money an"taple, bank clearance, realty tranaction, wage cale# &t e+itfor import an" e+port becaue they pa through a cutom houe an"can be "irectly recor"e"# &t e+it in nothing like the ame "egreefor internal tra"e, an" epecially for tra"e o!er the counter#

&t will be foun", & think, that there i a !ery "irect relationbetween the certainty of new an" the ytem of recor"# &f you call tomin" the topic which form the principal in"ictment by reformeragaint the pre, you fin" they are ubject in which the newpaperoccupie the poition of the umpire in the uncore" baeball game# 4llnew about tate of min" i of thi character3 o are all"ecription of peronalitie, of incerity, apiration, moti!e,intention, of ma feeling, of national feeling, of public opinion,the policie of foreign go!ernment# .o i much new about what igoing to happen# .o are uetion turning on pri!ate profit, pri!ateincome, wage, working con"ition, the efficiency of labor,

e"ucational opportunity, unemployment, 8)ootnote3 Think of what guework went into the eport of nemployment in /05/#< monotony, health,"icrimination, unfairne, retraint of tra"e, wate, %backwar"



people,% coner!atim, imperialim, ra"icalim, liberty, honor,righteoune# 4ll in!ol!e "ata that are at bet pamo"icallyrecor"e"# The "ata may be hi""en becaue of a cenorhip or atra"ition of pri!acy, they may not e+it becaue nobo"y think recor"important, becaue he think it re" tape, or becaue nobo"y ha yetin!ente" an objecti!e ytem of meaurement# Then the new on thee

ubject i boun" to be "ebatable, when it i not wholly neglecte"#The e!ent which are not core" are reporte" either a peronal an"con!entional opinion, or they are not new# They "o not take hapeuntil omebo"y protet, or omebo"y in!etigate, or omebo"ypublicly, in the etymological meaning of the wor", make anFiueF of them#

Thi i the un"erlying reaon for the e+itence of the pre agent#The enormou "icretion a to what fact an" what impreion hall bereporte" i tea"ily con!incing e!ery organiHe" group of people thatwhether it wihe to ecure publicity or to a!oi" it, the e+ercie of"icretion cannot be left to the reporter# &t i afer to hire a preagent who tan" between the group an" the newpaper# -a!ing hire"

him, the temptation to e+ploit hi trategic poition i !ery great#%.hortly before the war,% ay r# )rank Cobb, %the newpaper of ew'ork took a cenu of the pre agent who were regularly employe" an"regularly accre"ite" an" foun" that there were about twel!e hun"re" ofthem# -ow many there are now =/0/0@ & "o not preten" to know, but what& "o know i that many of the "irect channel to new ha!e been cloe"an" the information for the public i firt filtere" through publicityagent# The great corporation ha!e them, the bank ha!e them, therailroa" ha!e them, all the organiHation of buine an" of ocialan" political acti!ity ha!e them, an" they are the me"ia through whichnew come# E!en tatemen ha!e them#% 8)ootnote3 4""re before theWomenN City Club of ew 'ork, $ec# //, /0/0# eprinte", FewepublicF, $ec# M/, /0/0, p# 77#<

Were reporting the imple reco!ery of ob!iou fact, the pre agentwoul" be little more than a clerk# But ince, in repect to mot ofthe big topic of new, the fact are not imple, an" not at allob!iou, but ubject to choice an" opinion, it i natural thate!eryone houl" wih to make hi own choice of fact for thenewpaper to print# The publicity man "oe that# 4n" in "oing it, hecertainly a!e the reporter much trouble, by preenting him a clearpicture of a ituation out of which he might otherwie make neitherhea" nor tail# But it follow that the picture which the publicity manmake for the reporter i the one he wihe the public to ee# -e icenor an" propagan"it, reponible only to hi employer, an" to thewhole truth reponible only a it accor" with the employerNconception of hi own interet#

The "e!elopment of the publicity man i a clear ign that the fact ofmo"ern life "o not pontaneouly take a hape in which they can beknown# They mut be gi!en a hape by omebo"y, an" ince in the "ailyroutine reporter cannot gi!e a hape to fact, an" ince there ilittle "iinterete" organiHation of intelligence, the nee" for omeformulation i being met by the interete" partie#

M

The goo" pre agent un"ertan" that the !irtue of hi caue are notnew, unle they are uch trange !irtue that they jut right out ofthe routine of life# Thi i not becaue the newpaper "o not like

!irtue, but becaue it i not worth while to ay that nothing hahappene" when nobo"y e+pecte" anything to happen# .o if the publicityman wihe free publicity he ha, peaking uite accurately, to tart



omething# -e arrange a tunt3 obtruct the traffic, teae thepolice, omehow manage to entangle hi client or hi caue with ane!ent that i alrea"y new# The uffragit knew thi, "i" notparticularly enjoy the knowle"ge but acte" on it, an" kept uffrage inthe new long after the argument pro an" con were traw in theirmouth, an" people were about to ettle "own to thinking of the

uffrage mo!ement a one of the etablihe" intitution of 4mericanlife# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F &neH -ayne &rwin, FThe .tory of theWomanN Party#F &t i not only a goo" account of a !ital part of agreat agitation, but a reer!oir of material on ucceful,non>re!olutionary, non>conpiring agitation un"er mo"ern con"ition ofpublic attention, public interet, an" political habit#<

)ortunately the uffragit, a "itinct from the feminit, ha" aperfectly concrete objecti!e, an" a !ery imple one# What the !oteymboliHe i not imple, a the ablet a"!ocate an" the abletopponent knew# But the right to !ote i a imple an" familiar right#ow in labor "ipute, which are probably the chief item in thecharge againt newpaper, the right to trike, like the right to

!ote, i imple enough# But the caue an" object of a particulartrike are like the caue an" object of the womanN mo!ement,e+tremely ubtle#

Let u uppoe the con"ition lea"ing up to a trike are ba"# What ithe meaure of e!ilI 4 certain conception of a proper tan"ar" ofli!ing, hygiene, economic ecurity, an" human "ignity# The in"utrymay be far below the theoretical tan"ar" of the community, an" theworker may be too wretche" to protet# Con"ition may be abo!e thetan"ar", an" the worker may protet !iolently# The tan"ar" i atbet a !ague meaure# -owe!er, we hall aume that the con"ition arebelow par, a par i un"ertoo" by the e"itor# Occaionally withoutwaiting for the worker to threaten, but prompte" ay by a ocialworker, he will en" reporter to in!etigate, an" will call attentionto ba" con"ition# ecearily he cannot "o that often# )or theein!etigation cot time, money, pecial talent, an" a lot of pace#To make plauible a report that con"ition are ba", you nee" a goo"many column of print# &n or"er to tell the truth about the teelworker in the Pittburgh "itrict, there wa nee"e" a taff ofin!etigator, a great "eal of time, an" e!eral fat !olume of print#&t i impoible to uppoe that any "aily newpaper coul" normallyregar" the making of Pittburgh .ur!ey, or e!en &nterchurch .teeleport, a one of it tak# ew which reuire o much trouble athat to obtain i beyon" the reource of a "aily pre# 8)ootnote3 otlong ago Babe uth wa jaile" for pee"ing# eleae" from jail jutbefore the afternoon game tarte", he ruhe" into hi waitingautomobile, an" ma"e up for time lot in jail by breaking the pee"law on hi way to the ball groun"# o policeman toppe" him, but areporter time" him, an" publihe" hi pee" the ne+t morning# Babeuth i an e+ceptional man# ewpaper cannot time all motorit# Theyha!e to take their new about pee"ing from the police#<

The ba" con"ition a uch are not new, becaue in all bute+ceptional cae, journalim i not a firt han" report of the rawmaterial# &t i a report of that material after it ha been tyliHe"#Thu ba" con"ition might become new if the Boar" of -ealth reporte"an unuually high "eath rate in an in"utrial area# )ailing aninter!ention of thi ort, the fact "o not become new, until theworker organiHe an" make a "eman" upon their employer# E!en then, ifan eay ettlement i certain the new !alue i low, whether or not

the con"ition themel!e are reme"ie" in the ettlement# But ifin"utrial relation collape into a trike or lockout the new !alueincreae# &f the toppage in!ol!e a er!ice on which the rea"er of



the newpaper imme"iately "epen", or if it in!ol!e a breach ofor"er, the new !alue i till greater#

The un"erlying trouble appear in the new through certain eailyrecogniHable ymptom, a "eman", a trike, "ior"er# )rom the point of!iew of the worker, or of the "iinterete" eeker of jutice, the

"eman", the trike, an" the "ior"er, are merely inci"ent in aproce that for them i richly complicate"# But ince all theimme"iate realitie lie outi"e the "irect e+perience both of thereporter, an" of the pecial public by which mot newpaper areupporte", they ha!e normally to wait for a ignal in the hape of ano!ert act# When that ignal come, ay through a walkout of the men ora ummon for the police, it call into play the tereotype peopleha!e about trike an" "ior"er# The uneen truggle ha none of itown fla!or# &t i note" abtractly, an" that abtraction i thenanimate" by the imme"iate e+perience of the rea"er an" reporter#Ob!iouly thi i a !ery "ifferent e+perience from that which thetriker ha!e# They feel, let u ay, the temper of the foreman, thener!e>racking monotony of the machine, the "epreingly ba" air, the

"ru"gery of their wi!e, the tunting of their chil"ren, the "ingineof their tenement# The logan of the trike are in!ete" with theefeeling# But the reporter an" rea"er ee at firt only a trike an"ome catchwor"# They in!et thee with their feeling# Their feelingmay be that their job are inecure becaue the triker are toppinggoo" they nee" in their work, that there will be hortage an" higherprice, that it i all "e!ilihly incon!enient# Thee, too, arerealitie# 4n" when they gi!e color to the abtract new that a trikeha been calle", it i in the nature of thing that the worker are ata "ia"!antage# &t i in the nature, that i to ay, of the e+itingytem of in"utrial relation that new ariing from grie!ance orhope by worker houl" almot in!ariably be unco!ere" by an o!ertattack on pro"uction#

'ou ha!e, therefore, the circumtance in all their prawlingcomple+ity, the o!ert act which ignaliHe them, the tereotype"bulletin which publihe the ignal, an" the meaning that the rea"erhimelf inject, after he ha "eri!e" that meaning from the e+periencewhich "irectly affect him# ow the rea"erN e+perience of a trikemay be !ery important in"ee", but from the point of !iew of thecentral trouble which caue" the trike, it i eccentric# 'et thieccentric meaning i automatically the mot intereting# 8)ootnote3FCfF# Ch# J&, %The Enliting of &nteret#%< To enter imaginati!elyinto the central iue i for the rea"er to tep out of himelf, an" into!ery "ifferent li!e#

&t follow that in the reporting of trike, the eaiet way i to letthe new be unco!ere" by the o!ert act, an" to "ecribe the e!ent athe tory of interference with the rea"erN life# That i where hiattention i firt aroue", an" hi interet mot eaily enlite"# 4great "eal, & think myelf the crucial part, of what look to theworker an" the reformer a "eliberate mirepreentation on the part ofnewpaper, i the "irect outcome of a practical "ifficulty inunco!ering the new, an" the emotional "ifficulty of making "itantfact intereting unle, a Emeron ay, we can %percei!e =them@ tobe only a new !erion of our familiar e+perience% an" can %et abouttranlating =them@ at once into our parallel fact#% 8)ootnote3 )romhi eay entitle" F4rt an" CriticimF# The uotation occur in apaage cite" on page ?1 of Profeor # W# BrownN, FThe WriterN4rt#F<

&f you tu"y the way many a trike i reporte" in the pre, you willfin", !ery often, that the iue are rarely in the hea"line, barely



in the lea"ing paragraph, an" ometime not e!en mentione" anywhere#4 labor "ipute in another city ha to be !ery important before thenew account contain any "efinite information a to what i in"ipute# The routine of the new work that way, with mo"ification itwork that way in regar" to political iue an" international new awell# The new i an account of the o!ert phae that are intereting,

an" the preure on the newpaper to a"here to thi routine come frommany i"e# &t come from the economy of noting only the tereotype"phae of a ituation# &t come from the "ifficulty of fin"ingjournalit who can ee what they ha!e not learne" to ee# &t comefrom the almot una!oi"able "ifficulty of fin"ing ufficient pace inwhich e!en the bet journalit can make plauible an uncon!entional!iew# &t come from the economic neceity of intereting the rea"eruickly, an" the economic rik in!ol!e" in not intereting him at all,or of offen"ing him by une+pecte" new inufficiently or clumily"ecribe"# 4ll thee "ifficultie combine" make for uncertainty in thee"itor when there are "angerou iue at take, an" caue himnaturally to prefer the in"iputable fact an" a treatment more rea"ilya"apte" to the rea"erN interet# The in"iputable fact an" the eay

interet, are the trike itelf an" the rea"erN incon!enience#

4ll the ubtler an" "eeper truth are in the preent organiHation ofin"utry !ery unreliable truth# They in!ol!e ju"gment abouttan"ar" of li!ing, pro"ucti!ity, human right that are en"lely"ebatable in the abence of e+act recor" an" uantitati!e analyi#4n" a long a thee "o not e+it in in"utry, the run of new aboutit will ten", a Emeron ai", uoting from &ocrate, %to make ofmole mountain, an" of mountain mole#% 8)ootnote3 F&"#,upraF< Where there i no contitutional proce"ure in in"utry, an"no e+pert ifting of e!i"ence an" the claim, the fact that ienational to the rea"er i the fact that almot e!ery journalitwill eek# Gi!en the in"utrial relation that o largely pre!ail,e!en where there i conference or arbitration, but no in"epen"entfiltering of the fact for "eciion, the iue for the newpaperpublic will ten" not to be the iue for the in"utry# 4n" o to try"ipute by an appeal through the newpaper put a bur"en uponnewpaper an" rea"er which they cannot an" ought not to carry# 4long a real law an" or"er "o not e+it, the bulk of the new will,unle conciouly an" courageouly correcte", work againt thoe whoha!e no lawful an" or"erly metho" of aerting themel!e# Thebulletin from the cene of action will note the trouble that aroefrom the aertion, rather than the reaon which le" to it# Thereaon are intangible#

7

The e"itor "eal with thee bulletin# -e it in hi office, rea"them, rarely "oe he ee any large portion of the e!ent themel!e#-e mut, a we ha!e een, woo at leat a ection of hi rea"er e!ery"ay, becaue they will lea!e him without mercy if a ri!al paperhappen to hit their fancy# -e work un"er enormou preure, for thecompetition of newpaper i often a matter of minute# E!ery bulletinreuire a wift but complicate" ju"gment# &t mut be un"ertoo", putin relation to other bulletin alo un"ertoo", an" playe" up orplaye" "own accor"ing to it probable interet for the public, a thee"itor concei!e it# Without tan"ar"iHation, without tereotype,without routine ju"gment, without a fairly ruthle "iregar" ofubtlety, the e"itor woul" oon "ie of e+citement# The final page iof a "efinite iHe, mut be rea"y at a precie moment there can be

only a certain number of caption on the item, an" in each captionthere mut be a "efinite number of letter# 4lway there i theprecariou urgency of the buying public, the law of libel, an" the



poibility of en"le trouble# The thing coul" not be manage" at allwithout ytematiHation, for in a tan"ar"iHe" pro"uct there ieconomy of time an" effort, a well a a partial guarantee againtfailure#

&t i here that newpaper influence each other mot "eeply# Thu when

the war broke out, the 4merican newpaper were confronte" with aubject about which they ha" no pre!iou e+perience# Certain "ailie,rich enough to pay cable toll, took the lea" in ecuring new, an"the way that new wa preente" became a mo"el for the whole pre#But where "i" that mo"el come fromI &t came from the Englih pre,not becaue orthcliffe owne" 4merican newpaper, but becaue atfirt it wa eaier to buy Englih correpon"ence, an" becaue, later,it wa eaier for 4merican journalit to rea" Englih newpaper thanit wa for them to rea" any other# Lon"on wa the cable an" newcenter, an" it wa there that a certain technic for reporting the warwa e!ol!e"# .omething imilar occurre" in the reporting of theuian e!olution# &n that intance, acce to uia wa cloe" bymilitary cenorhip, both uian an" 4llie", an" cloe" till more

effecti!ely by the "ifficultie of the uian language# But abo!e allit wa cloe" to effecti!e new reporting by the fact that the har"etthing to report i chao, e!en though it i an e!ol!ing chao# Thiput the formulating of uian new at it ource in -elingfor,.tockholm, Gene!a, Pari an" Lon"on, into the han" of cenor an"propagan"it# They were for a long time ubject to no check of anykin"# ntil they ha" ma"e themel!e ri"iculou they create", let ua"mit, out of ome genuine apect of the huge uian maeltrom, aet of tereotype o e!ocati!e of hate an" fear, that the !ery betintinct of journalim, it "eire to go an" ee an" tell, wa for along time cruhe"# 8)ootnote3 FCf# 4 Tet of the ew,F by WalterLippmann an" Charle erH, aite" by )aye Lippmann, Fewepublic,F 4ugut 7, /056#<

;

E!ery newpaper when it reache the rea"er i the reult of a wholeerie of election a to what item hall be printe", in whatpoition they hall be printe", how much pace each hall occupy, whatemphai each hall ha!e# There are no objecti!e tan"ar" here# Thereare con!ention# Take two newpaper publihe" in the ame city on theame morning# The hea"line of one rea"3 %Britain ple"ge ai" toBerlin againt )rench aggreion )rance openly back Pole#% Thehea"line of the econ" i %r# .tillmanN Other Lo!e#% Which youprefer i a matter of tate, but not entirely a matter of the e"itorNtate# &t i a matter of hi ju"gment a to what will aborb the halfhourN attention a certain et of rea"er will gi!e to hi newpaper#ow the problem of ecuring attention i by no mean eui!alent to"iplaying the new in the perpecti!e lai" "own by religiou teachingor by ome form of ethical culture# &t i a problem of pro!okingfeeling in the rea"er, of in"ucing him to feel a ene of peronali"entification with the torie he i rea"ing# ew which "oe notoffer thi opportunity to intro"uce oneelf into the truggle which it"epict cannot appeal to a wi"e au"ience# The au"ience mutparticipate in the new, much a it participate in the "rama, byperonal i"entification# Aut a e!eryone hol" hi breath when theheroine i in "anger, a he help Babe uth wing hi bat, o inubtler form the rea"er enter into the new# &n or"er that he hallenter he mut fin" a familiar foothol" in the tory, an" thi iupplie" to him by the ue of tereotype# They tell him that if an

aociation of plumber i calle" a %combine% it i appropriate to"e!elop hi hotility if it i calle" a %group of lea"ing buinemen% the cue i for a fa!orable reaction#



&t i in a combination of thee element that the power to createopinion rei"e# E"itorial reinforce# .ometime in a ituation thaton the new page i too confuing to permit of i"entification, theygi!e the rea"er a clue by mean of which he engage himelf# 4 clue hemut ha!e if, a mot of u mut, he i to eiHe the new in a hurry#

4 uggetion of ome ort he "eman", which tell him, o to peak,where he, a man concei!ing himelf to be uch an" uch a peron, hallintegrate hi feeling with the new he rea"#

%&t ha been ai"% write Walter Bagehot, 8)ootnote3 On the Emotion ofCon!iction, FLiterary .tu"ieF, *ol# &ll, p# /15#< %that if youcan only get a mi""lecla Englihman to think whether there areNnail in .iriu,N he will oon ha!e an opinion on it# &t will be"ifficult to make him think, but if he "oe think, he cannot ret in anegati!e, he will come to ome "eciion# 4n" on any or"inary topic, ofcoure, it i o# 4 grocer ha a full cree" a to foreign policy, ayoung la"y a complete theory of the acrament, a to which neitherha any "oubt whate!er#%

'et that ame grocer will ha!e many "oubt about hi grocerie, an"that young la"y, mar!elouly certain about the acrament, may ha!eall kin" of "oubt a to whether to marry the grocer, an" if notwhether it i proper to accept hi attention# The ability to ret inthe negati!e implie either a lack of interet in the reult, or a!i!i" ene of competing alternati!e# &n the cae of foreign policyor the acrament, the interet in the reult i intene, while meanfor checking the opinion are poor# Thi i the plight of the rea"er ofthe general new# &f he i to rea" it at all he mut be interete",that i to ay, he mut enter into the ituation an" care about theoutcome# But if he "oe that he cannot ret in a negati!e, an" unlein"epen"ent mean of checking the lea" gi!en him by hi newpapere+it, the !ery fact that he i interete" may make it "ifficult toarri!e at that balance of opinion which may mot nearly appro+imatethe truth# The more paionately in!ol!e" he become, the more he willten" to reent not only a "ifferent !iew, but a "iturbing bit ofnew# That i why many a newpaper fin" that, ha!ing honetly e!oke"the partianhip of it rea"er, it can not eaily, uppoing thee"itor belie!e the fact warrant it, change poition# &f a change ineceary, the tranition ha to be manage" with the utmot kill an""elicacy# ually a newpaper will not attempt o haHar"ou aperformance# &t i eaier an" afer to ha!e the new of that ubjecttaper off an" "iappear, thu putting out the fire by tar!ing it#

C-4PTE JJ&*

EW., TT-, 4$ 4 COCL.&O

4 we begin to make more an" more e+act tu"ie of the pre, muchwill "epen" upon the hypothei we hol"# &f we aume with r#.inclair, an" mot of hi opponent, that new an" truth are two wor"for the ame thing, we hall, & belie!e, arri!e nowhere# We hallpro!e that on thi point the newpaper lie"# We hall pro!e that onthat point r# .inclairN account lie"# We hall "emontrate that r#.inclair lie" when he ai" that omebo"y lie", an" that omebo"y lie"when he ai" r# .inclair lie"# We hall !ent our feeling, but we

hall !ent them into air#

The hypothei, which eem to me the mot fertile, i that new an"



truth are not the ame thing, an" mut be clearly "itinguihe"#8)ootnote3 When & wrote FLiberty an" the ew,F & "i" notun"ertan" thi "itinction clearly enough to tate it, but Fcf#Fp# ?0 ff#< The function of new i to ignaliHe an e!ent, the functionof truth i to bring to light the hi""en fact, to et them intorelation with each other, an" make a picture of reality on which men

can act# Only at thoe point, where ocial con"ition takerecogniHable an" meaurable hape, "o the bo"y of truth an" the bo"yof new coinci"e# That i a comparati!ely mall part of the wholefiel" of human interet# &n thi ector, an" only in thi ector, thetet of the new are ufficiently e+act to make the charge ofper!erion or uppreion more than a partian ju"gment# There i no"efene, no e+tenuation, no e+cue whate!er, for tating i+ timethat Lenin i "ea", when the only information the paper poee i areport that he i "ea" from a ource repeate"ly hown to beunreliable# The new, in that intance, i not %Lenin $ea"% but%-elingfor .ay Lenin i $ea"#% 4n" a newpaper can be ake" to takethe reponibility of not making Lenin more "ea" than the ource ofthe new i reliable if there i one ubject on which e"itor are

mot reponible it i in their ju"gment of the reliability of theource# But when it come to "ealing, for e+ample, with torie ofwhat the uian people want, no uch tet e+it#

The abence of thee e+act tet account, & think, for the characterof the profeion, a no other e+planation "oe# There i a !ery mallbo"y of e+act knowle"ge, which it reuire no outtan"ing ability ortraining to "eal with# The ret i in the journalitN own "icretion#Once he "epart from the region where it i "efinitely recor"e" at theCounty ClerkN office that Aohn .mith ha gone into bankruptcy, allfi+e" tan"ar" "iappear# The tory of why Aohn .mith faile", hihuman frailtie, the analyi of the economic con"ition on which hewa hipwrecke", all of thi can be tol" in a hun"re" "ifferent way#There i no "icipline in applie" pychology, a there i a "iciplinein me"icine, engineering, or e!en law, which ha authority to "irectthe journalitN min" when he pae from the new to the !ague realmof truth# There are no canon to "irect hi own min", an" no canonthat coerce the rea"erN ju"gment or the publiherN# -i !erion ofthe truth i only hi !erion# -ow can he "emontrate the truth a heee itI -e cannot "emontrate it, any more than r# .inclair Lewican "emontrate that he ha tol" the whole truth about ain .treet#4n" the more he un"ertan" hi own weaknee, the more rea"y he ito a"mit that where there i no objecti!e tet, hi own opinion i inome !ital meaure contructe" out of hi own tereotype, accor"ingto hi own co"e, an" by the urgency of hi own interet# -e know thathe i eeing the worl" through ubjecti!e lene# -e cannot "eny thathe too i, a .helley remarke", a "ome of many>colore" gla whichtain the white ra"iance of eternity#

4n" by thi knowle"ge hi aurance i tempere"# -e may ha!e all kin"of moral courage, an" ometime ha, but he lack that utainingcon!iction of a certain technic which finally free" the phyicalcience from theological control# &t wa the gra"ual "e!elopment ofan irrefragable metho" that ga!e the phyicit hi intellectualfree"om a againt all the power of the worl"# -i proof were oclear, hi e!i"ence o harply uperior to tra"ition, that he brokeaway finally from all control# But the journalit ha no uch upportin hi own concience or in fact# The control e+ercie" o!er him bythe opinion of hi employer an" hi rea"er, i not the control oftruth by preju"ice, but of one opinion by another opinion that it i

not "emontrably le true# Between Au"ge GaryN aertion that theunion will "etroy 4merican intitution, an" r# GomperN aertionthat they are agencie of the right of man, the choice ha, in large



meaure, to be go!erne" by the will to belie!e#

The tak of "eflating thee contro!erie, an" re"ucing them to apoint where they can be reporte" a new, i not a tak which thereporter can perform# &t i poible an" neceary for journalit tobring home to people the uncertain character of the truth on which

their opinion are foun"e", an" by criticim an" agitation to pro"ocial cience into making more uable formulation of ocial fact,an" to pro" tatemen into etablihing more !iible intitution# Thepre, in other wor", can fight for the e+tenion of reportabletruth# But a ocial truth i organiHe" to>"ay, the pre i notcontitute" to furnih from one e"ition to the ne+t the amount ofknowle"ge which the "emocratic theory of public opinion "eman"# Thii not "ue to the Bra Check, a the uality of new in ra"icalpaper how, but to the fact that the pre "eal with a ociety inwhich the go!erning force are o imperfectly recor"e"# The theorythat the pre can itelf recor" thoe force i fale# &t cannormally recor" only what ha been recor"e" for it by the working ofintitution# E!erything ele i argument an" opinion, an" fluctuate

with the !iciitu"e, the elf>concioune, an" the courage of thehuman min"#

&f the pre i not o uni!erally wicke", nor o "eeply conpiring,a r# .inclair woul" ha!e u belie!e, it i !ery much more frail thanthe "emocratic theory ha a yet a"mitte"# &t i too frail to carrythe whole bur"en of popular o!ereignty, to upply pontaneouly thetruth which "emocrat hope" wa inborn# 4n" when we e+pect it toupply uch a bo"y of truth we employ a milea"ing tan"ar" ofju"gment# We miun"ertan" the limite" nature of new, the illimitablecomple+ity of ociety we o!eretimate our own en"urance, publicpirit, an" all>roun" competence# We uppoe an appetite forunintereting truth which i not "ico!ere" by any honet analyi ofour own tate#

&f the newpaper, then, are to be charge" with the "uty oftranlating the whole public life of mankin", o that e!ery a"ult canarri!e at an opinion on e!ery moot topic, they fail, they are boun" tofail, in any future one can concei!e they will continue to fail# &t inot poible to aume that a worl", carrie" on by "i!iion of laboran" "itribution of authority, can be go!erne" by uni!eral opinionin the whole population# nconciouly the theory et up the inglerea"er a theoretically omnicompetent, an" put upon the pre thebur"en of accomplihing whate!er repreentati!e go!ernment, in"utrialorganiHation, an" "iplomacy ha!e faile" to accomplih# 4cting upone!erybo"y for thirty minute in twenty>four hour, the pre i ake"to create a mytical force calle" Public Opinion that will take up thelack in public intitution# The pre ha often mitakenly preten"e"that it coul" "o jut that# &t ha at great moral cot to itelf,encourage" a "emocracy, till boun" to it original premie, toe+pect newpaper to upply pontaneouly for e!ery organ ofgo!ernment, for e!ery ocial problem, the machinery of informationwhich thee "o not normally upply themel!e# &ntitution, ha!ingfaile" to furnih themel!e with intrument of knowle"ge, ha!ebecome a bun"le of %problem,% which the population a a whole,rea"ing the pre a a whole, i uppoe" to ol!e#

The pre, in other wor", ha come to be regar"e" a an organ of"irect "emocracy, charge" on a much wi"er cale, an" from "ay to "ay,with the function often attribute" to the initiati!e, referen"um, an"

recall# The Court of Public Opinion, open "ay an" night, i to lay"own the law for e!erything all the time# &t i not workable# 4n" whenyou coni"er the nature of new, it i not e!en thinkable# )or the



new, a we ha!e een, i precie in proportion to the preciion withwhich the e!ent i recor"e"# nle the e!ent i capable of beingname", meaure", gi!en hape, ma"e pecific, it either fail to takeon the character of new, or it i ubject to the acci"ent an"preju"ice of ober!ation#

Therefore, on the whole, the uality of the new about mo"ern ocietyi an in"e+ of it ocial organiHation# The better the intitution,the more all interet concerne" are formally repreente", the moreiue are "ientangle", the more objecti!e criteria are intro"uce",the more perfectly an affair can be preente" a new# 4t it bet thepre i a er!ant an" guar"ian of intitution at it wort it i amean by which a few e+ploit ocial "iorganiHation to their own en"#&n the "egree to which intitution fail to function, the uncrupuloujournalit can fih in trouble" water, an" the concientiou one mutgamble with uncertaintie#

The pre i no ubtitute for intitution# &t i like the beam of aearchlight that mo!e retlely about, bringing one epio"e an" then

another out of "arkne into !iion# en cannot "o the work of theworl" by thi light alone# They cannot go!ern ociety by epio"e,inci"ent, an" eruption# &t i only when they work by a tea"y lightof their own, that the pre, when it i turne" upon them, re!eal aituation intelligible enough for a popular "eciion# The trouble lie"eeper than the pre, an" o "oe the reme"y# &t lie in ocialorganiHation bae" on a ytem of analyi an" recor", an" in all thecorollarie of that principle in the aban"onment of the theory of theomnicompetent citiHen, in the "ecentraliHation of "eciion, in thecoor"ination of "eciion by comparable recor" an" analyi# &f at thecenter of management there i a running au"it, which make workintelligible to thoe who "o it, an" thoe who uperinten" it, iuewhen they arie are not the mere colliion of the blin"# Then, too,the new i unco!ere" for the pre by a ytem of intelligence thati alo a check upon the pre#

That i the ra"ical way# )or the trouble of the pre, like thetrouble of repreentati!e go!ernment, be it territorial orfunctional, like the trouble of in"utry, be it capitalit,cooperati!e, or communit, go back to a common ource3 to the failureof elf>go!erning people to trancen" their caual e+perience an"their preju"ice, by in!enting, creating, an" organiHing a machinery ofknowle"ge# &t i becaue they are compelle" to act without a reliablepicture of the worl", that go!ernment, chool, newpaper an"churche make uch mall hea"way againt the more ob!iou failing of"emocracy, againt !iolent preju"ice, apathy, preference for thecuriou tri!ial a againt the "ull important, an" the hunger fori"ehow an" three legge" cal!e# Thi i the primary "efect ofpopular go!ernment, a "efect inherent in it tra"ition, an" all itother "efect can, & belie!e, be trace" to thi one#

P4T *&&&

OG4&KE$ &TELL&GECE

C-4PTE JJ*# T-E ETE&G WE$GE % JJ*&# &TELL&GECE WOD

% JJ*&&# T-E 4PPE4L TO T-E PBL&C % JJ*&&&# T-E 4PPE4L TO E4.O



C-4PTE JJ*

T-E ETE&G WE$GE

/

&f the reme"y were intereting, 4merican pioneer like CharlecCarthy, obert *alentine, an" )re"erick W# Taylor woul" not ha!e ha"to fight o har" for a hearing# But it i clear why they ha" to fight,an" why bureau of go!ernmental reearch, in"utrial au"it, bu"getingan" the like are the ugly "uckling of reform# They re!ere theproce by which intereting public opinion are built up# &ntea" ofpreenting a caual fact, a large creen of tereotype, an" a"ramatic i"entification, they break "own the "rama, break through thetereotype, an" offer men a picture of fact, which i unfamiliar an"to them imperonal# When thi i not painful, it i "ull, an" thoe to

whom it i painful, the tra"ing politician an" the partian who hamuch to conceal, often e+ploit the "ullne that the public feel, inor"er to remo!e the pain that they feel#

5

'et e!ery complicate" community ha ought the aitance of pecialmen, of augur, priet, el"er# Our own "emocracy, bae" though itwa on a theory of uni!eral competence, ought lawyer to manage itgo!ernment, an" to help manage it in"utry# &t wa recogniHe" thatthe pecially traine" man wa in ome "im way oriente" to a wi"erytem of truth than that which arie pontaneouly in the amateurNmin"# But e+perience ha hown that the tra"itional lawyerN euipmentwa not enough aitance# The Great .ociety ha" grown furiouly an"to coloal "imenion by the application of technical knowle"ge# &twa ma"e by engineer who ha" learne" to ue e+act meaurement an"uantitati!e analyi# &t coul" not be go!erne", men began to"ico!er, by men who thought "e"ucti!ely about right an" wrong# &tcoul" be brought un"er human control only by the technic which ha"create" it# Gra"ually, then, the more enlightene" "irecting min" ha!ecalle" in e+pert who were traine", or ha" traine" themel!e, to makepart of thi Great .ociety intelligible to thoe who manage it# Theemen are known by all kin" of name, a tatitician, accountant,au"itor, in"utrial counellor, engineer of many pecie,cientific manager, peronnel a"minitrator, reearch men,%cientit,% an" ometime jut a plain pri!ate ecretarie# Theyha!e brought with them each a jargon of hi own, a well a filingcabinet, car" catalogue, graph, looe>leaf contraption, an" abo!eall the perfectly oun" i"eal of an e+ecuti!e who it before aflat>top "ek, one heet of typewritten paper before him, an" "eci"eon matter of policy preente" in a form rea"y for hi rejection orappro!al#

Thi whole "e!elopment ha been the work, not o much of a pontaneoucreati!e e!olution, a of blin" natural election# The tateman, thee+ecuti!e, the party lea"er, the hea" of a !oluntary aociation,foun" that if he ha" to "icu two "oHen "ifferent ubject in thecoure of the "ay, omebo"y woul" ha!e to coach him# -e began toclamor for memoran"a# -e foun" he coul" not rea" hi mail# -e "eman"e"omebo"y who woul" blue>pencil the intereting entence in the

important letter# -e foun" he coul" not "iget the great tack oftype>written report that grew mellow on hi "ek# -e "eman"e"ummarie# -e foun" he coul" not rea" an unen"ing erie of figure#



-e embrace" the man who ma"e colore" picture of them# -e foun" thathe really "i" not know one machine from another# -e hire" engineer topick them, an" tell him how much they cot an" what they coul" "o# -epeele" off one bur"en after another, a a man will take off firt hihat, then hi coat, then hi collar, when he i truggling to mo!e anunwiel"y loa"#

M

'et curiouly enough, though he knew that he nee"e" help, he wa lowto call in the ocial cientit# The chemit, the phyicit, thegeologit, ha" a much earlier an" more frien"ly reception#Laboratorie were et up for them, in"ucement offere", for there wauick appreciation of the !ictorie o!er nature# But the cientit whoha human nature a hi problem i in a "ifferent cae# There are manyreaon for thi3 the chief one, that he ha o few !ictorie toe+hibit# -e ha o few, becaue unle he "eal with the hitoricpat, he cannot pro!e hi theorie before offering them to the public#The phyical cientit can make an hypothei, tet it, re!ie the

hypothei hun"re" of time, an", if after all that, he i wrong, noone ele ha to pay the price# But the ocial cientit cannot beginto offer the aurance of a laboratory tet, an" if hi a"!ice ifollowe", an" he i wrong, the coneuence may be incalculable# -e iin the nature of thing far more reponible, an" far le certain#

But more than that# &n the laboratory cience the tu"ent haconuere" the "ilemma of thought an" action# -e bring a ample of theaction to a uiet place, where it can be repeate" at will, an"e+amine" at leiure# But the ocial cientit i contantly beingimpale" on a "ilemma# &f he tay in hi library, where he ha theleiure to think, he ha to rely upon the e+cee"ingly caual an"meager printe" recor" that come to him through official report,newpaper, an" inter!iew# &f he goe out into %the worl"% wherething are happening, he ha to er!e a long, often wateful,apprenticehip, before he i a"mitte" to the anctum where they arebeing "eci"e"# What he cannot "o i to "ip into action an" out againwhene!er it uit him# There are no pri!ilege" litener# The man ofaffair, ober!ing that the ocial cientit know only from theouti"e what he know, in part at leat, from the ini"e, recogniHingthat the ocial cientitN hypothei i not in the nature of thinguceptible of laboratory proof, an" that !erification i poibleonly in the %real% worl", ha "e!elope" a rather low opinion of ocialcientit who "o not hare hi !iew of public policy#

&n hi heart of heart the ocial cientit hare thi etimate ofhimelf# -e ha little inner certainty about hi own work# -e onlyhalf belie!e in it, an" being ure of nothing, he can fin" nocompelling reaon for initing on hi own free"om of thought# Whatcan he actually claim for it, in the light of hi own concienceI8)ootnote3 Cf# Charle E# erriam, FThe Preent .tate of the .tu"yof PoliticF, F4merican Political .cience e!iewF, *ol# J*#o# 5, ay, /05/#< -i "ata are uncertain, hi mean of !erificationlacking# The !ery bet ualitie in him are a ource of frutration#)or if he i really critical an" aturate" in the cientific pirit,he cannot be "octrinaire, an" go to 4rmage""on againt the truteean" the tu"ent an" the Ci!ic )e"eration an" the coner!ati!e prefor a theory of which he i not ure# &f you are going to 4rmage""on,you ha!e to battle for the Lor", but the political cientit i alwaya little "oubtful whether the Lor" calle" him#

Coneuently if o much of ocial cience i apologetic rather thancontructi!e, the e+planation lie in the opportunitie of ocial



cience, not in %capitalim#% The phyical cientit achie!e" theirfree"om from clericalim by working out a metho" that pro"uce"concluion of a ort that coul" not be uppree" or ignore"# Theycon!ince" themel!e an" acuire" "ignity, an" knew what they werefighting for# The ocial cientit will acuire hi "ignity an" hitrength when he ha worke" out hi metho"# -e will "o that by turning

into opportunity the nee" among "irecting men of the Great .ociety forintrument of analyi by which an in!iible an" ma"e intelligible#

But a thing go now, the ocial cientit aemble hi "ata out of ama of unrelate" material# .ocial procee are recor"e"pamo"ically, uite often a acci"ent of a"minitration# 4 report toCongre, a "ebate, an in!etigation, legal brief, a cenu, atariff, a ta+ che"ule the material, like the kull of the Pilt"ownman, ha to be put together by ingeniou inference before the tu"entobtain any ort of picture of the e!ent he i tu"ying# Though it"eal with the conciou life of hi fellow citiHen, it i all toooften "itreingly opaue, becaue the man who i trying togeneraliHe ha practically no uper!iion of the way hi "ata are

collecte"# &magine me"ical reearch con"ucte" by tu"ent who coul"rarely go into a hopital, were "epri!e" of animal e+periment, an"compelle" to "raw concluion from the torie of people who ha" beenill, the report of nure, each of whom ha" her own ytem of"iagnoi, an" the tatitic compile" by the Bureau of &nternale!enue on the e+ce profit of "ruggit# The ocial cientit hauually to make what he can out of categorie that were uncriticallyin the min" of an official who a"minitere" ome part of a law, or whowa out to jutify, to perua"e, to claim, or to pro!e# The tu"entknow thi, an", a a protection againt it, ha "e!elope" that branchof cholarhip which i an elaborate" upicion about where to"icount hi information#

That i a !irtue, but it become a !ery thin !irtue when it i merelya correcti!e for the unwholeome poition of ocial cience# )or thecholar i con"emne" to gue a hrew"ly a he can why in a ituationnot clearly un"ertoo" omething or other may ha!e happene"# But thee+pert who i employe" a the me"iator among repreentati!e, an" athe mirror an" meaure of a"minitration, ha a !ery "ifferent controlof the fact# &ntea" of being the man who generaliHe from the fact"roppe" to him by the men of action, he become the man who preparethe fact for the men of action# Thi i a profoun" change in hitrategic poition# -e no longer tan" outi"e, chewing the cu"pro!i"e" by buy men of affair, but he take hi place in front of"eciion intea" of behin" it# To>"ay the euence i that the man ofaffair fin" hi fact, an" "eci"e on the bai of them then, ometime later, the ocial cientit "e"uce e+cellent reaon why he "i"or "i" not "eci"e wiely# Thi e+ pot facto relationhip i aca"emicin the ba" ene of that fine wor"# The real euence houl" be onewhere the "iinterete" e+pert firt fin" an" formulate the factfor the man of action, an" later make what wi"om he can out ofcomparion between the "eciion, which he un"ertan", an" the fact,which he organiHe"#

7

)or the phyical cience thi change in trategic poition beganlowly, an" then accelerate" rapi"ly# There wa a time when thein!entor an" the engineer were romantic half>tar!e" outi"er,treate" a crank# The buine man an" the artian knew all the

myterie of their craft# Then the myterie grew more myteriou, an"at lat in"utry began to "epen" upon phyical law an" chemicalcombination that no eye coul" ee, an" only a traine" min" coul"



concei!e# The cientit mo!e" from hi noble garret in the Latinuarter into office buil"ing an" laboratorie# )or he alone coul"contruct a working image of the reality on which in"utry rete"#)rom the new relationhip he took a much a he ga!e, perhap more3pure cience "e!elope" fater than applie", though it "rew iteconomic upport, a great "eal of it inpiration, an" e!en more of

it rele!ancy, from contant contact with practical "eciion# Butphyical cience till labore" un"er the enormou limitation that themen who ma"e "eciion ha" only their commonene to gui"e them# Theya"minitere" without cientific ai" a worl" complicate" by cientit#4gain they ha" to "eal with fact they coul" not apprehen", an" aonce they ha" to call in engineer, they now ha!e to call intatitician, accountant, e+pert of all ort#

Thee practical tu"ent are the true pioneer of a new ocialcience# They are %in meh with the "ri!ing wheel% 8)ootnote3 Cf# The4""re of the Prei"ent of the 4merican Philoophical 4ociation,r# alph Barton Perry, $ec# 5?, /056# Publihe" in the Procee"ing ofthe Twentieth 4nnual eeting#< an" from thi practical engagement of

cience an" action, both will benefit ra"ically3 action by theclarification of it belief belief by a continuing tet in action#We are in the earliet beginning# But if it i conce"e" that alllarge form of human aociation mut, becaue of heer practical"ifficulty, contain men who will come to ee the nee" for an e+pertreporting of their particular en!ironment, then the imagination ha apremie on which to work# &n the e+change of technic an" reult amonge+pert taff, one can ee, & think, the beginning of e+perimentalmetho" in ocial cience# When each chool "itrict an" bu"get, an"health "epartment, an" factory, an" tariff che"ule, i the materialof knowle"ge for e!ery other, the number of comparable e+periencebegin to approach the "imenion of genuine e+periment# &nforty>eight tate, an" 5766 citie, an" 511,666 chool houe,516,666 manufacturing etablihment, 51,666 mine an" uarrie, therei a wealth of e+perience, if only it were recor"e" an" a!ailable# 4n"there i, too, opportunity for trial an" error at uch light rikthat any reaonable hypothei might be gi!en a fair tet withouthaking the foun"ation of ociety#

The we"ge ha been "ri!en, not only by ome "irector of in"utry an"ome tatemen who ha" to ha!e help, but by the bureau of municipalreearch, 8)ootnote3 The number of thee organiHation in the nite".tate i !ery great# .ome are ali!e, ome half "ea"# They are inrapi" flu+# Lit of them upplie" to me by $r# L# $# pon of the$etroit Bureau of Go!ernmental eearch, i ebecca B# ankin of theunicipal eference Library of ew 'ork City, r# E"war" 4#)itHpatrick, .ecretary of the .tate Boar" of E"ucation =Wiconin@,r# .a!el Kiman" of the Bureau of &n"utrial eearch =ew 'ork City@,run into the hun"re"#< the legilati!e reference librarie, thepecialiHe" lobbie of corporation an" tra"e union an" publiccaue, an" by !oluntary organiHation like the League of Women*oter, the ConumerN League, the anufacturerN 4ociation3 byhun"re" of tra"e aociation, an" citiHenN union by publicationlike the F.earchlight on CongreF an" the F.ur!eyF an" byfoun"ation like the General E"ucation Boar"# ot all by any mean are"iinterete"# That i not the point# 4ll of them "o begin to"emontrate the nee" for interpoing ome form of e+pertne betweenthe pri!ate citiHen an" the !at en!ironment in which he i entangle"#

C-4PTE JJ*&



&TELL&GECE WOD

/

T-E practice of "emocracy ha been ahea" of it theory# )or the theory

hol" that the a"ult elector taken together make "eciion out of awill that i in them# But jut a there grew up go!erning hierarchiewhich were in!iible in theory, o there ha been a large amount ofcontructi!e a"aptation, alo unaccounte" for in the image of"emocracy# Way ha!e been foun" to repreent many interet an"function that are normally out of ight#

We are mot conciou of thi in our theory of the court, when wee+plain their legilati!e power an" their !etoe on the theory thatthere are interet to be guar"e" which might be forgotten by theelecte" official# But the Cenu Bureau, when it count, claifie,an" correlate people, thing, an" change, i alo peaking foruneen factor in the en!ironment# The Geological .ur!ey make mineral

reource e!i"ent, the $epartment of 4griculture repreent in thecouncil of the nation factor of which each farmer ee only aninfiniteimal part# .chool authoritie, the Tariff Commiion, theconular er!ice, the Bureau of &nternal e!enue gi!e repreentationto peron, i"ea, an" object which woul" ne!er automatically fin"themel!e repreente" in thi perpecti!e by an election# TheChil"renN Bureau i the pokeman of a whole comple+ of interet an"function not or"inarily !iible to the !oter, an", therefore,incapable of becoming pontaneouly a part of hi public opinion#Thu the printing of comparati!e tatitic of infant mortality ioften followe" by a re"uction of the "eath rate of babie# unicipalofficial an" !oter "i" not ha!e, before publication, a place intheir picture of the en!ironment for thoe babie# The tatitic ma"ethem !iible, a !iible a if the babie ha" electe" an al"erman toair their grie!ance#

&n the .tate $epartment the go!ernment maintain a $i!iion of )arEatern 4ffair# What i it forI The Aapanee an" the ChineeGo!ernment both maintain ambaa"or in Wahington# 4re they notualifie" to peak for the )ar EatI They are it repreentati!e# 'etnobo"y woul" argue that the 4merican Go!ernment coul" learn all thatit nee"e" to know about the )ar Eat by conulting thee ambaa"or#.uppoing them to be a can"i" a they know how to be, they are tilllimite" channel of information# Therefore, to upplement them wemaintain embaie in Tokio an" Peking, an" conular agent at manypoint# 4lo, & aume, ome ecret agent# Thee people are uppoe"to en" report which pa through the $i!iion of )ar Eatern 4ffairto the .ecretary of .tate# ow what "oe the .ecretary e+pect of the$i!iionI & know one who e+pecte" it to pen" it appropriation# Butthere are .ecretarie to whom pecial re!elation i "enie", an" theyturn to their "i!iion for help# The lat thing they e+pect to fin"i a neat argument jutifying the 4merican poition#

What they "eman" i that the e+pert hall bring the )ar Eat to the.ecretaryN "ek, with all the element in uch relation that it i aif he were in contact with the )ar Eat itelf# The e+pert muttranlate, implify, generaliHe, but the inference from the reultmut apply in the Eat, not merely on the premie of the report# &fthe .ecretary i worth hi alt, the !ery lat thing he will toleratein hi e+pert i the upicion that they ha!e a %policy#% -e "oe not

want to know from them whether they like Aapanee policy in China# -ewant to know what "ifferent clae of Chinee an" Aapanee, Englih,)renchmen, German, an" uian, think about it, an" what they are



likely to "o becaue of what they think# -e want all that repreente"to him a the bai of hi "eciion# The more faithfully the $i!iionrepreent what i not otherwie repreente", either by the Aapaneeor 4merican ambaa"or, or the .enator an" Congremen from thePacific coat, the better .ecretary of .tate he will be# -e may "eci"eto take hi policy from the Pacific Coat, but he will take hi !iew

of Aapan from Aapan#

5

&t i no acci"ent that the bet "iplomatic er!ice in the worl" i theone in which the "i!orce between the aembling of knowle"ge an" thecontrol of policy i mot perfect# $uring the war in many BritihEmbaie an" in the Britih )oreign Office there were nearly alwaymen, permanent official or ele pecial appointee, who uiteuccefully "icounte" the pre!ailing war min"# They "icar"e" therigmarole of being pro an" con, of ha!ing fa!orite nationalitie, an"pet a!erion, an" un"eli!ere" peroration in their boom# They leftthat to the political chief# But in an 4merican Embay & once hear"

an ambaa"or ay that he ne!er reporte" anything to Wahington whichwoul" not cheer up the folk at home# -e charme" all thoe who methim, helpe" many a tran"e" war worker, an" wa uperb when heun!eile" a monument#

-e "i" not un"ertan" that the power of the e+pert "epen" uponeparating himelf from thoe who make the "eciion, upon not caring,in hi e+pert elf, what "eciion i ma"e# The man who, like theambaa"or, take a line, an" me""le with the "eciion, i oon"icounte"# There he i, jut one more on that i"e of the uetion#)or when he begin to care too much, he begin to ee what he wiheto ee, an" by that fact ceae to ee what he i there to ee# -e ithere to repreent the uneen# -e repreent people who are not!oter, function of !oter that are not e!i"ent, e!ent that are outof ight, mute people, unborn people, relation between thing an"people# -e ha a contituency of intangible# 4n" intangible cannotbe ue" to form a political majority, becaue !oting i in the latanalyi a tet of trength, a ublimate" battle, an" the e+pertrepreent no trength a!ailable in the imme"iate# But he can e+ercieforce by "iturbing the line up of the force# By making the in!iible!iible, he confront the people who e+ercie material force with anew en!ironment, et i"ea an" feeling at work in them, throw themout of poition, an" o, in the profoun"et way, affect the "eciion#

en cannot long act in a way that they know i a contra"iction of theen!ironment a they concei!e it# &f they are bent on acting in acertain way they ha!e to reconcei!e the en!ironment, they ha!e tocenor out, to rationaliHe# But if in their preence, there i aninitent fact which i o obtrui!e that they cannot e+plain it away,one of three coure i open# They can per!erely ignore it, thoughthey will cripple themel!e in the proce, will o!eract their partan" come to grief# They can take it into account but refue to act#They pay in internal "icomfort an" frutration# Or, an" & belie!ethi to be the mot freuent cae, they a"jut their whole beha!ior tothe enlarge" en!ironment#

The i"ea that the e+pert i an ineffectual peron becaue he letother make the "eciion i uite contrary to e+perience# The moreubtle the element that enter into the "eciion, the moreirreponible power the e+pert wiel"# -e i certain, moreo!er, to

e+ercie more power in the future than e!er he "i" before, becaueincreaingly the rele!ant fact will elu"e the !oter an" thea"minitrator# 4ll go!erning agencie will ten" to organiHe bo"ie of



reearch an" information, which will throw out tentacle an" e+pan",a ha!e the intelligence "epartment of all the armie in the worl"#But the e+pert will remain human being# They will enjoy power, an"their temptation will be to appoint themel!e cenor, an" o aborbthe real function of "eciion# nle their function i correctly"efine" they will ten" to pa on the fact they think appropriate,

an" to pa "own the "eciion they appro!e# They will ten", in hort,to become a bureaucracy#

The only intitutional afeguar" i to eparate a abolutely a it ipoible to "o o the taff which e+ecute from the taff whichin!etigate# The two houl" be parallel but uite "itinct bo"ie ofmen, recruite" "ifferently, pai" if poible from eparate fun",reponible to "ifferent hea", intrinically uninterete" in eachotherN peronal ucce# &n in"utry, the au"itor, accountant, an"inpector houl" be in"epen"ent of the manager, the uperinten"ent,foremen, an" in time, & belie!e, we hall come to ee that in or"er tobring in"utry un"er ocial control the machinery of recor" will ha!eto be in"epen"ent of the boar" of "irector an" the harehol"er#

M

But in buil"ing the intelligence ection of in"utry an" politic, we"o not tart on cleare" groun"# 4n", apart from initing on thibaic eparation of function, it woul" be cumberome to init toopreciely on the form which in any particular intance the principlehall take# There are men who belie!e in intelligence work, an" willa"opt it there are men who "o not un"ertan" it, but cannot "o theirwork without it there are men who will reit# But pro!i"e" theprinciple ha a foothol" omewhere in e!ery ocial agency it will makeprogre, an" the way to begin i to begin# &n the fe"eral go!ernment,for e+ample, it i not neceary to traighten out the a"minitrati!etangle an" the illogical "uplication of a centuryN growth in or"erto fin" a neat place for the intelligence bureau which Wahington oba"ly nee"# Before election you can promie to ruh bra!ely into thebreach# But when you arri!e there all out of breath, you fin" thateach abur"ity i in!ete" with habit, trong interet, an" chummyCongremen# 4ttack all along the line an" you engage e!ery force ofreaction# 'ou go forth to battle, a the poet ai", an" you alwayfall# 'ou can lop off an antiuate" bureau here, a co!ey of clerkthere, you can combine two bureau# 4n" by that time you are buy withthe tariff an" the railroa", an" the era of reform i o!er# Bei"e,in or"er to effect a truly logical reorganiHation of the go!ernment,uch a all can"i"ate alway promie, you woul" ha!e to "iturb morepaion than you ha!e time to uell# 4n" any new cheme, uppoingyou ha" one rea"y, woul" reuire official to man it# .ay what onewill about officehol"er, e!en .o!iet uia wa gla" to get many ofthe ol" one back an" thee ol" official, if they are too ruthlelytreate", will abotage topia itelf#

o a"minitrati!e cheme i workable without goo" will, an" goo" willabout trange practice i impoible without e"ucation# The betterway i to intro"uce into the e+iting machinery, where!er you can fin"an opening, agencie that will hol" up a mirror week by week, month bymonth# 'ou can hope, then, to make the machine !iible to thoe whowork it, a well a to the chief who are reponible, an" to thepublic outi"e# When the office>hol"er begin to ee themel!e,>>orrather when the outi"er, the chief, an" the ubor"inate all beginto ee the ame fact, the ame "amning fact if you like, the

obtruction will "iminih# The reformerN opinion that a certainbureau i inefficient i jut hi opinion, not o goo" an opinion inthe eye of the bureau, a it own# But let the work of that bureau be



analye" an" recor"e", an" then compare" with other bureau an" withpri!ate corporation, an" the argument mo!e to another plane#

There are ten "epartment at Wahington repreente" in the Cabinet#.uppoe, then, there wa a permanent intelligence ection for each#What woul" be ome of the con"ition of effecti!eneI Beyon" all

other that the intelligence official houl" be in"epen"ent both ofthe Congreional Committee "ealing with that "epartment, an" of the.ecretary at the hea" of it that they houl" not be entangle" eitherin "eciion or in action# &n"epen"ence, then, woul" turn mainly onthree point on fun", tenure, an" acce to the fact# )or clearly ifa particular Congre or "epartmental official can "epri!e them ofmoney, "imi them, or cloe the file, the taff become itcreature#

7

The uetion of fun" i both important an" "ifficult# o agency ofreearch can be really free if it "epen" upon annual "ole from what

may be a jealou or a parimoniou congre# 'et the ultimate controlof fun" cannot be remo!e" from the legilature# The financialarrangement houl" inure the taff againt left>han"e", joker an"ri"er attack, againt ly "etruction, an" houl" at the ame timepro!i"e for growth# The taff houl" be o well entrenche" that anattack on it e+itence woul" ha!e to be ma"e in the open# &t might,perhap, work behin" a fe"eral charter creating a trut fun", an" ali"ing cale o!er a perio" of year bae" on the appropriation forthe "epartment to which the intelligence bureau belonge"# o greatum of money are in!ol!e" anyway# The trut fun" might co!er theo!erhea" an" capital charge for a certain minimum taff, the li"ingcale might co!er the enlargement# 4t any rate the appropriationhoul" be put beyon" acci"ent, like the payment of any long termobligation# Thi i a much le eriou way of %tying the han" ofCongre% than i the paage of a Contitutional amen"ment or theiuance of go!ernment bon"# Congre coul" repeal the charter# Butit woul" ha!e to repeal it, not throw monkey wrenche into it#

Tenure houl" be for life, with pro!iion for retirement on a liberalpenion, with abbatical year et ai"e for a"!ance" tu"y an"training, an" with "imial only after a trial by profeionalcolleague# The con"ition which apply to any non>profit>makingintellectual career houl" apply here# &f the work i to be alient,the men who "o it mut ha!e "ignity, ecurity, an", in the upper rankat leat, that free"om of min" which you fin" only where men are nottoo imme"iately concerne" in practical "eciion#

4cce to the material houl" be etablihe" in the organic act# Thebureau houl" ha!e the right to e+amine all paper, an" to uetionany official or any outi"er# Continuou in!etigation of thi ortwoul" not at all reemble the enational legilati!e inuiry an" thepamo"ic fihing e+pe"ition which are now a common feature of ourgo!ernment# The bureau houl" ha!e the right to propoe accountingmetho" to the "epartment, an" if the propoal i rejecte", or!iolate" after it ha been accepte", to appeal un"er it charter toCongre#

&n the firt intance each intelligence bureau woul" be the connectinglink between Congre an" the $epartment, a better link, in myju"gment, than the appearance of cabinet officer on the floor of both

-oue an" .enate, though the one propoal in no way e+clu"e theother# The bureau woul" be the Congreional eye on the e+ecution ofit policy# &t woul" be the "epartmental anwer to Congreional



criticim# 4n" then, ince operation of the $epartment woul" bepermanently !iible, perhap Congre woul" ceae to feel the nee" ofthat minute legilation born of "itrut an" a fale "octrine of theeparation of power, which "oe o much to make efficienta"minitration "ifficult#

;

But, of coure, each of the ten bureau coul" not work in a watertightcompartment# &n their relation one to another lie the bet chance forthat %coor"ination% of which o much i hear" an" o little een#Clearly the !ariou taff woul" nee" to a"opt, where!er poible,tan"ar" of meaurement that were comparable# They woul" e+changetheir recor"# Then if the War $epartment an" the Pot Office both buylumber, hire carpenter, or contruct brick wall they nee" notnecearily "o them through the ame agency, for that might meancumberome o!er>centraliHation but they woul" be able to ue the amemeaure for the ame thing, be conciou of the comparion, an" betreate" a competitor# 4n" the more competition of thi ort the

better#

)or the !alue of competition i "etermine" by the !alue of thetan"ar" ue" to meaure it# &ntea", then, of aking ourel!ewhether we belie!e in competition, we houl" ak ourel!e whether webelie!e in that for which the competitor compete# o one in hiene e+pect to %abolih competition,% for when the lat !etige ofemulation ha" "iappeare", ocial effort woul" conit in mechanicalobe"ience to a routine, tempere" in a minority by nati!e inpiration#'et no one e+pect to work out competition to it logical concluionin a mur"erou truggle of each againt all# The problem i to electthe goal of competition an" the rule of the game# 4lmot alway themot !iible an" ob!iou tan"ar" of meaurement will "etermine therule of the game3 uch a money, power, popularity, applaue, or r#*eblenN %conpicuou wate#% What other tan"ar" of meaurement "oeour ci!iliHation normally pro!i"eI -ow "oe it meaure efficiency,pro"ucti!ity, er!ice, for which we are alway clamoringI

By an" large there are no meaure, an" there i, therefore, not omuch competition to achie!e thee i"eal# )or the "ifference betweenthe higher an" the lower moti!e i not, a men often aert, a"ifference between altruim an" elfihne# 8)ootnote3 FCf#FCh# J&&< &t i a "ifference between acting for eaily un"ertoo" aim,an" for aim that are obcure an" !ague# E+hort a man to make moreprofit than hi neighbor, an" he know at what to aim# E+hort him toren"er more ocial er!ice, an" how i he to be certain what er!icei ocialI What i the tet, what i the meaureI 4 ubjecti!efeeling, omebo"yN opinion# Tell a man in time of peace that he oughtto er!e hi country an" you ha!e uttere" a piou platitu"e, Tell himin time of war, an" the wor" er!ice ha a meaning it i a number ofconcrete act, enlitment, or buying bon", or a!ing foo", or workingfor a "ollar a year, an" each one of thee er!ice he ee "efinitelya part of a concrete purpoe to put at the front an army larger an"better arme", than the enemyN#

.o the more you are able to analyHe a"minitration an" work outelement that can be compare", the more you in!ent uantitati!emeaure for the ualitie you wih to promote, the more you can turncompetition to i"eal en"# &f you can contri!e the right in"e+ number8)ootnote3 & am not uing the term in"e+ number in it purely

technical meaning, but to co!er any "e!ice for the comparati!emeaurement of ocial phenomena#< you can et up a competition betweenin"i!i"ual worker in a hop between hop between factorie



between chool 8)ootnote3 .ee, for e+ample, F4n &n"e+ umber for.tate .chool .ytemF by Leonar" P# 4yre, uell .age )oun"ation,/056# The principle of the uota wa !ery uccefully applie" in theLiberty Loan Campaign, an" un"er !ery much more "ifficultcircumtance by the 4llie" aritime Tranport Council#< betweengo!ernment "epartment between regiment between "i!iion between

hip between tate countie citie an" the better your in"e+number the more ueful the competition#

:

The poibilitie that lie in the e+change of material are e!i"ent#Each "epartment of go!ernment i all the time aking for informationthat may alrea"y ha!e been obtaine" by another "epartment, thoughperhap in a omewhat "ifferent form# The .tate $epartment nee" toknow, let u ay, the e+tent of the e+ican oil reer!e, theirrelation to the ret of the worl"N upply, the preent ownerhip ofe+ican oil lan", the importance of oil to warhip now un"ercontruction or planne", the comparati!e cot in "ifferent fiel"#

-ow "oe it ecure uch information to>"ayI The information iprobably cattere" through the $epartment of &nterior, Autice,Commerce, Labor an" a!y# Either a clerk in the .tate $epartment lookup e+ican oil in a book of reference, which may or may not beaccurate, or omebo"yN pri!ate ecretary telephone omebo"y eleNpri!ate ecretary, ak for a memoran"um, an" in the coure of time a"arkey meenger arri!e with an armful of unintelligible report# The$epartment houl" be able to call on it own intelligence bureau toaemble the fact in a way uite" to the "iplomatic problem up for"eciion# 4n" thee fact the "iplomatic intelligence bureau woul"obtain from the central clearing houe# 8)ootnote3 There ha been a!at "e!elopment of uch er!ice among the tra"e aociation# Thepoibilitie of a per!erte" ue were re!eale" by the ew 'orkBuil"ing Tra"e in!etigation of /05/#<

Thi etablihment woul" pretty oon become a focu of information ofthe mot e+traor"inary kin"# 4n" the men in it woul" be ma"e aware ofwhat the problem of go!ernment really are# They woul" "eal withproblem of "efinition, of terminology, of tatitical technic, oflogic they woul" tra!ere concretely the whole gamut of the ocialcience# &t i "ifficult to ee why all thi material, e+cept a few"iplomatic an" military ecret, houl" not be open to the cholar ofthe country# &t i there that the political cientit woul" fin" thereal nut to crack an" the real reearche for hi tu"ent to make#The work nee" not all be "one in Wahington, but it coul" be "one inreference to Wahington# The central agency woul", thu, ha!e in itthe making of a national uni!erity# The taff coul" be recruite"there for the bureau from among college gra"uate# They woul" beworking on thee electe" after conultation between the curator ofthe national uni!erity an" teacher cattere" o!er the country# &fthe aociation wa a fle+ible a it ought to be, there woul" be, aa upplement to the permanent taff, a tea"y turno!er of temporaryan" pecialit appointment from the uni!eritie, an" e+changelecturer calle" out from Wahington# Thu the training an" therecruiting of the taff woul" go together# 4 part of the reearchitelf woul" be "one by tu"ent, an" political cience in theuni!eritie woul" be aociate" with politic in 4merica#

1

&n it main outline the principle i eually applicable to tatego!ernment, to citie, an" to rural countie# The work of comparionan" interchange coul" take place by fe"eration of tate an" city an"



county bureau# 4n" within thoe fe"eration any "eirable regionalcombination coul" be organiHe"# .o long a the accounting ytem werecomparable, a great "eal of "uplication woul" be a!oi"e"# egionalcoor"ination i epecially "eirable# )or legal frontier often "o notcoinci"e with the effecti!e en!ironment# 'et they ha!e a certainbai in cutom that it woul" be cotly to "iturb# By coor"inating

their information e!eral a"minitrati!e area coul" reconcileautonomy of "eciion with cooperation# ew 'ork City, for e+ample, ialrea"y an unwiel"y unit for goo" go!ernment from the City -all# 'etfor many purpoe, uch a health an" tranportation, the metropolitan"itrict i the true unit of a"minitration# &n that "itrict,howe!er, there are large citie, like 'onker, Aerey City, Pateron,EliHabeth, -oboken, Bayonne# They coul" not all be manage" from onecenter, an" yet they houl" act together for many function#ltimately perhap ome uch fle+ible cheme of local go!ernment a.i"ney an" Beatrice Webb ha!e uggete" may be the properolution# 8)ootnote3 %The eorganiHation of Local Go!ernment% =Ch# &*@,in F4 Contitution for the .ocialit Commonwealth of GreatBritainF#< But the firt tep woul" be a coor"ination, not of

"eciion an" action, but of information an" reearch# Let theofficial of the !ariou municipalitie ee their common problem inthe light of the ame fact#

?

&t woul" be i"le to "eny that uch a net work of intelligence bureauin politic an" in"utry might become a "ea" weight an" a perpetualirritation# One can eaily imagine it attraction for men in earch ofoft job, for pe"ant, for me""ler# One can ee re" tape, mountainof paper, uetionnaire a" naueam, e!en copie of e!ery "ocument,en"orement, "elay, lot paper, the ue of form /M: intea" of form5gb, the return of the "ocument becaue pencil wa ue" intea" ofink, or black ink intea" of re" ink# The work coul" be "one !eryba"ly# There are no fool>proof intitution#

But if one coul" aume that there wa circulation through the wholeytem between go!ernment "epartment, factorie, office, an" theuni!eritie a circulation of men, a circulation of "ata an" ofcriticim, the rik of "ry rot woul" not be o great# or woul" it betrue to ay that thee intelligence bureau will complicate life# Theywill ten", on the contrary, to implify, by re!ealing a comple+ity nowo great a to be humanly unmanageable# The preent fun"amentallyin!iible ytem of go!ernment i o intricate that mot people ha!egi!en up trying to follow it, an" becaue they "o not try, they aretempte" to think it comparati!ely imple# &t i, on the contrary,elui!e, conceale", opaue# The employment of an intelligence ytemwoul" mean a re"uction of peronnel per unit of reult, becaue bymaking a!ailable to all the e+perience of each, it woul" re"uce theamount of trial an" error an" becaue by making the ocial proce!iible, it woul" ait the peronnel to elf>criticim# &t "oe notin!ol!e a great a""itional ban" of official, if you take into accountthe time now pent !ainly by pecial in!etigating committee, gran"jurie, "itrict attorney, reform organiHation, an" bewil"ere"office hol"er, in trying to fin" their way through a "ark mu""le#

&f the analyi of public opinion an" of the "emocratic theorie inrelation to the mo"ern en!ironment i oun" in principle, then & "onot ee how one can ecape the concluion that uch intelligence worki the clue to betterment# & am not referring to the few uggetion

containe" in thi chapter# They are merely illutration# The tak ofworking out the technic i in the han" of men traine" to "o it, an"not e!en they can to>"ay completely foreee the form, much le the



"etail# The number of ocial phenomena which are now recor"e" imall, the intrument of analyi are !ery cru"e, the concept often!ague an" uncriticiHe"# But enough ha been "one to "emontrate, &think, that uneen en!ironment can be reporte" effecti!ely, that theycan be reporte" to "i!ergent group of people in a way which ineutral to their preju"ice, an" capable of o!ercoming their

ubjecti!im#

&f that i true, then in working out the intelligence principle menwill fin" the way to o!ercome the central "ifficulty ofelf>go!ernment, the "ifficulty of "ealing with an uneen reality#Becaue of that "ifficulty, it ha been impoible for anyelf>go!erning community to reconcile it nee" for iolation with theneceity for wi"e contact, to reconcile the "ignity an" in"i!i"ualityof local "eciion with ecurity an" wi"e coor"ination, to ecureeffecti!e lea"er without acrificing reponibility, to ha!e uefulpublic opinion without attempting uni!eral public opinion on allubject# 4 long a there wa no way of etablihing common !erionof uneen e!ent, common meaure for eparate action, the only image

of "emocracy that woul" work, e!en in theory, wa one bae" on aniolate" community of people whoe political facultie were limite",accor"ing to 4ritotleN famou ma+im, by the range of their !iion#

But now there i a way out, a long one to be ure, but a way# &t ifun"amentally the ame way a that which ha enable" a citiHen ofChicago, with no better eye or ear than an 4thenian, to ee an" hearo!er great "itance# &t i poible to>"ay, it will become morepoible when more labor ha gone into it, to re"uce the "icrepanciebetween the concei!e" en!ironment an" the effecti!e en!ironment# 4that i "one, fe"eralim will work more an" more by conent, le an"le by coercion# )or while fe"eralim i the only poible metho" ofunion among elf>go!erning group, 8)ootnote3 FCf#F -# A# Laki,FThe )oun"ation of .o!ereigntyF, an" other Eay, particularlythe Eay of thi name, a well a the Problem of 4"minitrati!e4rea, The Theory of Popular .o!ereignty, an" The Pluralitic .tate#<fe"eralim wing either towar" imperial centraliHation or towar"parochial anarchy where!er the union i not bae" on correct an"commonly accepte" i"ea of fe"eral matter# Thee i"ea "o not ariepontaneouly# They ha!e to be piece" together by generaliHation bae"on analyi, an" the intrument for that analyi ha!e to be in!ente"an" tete" by reearch#

o electoral "e!ice, no manipulation of area, no change in the ytemof property, goe to the root of the matter# 'ou cannot take morepolitical wi"om out of human being than there i in them# 4n" noreform, howe!er enational, i truly ra"ical, which "oe notconciouly pro!i"e a way of o!ercoming the ubjecti!im of humanopinion bae" on the limitation of in"i!i"ual e+perience# There areytem of go!ernment, of !oting, an" repreentation which e+tractmore than other# But in the en" knowle"ge mut come not from theconcience but from the en!ironment with which that concience "eal#When men act on the principle of intelligence they go out to fin" thefact an" to make their wi"om# When they ignore it, they go ini"ethemel!e an" fin" only what i there# They elaborate theirpreju"ice, intea" of increaing their knowle"ge#

C-4PTE JJ*&&

T-E 4PPE4L TO T-E PBL&C



/

& real life no one act on the theory that he can ha!e a publicopinion on e!ery public uetion, though thi fact i often conceale"where a peron think there i no public uetion becaue he ha no

public opinion# But in the theory of our politic we continue to thinkmore literally than Lor" Bryce inten"e", that %the action of Opinioni continuou,% 8)ootnote3 Fo"ern $emocracieF, *ol# &, p# /;0#<e!en though %it action### "eal with broa" principle only#%8)ootnote3 &"#, footnote, p# /;?#< 4n" then becaue we try to think ofourel!e ha!ing continuou opinion, without being altogether certainwhat a broa" principle i, we uite naturally greet with an anguihe"yawn an argument that eem to in!ol!e the rea"ing of more go!ernmentreport, more tatitic, more cur!e an" more graph# )or all theeare in the firt intance jut a confuing a partian rhetoric, an"much le entertaining#

The amount of attention a!ailable i far too mall for any cheme in

which it wa aume" that all the citiHen of the nation woul", after"e!oting themel!e to the publication of all the intelligencebureau, become alert, informe", an" eager on the multitu"e of realuetion that ne!er "o fit !ery well into any broa" principle# & amnot making that aumption# Primarily, the intelligence bureau i anintrument of the man of action, of the repreentati!e charge" with"eciion, of the worker at hi work, an" if it "oe not help them, itwill help nobo"y in the en"# But in o far a it help them toun"ertan" the en!ironment in which they are working, it make whatthey "o !iible# 4n" by that much they become more reponible to thegeneral public#

The purpoe, then, i not to bur"en e!ery citiHen with e+pert opinionon all uetion, but to puh that bur"en away from him towar" thereponible a"minitrator# 4n intelligence ytem ha !alue, ofcoure, a a ource of general information, an" a a check on the"aily pre# But that i econ"ary# &t real ue i a an ai" torepreentati!e go!ernment an" a"minitration both in politic an"in"utry# The "eman" for the aitance of e+pert reporter in thehape of accountant, tatitician, ecretariat, an" the like, comenot from the public, but from men "oing public buine, who can nolonger "o it by rule of thumb# &t i in origin an" in i"eal anintrument for "oing public buine better, rather than an intrumentfor knowing better how ba"ly public buine i "one#

5

4 a pri!ate citiHen, a a o!ereign !oter, no one coul" attempt to"iget thee "ocument# But a one party to a "ipute, a acommitteeman in a legilature, a an officer in go!ernment, buine,or a tra"e union, a a member of an in"utrial council, report on thepecific matter at iue will be increaingly welcome# The pri!atecitiHen interete" in ome caue woul" belong, a he "oe now, to!oluntary ocietie which employe" a taff to tu"y the "ocument, an"make report that er!e" a a check on official"om# There woul" beome tu"y of thi material by newpaper men, an" a goo" "eal bye+pert an" by political cientit# But the outi"er, an" e!ery oneof u i an outi"er to all but a few apect of mo"ern life, haneither time, nor attention, nor interet, nor the euipment forpecific ju"gment# &t i on the men ini"e, working un"er con"ition

that are oun", that the "aily a"minitration of ociety mut ret#

The general public outi"e can arri!e at ju"gment about whether thee



con"ition are oun" only on the reult after the e!ent, an" on theproce"ure before the e!ent# The broa" principle on which the actionof public opinion can be continuou are eentially principle ofproce"ure# The outi"er can ak e+pert to tell him whether therele!ant fact were "uly coni"ere" he cannot in mot cae "eci"efor himelf what i rele!ant or what i "ue coni"eration# The

outi"er can perhap ju"ge whether the group interete" in the"eciion were properly hear", whether the ballot, if there wa one,wa honetly taken, an" perhap whether the reult wa honetlyaccepte"# -e can watch the proce"ure when the new in"icate thatthere i omething to watch# -e can raie a uetion a to whether theproce"ure itelf i right, if it normal reult conflict with hii"eal of a goo" life# 8)ootnote3 FCf#F Chapter JJ# < But if hetrie in e!ery cae to ubtitute himelf for the proce"ure, to bringin Public Opinion like a pro!i"ential uncle in the crii of a play,he will confoun" hi own confuion# -e will not follow any train ofthought conecuti!ely#

)or the practice of appealing to the public on all ort of intricate

matter mean almot alway a "eire to ecape criticim from thoewho know by enliting a large majority which ha ha" no chance toknow# The !er"ict i ma"e to "epen" on who ha the lou"et or the motentrancing !oice, the mot kilful or the mot braHen publicity man,the bet acce to the mot pace in the newpaper# )or e!en when thee"itor i crupulouly fair to %the other i"e,% fairne i notenough# There may be e!eral other i"e, unmentione" by any of theorganiHe", finance" an" acti!e partian#

The pri!ate citiHen, beet by partian appeal for the loan of hiPublic Opinion, will oon ee, perhap, that thee appeal are not acompliment to hi intelligence, but an impoition on hi goo" naturean" an inult to hi ene of e!i"ence# 4 hi ci!ic e"ucation takeaccount of the comple+ity of hi en!ironment, he will concern himelfabout the euity an" the anity of proce"ure, an" e!en thi he will inmot cae e+pect hi electe" repreentati!e to watch for him# -e willrefue himelf to accept the bur"en of thee "eciion, an" will turn"own hi thumb in mot cae on thoe who, in their hurry to win,ruh from the conference table with the firt "ope for the reporter#

Only by initing that problem hall not come up to him until theyha!e pae" through a proce"ure, can the buy citiHen of a mo"erntate hope to "eal with them in a form that i intelligible# )oriue, a they are tate" by a partian, almot alway conit of anintricate erie of fact, a he ha ober!e" them, urroun"e" by alarge fatty ma of tereotype" phrae charge" with hi emotion#4ccor"ing to the fahion of the "ay, he will emerge from theconference room initing that what he want i ome oulfilling i"ealike Autice, Welfare, 4mericanim, .ocialim# On uch iue thecitiHen outi"e can ometime be pro!oke" to fear or a"miration, butto ju"gment ne!er# Before he can "o anything with the argument, thefat ha to be boile" out of it for him#

M

That can be "one by ha!ing the repreentati!e ini"e carry on"icuion in the preence of ome one, chairman or me"iator, whoforce the "icuion to "eal with the analye upplie" by e+pert#Thi i the eential organiHation of any repreentati!e bo"y "ealingwith "itant matter# The partian !oice houl" be there, but the

partian houl" fin" themel!e confronte" with men, not peronallyin!ol!e", who control enough fact an" ha!e the "ialectical kill toort out what i real perception from what i tereotype, pattern an"



elaboration# &t i the .ocratic "ialogue, with all of .ocrateNenergy for breaking through wor" to meaning, an" omething more thanthat, becaue the "ialectic in mo"ern life mut be "one by men whoha!e e+plore" the en!ironment a well a the human min"#

There i, for e+ample, a gra!e "ipute in the teel in"utry# Each

i"e iue a manifeto full of the highet i"eal# The only publicopinion that i worth repect at thi tage i the opinion whichinit that a conference be organiHe"# )or the i"e which ay itcaue i too jut to be contaminate" by conference there can be littleympathy, ince there i no uch caue anywhere among mortal men#Perhap thoe who object to conference "o not ay uite that# Perhapthey ay that the other i"e i too wicke" they cannot hake han"with traitor# 4ll that public opinion can "o then i to organiHe ahearing by public official to hear the proof of wicke"ne# &t cannottake the partianN wor" for it# But uppoe a conference i agree"to, an" uppoe there i a neutral chairman who ha at hi beck an"call the conulting e+pert of the corporation, the union, an", let uay, the $epartment of Labor#

Au"ge Gary tate with perfect incerity that hi men are well pai"an" not o!erworke", an" then procee" to ketch the hitory of uiafrom the time of Peter the Great to the mur"er of the CHar# r# )oterrie, tate with eual incerity that the men are e+ploite", an"then procee" to outline the hitory of human emancipation from Aeuof aHareth to 4braham Lincoln# 4t thi point the chairman call uponthe intelligence men for wage table in or"er to ubtitute for thewor" %well pai"% an" %e+ploite"% a table howing what the "ifferentclae FareF pai"# $oe Au"ge Gary think they are all well pai"I-e "oe# $oe r# )oter think they are all e+ploite"I o, he thinkthat group C, , an" J are e+ploite"# What "oe he mean by e+ploite"I-e mean they are not pai" a li!ing wage# They are, ay Au"ge Gary#What can a man buy on that wage, ak the chairman# othing, ay r#)oter# E!erything he nee", ay Au"ge Gary# The chairman conultthe bu"get an" price tatitic of the go!ernment# 8)ootnote3 .ee anarticle on %The Cot of Li!ing an" Wage Cut,% in the FewepublicF, Auly 51, /05/, by $r# Leo Wolman, for a brilliant"icuion of the nai!e ue of uch figure an" %peu"o>principle#%The warning i of particular importance becaue it come from aneconomit an" tatitician who ha himelf "one o much to impro!e thetechnic of in"utrial "ipute#< -e rule that J can meet an a!eragebu"get, but that C an" cannot# Au"ge Gary er!e notice that he "oenot regar" the official tatitic a oun"# The bu"get are too high,an" price ha!e come "own# r# )oter alo er!e notice of e+ception#The bu"get i too low, price ha!e gone up# The chairman rule thatthi point i not within the juri"iction of the conference, that theofficial figure tan", an" that Au"ge GaryN e+pert an" r# )oterNhoul" carry their appeal to the tan"ing committee of the fe"erate"intelligence bureau#

e!erthele, ay Au"ge Gary, we hall be ruine" if we change theewage cale# What "o you mean by ruine", ak the chairman, pro"uceyour book# & canNt, they are pri!ate, ay Au"ge Gary# What ipri!ate "oe not interet u, ay the chairman, an", therefore,iue a tatement to the public announcing that the wage of workerin group C an" are o>an">o much below the official minimum li!ingwage, an" that Au"ge Gary "ecline to increae them for reaon thathe refue to tate# 4fter a proce"ure of that ort, a public opinionin the eulogitic ene of the term 8)ootnote3 4 ue" by r# Lowell

in hi FPublic Opinion an" Popular Go!ernmentF#< can e+it#

The !alue of e+pert me"iation i not that it et up opinion to coerce



the partian, but that it "iintegrate partianhip# Au"ge Gary an"r# )oter may remain a little con!ince" a when they tarte", thoughe!en they woul" ha!e to talk in a "ifferent train# But almote!eryone ele who wa not peronally entangle" woul" a!e himelf frombeing entangle"# )or the entangling tereotype an" logan to whichhi refle+e are o rea"y to repon" are by thi kin" of "ialectic

untangle"#

7

On many ubject of great public importance, an" in !arying "egreeamong "ifferent people for more peronal matter, the threa" ofmemory an" emotion are in a narl# The ame wor" will connote anynumber of "ifferent i"ea3 emotion are "iplace" from the image towhich they belong to name which reemble the name of thee image#&n the uncriticiHe" part of the min" there i a !at amount ofaociation by mere clang, contact, an" ucceion# There are trayemotional attachment, there are wor" that were name an" are mak#&n "ream, re!erie, an" panic, we unco!er ome of the "ior"er,

enough to ee how the nai!e min" i compoe", an" how it beha!e whennot "icipline" by wakeful effort an" e+ternal reitance# We ee thatthere i no more natural or"er than in a "uty ol" attic# There ioften the ame incongruity between fact, i"ea, an" emotion a theremight be in an opera houe, if all the war"robe were "umpe" in a heapan" all the core mi+e" up, o that a"ame Butterfly in a *alkyrN"re waite" lyrically for the return of )aut# %4t Chritma>ti"e%ay an e"itorial, %ol" memorie often the heart# -oly teaching areremembere" afreh a thought run back to chil"hoo"# The worl" "oenot eem o ba" when een through the mit of half>happy, half>a"recollection of lo!e" one now with Go"# o heart i untouche" by themyteriou influence#### The country i honeycombe" with re"propagan"a>>but there i a goo" upply of rope, mucle an"lamppot### while thi worl" mo!e the pirit of liberty will burn inthe breat of man#%

The man who foun" thee phrae in hi min" nee" help# -e nee" a.ocrate who will eparate the wor", cro>e+amine him until he ha"efine" them, an" ma"e wor" the name of i"ea# a"e them mean aparticular object an" nothing ele# )or thee tene yllable ha!e gotthemel!e connecte" in hi min" by primiti!e aociation, an" arebun"le" together by hi memorie of Chritma, hi in"ignation a aconer!ati!e, an" hi thrill a the heir to a re!olutionarytra"ition# .ometime the narl i too huge an" ancient for uickunra!elling# .ometime, a in mo"ern pychotherapy, there are layerupon layer of memory reaching back to infancy, which ha!e to beeparate" an" name"#

The effect of naming, the effect, that i, of aying that the laborgroup C an" , but not J, are un"erpai", intea" of aying that Labori E+ploite", i incii!e# Perception reco!er their i"entity, an" theemotion they aroue i pecific, ince it i no longer reinforce" bylarge an" acci"ental connection with e!erything from Chritma toocow# The "ientangle" i"ea with a name of it own, an" an emotionthat ha been crutiniHe", i e!er o much more open to correction bynew "ata in the problem# &t ha" been imbe""e" in the wholeperonality, ha" affiliation of ome ort with the whole ego3 achallenge woul" re!erberate through the whole oul# 4fter it ha beenthoroughly criticiHe", the i"ea i no longer FmeF but FthatF#&t i objectifie", it i at armN length# &t fate i not boun" up with my

fate, but with the fate of the outer worl" upon which & am acting#

;



e>e"ucation of thi kin" will help to bring our public opinion intogrip with the en!ironment# That i the way the enormou cenoring,tereotyping, an" "ramatiHing apparatu can be liui"ate"# Where therei no "ifficulty in knowing what the rele!ant en!ironment i, thecritic, the teacher, the phyician, can unra!el the min"# But where

the en!ironment i a obcure to the analyt a to hi pupil, noanalytic technic i ufficient# &ntelligence work i reuire"# &npolitical an" in"utrial problem the critic a uch can "o omething,but unle he can count upon recei!ing from e+pert reporter a !ali"picture of the en!ironment, hi "ialectic cannot go far#

Therefore, though here, a in mot other matter, %e"ucation% i theupreme reme"y, the !alue of thi e"ucation will "epen" upon thee!olution of knowle"ge# 4n" our knowle"ge of human intitution itill e+traor"inarily meager an" impreionitic# The gathering ofocial knowle"ge i, on the whole, till haphaHar" not, a it willha!e to become, the normal accompaniment of action# 4n" yet thecollection of information will not be ma"e, one may be ure, for the

ake of it ultimate ue# &t will be ma"e becaue mo"ern "eciionreuire it to be ma"e# But a it i being ma"e, there will accumulatea bo"y of "ata which political cience can turn into generaliHation,an" buil" up for the chool into a conceptual picture of the worl"#When that picture take form, ci!ic e"ucation can become a preparationfor "ealing with an uneen en!ironment#

4 a working mo"el of the ocial ytem become a!ailable to theteacher, he can ue it to make the pupil acutely aware of how hi min"work on unfamiliar fact# ntil he ha uch a mo"el, the teachercannot hope to prepare men fully for the worl" they will fin"# What hecan "o i to prepare them to "eal with that worl" with a great "ealmore ophitication about their own min"# -e can, by the ue of thecae metho", teach the pupil the habit of e+amining the ource of hiinformation# -e can teach him, for e+ample, to look in hi newpaperfor the place where the "ipatch wa file", for the name of thecorrepon"ent, the name of the pre er!ice, the authority gi!en forthe tatement, the circumtance un"er which the tatement waecure"# -e can teach the pupil to ak himelf whether the reporteraw what he "ecribe, an" to remember how that reporter "ecribe"other e!ent in the pat# -e can teach him the character ofcenorhip, of the i"ea of pri!acy, an" furnih him with knowle"ge ofpat propagan"a# -e can, by the proper ue of hitory, make him awareof the tereotype, an" can e"ucate a habit of intropection about theimagery e!oke" by printe" wor"# -e can, by coure in comparati!ehitory an" anthropology, pro"uce a life>long realiHation of the wayco"e impoe a pecial pattern upon the imagination# -e can teach mento catch themel!e making allegorie, "ramatiHing relation, an"peronifying abtraction# -e can how the pupil how he i"entifiehimelf with thee allegorie, how he become interete", an" how heelect the attitu"e, heroic, romantic, economic which he a"opt whilehol"ing a particular opinion# The tu"y of error i not only in thehighet "egree prophylactic, but it er!e a a timulatingintro"uction to the tu"y of truth# 4 our min" become more "eeplyaware of their own ubjecti!im, we fin" a Het in objecti!e metho"that i not otherwie there# We ee !i!i"ly, a normally we houl"not, the enormou michief an" caual cruelty of our preju"ice# 4n"the "etruction of a preju"ice, though painful at firt, becaue ofit connection with our elf>repect, gi!e an immene relief an" afine pri"e when it i uccefully "one# There i a ra"ical

enlargement of the range of attention# 4 the current categorie"iol!e, a har", imple !erion of the worl" break up# The ceneturn !i!i" an" full# There follow an emotional incenti!e to hearty



appreciation of cientific metho", which otherwie it i not eay toaroue, an" i impoible to utain# Preju"ice are o much eaieran" more intereting# )or if you teach the principle of cience a ifthey ha" alway been accepte", their chief !irtue a a "icipline,which i objecti!ity, will make them "ull# But teach them at firt a!ictorie o!er the upertition of the min", an" the e+hilaration of

the chae an" of the conuet may carry the pupil o!er that har"tranition from hi own elf>boun" e+perience to the phae where hicurioity ha mature", an" hi reaon ha acuire" paion#

C-4PTE JJ*&&&

T-E 4PPE4L TO E4.O

/

& -4*E written, an" then thrown away, e!eral en"ing to thi book#O!er all of them there hung that fatality of lat chapter, in whiche!ery i"ea eem to fin" it place, an" all the myterie, that thewriter ha not forgotten, are unra!elle"# &n politic the hero "oenot li!e happily e!er after, or en" hi life perfectly# There i noconclu"ing chapter, becaue the hero in politic ha more futurebefore him than there i recor"e" hitory behin" him# The lat chapteri merely a place where the writer imagine that the polite rea"er habegun to look furti!ely at hi watch#

5

When Plato came to the point where it wa fitting that he houl" umup, hi aurance turne" into tage>fright a he thought how abur" itwoul" oun" to ay what wa in him about the place of reaon inpolitic# Thoe entence in book fi!e of the epublic were har" e!enfor Plato to peak they are o heer an" o tark that men canneither forget them nor li!e by them# .o he make .ocrate ay toGlaucon that he will be broken an" "rowne" in laughter for telling%what i the leat change which will enable a tate to pa into thetruer form,% 8)ootnote3 FepublicF, Bk# *, 71M# Aowett tranl#<becaue the thought he %woul" fain ha!e uttere" if it ha" not eeme"too e+tra!agant% wa that %until philoopher are king, or the kingan" prince of thi worl" ha!e the pirit an" power of philoophy, an"political greatne an" wi"om meet in one### citie will ne!er ceaefrom ill,>>no, nor the human race###%

-ar"ly ha" he ai" thee awful wor", when he realiHe" they were acounel of perfection, an" felt embarrae" at the unapproachablegran"eur of hi i"ea# .o he haten to a"" that, of coure, %the truepilot% will be calle" %a prater, a tar>gaHer, a goo">for>nothing#%8)ootnote3 5 Bk# *&, 7??>7?0#< But thi witful a"miion, though itprotect him againt whate!er wa the Greek eui!alent for the chargethat he lacke" a ene of humor, furnihe" a humiliating tailpiece toa olemn thought# -e become "efiant an" warn 4"eimantu that he mut%attribute the uelene% of philoopher %to the fault of thoe whowill not ue them, an" not to themel!e# The pilot houl" not humblybeg the ailor to be comman"e" by him>>that i not the or"er ofnature#% 4n" with thi haughty geture, he hurrie"ly picke" up thetool of reaon, an" "iappeare" into the 4ca"emy, lea!ing the worl"

to achia!elli#

Thu, in the firt great encounter between reaon an" politic, the



trategy of reaon wa to retire in anger# But meanwhile, a Platotell u, the hip i at ea# There ha!e been many hip on the ea,ince Plato wrote, an" to>"ay, whether we are wie or foolih in ourbelief, we coul" no longer call a man a true pilot, imply becaue heknow how to %pay attention to the year an" eaon an" ky an" taran" win", an" whate!er ele belong to hi art#% 8)ootnote3 Bk# *&,

7??>7?0#< -e can "imi nothing which i neceary to make that hipail properouly# Becaue there are mutineer aboar", he cannot ay3o much the wore for u all### it i not in the or"er of nature that& houl" han"le a mutiny### it i not in the or"er of philoophy that& houl" coni"er mutiny### & know how to na!igate### & "o not knowhow to na!igate a hip full of ailor### an" if they "o not ee that& am the man to teer, & cannot help it# We hall all go on the rock,they to be punihe" for their in &, with the aurance that & knewbetter####

M

Whene!er we make an appeal to reaon in politic, the "ifficulty in

thi parable recur# )or there i an inherent "ifficulty about uingthe metho" of reaon to "eal with an unreaoning worl"# E!en if youaume with Plato that the true pilot know what i bet for the hip,you ha!e to recall that he i not o eay to recogniHe, an" that thiuncertainty lea!e a large part of the crew uncon!ince"# By "efinitionthe crew "oe not know what he know, an" the pilot, facinate" by thetar an" win", "oe not know how to make the crew realiHe theimportance of what he know# There i no time "uring mutiny at ea tomake each ailor an e+pert ju"ge of e+pert# There i no time for thepilot to conult hi crew an" fin" out whether he i really a wie ahe think he i# )or e"ucation i a matter of year, the emergency amatter of hour# &t woul" be altogether aca"emic, then, to tell thepilot that the true reme"y i, for e+ample, an e"ucation that willen"ow ailor with a better ene of e!i"ence# 'ou can tell that onlyto hipmater on "ry lan"# &n the crii, the only a"!ice i to ue agun, or make a peech, utter a tirring logan, offer a compromie,employ any uick mean a!ailable to uell the mutiny, the ene ofe!i"ence being what it i# &t i only on hore where men plan for many!oyage, that they can affor" to, an" mut for their own al!ation,"eal with thoe caue that take a long time to remo!e# They will be"ealing in year an" generation, not in emergencie alone# 4n"nothing will put a greater train upon their wi"om than the neceityof "itinguihing fale crie from real one# )or when there i panicin the air, with one crii tripping o!er the heel of another, actual"anger mi+e" with imaginary care, there i no chance at all for thecontructi!e ue of reaon, an" any or"er oon eem preferable to any"ior"er#

&t i only on the premie of a certain tability o!er a long run oftime that men can hope to follow the metho" of reaon# Thi i notbecaue mankin" i inept, or becaue the appeal to reaon i!iionary, but becaue the e!olution of reaon on political ubjecti only in it beginning# Our rational i"ea in politic are tilllarge, thin generalitie, much too abtract an" unrefine" forpractical gui"ance, e+cept where the aggregate are large enough tocancel out in"i!i"ual peculiarity an" e+hibit large uniformitie#eaon in politic i epecially immature in pre"icting the beha!iorof in"i!i"ual men, becaue in human con"uct the mallet initial!ariation often work out into the mot elaborate "ifference# That,perhap, i why when we try to init olely upon an appeal to reaon

in "ealing with u""en ituation, we are broken an" "rowne" inlaughter#



7

)or the rate at which reaon, a we poe it, can a"!ance itelf ilower than the rate at which action ha to be taken# &n the preenttate of political cience there i, therefore, a ten"ency for oneituation to change into another, before the firt i clearly un"ertoo",

an" o to make much political criticim hin"ight an" little ele# Both inthe "ico!ery of what i unknown, an" in the propagation of that whichha been pro!e", there i a time>"ifferential, which ought to, in a muchgreater "egree than it e!er ha, occupy the political philoopher# Weha!e begun, chiefly un"er the inpiration of r# Graham Walla, toe+amine the effect of an in!iible en!ironment upon our opinion#We "o not, a yet, un"ertan", e+cept a little by rule of thumb, theelement of time in politic, though it bear mot "irectly upon thepracticability of any contructi!e propoal# 8)ootnote3 FCfF# -# G#Well in the opening chapter of Fankin" in the aking#F< Wecan ee, for e+ample, that omehow the rele!ancy of any plan "epen"upon the length of time the operation reuire# Becaue on the lengthof time it will "epen" whether the "ata which the plan aume a

gi!en, will in truth remain the ame# 8)ootnote3 The better thecurrent analyi in the intelligence work of any intitution, the lelikely, of coure, that men will "eal with tomorrowN problem in thelight of yeter"ayN fact#< There i a factor here which realitican" e+perience" men "o take into account, an" it help to markthem off omehow from the opportunit, the !iionary, the philitinean" the pe"ant# 8)ootnote3 ot all, but ome of the "ifferencebetween reactionarie, coner!ati!e, liberal, an" ra"ical are"ue, & think, to a "ifferent intuiti!e etimate of the rate of changein ocial affair#< But jut how the calculation of time enter intopolitic we "o not know at preent in any ytematic way#

ntil we un"ertan" thee matter more clearly, we can at leatremember that there i a problem of the utmot theoretical "ifficultyan" practical coneuence# &t will help u to cherih PlatoN i"eal,without haring hi haty concluion about the per!erity of thoe who"o not liten to reaon# &t i har" to obey reaon in politic,becaue you are trying to make two procee march together, whichha!e a yet a "ifferent gait an" a "ifferent pace# ntil reaon iubtle an" particular, the imme"iate truggle of politic willcontinue to reuire an amount of nati!e wit, force, an" unpro!ablefaith, that reaon can neither pro!i"e nor control, becaue the factof life are too un"ifferentiate" for it power of un"ertan"ing# Themetho" of ocial cience are o little perfecte" that in many of theeriou "eciion an" mot of the caual one, there i a yet nochoice but to gamble with fate a intuition prompt#

But we can make a belief in reaon one of thoe intuition# We can ueour wit an" our force to make foothol" for reaon# Behin" ourpicture of the worl", we can try to ee the !ita of a longer"uration of e!ent, an" where!er it i poible to ecape from theurgent preent, allow thi longer time to control our "eciion# 4n"yet, e!en when there i thi will to let the future count, we fin"again an" again that we "o not know for certain how to act accor"ingto the "ictate of reaon# The number of human problem on whichreaon i prepare" to "ictate i mall#

;

There i, howe!er, a noble counterfeit in that charity which come

from elf>knowle"ge an" an unarguable belief that no one of ourgregariou pecie i alone in hi longing for a frien"lier worl"# .omany of the grimace men make at each other go with a flutter of their



pule, that they are not all of them important# 4n" where o much iuncertain, where o many action ha!e to be carrie" out on guee,the "eman" upon the reer!e of mere "ecency i enormou, an" it ineceary to li!e a if goo" will woul" work# We cannot pro!e in e!eryintance that it will, nor why hatre", intolerance, upicion,bigotry, ecrecy, fear, an" lying are the e!en "ea"ly in againt

public opinion# We can only init that they ha!e no place in theappeal to reaon, that in the longer run they are a poion an" takingour tan" upon a !iew of the worl" which outlat our ownpre"icament, an" our own li!e, we can cherih a hearty preju"iceagaint them#

We can "o thi all the better if we "o not allow frightfulne an"fanaticim to impre u o "eeply that we throw up our han"pee!ihly, an" loe interet in the longer run of time becaue we ha!elot faith in the future of man# There i no groun" for thi "epair,becaue all the FifF on which, a Aame ai", our "etiny hang,are a pregnant a they e!er were# What we ha!e een of brutality, weha!e een, an" becaue it wa trange, it wa not conclui!e# &t wa

only Berlin, ocow, *eraille in /0/7 to /0/0, not 4rmage""on, a werhetorically ai"# The more realitically men ha!e face" out thebrutality an" the hyteria, the more they ha!e earne" the right to aythat it i not foolih for men to belie!e, becaue another great wartook place, that intelligence, courage an" effort cannot e!er contri!ea goo" life for all men#

Great a wa the horror, it wa not uni!eral# There were corrupt, an"there were incorruptible# There wa mu""le an" there were miracle#There wa huge lying# There were men with the will to unco!er it# &ti no ju"gment, but only a moo", when men "eny that what ome men ha!ebeen, more men, an" ultimately enough men, might be# 'ou can "epairof what ha ne!er been# 'ou can "epair of e!er ha!ing three hea",though r# .haw ha "ecline" to "epair e!en of that# But you cannot"epair of the poibilitie that coul" e+it by !irtue of any humanuality which a human being ha e+hibite"# 4n" if ami"t all the e!ilof thi "eca"e, you ha!e not een men an" women, known moment thatyou woul" like to multiply, the Lor" himelf cannot help you#

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