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Quaternary International 345 (2014) 88e99

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Quaternary International

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The Ponto-Caspian region: Environmental consequences of climatechange during the Late Pleistocene

Tamara A. YaninaLomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Geography, Leninskie Gory 1, Moscow 119991, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 24 February 2014

Keywords:Late PleistoceneClimate changeCaspian SeaBlack SeaSea level fluctuationsEnvironment

E-mail address: didacna@mail.ru.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.01.0451040-6182/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights

a b s t r a c t

Evolution of the Caspian and Black Sea (Pont) Basins environments was analyzed in comparison, andboth general and specific features of their development under multi-scale and multi-directional changesof climate during the Late Pleistocene were identified. The cold extensive transgressions of the CaspianSea and the transgressions of the Caspian type of the Pontian Basin, not exceeding the present sea level,developed synchronously in the cold (glacial) climatic epochs. The maximum height of level of theCaspian transgressions was limited by the height of the Manych threshold, and the transgressions of theCaspian type in the Pontian Basin by the height of the Bosporus threshold. The warm small trans-gressions of the Caspian Sea and the marine (Mediterranean type) transgressions of the Pont withmaximum level developed during the warm interglacial epochs. In the Caspian these occurred mainlyduring the interglacial endothermal (cool and moist) phases, while marine transgressions of the Pontcorrelated with the interglacial transgressions of the World Ocean. The cold transgressions of the CaspianSea and the Caspian type transgressions of the Pontian Basin developed asynchronously with thetransgressions of the World Ocean.

� 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Ponto-Caspian region (Black Sea, Sea of Azov and CaspianSea) contains a system of basins (Fig. 1), relicts of the East Para-tethys that have their own unique environmental features andpaleogeographical history. In the evolution the Ponto-Caspian ba-sins global climatic changes are reflected, including glacial e

interglacial rhythms of the East European Plain and mountain ter-ritories as well as transgressive e regressive events in the WorldOcean. The study of the Late Pleistocene development of the Ponto-Caspian basins, initiated at the end of the nineteenth century by theworks of Andrusov (1888, etc.), was continued bymany researchers(Arkhangelskiy and Strakhov, 1938; Zhukov, 1945; Fedorov, 1957,1978; Vasiliev, 1961; Moskvitin, 1962; Nevesskaya, 1965;Goretskiy, 1966; Vronskiy, 1974; Kvasov, 1975; Ostrovskiy et al.,1977; Popov, 1983; Balabanov and Izmailov, 1988, 1989; Yanko,1989; Svitoch, 1991, 2007; Maev, 1994; Chepalyga, 1997;Rychagov, 1997; Bezrodnykh et al., 2004; Yanina, 2005, 2012; Aksuet al., 2006; Badyukova, 2007; Yanko-Hombach et al., 2007; Sor-okin, 2011; Tudryn et al., 2013 and many others).

reserved.

Despite abundant data and insights, major questions about thepaleogeographic development of the region are still being debated.Major phases of basin development during the Late Pleistocene inthe various basins were identified by the various authors: theKarangat and New Euxinian transgressions and interveningregression in the Black Sea area; the Late Khazar and Khvalyniantransgressions, and the intervening Atelian regression in the Cas-pian area. Disagreements developed over the small-scale events inthe history of both seas, their timing, magnitude, hydrological, andecological characteristics. Today, no broad agreement exists overthe interrelation of events in the Ponto-Caspian, their response toglobal and regional climatic changes, and correlations with paleo-geographical events in adjacent territories (Moskvitin, 1962;Markov et al., 1965; Goretskiy, 1966; Fedorov, 1978; Vasiliev,1982; Zubakov, 1986; Rychagov, 1997; Svitoch et al., 1998;Mangerud et al., 2004; Kislov and Toropov, 2006, 2007;Chepalyga, 2007; Dolukhanov et al., 2009, 2010; Kislov, 2010;Shkatova, 2010; Sorokin, 2011; Yanina, 2012a,b, 2013b).

Global climatic events of the Late Pleistocene (130e11 ka) werepresented by the warm interglacial (Eemian, Mikulino) epoch andthe successive cold glacial (Weichsel, Valdai) epoch. The Ponto-Caspian environment directly depends on climate change andthe sea-level fluctuations caused by them. In the Caspian Basin,the inflow from its basin and the balance between regional

Fig. 1. The Ponto-Caspian region (Black sea, sea of Azov and Caspian sea).

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precipitation and evaporation is amain driver, whereas in the Azov/Black Sea the global oceanic sea levels also play an important role.The aim of this paper is to make a comparative analysis of theenvironmental evolution of the Caspian and Pont Seas during theLate Pleistocene, and to establish general rules and features of thedevelopment of these different basins under the conditions ofmultidirectional climate changes of different scales.

2. Materials and methods

Reliable paleogeographical reconstructions depend on well-constrained age estimates of events and episodes that allow cor-relation between the different basins. The bases for reconstructionof events in the Ponto-Caspian Seas and their correlation are thebiostratigraphical (ecostratigraphical) schemes of the Caspian Sea,theManych depression and the Black Sea, executed by the author asa result of analyses of all main sections of the Late Pleistocenemollusks in the region (Yanina, 2005, 2012a, 2013a).

In this study, the Late Pleistocene development of the Caspianand Pontian Basins is documented using the malacofaunisticmethod. The method includes the analyses of taxonomical struc-ture, taphonomy, phylogeny, biostratigraphical distribution, his-torical development, and biogeography of mollusks. The studyfocuses on the bivalve genus Didacna Eichwald, an indexefossilgenus for the modern Caspian Sea and an endemic fossil for theQuaternary Ponto-Caspian basins. The genus is known for its highevolutionary rates at the species and subspecies levels. The use ofDidacna species for the stratigraphical subdivision of the Pleisto-cene, not only of the Caspian Sea but also of the Black Sea, plays animportant role at the correlation of deposits and events of the re-gion. For paleogeographical reconstructions, the interface methodwas used, complementing and supervising results of geomorpho-logical, lithological, facial, palynological, diatom, isotope, geochro-nological and other analyses of the recent deposits. Materials aboutglobal and regional climatic events of the Late Pleistocene are takenfrom references.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Caspian Sea

During the Late Pleistocene, several transgressive and regressiveepisodes developed, including the Late Khazar (Late Khazar and

Girkan transgressive stages) and the Khvalynian (Early Khvalynianand Late Khvalynian transgressive stages) transgressive epochs,separated by the Atel regression (Fig. 2).

The Late Khazar transgression developed in two successivestages that are separated by a regression. Lake levels in the earlierLate Khazar basin, according to spatial distribution of the deposits,did not exceed �10 m, and its surface area was not much biggerthan the modern Caspian Sea. The mollusc fauna containedcrassoidal-type Didacna and was characterized by the occurrenceof Didacna nalivkini and Didacna surachanica (Fedorov, 1978;Yanina, 2005). The fauna is characterized by the large size andmassive nature of shells, especially in the southern parts of theCaspian Basin. Abundant trigonoidal and catilloidal Didacna-dominated faunas occurred in the freshened areas of the northernCaspian, influenced by the Volga River during Late Khazar times.Common gigantism of shells, high carbonate content in the sedi-ment, and the presence of oolites represent warm climate con-ditions during Late Khazar times. Salinities reached from 10 to12& in the northern up to 14e15& in the southern part of theCaspian Basin, higher than today’s salinities. Data on foraminifera(Yanko, 1989) support this conclusion. The warm climatic phase isalso shown in palynological analyses (Abramova, 1974;Yakhimovich et al., 1986). During early Late Khazar times, theCaspian Basinwas occupied by an isolated lake-sea that lacked anyconnection with the Black Sea Basin.

After the Early Late Khazar stage, a regression followed that isseen in hiatuses in the depositional sequences of Dagestan anderosion and soil formation in the Volga River valley (Yanina andSvitoch, 1990; Svitoch et al., 1993, 1997; Yanina, 2005). Strati-graphic hiatuses from this regressive stage were recorded byFedorov (1957), Rychagov (1997), and Popov (1983). At present,there is no direct evidence to estimate the extent of the Late Khazarregressive phase. As the composition of the mollusc fauna was notmuch altered, this probably was a minor regression.

Traces of the second transgressive Late Khazar stage are notpreserved along the Caspian coasts. Based on borehole materialfrom the northwestern part of the Caspian region, Goretskiy (1957)and Popov (1955, 1967) indicated the presence of a brackish waterbasin which existed after the Late Khazar transgression and beforethe Khvalynian transgression, the Girkan transgression. The Girkanbasin was inhabited by “Khvalynian-like” fauna, traces of whichhave not been recorded elsewhere. A number of researchersstrongly objected to the Girkan transgression concept (Shkatova,

Fig. 2. Scheme of the paleogeographical events in the Ponto-Caspian region during the Late Pleistocene. Shades of gray color reflect the salinity of basins: more intensive shadereflects more higher salinity. Shooters point to a drain of waters and migration of mollusks.

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1975; Fedorov, 1978; Vasiliev, 1982; Shkatova et al., 1991; Svitoch,1991; Svitoch et al., 1993, 1997, 1998).

The stratigraphic succession in cores from the northern CaspianSea (Yanina et al., 2013) shows that between the Chernoyarsk andAtel regressive phases, two intervals of brackish deposits exist. Thelower interval is assigned to Late Khazar transgressive interval.These deposits contain an admixture of warm species with a Pon-tocaspian nature (D. nalivkini and also rare D. surachanica, Didacnavulgaris and Didacna pallasi) as well as the fluvial Corbicula flumi-nalis. During late Khazar times, the Caspian Basin was a brackishwater shallow warm-water basin with inflow of fresh waters. Theoverlying marine sandyeclay sediments contain abundant Didacnasubcatillus, the occurrence of Didacna cristata and species of Khazartype D. pallasi, Didacna shuraosenica and Didacna subcrassa. Ac-cording to Popov (1983), D. subcatillus in combination withD. cristata characterized the Girkan fauna. Thus, the interval iden-tified in the boreholes can be attributed to the Girkan transgression.The widespread fresh-water C. fluminalis is indicative of the warm-water character of the basin.

Very crude and partially overlapping age estimates exist for theLate Khazar epoch. U-Io techniques give age estimates of 114e76 ka(Leontiev et al., 1975; Rychagov, 1997); 115e81 ka (Arslanov et al.,1978), and 122e91 ka (Shkatova et al., 1991). Based on thermolu-minescence (TL) analysis, age estimates are 144e90 ka(Geochronology, 1974), 130e91 ka (Leontiev et al., 1975), and 122e106 ka (Shakhovets, 1987; Shkatova et al., 1991). Results of elec-tronic paramagnetic (spin) resonance (ESR) show ages between 140and 85 ka (Bolikhovskaya and Molodkov, 1999, 2008; Molodkovand Bolikhovskaya, 2009). The wide range of age estimates aswell as the improved understanding of the paleogeographic suc-cessions implies a longer duration for this period than is generallyaccepted (Fedorov, 1978).

The Khazar epoch ended with the deep Atel regression. Duringthis time, vast areas of the Caspian shelf were exposed and riverincision was very deep (Fedorov, 1978; Rychagov, 1997). Atel epochdeposits are found in many parts of the Caspian Region (Svitoch,1991; Svitoch and Yanina, 1997). In the Lower Volga region, thebase of the Atel regressive unit is formed by the Akhtuba deposits,

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referred to by Goretskiy (1958) as periglacial. These depositsrepresent a perfect marker horizon in the Lower Volga sections,often with sharp wedges penetrating the underlying sediments.These wedges and the co-occurring winter fractures in the base ofAkhtuba sands form evidence of very cold climate conditions at thetime of deposition that included the development of permafrost.Vegetation was represented by tundraesteppe associations(Grichuk, 1954). Formation of lublinite crystals in the Akhtubasands indicate cold dry climate (Moskvitin, 1962).

The Akhtuba deposits are conformably overlain by Atel sandyloam and loam sediments (up to 20 m thick) of various origins,formed in continental environments in the Caspian region. Someshells of stunted freshwater and continental mollusks are found inthese sediments. The deposits contain mammal remains of theupper Paleolithic faunal complex, including mammoth, horse,reindeer and other species that show the cold nature of the Atelepoch. Palynological assemblages typical of taiga were found(Grichuk, 1954; Chiguryaeva and Khvalina, 1961; Moskvitin, 1962).

The Atel layer has up to four palaeosol horizons with differentdegrees of development, which implies a multiple change of cli-matic conditions in the region, with increasing warming and hu-midity. Towards the end of the Atel epoch, the climate becamewarmer. In the vegetation, the share of arboreal pollen increased,along with birch, pine and spruce, newly introduced elm, oak andlinden appeared. In the herbaceous associations the importance ofxerophytes decreased, while Gramineae and herbaceous vegetationwere introduced. Steppe and forest-steppe environments becamedominant.

Based on seismic-acoustic profiling (Lokhin and Maev, 1990;Maev, 1994), during the maximum regression the water level ofthe basinwas�120 to�140 m. The Caspian basin retreated into themiddle and southern parts of the lake. There is no data on the shellfauna of this basin. A drastic faunal shift occurred, and the formerlyabundant Khazar Didacna of the crassa group and closely relatedtaxa became almost completely extinct. The main components ofthe Khvalynian fauna with preference for lower salinity habitatswere inherited from the Girkan fauna. Based on the thickness of theAkhtuba-Atel deposits, and the presence of at least three paleosolhorizons within them, the continental hiatus on the territory of theNorthern Caspian Depression was long-term and multi-phase. Itstarted with the water retreat from the Girkan basin, which, mostlikely, happened after 76 ka.

The Atel regression was followed by the “Great” Khvalyniantransgression with the most extensive sea-level rise in the LatePleistocene history of the Caspian Sea. During the Early Khvalyniantransgressive stage, levels reached as high as 48e50 m a.s.l. Thebasin was occupied by a low diversity fauna dominated by catilloidand trigonoid Didacna species, all characterized by thin and smallshells. The structure of mollusc fauna is indicative of relatively lowsalinities for the basin as a whole, but regional variations existed.Salinities in the main water body of the northern Khvalynian Seawere slightly higher than modern salinities (3e4&) whereassalinity of the middle and southern parts of the basin (about 11&)was slightly lower than today (Yanina, 2012a).

The small thin shells of mollusks indicate low water tempera-tures in comparison with ancient basins and the present CaspianSea. The lower Khvalynian deposits are made up of very charac-teristic chocolate clays. According to Moskvitin (1962) andGoretskiy (1966), the clays were formed as a result of accumulationof fine sediments that derived from the periglacial landscapes ofthe hinterland. Palynological data confirm a cold climate. In theUral River basin, the early Khvalynian epoch was characterized bymaximum development of forests for the entire Late Pleistocene(Yakhimovich et al., 1986), with dominant conifer forests at theonset. The forests retreated during the second half of the epoch. On

the western Caspian coast at the beginning of the Early Khvalynianepoch, tree species (oak, elm, alder, birch, maple, pine, fir-tree)dominated. The forests gave way to grassland and shrub vegeta-tion by the end of this epoch when climate conditions improved(Abramova, 1974).

Caspian Sea researchers have shown stadial coastlines during anepoch of the Early Khvalynian basin: maximum, 34e36 m (Tal-ginsk), 28e30 m, 20e22 m (Buinaksk), 14e15 m (Turkmenian), and4e6 m (Fedorov, 1957; Rychagov, 1970, 1974). The author supportsthe point of view about their origin in the transgressive phasesdivided by regressions as proposed by Vasiliev (1961) and Rychagov(1974, 1997). Vasiliev (1961) drew a conclusion on the existence oftwo Early Khvalynian transgressions divided by the “Elton”regression, a point of view further developed by Chepalyga (2006,2007; Dolukhanov et al., 2009, 2010). In the Caspian core studiedby Svitoch et al. (2008a), five transgressive and regressive phasesare recorded, confirming the complexity of the Early Khvalyniantransgression stage. In some of the cores, two units with differentEarly Khvalynian fauna assemblages were found (Yanina et al.,2013). These indicate the complexity of transgressive-regressiveevolution of the Caspian Sea during the Early Khvalynian epoch.Chepalyga (2006, 2007) offered the “fantastic” concept according towhich Early Khvalynian transgression was a catastrophic Great(Bible) Flood, and its transgressive phases were the “waves” of thisflood developed at high speed. He even executed a Noah’s Arkreconstruction on waves of the Khvalynian Sea. His conclusionswere contested by others, including Badyukova (2007), Svitoch(2007), Sorokin (2011) and Yanina (2012a). According to theirreconstruction, development of the Khvalynian transgression wasgradual and had no catastrophic character.

The Early Khvalynian ended with the Enotayevsk regression,with a maximum level estimated at �105 m (Maev, 1994). Terres-trial Enotayevsk deposits and numerous unconformities in themarine record are described on the coasts of the Caspian Sea(Leontiev and Fedorov, 1953; Vasiliev, 1961; Rychagov, 1974;Fedorov, 1978; Svitoch, 1991; Svitoch and Yanina, 1997). On theCaspian shelf, the Enotayevsk layers have been found in boreholes(Maev, 1994; Svitoch et al., 2008a). According to pollen data(Sorokin et al., 1983), arid cool climate conditions existed.

During the succeeding Late Khvalynian transgressive stage, sealevels reached about 0 m. Didacna praetrigonoides, a rare species inthe early Khvalynian, became dominant. Salinity of the main waterbody of Late Khvalynian basin was very similar to that of the EarlyKhvalynian basin, 11e12&, although foraminifera faunas suggestsalinities up to 12e14& (Yanko, 1989). In the northern Caspiancoastal zone, salinities were as low as 3e4& (Yanina, 2012a).Relative abundance of the mollusks in the basin and their large andmore massive shells are explained by favorable (warmer) condi-tions compared to those of the Early Khvalynian basin. Palynolog-ical data (Grichuk, 1954; Abramova, 1974; Sorokin et al., 1983)indicate general warming in the region.

The regressive tendency of the Late Khvalynian Sea was char-acterized by a series of minor secondary transgressive phases(Leontiev and Fedorov, 1953; Leontiev and Foteeva, 1965; Rychagov,1997). The Late Khvalynian regression coincided with increasingaridity in the Caspian region. This is shown in the change of pollenof wood vegetation (pine, alder, birch, oak, hornbeam, willow) to-wards xerophilous grassy pollen typical of semi-desert and steppevegetation (Abramova, 1974).

The age of the Khvalynian epoch remains a subject of discussion(Kaplin et al., 1972, 1977a,b; Leontiev et al., 1975; Kvasov, 1975;Arslanov et al., 1978; Rychagov, 1997; Bezrodnykh et al., 2004;Badyukova, 2007, and others). Leontiev and Rychagov (Leontievet al., 1975; Rychagov, 1997) based mostly on TL dates, estimatedthe age of the Early Khvalynian transgression as 70-40 ka, and the

T.A. Yanina / Quaternary International 345 (2014) 88e9992

age of the Late Khvalynian transgression as 20e10 ka. An oppositepoint of view based on 14C and UeTh dating was proposed byKvasov (1975) and Svitoch (1991). The author also participated inthis discussion, defending a “young” age of the Khvalynian trans-gression (Svitoch and Yanina, 1983, 1997; Svitoch et al., 1994, 1998).In recent years, new data on the age of the Khvalynian trans-gression of the Caspian Sea emerged (Leonov et al., 2002;Bezrodnykh et al., 2004; Svitoch, 2007; Arslanov and Yanina,2008; Chepalyga et al., 2008, 2009; Svitoch et al., 2008a,b;Arslanov et al., 2013; Tudryn et al., 2013). Analyses on molluscsfrom boreholes show 30 to >30 ka for the lower part of theKhvalynian deposits (Bezrodnykh et al., 2004); 14C age 28.5e31.5 ka, calibrated age from 33.5 to 36.5 ka (Arslanov et al., 2013;Yanina et al., 2013). According to these data, the Khvalyniantransgression began about 35 ka. Unfortunately, no radiocarbon ageestimates exist for the maximum level of the Khvalynian trans-gression, and all existing estimates (Chepalyga, 2007; Svitoch,2007; Dolukhanov et al., 2009, 2010) are based on indirect corre-lations and assumptions. Most are associated with the stadial levelabout 22e24 m, defining its age (calibrated) as 15e14 ka. Duringthe Holocene Boreal period, in times when climate became morecontinental, the Late Khvalynianwas succeeded by the Mangyshlakregression.

3.2. Pontian Basin

The scheme of the Late Pleistocene events of the Pontian Basinincludes the Karangat (Karangat and Tarkhankut stages), Surozhand New Euxinian transgressions, and intervening regressions(Fig. 2).

The paleogeography of the Karangat transgression is wellstudied (Andrusov, 1903; Arkhangelskiy and Strakhov, 1938;Nevesskaya, 1965; Ostrovskiy et al., 1977; Fedorov, 1978; Yankoet al., 1990; Chepalyga, 1997; Dynamics, 2002; etc.). According tothese researchers, the Karangat transgression is the largest Pleis-tocene interglacial transgression with the highest salinities duringthe Pleistocene. The analysis of the Karangat fauna showed thattransgression developed with two stages, Karangat and Tar-khankut. They were characterized by faunal complexes that con-tained stenohaline as well as euryhaline mollusc taxa.

The Karangat transgression developed in two phases. During theearly Tobechik phase (Nevesskaya, 1965), a mollusc fauna similar tothe modern Black Sea fauna was established. Sea levels did notexceed the modern levels. Age estimates for this phase range from121 to 127 ka (Dynamics, 2002). With further development of theinterglacial Mediterranean transgression, the penetration of ma-rine waters in the Black Sea led to the second phase of the Karangattransgression. Stenohaline species (Acanthocardia tuberculatum,etc.), which are absent in the Black Sea today, flourished in theKarangat basin. They indicate salinities of about 30& in the openpart of the sea. High salinity was characteristic for the southern partof the Sea of Azov, and the Manych and the Don estuary. The Kar-angat transgression was characterized by warm waters, as shownby the composition of the mollusc fauna, as well as the presence ofwarm-water subtropical types of diatoms (Zhuze et al., 1980).Spores and pollen ranges also indicate warm conditions in the re-gion (Sherbakov et al., 1977; Koreneva, 1982; History of geologicaldevelopment, 1988).

In the second phase of the transgression, the Karangat Seaexceeded the limits of the present Black Sea and Sea of Azov. Thesea ingressed into river valleys tens of kilometers upstream andeven 70e80 km upstream in the Danube River system(Mikhaylesku, 1990). According to Popov (1983), the maximumextension of the Karangat Sea extended as far east as the Manychwatershed. The age of the maximum transgressive stage is not well

constrained: a series of thorium e uranium dates show a rangebetween 140 and 70 ka (Arslanov et al., 1975; Balabanov andIzmailov, 1989; Dynamics, 2002).

After the maximum transgression, the Karangat Sea lowered.During this Tarkhankut stage, the Karangat Sea had a similaroutline as the modern Black Sea. It was the residual basin of theKarangat Sea, a final stage of its existence. The Mediterraneanconnection had ceased to exist at the time. Salinities did not exceed14e15&. The mollusc faunas were dominated by Mediterraneantaxa but lacked stenohaline species. During the Tarkhanhut stage,Girkan waters entered through the Manych passage, and Didacnaspecies (D. cristata, D. subcatillus) invaded the basin margins on thenortheast from the Caspian Basin.

The Post-Karangat regression lake level dropped to �110 m(Ostrovskiy et al., 1977; Balabanov and Izmailov, 1989). The marineenvironment was replaced by brackish-water, and then almostfresh-water conditions (History of geological development, 1988).Diatom species indicate cold water conditions. Palynological ana-lyses also show very cold conditions at the time (Sherbakov et al.,1977).

According to Popov (1983), during the Post-Karangat epoch asingle transgression occurred, the Surozh transgression. Remains ofthis transgression were documented from the western Manychriver valley and the Sea of Azov coast. A Surozh coastal terrace isfurthermore documented by Ostrovskiy et al. (1977) and Popov(1983) on the Caucasian coast of the Black Sea. However, otherresearchers doubted the assignment of these terraces to the Surozhperiod (Nevesskaya, 1965; Fedorov, 1978; Yanina, 2012a). Surozhdeposits have been identified on the shelf and in the deep-waterdepressions (History of geological development, 1988). During theSurozh transgression, sea levels reached �25 m. There was noconnection with the Mediterranean Sea at the time. The molluscfauna of the Surozh stage is not known. Palynological analysesindicate warming climate (Sherbakov et al., 1977). The epoch of theexistence of this basin is estimated as 40e25 ka (Sherbakov, 1982).

After the Surozh epoch, a deep regression developed in thePontian Basin. Lake levels dropped to �80 m (Sherbakov et al.,1977; Fedorov, 1978) and possibly even to �140 to �150 m (Ryanet al., 1997). Deposits and faunas dominated by Dreissena foundin depressions, on the lower part of the shelf, and on the conti-nental slope show that the basin was occupied by an almost fresh-water lake. The diatom flora indicated very cold conditions(Zabelina and Sherbakov, 1975; Zhuze et al., 1980). The Sea of Azovwas a coastal plain crossed by the Don River whose mouth waslocated 50 km south of the Kerch Strait. The lower courses of theDnepr, Dnestr, and Danube rivers merged, resulting in a formationof the “grand canyon” and a single delta (Kaplin and Sherbakov,1986). Periglacial landscapes surrounded the northern coastswith cold and arid climate conditions as shown by palynologicaldata (Vronskiy, 1974; History of geological development, 1988). Anarctic fauna, including arctic foxes, white partridges, and reindeerroamed the coasts (Khrustalev and Sherbakov, 1974). The mostsevere cold conditions existed around 22e23 ka, coinciding withthe onset of the New Euxinian regressive basin (23e16 ka:Balabanov and Izmailov, 1989; Sherbakov et al., 1977).

The New Euxinian transgressive stage was initiated ca 16 ka.Around 12.5 ka, its level reached �45 m. The New Euxinian basinwas populated by a slightly brackish Pontocaspian fauna dominatedby Monodacna, Adacna, and Dreissena, and lacked Mediterraneantaxa. Rare occurrences of Khvalynian species such as Didacnaebersini and Didacna moribunda in the New Euxinian depositsindicate the overflow of Caspian waters during the Khvalyniantransgression. Khvalynian ostracod and foraminifera species arealso found in New Euxinian sediments (Popov, 1983; Yanko, 1989).Around 9.8 ka, New Euxinian lake levels reached about �30 m

T.A. Yanina / Quaternary International 345 (2014) 88e99 93

(Balabanov and Izmailov, 1989). The transgression impoundedvalleys of the rivers, and alluvial and lake deposits filled part of theAzov depression. With the warming climate and developinginterglacial transgression of the Mediterranean Sea, the transitionof the New Euxinian to the modern Black Sea initiated.

3.3. Manych

The Manych area experienced ingressions from the Black SeaBasin in the west and from the Caspian Sea Basin in the east. Duringthe maximum extent of the Karangat transgression, marine watersreached the Manych watershed from thewest, but did not cross thethreshold, as indicated by the extent of the marine fauna. Popov(1983) defined the two stages of the ingression of the KarangatSea in the Manych region, and the maximum ingression wasreached in the second stage. In the valley of East Manych, two in-gressions (Late Khazar and Girkan) occurred. During the Karangatregression, overflow of Girkan waters from Caspian Sea occurred,with the establishment of Caspian species such as D. cristata andD. subcatillus. The overflow coincided with the early phases of acold interval as shown by palynological analyses (Goretskiy, 1953).

At the end of the Girkan epoch, a large lake in the Manychdepression, Lake Burtass (Goretskiy, 1966), was formed. Immersionof the Manych-Gudilo deflection was limited to the slopes of Salskand Zunda-Tolga horsts (Popov, 1983). Fresh-water mollusks andostracods lived in the lake. In its deposits, pollen of coniferous treeswere found (Goretskiy, 1966). With a 40e45 m thick depositionalrecord, the lake must have existed for a considerable time. In theupper part of the Burtass deposits, fossil soils of meadow andmarshtype are developed, showing lake level fluctuations. At the sametime, the Caspian Basin experienced the deep Atel regression, andthe Black Sea Basin, the Post-Karangat regression.

The Manych passage overflowed during the Early Khvalyniantransgression, when lake levels in the Caspian Basin reachedabout þ50 m. Both the geomorphology of the depression and thefaunal content of the deposits imply a two-stage overflow. Duringthe Early Khvalynian sea level maximum (þ48eþ50 m), strongerosion occurred in the valley (first erosive stage). During theBuinaksk stage (þ22eþ24 m) of the Early Khvalynian trans-gression, terraces formed in the Manych depression about 22 m(the second accumulative stage). The second stage is dated at about12.5e12.7 ka (14C) or about 14.3e14.8 cal ka (Arslanov and Yanina,2008; Svitoch et al., 2008a,b). Fossil assemblages of the Khvalynianmollusks indicate unidirectional migration of the fauna from theCaspian Sea to the New Euxinian basin (Svitoch and Yanina, 2001;Yanina, 2006). This was the last time the Manych served as aspillway between the Caspian and Black Sea Basins.

3.4. Features of the environmental evolution of the Caspian Sea andPontian Basin

During the Late Pleistocene, the Caspian Sea Basin and PontianBasin represented basins of different types. Timing and extent ofsea level changes, hydrological parameters, paleogeographicalevolution, and features of fauna were mostly independent.

During most of the Late Pleistocene, the Caspian Basin was anenclosed basin. During the Girkan transgression stage and twice inthe Early Khvalynian transgression, overflow developed from theCaspian basin towards the Pontian Basin across the Manych Pas-sage. In the Pontian basin endorrheic conditions existed in themaximum stages of regressions. When the lake rose above theBosporus sill, lake waters drained into the Marmara Sea. The ba-sins were overflowing at times when the Caspian Sea overflewand the Black Sea Basin overfilled and connected to the Sea ofMarmara through the Bosporus. Development of marine

transgressions in Pont Basin was caused by inflow of the Medi-terranean waters. There was no bilateral water exchange with theCaspian Sea.

Duringmaximum transgressions, the surface area of the CaspianSea increased as much as 250% compared to the current sea, andwater levels reached þ50 m. The maximum level of the trans-gression was controlled by the height of the Manych threshold.Caspian Sea levels were as low as �140 m during maximum re-gressions, resulting in lake level variations of 190 m in the LatePleistocene. During the maximum transgression of the Pontianbasin, sea level was at most 7 m higher than today. The maximumlevel of the transgression was controlled by the level of the Medi-terranean Sea. The lowest levels were 100 m below the current sealevel of the Black Sea, resulting in sea level variations of 100e110 min the Late Pleistocene.

Despite the large changes in sea level and water volumes,salinity fluctuations in the Caspian Sea were relatively small, nomore than 6e7&. During extensive transgression, the basin as awhole became slightly fresher, but during small transgressionssalinities were notably high. Salinity maxima in the Pontian weremuch higher as a result of the marine ingressions during the Kar-angat, and the basin experienced marine, semi-marine, as well asenclosed brackish conditions. Late Pleistocene salinity fluctuationswere possibly as high as 30&.

The successive Caspian lake stages were inhabited by speciesand genera of the Caspian autochthonous brackish complex.Didacna species in the Caspian basin underwent very rapid speci-ation and high turnover rates. Species diversity increased with adiversification of habitat types in the Caspian subbasins. Differentfaunal types (Mediterranean as well impoverished Pontocaspianfaunas) inhabited the Pontian Basin in successive stages. Faunalturnover was as profound as in the Caspian Sea, but the diversityand turnover in the Pontocaspian fauna of the Pontian basin wasless dramatic owing to the more uniform character of the entirebasin, that did not stimulate speciation.

The biodiversity of Caspian faunas was defined by variability ofconditions in the basin. The shallow nature of the Northern Caspianand variation of Volga input created dynamic and very variablehabitats. Biodiversity in the Pontian basin depended on either in-vasions of Caspian taxa or of Mediterranean marine taxa. Thehighest species richness occurred during the Karangat stage.

Within the Caspian Basin, transgressions occurred in coldclimate conditions (such as the extensive Early Khvalynian trans-gression) and in warm climate conditions (such as the relativelysmall Late Khazar transgression). In their late stages, climate of thecold transgressions became warmer and that of warm trans-gression became colder. Transgressions in warm episodes corre-spond to high salinities, whereas transgression in colder episodesproduced lowered salinities. The marine transgressions in thePontian Basin (Karangat in the Late Pleistocene and Black Sea in theHolocene) occurred in warm interglacial times. Caspian type oflake-seas in the Pontian Basin developed during cold climate in-tervals. The most severe regressions occurred during the coldestepisodes.

The episodic Manych Passage between the Caspian and Pontianbasins is a unique passageway influencing the paleogeography ofthe region. The elevation of this passageway set the upperboundary of transgressions in the Caspian Basin, especially in coldintervals. Intermittent overflow must have deprived the CaspianSea of salt and depressed salinities and at the same time contrib-uted to the salt balance in the Pontian lakes. The Manych area actedas a threshold for marine ingressions from the Pontian Basin duringinterglacial periods. The intake of the Caspian waters increasedwater volume in the Pontian Basin, modifying hydrological,hydrochemical, and ecological conditions.

T.A. Yanina / Quaternary International 345 (2014) 88e9994

The paleogeographical conditions of the Caspian and Pontianbasins were in many respects defined by the degree of theirisolation. The influence of global climate change on their devel-opment is very different in both basins.

3.5. Global climate change and evolution of the Ponto-Caspianbasins

The global climatic events of the Late Pleistocene, caused bycyclic changes of the Earth orbital elements, in turn caused var-iations of insolation resulting in the warm interglacial epoch(MIS 5 or MIS 5e, according to representations of different re-searchers) and the complex cold glacial epoch (MIS 4-2 or MIS5d-2). In different latitudes and regions, glacial and interglacialintervals were expressed differently. In the Ponto-Caspian region,they were reflected by an alternation of the transgressions andregressions. On the East-European plains and in adjacentmountain areas, they were expressed in the advance and retreatof glaciers that also impacted the evolution of the Ponto-Caspianbasins.

The beginning of the Late Pleistocene was characterized by thewarm epoch (MIS 5: Eemian or Mikulino interglacial in EasternEurope). Debate exists about the age limits and duration of inter-glacial conditions. The age of the Mikulino interglacial is estimatedat 100e70 ka (Zarrina and Krasnov,1983),128e116 ka (Spiridonova,1991; Arslanov, 1992), 140e100 ka (Paleoclimates, 2009); and 140e70 ka (Bolikhovskaya and Molodkov, 1999). For the territory ofBelarus it is 130e90 ka (Yelovicheva and Sanko, 1999), for Ukraine130e107 ka (Gerasimenko, 2001). According to some researchers(Mangerud et al., 2004; Svendsen et al., 2004; Brauer et al., 2007;Brewer et al., 2008; Orombelli et al., 2010) truly interglacial con-ditions existed only briefly during isotope substage 5e with thewarmest period about 125 ka. The Mikulino interglacial consists ofthree thermal maxima. The oldest corresponds to isotope substage5f (Bolikhovskaya and Molodkov, 1999, 2008; Molodkov andBolikhovskaya, 2009). The younger two correspond to substagesMIS 5c andMIS 5a. Thewarm episodes were intervened by two coldperiods (endothermals).

Reconstructions of the paleogeographical events in the Ponto-Caspian region (Fig. 3) shows that during the warm interglacialepoch at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene (cf MIS 5e) theCaspian Sea experienced regressive conditions. During the earlyendothermal (cf MIS 5d) the early stage of the Late Khazar trans-gression developed when climate conditions became somewhatcolder and humid. The Late Khazar lake was relatively warm andlake levels reached�10m. In the Pontian Basin, MIS 5e correspondsto Karangat transgression when full marine conditions developedand sea levels were highest as a result of connection with theMediterranean and world oceans. The transgression reached theManych threshold.

Regression of the Early Late Khazar lake developed under warmand dry conditions that possibly correspond to MIS 5c. During thesecond endothermal and climate cold interval (cf MIS 5b), thesecond Late Khazar transgressive stage (Girkan) developed. Duringthat time the Girkan lake penetrated deeply into the Manych areafrom the east, forming an extensive estuary in the Pre-Manych area.In the Pontian Basin, the Karangat transgression continued itsdevelopment. The succession of Late Pleistocene deposits of theManych depression with alternating deposits containing Karangatand Late Khazar mollusc faunas indicates the synchronous exis-tence but asynchronous development of both systems. The warm-water Late Khazar lake-sea and Karangat sea co-existed in thePonto-Caspian region during the entire MIS 5 interglacial, showingthat the Mikulino interglacial was a relatively long epoch with acomplex structure.

At the beginning of MIS 4, the Karangat sea level dropped,coinciding with the global ocean level drops. The Caspian waters ofthe Girkan transgression ingressed in the Manych valley and at thesame time Karangat waters withdrew into the Pontian basin. Theregressive trend of the Karangat Sea was complicated by overflowof Girkan waters through the Tarkhankut basin.

The nature, extent, and regional variability of the cold Weich-selian or Valdai epoch (MIS 4-2 or MIS 5d-2) on the East Europeanplains are debated. The epoch was predominantly characterized bycold continental climate and complex succession of climate con-ditions and regional variability. The number of glaciations andtheir extents are still not completely understood (Velichko, 1991;Velichko et al., 1999; Mangerud et al., 2004; Svendsen et al.,2004; Sudakova, 2005; Paleoclimates, 2009; Shik, 2010;Rychagov et al., 2012). Palynological data indicate the presenceof two early Valdai and three middle Valdai interstadial intervalsand five cold stadial intervals (Bolikhovskaya and Molodkov,2008).

During the cold maximum of the interval MIS 4 when regionalclimate was cold and arid, a regression developed in lake Girkan inthe Caspian Basin, the Akhtuba-Atel regression. The developmentof periglacial continental conditions is shown by deep icewedges inthe basis of the Akhtuba sediments and periglacial spores andpollen in these deposits. A succession of colder and warmer periods(a stadial-interstadial alternation) is shown by successive podzolhorizons in the Atel deposits. Synchronously with the Akhtuba-Ateldeposits in the Caspian Basin, thick lake deposits developed in thefreshwater lake Burtass in the Manych depression. These lake de-posits contain pollen of cold plant taxa, and four paleosol horizonsare found. At the same time in the Pontian Basin, the very deepPost-Karangat regression developed and connection with theMediterranean was completely lost.

The slightly warmer conditions of MIS 3 resulted in increasingprecipitation and river activity in the East-European plain andsimultaneous reduction of evaporation over the lake basins. Thewater balance became positive, resulting in transgressions in theCaspian Basin (the first phase of the Early Khvalynian trans-gression), and in the Pontian Basin (the Surozh moderately warm-water basin). The upper part of the terrestrial Atel deposits alsocorresponds to this time interval.

During the ultimate glacial interval (MIS 2), the Late Valdaiglaciation developed. During the Late Glacial Maximum (LGM), thedeep New Euxinian regression developed. An almost freshwaterlake occupied the Black Sea Basin. In the isolated Caspian Basinunder cold conditions, the Early Khvalynian transgression furtherdeveloped. The general transgressive trend was interrupted thoughduring the LGM. Permafrost existed around the northern Caspiancoasts. Average annual temperatures decreased to �10 to -5pS inthe southern areas of Europe (Paleoclimates, 2009). The climateconditions resulted into a negative water balance of the KhvalynianLake-Sea, causing sea level drop. Climate modeling shows similarnegative water balance at the time (Kislov and Toropov, 2006,2007; Kislov, 2010).

The Early Khvalynian transgression resumed during deglacia-tion after the LGM. Transgression of the Caspian type began in theNew Euxinian basin: however, its levels remained low because ofdumping of waters through the Bosporus passage towards theMarmara Sea and beyond. The Early Khvalynian transgression,having reached the level of the Manych threshold, developed anerosive valley and discharged into the New Euxinian basin. Erosionof the threshold resulted in a drop of the Early Khvalynian sealevels. Ingression in the Manych valley and the final stage of over-flow of waters from the Early Khvalynian Basin into the NewEuxinian Basin occurred at the Caspian level about þ22 m. TheCaspian inflow raised sea levels of the New Euxinian lake-sea. Its

Fig. 3. Scheme of development of the Ponto-Caspian basins during the Late Pleistocene under global climate change: A e Interglacial epoch (MIS 5, Mikulino interglacial on theEast-European Plain): the Karangat transgression of the Pont (with ingression in the Manych valley) and the Late Khazar transgressive stage of the Caspian (isolated basin). B e

Transitional epoch from interglacial (MIS 5) to glacial (MIS 4) epochs: beginning of the Karangat regression of the Pont and Girkan transgressive stage of the Caspian; Girkan passageof the Manych. C e Early stage of the glacial epoch (MIS 4, Early Valdai glaciations on the East-European Plain), glacial maximum: Post-Karangat regression of the Pont and Atelregression of the Caspian Sea. D e Interstadial warming (MIS 3, Bryansk interstadial on the East-European Plain), glacial degradation: Surozh basin of the Pont and beginning of theEarly Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea. E � Late stage of the glacial epoch (MIS 2, Late Valdai glaciations on the East-European Plain), glacial maximum: the NewEuxinian regression of the Pont and regressive stage (Elton?) of the Early Khvalynian basin. F e Degradation of glaciations (MIS 2): the New Euxinian transgression of the Pont andmaximal stage of the Early Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea. G e Glacial degradation (MIS 2) e beginning of post-glacial epoch (MIS 1): the New Euxinian transgressionof the Pont and Late Khvalynian transgression of the Caspian Sea. H e Beginning of the Interglacial epoch of the Holocene (MIS 1): beginning of the Black Sea transgression of thePont and the Mangyshlak regression of the Caspian Sea.

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maximum coincided with the onset of the Mediterranean trans-gression (Yanko-Hombach et al., 2007).

After the final episode of overflow, the Khvalynian lake-seaunderwent a series of smaller transgressive and regressive events,which reflected the pulsation of climatic conditions in the Caspiancatchment. Cold dry conditions of the Middle Dryas resulted in theEnotayevsk regression. Increasingly continental climatic conditionsduring the Boreal period of the Holocene resulted in the Man-gyshlak regression. In the Pontian Basin at the onset of the Holo-cene, the final transgression from the Mediterranean developed.

Global climate change in the late Pleistocene was drivingtransgressive-regressive cycles in the Ponto-Caspian basins as wellas in their catchments through glacier development and retreat(Yanina, 2012a,b). In the Caspian Basin, two types of transgressionsoccurred: those under relatively warm and those under cold con-ditions, with different amplitudes. Grichuk (1969) distinguishedwarm and cold phases within glacial cycles on the East-EuropeanPlain, and in each phase, based on degree of humidity, he distin-guished stages: in the warm e xerothermic and gygrothermic; andin the cold e cryogygrotic and cryoxerotic. Moisture and heatsupply curves on the East-European Plain shifted in relation to eachother by half-phase, although in the Caspian region they shifted bythree-quarters (Alisov and Poltoraus, 1962; Grichuk, 1969;Filippova, 1997). Southward, correlation between lowered tem-peratures decrease and increased humidity is more apparent(Yanina, 2012a,b). Analysis of temporal humidity changes in thestudied region (the key factor for transgression development), in-dicates that “cold” transgressions occurred during cryogygroticphases, with favorable conditions for glacial development on theEast-European Plain. However, the moisture peak in the Caspianreached its maximum earlier than the glacial maximum (approxi-mately by the middle of the preceding cryogygrotic phase). By thetime of the glacial maximum on the East-European Plain (the end ofthe cryogygrotic phase) sea-level drop occurred, corresponding tothe “cold” regression.

Existence of a “pluvial belt” during global climate cooling isshown for the entire arid zone in Asia (Devyatkin, 1989, 1993).Reconstructions show increased humidity on the Caucasus coastwith simultaneous temperature decrease (pluvial intervals) duringglacial epochs and humidity decrease and temperature rise duringinterglacials (Markov et al., 1965; Abramova, 1974; Markov, 2005and others).

An “idealized” scheme of transgressive-regressive Caspiancyclicity correlation with global climatic events is complicated byregional factors, such as glaciations on the East-European Plain(magnitude, outline, dynamics, reorganization of hydrographicsystem), introducing regional changes in climatic parameters andin the magnitude of water inflow. Retreating glaciers andincreased melt water inflow caused several rises on small tem-poral scales. According to the scheme, regression maxima corre-sponded to xerothermic interglacial phases. Such “warm”

transgressions apparently developed at the onset of cooling at theend of interglacials with increasing moisture. Geological factors(neotectonic movements, sedimentation in the basin) also playeda role in the dynamics of basins. Reorganization of hydrographicsystem impacted development of the Caspian basins. The height ofthe Manych threshold provided the upper limit of the maximumsea-lake levels of the cold Caspian transgressions. Further sea levelrise resulted in overflow of the Caspian waters to the PontianBasin.

In the Pontian Basin, two types of transgressions occurred:marine transgressions (those driven by the ingression of marineMediterranean waters) and transgressions of the Caspian type(when the Pontian basin was in the lake phase, and those drivenby the overflow of brackish waters from the Caspian Basin). The

marine high stands are unambiguously correlated with intergla-cial episodes when transgressions of the World Ocean occurred,and are correlated with the interglacial epochs of the East-European Plain as well. Transgressions of the Caspian typedeveloped synchronously with the cold transgressions in theCaspian Sea, but with different results. If lake or sea levels in theisolated Caspian Basin rose above the Manych threshold, its waterswould overflow, driving transgressions in the Pontian Basin andeventually resulted into an overflow over the Bosporus towardsthe Sea of Marmara and the Mediterranean that experienced lowstands at the time.

4. Conclusions

The Caspian Basin and Pontian Basin behaved differently duringthe Late Pleistocene: the nature, magnitude and driving forcesbehind sea/lake level change and the environmental evolutionwere in general not synchronous.

The event scheme of the Late Pleistocene of the Caspian Seaincludes the small Late Khazar transgression that developed duringthe Mikulino interglacial epoch (MIS 5), and extensive Khvalyniantransgression with the highest level in the Late Pleistocene thatdeveloped during the second part of the Valdai glacial epoch (MIS3-2). The Late Khazar transgression occurred in two phases: bothcorresponded to endothermal phases of a cold interval whenregional humidity increased during the Mikulino interglacialepoch. In the xerothermic conditions of the interglacial epoch, theCaspian Sea was in the regressive situation. The transgressivedevelopment of the Girkan Lake phase and its overflow across theManych were supported by the first cooling phases of the Valdaiglacial epoch at the transition period from interglacial to glacialclimatic conditions.

Between the Khazar and Khvalynian transgressions, the verydeep Atel regression resulted from a severe continental climate ofthe cold maximum in the Valdai stage (MIS 4) of the glacial epoch.The transgression initiated when the regional water balance shiftedpositively with increasing riverine input and precipitation andreduced evaporation rates at the MIS 3 interstadial. The Khvalyniantransgression was interrupted during the LGM of the Late Valdaiglaciations (MIS 2). The transgression resumed during the degla-ciation phase after the LGM. A return to cold and dry conditions ofthe Younger Dryas caused the short-term level fall of the Khvaly-nian basin, so-called Enotayevsk regression. The continentalizationof the Boreal period of the Holocene led to the Mangyshlakregression of the Caspian Sea. During the Khvalynian epoch, theManych threshold was breached twice resulting in overflow intothe Pontian Basin during the maximum (48e50 m) and Burtass(20e22 m) phases of the transgression.

The Late Pleistocene succession of the Pontian Basin is markedby large interglacial (MIS 5) Karangat transgression of the Medi-terranean type, extending deep into the Manych valley, and thePost-Karangat development of the Caspian type basins (maximumsea-lake levels below present-day levels: Surozh and the NewEuxinian stages), corresponding to the Valdai glacial epoch (MIS 4-2). The Karangat transgression developed in two phases. During thesecond stage (Tarkhankut) a residual marine basin of the Black Seatype received waters from the Girkan transgression of the CaspianBasin. The Post-Karangat regression of the Pontus corresponded tothe cold maximum of the Valdai glacial stage (MIS 4). An intra-Valdai interstadial epoch (MIS 3) caused small sea level rise(because of increase in a positive component of the water balance)and warming of waters, the Surozh transgression. At that time, noconnection with the Mediterranean existed. During the Late Valdaiglacial stage (MIS 2) in the Black Sea Basin, the New Euxinian sea-lake developed, a low salinity basin that during the LGM was

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isolated and became a transgressive basin of the Caspian typeduring the glacial retreat. Khvalynian waters flowed in from theCaspian Basin twice. The Holocene transgression of the Mediter-ranean type marked the end of the New Euxinian stage and theestablishment of the modern Black Sea.

Development of transgressive and regressive rhythmics of theCaspian Sea and Pont Basin during the Late Pleistocene was causedby many factors driven by global climate change. Glacial andinterglacial events of the East-European Plain and mountain areasof the region, which development also was defined by globalclimate changes, in turn, had regional impact (sizes of glaciers, theirdynamics, by changes of a hydrographic network, shift of climaticzones and so forth) on the environmental evolution of the Ponto-Caspian region.

The cold extensive transgressions of the Caspian Sea and thetransgressions of the Caspian type of the Pontian Basin, notexceeding its modern level, developed synchronously in the cold(glacial) climatic epochs. The maximum height of level of the Cas-pian transgressions was limited by the height of the Manychthreshold, and the transgressions of the Caspian type in the PontianBasin by the height of the Bosporus threshold. The warm smalltransgressions of the Caspian Sea and the marine (Mediterraneantype) transgressions of the Pont with maximum level developedduring the warm interglacial epochs. However, if the existence ofthe interglacial endothermals was the main factor for the warmCaspian transgressions, for development of the Pontian Basin it wasthe interglacial marine transgressions of theWorld Ocean. The coldtransgressions of the Caspian Sea and the Caspian type trans-gressions of the Pontian Basin developed asynchronously with thetransgressions of the World Ocean.

The cold transgressions of the Caspian Sea occurred duringcryogygrotic phases of climatic cycle of the East-European Plainwith favorable conditions for glaciation. However, the moisturepeak in the Caspian reached its maximum earlier than the glacialmaximum (approximately by the middle of the cryogygroticphase). By the time of the glacial maximum on the East-EuropeanPlain (the end of the cryogygrotic phase), a sea-level dropoccurred simultaneous with the coldest conditions. Deglaciationand increase river discharge caused a new transgression. Sea-lake levels rose in short trasngressiveeregressive pulses. Warmregressions corresponded to the thermoxerotic interglacial phaseof the East-European Plain. Warm transgressions happenedduring cold intervals and moistening phases in the interglacialepochs.

The Pontian transgressions of the Caspian type developed syn-chronously with cold transgressions of the Caspian Sea, but theirsea/lake levels were low due to dumping of waters in the regressingMediterranean Sea. The Pontian marine transgressions of theMediterranean type unambiguously are correlated with the inter-glacial epochs of the East-European Plain.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to all colleagues for the collaborative in-vestigations in the Ponto-Caspian region, and to Dr. Frank Wesse-lingh for text editing in English. I am thankful to the RussianFoundation for Basic Research for financial support of the research(Projects 12-05-01052, 13-05-00086, 13-05-00242, 14-05-00227).

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