The Political Frame

Moliere’s The Misanthrope

It is hard to dislike politics without also disliking people. Like it or not, political dynamics are inevitable under conditions most managers face every day:

Ambiguity

Diversity

Scarcity

Five Propositions:Organizations are coalitions of various individuals and interest groups.Enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.Scarce resources & enduring differences give conflict a central role & make power the most important resource.Goals & decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, & jockeying for position.

Concept of Power

Power - the ability to influence another person

Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person

Authority - the right to influence another person

Sources of Organizational Power: Interpersonal

Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the rewards that the target wants

Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target

Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that agent has influential rights, based on position and mutual agreement

Referent Power-based on interpersonal attractionExpert Power - agent has knowledge target needs

Using Power Ethically

Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization?

Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties?

Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly?

Successful Power Users

Have high need for social power; low need for affiliation

Have these power-oriented characteristics

belief in the authority system

belief in justice

preference for work & discipline

altruism

Sources of Organizational Power: Intergroup

Control of critical resources

Control of strategic contingencies - activities that other groups need to complete their tasks

Ways groups hold power over other groupsAbility to reduce uncertainty

High centrality - functionality central to organization’s success

Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are difficult to replace

Influence Tactics

Consultation

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Ingratiation

Upward appeals

Coalition tactics

Exchange tactics

Pressure

Upward Influence the boss

Downward Influence an employee

Lateral Influence a coworker

Managing Political Behavior

Maintain open communicationClarify performance expectationsUse participative managementEncourage cooperation among work groupsManage scarce resources wellProvide a supportive organizational climate

Managing Up: The Boss

Make sure you understand your boss and his/her context including

Goals and objectives Pressures Strengths, weaknesses, blind spots Preferred work style

Assess yourself and your needs, including Strengths, weaknesses, & blind spots Personal style Relation to authority figures

Managing Up: The Boss

Using Power Effectively

Use power in ethical ways Understand and use all of the various types of

power and influence Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your

power skills Use power tempered by maturity and self-control Accept that influencing people is an important

part of the management job

Nature of Organizational Conflict

Conflict - any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties

Functional conflict - a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people

Dysfunctional conflict - an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people

Substantive and Emotional Conflict

substantive conflict: conflict that occurs in the form of a fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment

Emotional Conflict: conflict that involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feeling of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, and the like

Conflict

Conflict Intensity

Overt efforts to destroy other party.

Aggressive physical attacks.

Threats and ultimatums.

Overt questioning or challenging of others.

Minor disagreements or misunderstandings.

Relationship between Substantive Conflict and Effectiveness

Performance

High

Low

Low High

Intensity of Conflict

too little or too much conflict is destructive

moderate levels of conflictare constructive

Conflict Management Approaches

Indirect Conflict Management Approaches appeal to common goalshierarchical referralorganizational redesignscripts and myths

Direct Conflict Management Approaches win-lose conflictwin-win conflict lose-lose conflict (avoidance, accommodation/smoothing,

compromise)

Consequences of ConflictPositive

Consequences Negative

Consequences Leads to new ideas Diverts energy from work

Stimulates creativity Threatens psychological well-being

Motivates change Wastes resources

Promotes organizational vitality

Creates a negative climate

Helps individuals & groups establish identities

Breaks down group cohesion

Serves as a safety valve to indicate problems

Can increase hostility & aggressive behaviors

Causes of Conflict in Organizations

Structural Factors• Specialization• Interdependence• Common resources• Goal differences• Authority relationships• Status inconsistencies• Jurisdictional ambiguities

Personal Factors• Skills & abilities• Personalities• Perceptions• Values & ethics• Emotions• Communication barriers• Cultural differences

Interorganizational conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more organizations

Intergroup conflict - conflict that occurs between groups or teams in an organization

Interpersonal conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more individuals

Forms of Conflict in Organizations

Forms of Conflict in Organizations

Intrapersonal conflict - conflict that occurs within an individual

Interrole conflict - a person’s experience of conflict among the multiple roles in his/her life

Forms of Conflict in Organizations

Intrarole conflict - conflict that occurs within a single role, such as when a person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role

Person-role conflict - conflict that occurs when an individual is expected to perform behaviors in a certain role that conflict with his/her personal values

Defense Mechanisms

Aggressive Mechanisms.Fixation - an aggressive mechanism in which an

individual keeps up a dysfunctional behavior that obviously will not solve the conflict.

Displacement - An aggressive mechanism in which an individual directs his/her anger toward someone who is not the source of the conflict.

Negativism - an aggressive mechanism in which a person responds with pessimism to any attempt at solving a problem.

Defense Mechanisms

Compromise MechanismsCompensation - a compromise mechanism in which an

individual attempts to make up for a negative situation by devoting himself/herself to another pursuit with increased vigor

Identification - a compromise mechanism whereby an individual patterns his or her behavior after another’s

Rationalization - a compromise mechanism characterized by trying to justify one’s behavior by constructing bogus reasons for it

Defense Mechanisms

Withdrawal MechanismsFlight/withdrawal - a withdrawal mechanism that

entails physically escaping a conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping (withdrawal)

Conversion - a withdrawal mechanism in which emotional conflicts are expressed in physical symptoms

Fantasy - a withdrawal mechanism that provides an escape from a conflict through daydreaming

Managing Intrapersonal Conflict

Person-role conflictsIntrarole or interrole

conflictsAsk role

senders what they expect

of you

Find out as muchas you can about

the company’s values

Win-Lose versus Win-Win Strategies

Strategy Dept. A Dept. B Organization

Competitive Lose Lose LoseLose Win LoseWin Lose Lose

Cooperative Win- Win- Win

Ineffective Techniques forDealing with Conflict

Nonaction - doing nothing in hopes that a conflict will disappear

Secrecy - attempting to hide a conflict or an issue that has the potential to create conflict

Administrative orbiting - delaying action on a conflict by buying time

Due process nonaction - a procedure set up to address conflicts that is so costly, time-consuming, or personally risky that no one will use it

Character assassination - an attempt to label or discredit an opponent

Effective Techniques forDealing with Conflict

Subordinate GoalsSubordinate Goals

ConfrontingConfronting&&

NegotiatingNegotiating

Expanding Expanding ResourcesResources

Changing Changing StructureStructure

Changing Changing PersonnelPersonnel

ConflictConflictX

Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions

Ass

erti

vene

ss

Cooperativeness

Una

sser

tive

Ass

erti

ve

Uncooperative Cooperative

Competing Collaborating

Compromising

AvoidingAccommodating

Conflict Management Styles

Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict

Accommodating - concern that the other party’s goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting own way

Competing - satisfying own interests; willing to do so at other party’s expense

Compromising - each party gives up something to reach a solution

Collaborating - arriving at a solution agreeable to all through open & thorough discussion

Avoidance Is Appropriate When...

You have no chance of satisfying your concerns

let people cool down

Accommodation Is Appropriate When ...

You realize you are wrong

Issue is much more important to other party

To build up credit for later negotiations

To preserve harmony

Competition Is Appropriate When...

No long term relationship

To protect yourself against untrustworthy parties

Unpopular courses of action need implementation

Issues are vital to your welfare

Collaboration Is Appropriate When ...

Both parties’ concerns are too important to be compromised

To gain commitment

Time is not an issue

Compromising Is Appropriate When ...

Goals are less important to you than collaboration

Mutually exclusive goals

To achieve temporary settlements

Under intense time pressure

Summary and Implications for Managers

Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to the functioning of a group.

An optimal level of conflict:prevents stagnation.

stimulates creativity.

releases tension.

and initiates the seeds for change.

Summary and Implications for Managers

Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder group effectiveness.Don’t assume there's one conflict-handling intention that is always best.

Use competition when quick, decisive action is vital.Use collaboration to find an integrative solution.Use avoidance when an issue is trivial.Use accommodation when you find you’re wrong.Use compromise when goals are important.

Skills of the Manager as Politician

Agenda Setting

Mapping the Political Terrain

Networking & Building Coalitions

Negotiation

Negotiation - a joint process of finding a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict

Useful under these conditionsTwo or more parties

Conflict of interest between the parties

Parties are willing to negotiate

Parties prefer to work together rather than to fight openly, give in, break off contact, or take the dispute to a higher authority

NegotiationAn exchange relationship between two parties where it is determined what will be exchanged and the rate of exchange.NET OUTCOMES: Benefits minus costs (hassles, stress and what you have to give up).ASPIRATIONS: What each party reasonable expects to get out of the negotiation.BEST ALTERNATIVE TO A NEGOTIATED AGREEMENT (BATNA): If you walked away from the negotiation, the worst that could happen to you.

The Negotiation Process __ Seller’s BATNA

__ Seller’s Net Outcomes

__ Seller’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)

__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes

__ Buyer’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)

__ Buyer’s BATNA

Seller

Aspiration: To make a sale of $1.50 per unit

Comparison Level: She can sell to another client for $1.00 per unit

Buyer

Aspiration: To pay $.80 per unit

BATNA: She can buy them from another seller at $1.60 per unit.

The Negotiation Process __ Buyer’s BATNA ($1.60)

__ Seller’s Net Outcomes

__ Seller’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($1.50)

__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes

__ Buyer’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($.80)

__ Seller’s BATNA ($1.00)

Will we Negotiate?

The bargaining range will fall between the salesperson’s and the purchaser’s limits. In this case there is overlap. If there is no overlap, then the negotiation will not be successfully concluded.

How do you know when you start if there is any overlap?

Agreement

Where our net outcomes meet.

BATNA: Affects comparison level, limits.

Distributive Bargaining

Fixed Pie Mentality

We normally frame as Distributive, leads to bargaining over issues.

We like to cut to the chase

We like to ignore the interpersonal

Maximizing Joint Outcomes

Instead of bargaining over each individual issue, try to bargain in ‘packages’

Each issue does not carry the same level of importance to all

Give concessions of things that are not important to you, but are important to the other

Joint Outcomes

We almost never get maximized joint outcomes by bargaining sequentially (now this issue, now that issue)It’s hard to calculate the importance of issues for ourselves, and othersWhen we view the ‘other’ as the ‘opponent’ all of a sudden every issue seems importantSo, we are not honest about our issues

Linking Issues

Find ways to link issues (what’s important to me with what’s not important to me but IS important to the opponent)

Is the Process Complex?

People tend to see negotiation as complex, and see it as undefined CHAOS

We try to package simply

Or tend to separate each issue

The Best Way to Negotiate

Cognitively figure out packages (Planning)Come up with 4-5 items that I give that the other wantsAnd where the other gives that I wantGet some momentum by getting some up front agreementsTry not to maximize EACH ISSUE but maximize the ENTIRE PACKAGE

Planning

Yes, negotiation requires planning and patience

Know issues to keep in mind

Know the levels of each issue

Know the value of each issue

Get the other guy to agree on issues (find a way of thinking about same issues)

Reactance

The other guy knows you are trying to move him/her and may balk

How about reciprocity?

Do’s and Don’ts

Do develop more than 1 alternative, actually enough so you are ambivalent to current alternative

Do negotiate over as little as possible

Don’t negotiate with friends

2 Negotiating Approaches

Integrative Negotiation -Integrative Negotiation -focuses on the meritsfocuses on the meritsof the issues & seeksof the issues & seeks

a win-win solutiona win-win solution

Distributive Bargaining -Distributive Bargaining -the goals of the parties the goals of the parties are in conflict, are in conflict, & each party seeks& each party seeksto maximize its resourcesto maximize its resources

What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different?

A focus on Commonalities (Frames)

An attempt to address needs and interests (Covey)

Commitment to meeting the needs of all parties

Exchange of information and ideas

Invention of options for mutual gain

Objective criteria for standards of performance

Issues in Negotiation

Personality TraitsGender DifferencesCultural DifferencesThird-Party Negotiations

MediatorsArbitratorsConciliatorsConsultants

What is Ethical? (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)

Are you following rules that are understood and accepted?Are you comfortable discussing and defending your action?Would you want someone to do it to you?What if everyone acted that way?Are there alternatives that rest on firmer ethical ground?

Organizations as Arenas

Arenas house contests

As such, the help determineWhat game will be played

Who will be on the field

What interests will be pursued

What is often ignored

LowerarchyGroups in lower positions devise a host of creative and maddening ways to resist, divert, undermine, ignore, or overthrow change efforts.

Organizations As Political Agents

Organizations are tools for achieving the purposes of those who control them.

They exist, compete, and coevolve in business or political ecosystems.

Relationships are fiercely competitive, sometimes collaborative and interdependent.