The place of the oceans in Norway's foreign and ... · The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development

Meld. St. 22 (2016–2017) Report to the Storting (white paper)

The place of the oceans in Norway's foreign and development policy

Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Published by: Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Public institutions may order additional copies from: Norwegian Government Security and Service OrganisationE-mail: [email protected]: www.publikasjoner.dep.noTelephone: + 47 222 40 000Photo: Peter Prokosch / Grid ArendalPrint: 07 PrintMedia AS08/2017 – Impression 500

07 PRINTMEDIA – 2041 03

79

MIL

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MERKET TRYKKERI

2016–2017 Meld. St. 22 (2016–2017) Report to the Storting (white paper) 1The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy


The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy

Translation from Norwegian. For information only.

Contents

1 Introduction ................................... 5

2 Summary ....................................... 8

Part I Ocean interests ............................ 13

3 Norwegian ocean interests in an international context ............ 15

3.1 The potential of the oceans ........... 153.2 Forces shaping international

ocean policy .................................... 163.3 Need for knowledge ....................... 173.4 International ocean policy arenas .. 173.5 Norway as a responsible polar

seas nation ...................................... 193.5.1 Norwegian ocean interests in the

Arctic ............................................... 193.5.2 Norwegian ocean interests in the

Antarctic and South Atlantic ......... 20

Part II Overall international framework 23

4 Framework for Norway’s ocean interests ......................................... 25

4.1 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea – the ‘constitution of the oceans’ ............................................. 25

4.1.1 Coastal states and the ocean ......... 264.1.2 Duty to protect, right to use .......... 274.1.3 Regional application of the Law of

the Sea ............................................. 284.1.4 Law of the Sea and Norway’s

neighbouring areas ........................ 284.1.5 Court for dispute resolution .......... 304.1.6 Future demands on international

marine management ...................... 304.2 International ocean cooperation ... 314.2.1 Need for cooperation on marine

issues ............................................... 314.2.2 Key Institutions .............................. 324.3 Safe seas .......................................... 364.3.1 The Arctic ....................................... 364.3.2 Baltic Sea region ............................ 374.3.3 The European Union and maritime

security ............................................ 374.3.4 Piracy ............................................... 384.3.5 Environmental crime and the sea .. 384.3.6 Climate change, the sea and safety 39

Part III Priority areas for Norway ......... 41

5 Sustainable use and value creation ......................................... 43

5.1 Oil and gas sector .......................... 435.1.1 International cooperation in the

oil and gas sector ........................... 445.2 Maritime industry .......................... 455.2.1 International cooperation in

shipping .......................................... 455.2.2 Shipping in the north ..................... 475.3 Seafood industry ............................ 485.3.1 International fisheries and

aquaculture ..................................... 495.3.2 Norway’s neighbouring areas ...... 495.3.3 The Antarctic and other regions .. 515.3.4 Fisheries management in FAO .... 515.3.5 Good working conditions in

international fisheries .................... 535.4 Emerging ocean-based industries 535.5 Good international trade

arrangements for ocean-based industries ........................................ 54

5.5.1 Challenges in the world trade system ............................................. 55

5.5.2 WTO ................................................ 555.5.3 EEA, the internal market and

market access ................................. 565.5.4 EFTA free trade agreements ........ 565.5.5 Diplomatic and consular missions

and ocean-based industries .......... 57

6 Clean and healthy oceans ........ 586.1 Marine biodiversity conservation 586.2 Marine pollution ............................ 606.2.1 Key environmental conventions

relating to marine pollution .......... 616.3 Marine litter and microplastics .... 626.3.1 Microplastics .................................. 636.3.2 Broad international efforts to

reduce marine litter and microplastics .................................. 63

6.3.3 Development programme to combat marine litter and microplastics .................................. 65

6.4 Climate change .............................. 666.4.1 Ocean acidification ........................ 666.4.2 Paris Agreement ............................ 676.4.3 Climate and food security ............. 686.4.4 Extensive Norwegian engagement

in climate change issues ............... 686.5 The blue forest ............................... 69

6.5.1 Kelp: the new climate actor? ......... 706.6 Marine protected areas and other

area-based management measures 716.6.1 The world’s largest marine

protected area ................................. 72

7 The blue economy in development policy .................... 74

7.1 The potential of the blue economy 747.1.1 Continental Shelf Initiative ............ 757.2 Development assistance for local

and regional integrated management ................................... 76

7.3 Oil for Development ....................... 78

7.4 Fish for Development .................... 797.4.1 Nansen Programme ...................... 817.4.2 Small-scale fisheries ...................... 837.4.3 Training and education ................. 837.4.4 Fisheries management and

legislation ....................................... 847.4.5 Business development .................. 857.4.6 Financing ........................................ 867.4.7 Illegal, unreported and

unregulated fishing and fisheries crime ............................................... 88

Annex1 List of abbreviations and acronyms 91


The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy


Recommendation of 24 March 2017 from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, approved in the Council of State the same day. (White paper from the Solberg Government)

1 Introduction

This is the first time a Norwegian government haspresented a white paper on the place of the seasand oceans in the country’s foreign and develop-ment policy. Its aim is to highlight the opportuni-ties the oceans offer for Norway and the chal-lenges we will need to deal with, and to describehow Norwegian foreign and development policycan be used to safeguard Norway’s ocean inter-ests and promote the achievement of the UN Sus-tainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Norway has a range of vital national interestsrelating to the seas and oceans. More than 80 % ofNorway’s population lives less than 20 kilo-metres from the coast. This has been a key factorin shaping Norwegian identity and in influencinghow Norway is seen by others. Ever since theViking Age, coastal waters have linked the variousparts of the country and brought them togetherinto a single kingdom, and the seas have con-nected Norway to the rest of the world.

The oceans are not only crucial to our under-standing of the past; they also hold an importantkey to the future – in Norway as in the rest of theworld. The Norwegian Government is activelypromoting a transition to a greener Norwegianeconomy. If we are to succeed, we must safeguardbiodiversity for current and future generations. Atthe same time, we must make the most of oppor-tunities for economic development in maritime

areas, and promote production and consumptionpatterns that have less negative impact on the cli-mate and marine environment than is the casetoday. The importance of this was made clear in2015 when world leaders adopted the 17 SDGs,including one specifically concerning the oceans:SDG 14, to conserve and sustainably use theoceans, seas and marine resources for sustainabledevelopment.

The oceans offer huge potential for humandevelopment. According to the UN, the world’spopulation is set to reach 9.7 billion in 2050. Mostof the growth will be in developing countries, par-ticularly in Africa and Asia. All these people willneed food and energy, and population growth willdrive an expansion of trade and maritime trans-port. Shipping has a key role to play in promotingglobal trade and growth.

However, there is also concern about the stateof the world’s oceans. Population growth, urbani-sation and the concentration of human activity incoastal areas will increase pressure on the oceans.Climate change, pollution, marine litter, overfish-ing and the destruction of coastal ecosystems areall threats to the oceans.

Global development trends indicate that Nor-way, as a coastal and maritime nation, will face acomplex set of challenges and opportunities in thedecades ahead. The choices we make and the pri-

6 Meld. St. 22 (2016–2017) Report to the Storting (white paper) 2016–2017The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy

orities we set will have important implications forour relations with the rest of the world and ourability to exploit the potential of the oceans.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea,often referred to as the ‘constitution of theoceans’, is of key importance in this context. Justas a country’s constitution ensures predictabilityand stability at the national level, the Law of theSea promotes peaceful international cooperationon conservation and sustainable use of the world’soceans. The Convention regulates the rights andobligations of states as regards use of the seas andoceans, utilisation of marine resources and con-servation of the marine environment. Thisensures a predictable framework and stability forinvestments and economic activity. The Conven-tion is vital for Norway, with its strong environ-mental, energy, seafood and shipping interests.Together with other international legal instru-ments, it provides the legal framework for Nor-way’s cooperation with other countries on conser-vation and sustainable use of the oceans andmarine resources at the global, regional and bilat-eral levels.

There is considerable potential for growth inmany sectors of the ocean economy, including theseafood industry, marine biotechnology, energy(renewable and non-renewable), seabed mining,maritime transport and trade, coastal and mari-time tourism and maritime surveillance. Togetherthese sectors make up the ocean or ‘blue’ econ-omy. Policies and tools to promote economicdevelopment and reduce poverty must take eco-logical limits and climate change into account and

ensure an integrated approach to different kindsof activities and environmental pressures. Ensur-ing sustainable use is a priority for Norway andvital for ocean-based activities in Norway and theworld as a whole. Growth in the blue economymay include both steps to improve the environ-mental performance of existing industries – forexample by deploying new technologies – and thedevelopment of new ocean-based industries thathave less environmental impact.

The SDGs provide a global framework for theinternational community’s efforts to promotedevelopment that meets the needs of the presentwithout compromising the ability of future genera-tions to meet their own needs. SDG 14 requires usto include the oceans in this concerted globaleffort. Achieving SDG 14 is important in itself,and will also have positive ripple effects in otherstrategically important areas that are vital topeace, stability and security. With its extensiveexperience and knowledge of ocean-based activi-ties, Norway is well placed to make an importantcontribution in this area.

This white paper makes it plain that the oceansare a key focus area in Norwegian foreign anddevelopment policy, and highlights three priorityareas: sustainable use and value creation, cleanand healthy oceans, and the role of the blue econ-omy in development policy. Together with theGovernment’s ocean strategy, the integrated man-agement plans for Norwegian sea areas and otherimportant policy documents, the white paper willpromote a clear and integrated Norwegianapproach to ocean issues.


Box 1.1 Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development

Figure 1.1

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reducemarine pollution of all kinds, in parti- cularfrom land-based activities, includingmarine debris and nutrient pollution

14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protectmarine and coastal ecosystems to avoidsignificant adverse impacts, including bystrengthening their resilience, and takeaction for their restoration in order toachieve healthy and productive oceans

14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of oceanacidification, including through enhancedscientific cooperation at all levels

14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvestingand end overfishing, illegal, unreportedand unregulated fishing and destructivefishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order torestore fish stocks in the shor- test timefeasible, at least to levels that can producemaximum sustainable yield as determinedby their biological characteristics

14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent ofcoastal and marine areas, consistent withnational and international law and based onthe best available scientific information

14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheriessubsidies which contribute to overcapacityand overfishing, eliminate subsidies thatcontribute to illegal, unreported and unreg-ulated fishing and refrain from introducingnew such subsidies, recognizing thatappropriate and effective special and differ-ential treatment for developing and leastdeveloped countries should be an integralpart of the World Trade Organization fish-eries subsidies negotiation

14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits toSmall Island developing States and leastdeveloped countries from the sustainableuse of marine resources, inclu- dingthrough sustainable management of fisher-ies, aquaculture and tourism

14.A Increase scientific knowledge, developresearch capacity and transfer marine tech-nology, taking into account the Intergov-ernmental Oceanographic CommissionCriteria and Guidelines on the Transfer ofMarine Technology, in order to improveocean health and to enhance the contribu-tion of marine biodiversity to the develop-ment of developing countries, in particularsmall island developing States and leastdeveloped countries

14.B Provide access for small-scale artisanalfishers to marine resources and markets

14.C Enhance the conservation and sustainableuse of oceans and their resources by imple-menting international law as reflected inUNCLOS, which provides the legal frame-work for the conservation and sustainableuse of oceans and their resources, asrecalled in paragraph 158


2 Summary

Norway’s ocean interests in an international context

Norway’s ocean interests are related to value cre-ation, the environment, climate change and sus-tainable use of resources. Long-term, integratedmanagement of natural resources and the marineenvironment is crucial for securing the livelihoodsof present and future generations. We must lookto the oceans to find solutions to many future chal-lenges, and we will have to cooperate closely atthe international level if we are to be able toexploit the potential of the oceans to the full. TheOECD has calculated that many ocean-basedindustries have the potential to outperform thegrowth of the global economy as a whole by 2030.A high level of growth will only be possible if theoceans are managed sustainably.

Norway is in a strong position to promote itsocean interests, share knowledge and contributeto global development that is in line with theSDGs. Norway’s experience of sustainable marinemanagement has given us valuable expertise thatwe can use in our international efforts to advocatedevelopment that fosters growth through protec-tion of the marine environment, not at its expense.Safeguarding Norway’s ocean interests alsoinvolves working with other countries to addressclimate and environmental problems.

International ocean policy is being stronglyinfluenced by the shift of power from west to east,and to some extent southwards. Geopoliticalchanges and the interests of emerging countrieswill affect international ocean cooperation and theoptions available to Norway. Global problemsinclude overfishing, pollution, marine litter, oceanacidification, global warming and the loss of bio-logical diversity. The Government considers itvital to promote sustainable use of marineresources and the view that sound use and conser-vation need not be mutually exclusive.

There is a pressing need for more knowledgeabout the oceans. Some ocean governance issuesare global in nature and require global solutions,whereas many of them can best be addressed atthe regional level. The Government is workingactively to promote Norway’s ocean interests in

multilateral, regional and bilateral arenas. Thereis considerable potential for blue growth in manydeveloping countries and the knowledge, exper-tise and experience of countries like Norway issought after. Sharing experience and knowledgegained from its system of integrated marine man-agement plans is one important way in which Nor-way can contribute to international marine man-agement.

Ocean policy is a priority area for influentialcountries in all parts of the world and providesNorway with important, long-term opportunitiesfor cooperation with other countries. The Govern-ment will launch dialogues on ocean affairs withrelevant countries with a view to exchanging expe-rience and expertise and cooperating on meas-ures to promote clean and healthy oceans, sustain-able use of marine resources and growth in theblue economy.

Norway’s ocean interests in the Arctic arerelated to the utilisation of resources and to man-aging this in a way that ensures good ecologicalstatus and safeguards valuable biodiversity andthe basis for future harvesting and use ofresources. The Arctic is Norway’s most importantforeign policy priority. There are growing oppor-tunities for industrial development in sectors suchas seafood and oil and gas. However, global warm-ing is bringing about rapid change in Arctic seaareas. The Government is giving high priority todeveloping knowledge on issues relating to theArctic seas. The Government will, in consultationwith the academic community, the public adminis-tration and the business sector, consider estab-lishing a centre of expertise on ocean and Arcticissues in Tromsø.

In the Antarctic and the southern AtlanticOcean, Norway’s ocean interests are related toconservation of the unique marine ecosystems,research and responsible harvesting of livingmarine resources.

The framework for Norway’s ocean interests

No nation can solve ocean-related problems alone.Good cooperation mechanisms are needed at both


global and regional level. In order to be able topromote its ocean interests, Norway is dependenton respect for the UN Convention on the Law ofthe Sea, effective international organisations andsecure seas and oceans. In different ways, thesethree factors influence the options and opportuni-ties available to Norway. Norway has a core inter-est in the strengthening and further developmentof the Law of the Sea. The Convention providesthe international legal framework for all humanactivity in the oceans. The principles set out in theConvention on the obligation to protect and pre-serve the marine environment and the right toexploit natural resources, and its regionalapproach to marine management are particularlyimportant.

Norway cooperates with multilateral, regionaland bilateral partners on international ocean gov-ernance. A number of organisations and forms ofcooperation have been set up to promote interna-tional cooperation and regulate activities in differ-ent areas. Coordination and cooperation betweeninternational institutions is needed if we are tosucceed in managing ocean-related challenges.

The UN is the most important forum for devel-oping international norms, and to a large extent itdetermines the overall framework for ocean-basedactivities. In addition, a number of UN agenciesand multilateral and regional organisations have aresponsibility and mandate to address marine andmaritime issues. Some of them, such as the Inter-national Maritime Organization, the InternationalWhaling Commission, and the North East AtlanticFisheries Commission, focus mainly on theseissues. Others, such as the UN Food and Agricul-ture Organization (FAO) and the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), have a num-ber of other focus areas as well.

Norway and the EU maintain close contact onmaritime and ocean-related matters, and cooper-ate at many levels. Most exports from Norwegianocean-based industries go to countries in the EU.The EU regards the oceans as a driver of theEuropean economy, with great potential for inno-vation and growth. In 2016, the EU presented aJoint Communication on international ocean gov-ernance, and later in 2017, it will be hosting thefourth Our Ocean Conference. The EU is a keypartner for Norway in many ocean-related areas,at both global and regional level.

Secure seas and oceans are a prerequisite forpromoting Norway’s ocean interests. The Govern-ment considers it crucial to pursue a security pol-icy that safeguards Norway’s interests at sea.Agreements on maritime delimitation and respect

for the Law of the Sea are the keys to peacefulcooperation in the future. The Norwegian ArmedForces have the main responsibility for exercisingNorwegian authority at sea, and the Coast Guardmaintains a presence in Norwegian watersthroughout the year to safeguard our interests.

Close cooperation between NATO and the EUon maritime security benefits Norway.

Safe and secure conditions for all maritimetransport are vital for Norway as a major shippingnation. Human smuggling by sea is a major chal-lenge. The maritime operations in the Mediterra-nean play a key role in controlling the Schengenexternal border, combating human smugglingand dealing with flows of refugees and migrants.Various types of organised environmental crimetake place at sea or use the oceans as a transportroute. The Government is calling for a compre-hensive approach that considers environmentalcrime together with other forms of organisedcrime, such as fisheries crime.

The impacts of climate change on the oceansmay exacerbate global and regional securitythreats. Rising sea levels and changes in the distri-bution of important fish stocks are factors thatcould worsen the security situation in fragile coun-tries and regions.

Priority areas for Norway

Norwegian foreign policy must be designed tosupport the further development of sustainableocean-based industries and to promote good solu-tions and action to combat the serious environ-mental threats facing the world’s oceans. It is inNorway’s interests to support efforts to promotesustainable growth in the blue economy in devel-oping countries.

The world needs countries that are willing totake the lead in the work to protect the oceans andensure that resources are used sustainably. TheGovernment wants Norway to be at the forefrontof international efforts to promote sustainable useand value creation, to ensure that we have cleanand healthy oceans and to support the blue econ-omy in developing countries.

Sustainable use and value creation

Its extensive, resource-rich sea areas mean thatNorway is well-placed to benefit from the antici-pated global growth in the blue economy. TheGovernment has high ambitions when it comes tovalue creation in Norwegian ocean-based indus-tries, as described in its ocean strategy, which was


presented in February 2017. Promoting responsi-ble use of marine resources and blue growthcould also be a way of ensuring progress towardsseveral of the other SDGs.

The traditional Norwegian ocean-based indus-tries – the oil and gas sector, the maritime indus-try and the seafood industry – are highly inter-nationalised. The oil and gas sector stands out interms of its contribution to GDP, export value andthe number of people it employs. Given theexpected increase in energy demand, the sectorwill continue to play an important role for manyyears to come. The International Energy Agencyis an important arena for promoting Norwegianenergy policy views and interests.

Maritime transport is vital for world trade andaccess to global markets, and a key factor forachieving sustainable development. Norway is thetenth largest shipping nation in the world in termsof tonnage, and the world’s sixth largest in termsof value. The Government is promoting the imple-mentation of, and seeking to generate support for,global shipping rules, the development of moreenvironmentally friendly shipping, measures tocombat piracy, maritime security, and implementa-tion of the mandatory Polar Code for ships operat-ing in polar waters.

The Norwegian seafood industry has grownconsiderably in recent years. The Government isworking towards sustainable management of liv-ing marine resources, based on the best based sci-entific evidence and an ecosystem approach.Aquaculture is now the largest industry in theNorwegian seafood sector, and the export value ofaquaculture products exceeds that of exportsfrom capture fisheries. Norway cooperates closelywith neighbouring countries on the managementand harvesting of many of our most important fishstocks. Although fish stocks in Norwegian seaareas are harvested at sustainable levels, the situ-ation on a global scale is far less positive. Accord-ing to FAO, around 31 % of the world’s commer-cially important fish stocks are overfished. Formany years, Norway has been heavily engaged ininternational cooperation to promote sustainablefisheries management. The Government is callingfor higher priority to be given to fisheries andaquaculture in efforts to improve global food secu-rity, and for FAO to be the main arena for policydevelopment relating to global food security, nutri-tion and the right to food.

Many different ocean-based industries couldpotentially make an important contribution tovalue creation in Norway and in other countries.These include offshore renewable energy and sea-

bed mining, which could be important in the longterm. The Norwegian aquaculture sector is carry-ing out extensive research on species that could intime be used to increase production. Kelp cultiva-tion is one area that appears to have significanteconomic potential, and the rich marine biodiver-sity could be used as a basis for developing newproducts in a number of areas. The Governmentwill therefore promote sustainable growth in newand emerging ocean-based industries.

Increasing market access and eliminatingtrade barriers are important tasks in Norwegianforeign and trade policy, and these are clear priori-ties for the Government. Ocean-based industriesare a key priority for Norway in the WTO, in tradecooperation with EU/EEA countries and in bilat-eral free trade agreements negotiated under theauspices of the European Free Trade Association(EFTA). The Government is pursuing a proactivetrade policy that safeguards Norway’s interests.The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry ofTrade, Industry and Fisheries and other relevantministries promote Norway’s trade policy priori-ties in the international arena.

Supporting the Norwegian business sectorabroad is a priority for the Ministry of ForeignAffairs. Norway’s diplomatic and consular mis-sions act as door openers and network-builders.They have knowledge of local conditions and mar-ket opportunities and access to networks and theauthorities in their host countries. The Govern-ment will promote crosssectoral cooperationunder Team Norway to promote the ocean econ-omy as a whole in areas where this can enhancethe effectiveness of our efforts.

Clean and healthy oceans

Value creation based on the use of marineresources is dependent on the maintenance ofgood environmental status and on species andhabitat diversity in the seas and oceans. The Gov-ernment will continue to raise awareness of thisinternationally, and will play an active role inefforts to find good solutions.

Marine litter is a growing international prob-lem. Plastics and other waste have negativeimpacts on biodiversity and sustainable develop-ment. Norway will participate actively in interna-tional efforts to combat marine litter andmicroplastics. The Government will launch adevelopment programme with the aim of reducingmarine waste and improving waste managementin developing countries. Releases of chemicals,oil, sewage and heavy metals also pose a threat to


the marine environment. The Government willcontinue to take a broad approach in its efforts toprevent pollution from both land-based and off-shore activities.

Climate change is having negative impacts onthe marine environment and is making the oceanswarmer and more acidic. This also poses a threatto food security. Sea levels are rising as a result ofglobal warming, and this is threatening smallisland states, low-lying countries and coastal com-munities. The most important step we can take tolimit the negative impacts of climate change onthe oceans is to reduce global CO2 emissions. Theadoption of the Paris Agreement was thereforealso important for the oceans as well as other eco-systems. The Government will maintain its exten-sive international engagement in the area of cli-mate change. In 2017, the Government will allo-cate over NOK 5 billion to climate-related meas-ures through the development assistance budget.Small island developing states (SIDS) have exten-sive sea areas and maritime interests. The Gov-ernment will strengthen cooperation on climateissues with SIDS that are particularly vulnerableto climate change. ‘Blue’ forests, such as man-groves, are important because they absorb andstore CO2. The Government will continue to high-light the importance of blue forests internationallyand support blue forest initiatives in selected part-ner countries in the Global South.

Area-based management measures such assetting aside marine protected areas are impor-tant tools in the work to promote conservationand sustainable use of marine biodiversity. In theGovernment’s view, it is important to ensure thatthe extent of such areas and the managementmeasures introduced are based on the best possi-ble scientific information, are in line with the pur-pose of protection and can be combined with sus-tainable use of the areas. The Government willseek to promote understanding of this internation-ally, with a view to ensuring that the internationalcommunity makes the best possible use ofresources and implements targeted measures.This is also important for developing countriesand their efforts to bring about sustainable devel-opment of the blue economy.

The blue economy in developing countries

Many of Norway’s partner countries have sub-stantial marine resources and considerable poten-tial to further develop blue industries. It is in Nor-way’s interest that developing countries managethe oceans sustainably. The Government will allo-

cate a larger proportion of the aid budget to thedevelopment of expertise on integrated sustaina-ble management of marine resources, food secu-rity and business development. The Oil for Devel-opment programme and the Fish for Developmentprogramme are important tools in this area.

For several years, Norway has provided assis-tance to a number of African countries to enablethem to better safeguard their interests in connec-tion with the determination of the outer limits oftheir respective continental shelves. The Govern-ment will take part in a follow-up project in thecountries concerned.

Norway’s model of integrated marine manage-ment plans is of interest to many developing coun-tries. There is a pressing need to establish andstrengthen management regimes that promotethe potential for business development and sus-tainable use of marine resources. The Govern-ment will strengthen efforts to develop cross-sec-toral regional seas programmes for developingcountries in cooperation with UNEP and FAO.

Oil and gas production is an important sourceof income for many developing countries, and ifmanaged responsibly, the oil and gas industry canmake a significant contribution to economic andsocial development. Norway shares its expertisein this area through the Oil for Development pro-gramme, which aims to enable developing coun-tries to manage their petroleum resources in away that contributes to lasting poverty reductionand takes environmental concerns properly intoaccount. The Government will continue its coop-eration with partner countries on the four maincomponents of the Oil for Development pro-gramme: resource management, environmentalmanagement (including climate change consider-ations), safety management (including oil pollu-tion preparedness and response and operationalsafety) and financial management.

The Fish for Development programme waslaunched in 2015 to enhance the impact of aid ini-tiatives relating to the sustainable use of livingmarine resources. Under the programme, Nor-way provides capacitybuilding support to theauthorities in partner countries, and assistance forthe development of effective legislation, and moni-toring, inspection and enforcement systems. Italso provides support for education and businessdevelopment. The Government intends toincrease its allocation to the Fish for Developmentprogramme to meet the demand for knowledgeand management experience relating to marineresources and the oceans.


For more than 40 years, Norway has been sup-porting the Nansen Programme in cooperationwith FAO. The official naming ceremony for thethird in a line of research vessels called Dr Fridt-jof Nansen, the worlds most advanced researchvessel, took place in March 2017. A new phase ofthe Nansen Programme was launched at the sametime. The new vessel will make it possible to carryout more extensive marine research and promoteecosystem-based fisheries management in devel-oping countries.

Small-scale fisheries are the most commontype of fisheries, and are an important source ofemployment, food security and income in develop-ing countries. It is estimated that about 90 % of allpeople employed in capture fisheries work in thesmall-scale fisheries sector. In view of the valuablecontribution this sector makes to food securityand poverty reduction, the Government will con-

tinue to provide support for sustainable small-scale fisheries.

The Government will use a greater proportionof development aid to build up expertise on busi-ness development in the marine and maritime sec-tors. Knowledge about marine ecosystems, asound legal framework and management regime,and security for private investments are all neededto develop an effective and responsible fisheriesmanagement system.

Two of the greatest threats to sustainable fish-eries are illegal, unreported and unregulated(IUU) fishing and fisheries crime. In many coun-tries, there is a pressing need to establish andstrengthen management regimes that can limitlosses arising from these illegal activities. TheGovernment will intensify its efforts to combatIUU fishing and maintain Norway’s substantialsupport for efforts to combat fisheries crime.

Part IOcean interests



3 Norwegian ocean interests in an international context

Norwegian ocean interests are related to valuecreation, the environment, climate change andsustainable use of resources, both nationally andglobally. The Brundtland Commission’s report of1987 put forth important ideas about securingthese interests. The report’s main message is thatsustainable development serves the needs of peo-ple alive today without destroying the ability offuture generations to meet their needs. Sustaina-ble development rests on three pillars: economicdevelopment, social development and environ-mental protection. To ensure sustainable develop-ment, all three have to be maintained. Sustainabil-ity has become a guiding principle in a number ofareas related to natural resource use.

The added pressure on marine resourcesexpected in the coming decades may present diffi-cult trade-offs and choices. Long-term integratedmanagement of the environment and resources iscrucial for value creation and human activity.

3.1 The potential of the oceans

The opportunities associated with exploitingmarine resources are substantial. According tothe Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD), many ocean-based indus-tries have the potential to outperform world eco-nomic growth in the years through 2030, and thevalue-added contribution of these industries coulddouble.1 In these calculations, the organisationassumes a continuation of current trends and con-ditions. Especially strong growth is expected inindustries such as offshore wind power, aquacul-ture, fishing and fish processing as well as ship-building, port activities and ship repair. TheOECD also presents two alternative developmentpaths, called the ‘sustainable scenario’ and the‘unsustainable scenario’. Importantly, the valueadded in the sustainable scenario exceeds the

value added that would be produced by a continu-ation of current trends and conditions. In the sec-ond alternative scenario, value added would bereduced, primarily due to increased environmen-tal destruction and a weakened resource base.

It is in the interest of Norway and the interna-tional community to work for trends consistentwith a sustainable scenario, simultaneouslyaccommodating economic growth and preservinga sound ocean environment. Such a developmenttrend could help the world achieve SustainableDevelopment Goal 14 as well as other sustainabil-ity goals.

The three traditional ocean-based industries –oil and gas, maritime and seafood – account for asignificant share of Norwegian value creation.The total value created in these industries in 2014was estimated at NOK 760 billion, or 37 % of theentire business community’s value creation thatyear.2 Ocean-based industries account moreoverfor about two-thirds of the value of Norwegianexports. What these industries have in common istheir growth in close interaction with scientificresearch and knowledge-based public administra-tion and their presence in many places around theworld. That bodes well for Norway in promotingits interests, sharing knowledge and contributingto global development in accordance with theUN’s sustainability goals.

Norway’s use of the ocean and its resources iswide-ranging. The ocean provides valuable naturalresources and is a crucial means of passage, asupplier of food and ecosystem services, and animportant source of identity. It plays a key role inthe world’s climate system. Most of the ways inwhich humans use marine resources have envi-ronmental impacts, and in some cases there is apotential for serious impacts on ecosystems, habi-tats and species. Globally, the combined pressureexerted on oceans has significantly weakened theresource base and the potential for value creation.

1 The Ocean Economy in 2030, a report published by OECDon April 27, 2016. Using 2010 as a baseline, the organisa-tion’s calculations indicate that the value added contribu-tion from ocean industries could double through 2030 tomore than USD 3 trillion.

2 Menon Economics (2016). Menon’s accounting and enter-prise database contains complete accounting figures for allenterprises that are required to report to the Register ofBusiness Enterprises. Public sector not included.


Environmental and resource management musttherefore improve internationally if the oceans areto be exploited to their full potential. In the dec-ades after World War II Norway, like other coun-tries, learned the hard way about such problemsas overfishing and industrial pollution of fjords.Although our ability and our capacity to managethe ocean sustainably have improved, there arestill environmental challenges that need solving.

Our extensive use of the ocean and itsresources creates a responsibility to manage it ina long-term and responsible way. Norway has formany decades based its use of the ocean on thesustainability principle. Important tools for Nor-way in this respect are its integrated managementplans for marine areas, with ecosystem considera-tions a concern throughout. They reflect Nor-way’s ability and willingness to manage its marineareas in a sustainable manner, and have helpedmake Norway a driving force among nations forcomprehensive, ecosystem-based management.Sharing experience and knowledge gained fromits system of integrated marine managementplans is one important way in which Norway cancontribute to international marine management.The system’s cross-sectoral approach is a particu-larly important feature. Work on the managementplans brings together all relevant parts of the pub-lic administration, and the measures advancedcover all sectors active in Norwegian waters.

Sustainable management requirements andregulations that take climate and the environmentinto account are also set forth in applicable Nor-wegian sectoral legislation. Ocean-based indus-tries today are managed and regulated largely bysector. It is important to obtain a state of healthycoexistence among the various marine and coastalindustries, some of which may have overlappingand competing interests relating to resourceexploitation and utilisation.

Norway’s resource management system iseffective and prudent, and the ecological status inNorwegian marine areas is generally good. Nor-way’s application of sound management on thedomestic front is essential to ensuring that we cancontinue using the ocean and harvesting theriches along our coastline and in areas close toNorway in the years to come. It produces valuableexpertise that we can use internationally to pressfor the sort of development that promotes growthby conserving the marine environment.

3.2 Forces shaping international ocean policy

Ocean resources hold the promise of future eco-nomic and social development opportunities formany countries. The many parties, needs and pri-orities involved make the oceans an arena for mul-tifaceted international cooperation by a profusionof actors. The oceans join states and people allover the world, highlighting the global commu-nity’s shared responsibility for and interest inensuring that they are sustainably used and keptclean and healthy for future generations.

International political developments in recentyears demonstrate that the world is more unpre-dictable and unstable than just a few years back.The world order created after World War II hascome under pressure. We live at a time of emerg-ing and partly competing political centres, of shift-ing economic power from west to east, and tosome degree to south, and of increasing influenceby emerging powers. In the coming decades mostpopulation growth will take place in developing

Box 3.1 The Government’s ocean strategy

Ocean-based industries are a significantsource of value creation and employment inNorway. They will continue to be an underpin-ning of Norway’s general welfare and to play akey role in the country’s future. It was in thatlight that Prime Minister Solberg presentedthe Government’s ocean strategy on 21 Febru-ary 2017. The strategy’s main objective is tofacilitate as much sustainable value creationand employment as possible in the ocean-based industries. To achieve this goal the Gov-ernment will follow three tracks. It will helpfoster good framework conditions by maintain-ing and enhancing ocean-based industrial reg-ulation in an efficient, predictable and knowl-edge-based manner; it will encourage thedevelopment of knowledge and technology inthe ocean-based industries through research,innovation, education and expertise; and it willstrengthen the international competitivenessof Norwegian ocean-based industries byassisting with market access, internationalisa-tion and promotion. Divided among the threetracks, the strategy specifies 95 measures andfollow-up points to be pursued.


countries, especially in Africa and Asia, while thepopulations of Europe and North America standstill. Global developments will certainly affectinternational cooperation on ocean affairs as wellas Norway’s freedom to act on its interests.

The envisaged future of complexity and uncer-tainty extends to the many non-state actors thatexercise influence over marine issues, such asmultinational companies and international envi-ronmental organisations. As Norway advances itsocean interests internationally, the foreign policyinstruments employed must be designed toaccount for this multifaceted picture.

Sound ocean management and environmentalprotection are more important than ever. Threatsto the marine environment include pressurescaused by human activity such as overfishing, pol-lution, global warming and loss of biodiversity.The international picture as regards the balancebetween protection and economic exploitation ofresources is not clear-cut.

Some countries, including those that tend toset the agenda, are focusing primarily on the eco-nomic potential the ocean represents. Givenglobal trends such as population growth andresource needs, this is understandable. In somecases, however, an impression may be formingthat environmental considerations are beingassigned relatively little weight, whether con-sciously or unconsciously. In the long term, withthe oceans expected to come under increasingpressure and legitimate concerns raised about ourenvironment and our climate, this perspectivemay represent a challenge for Norway.

For the Government, it is vital to promote thesustainable use of marine resources and theknowledge that sustainable use and conservationneed not be antithetical. Sustainable use requiresus to know about the threats and the environmen-tal state of marine areas, and to use this knowl-edge to develop sound policies and take effectivemanagement measures. These principles informNorway’s positions as it works on relevant envi-ronmental conventions and participates in interna-tional discussions on responsible marine use andprotection.

3.3 Need for knowledge

With technological development and research,the secrets of the sea are gradually beingrevealed. As a result it will be possible over timeto exploit existing marine resources to a largerextent or in new ways, and for new resources to

become available for human use. There is a majorglobal need for more ocean knowledge and moresharing of experience and expertise. Enormousareas of the seabed have yet to be explored orproperly mapped, and coastal area ecosystems arenot fully understood. More must also be learnedabout the effects of various types of human activ-ity on marine life and about the future impacts ofclimate change on the environment and society.Acquiring knowledge takes considerableresources and capacity, so it is natural to collabo-rate. The ocean is a highly productive arena forcollaborative international research, and Norwaycontributes actively.

Norway has a long tradition of marineresearch, and the expertise amassed over the dec-ades has contributed to sustainable managementand value creation. The ocean is one of six focusareas specified in the white paper Long-term planfor research and higher education 2015–2024(Meld. St. 7 (2014–2015)).

Norway is a world leader in several areas ofmarine research, and cooperates extensively inthe field with international researchers. Contin-ued use of Norwegian scientific communities andinternational cooperation to accumulate knowl-edge and expertise are a high priority.

More cooperation on knowledge and expertisebetween the ocean-based industries and a moremultidisciplinary approach will be importantaspects of ocean science in future. The ResearchCouncil of Norway funds ocean science throughpetroleum, maritime and seafood industry pro-grammes as well as the council’s generalschemes. Ocean-based research and innovationwill provide the knowledge and expertise neededto handle major challenges related to food andenergy supply, the environment and the bioecon-omy. The council’s ocean-focused portfolio cameto almost NOK 1.5 billion in 2015. The targetedprogramme portfolio was about NOK 800 million,an increase of almost NOK 120 million from theprevious year (Research Council of NorwayAnnual Report 2015 (2016)).

3.4 International ocean policy arenas

The ocean embodies a complex set of present andfuture challenges across a wide range of humanactivities and needs. National interests vie in theinternational arena. Overall, however, oceanissues are characterised by extensive cooperation.

The Government works actively in multilat-eral, regional and bilateral arenas when Norwe-


gian interests need promoting. Ensuring produc-tive interaction between these arenas is neces-sary. Good multilateral cooperation by well-func-tioning institutions is of great importance for man-aging present and future challenges, and forrealising the potential of ocean-based resources ina sustainable fashion. The system of internationalinstitutions that has emerged is itself a determin-ing factor in how the global community governsand manages the world’s oceans. It forms part ofthe prism through which Norwegian ocean inter-ests are viewed, and the institutions are importantarenas for promoting Norwegian interests andpositions. They can also be important partners inaddressing particular issues. As a significant actorin a wide range of ocean affairs, Norway is wellpositioned to influence how such institutions aredesigned and what their priorities are. Often suchinfluence will be most effective when exercised incooperation with countries that share Norway’sinterests.

Some of the problems to be faced are global innature and require global responses. Many envi-ronmental and marine management issues, how-

ever, are best resolved through cooperationbetween the countries in closet proximity to theproblems. Some of the institutions of greatestimportance to Norway as regards marine environ-mental management and value creation are to befound in our own vicinity. For Norway, regionalityis an important principle in international maritimecooperation.

Bilateral cooperation is of great importance.All states have their own special characteristicsthat guide them in deciding which interests toadvance. They are influenced by such factors asthe degree to which they are dependent on ocean-based resources, the national institutions chargedwith setting priorities, the quality of ocean policycoordination and other domestic policy considera-tions. There are nearly 150 coastal states, with var-ying levels of dependency on the oceans. Toachieve support for our views it is important toknow the policy positions of other countries andactively pursue Norwegian interests.

It is important to devise policy instrumentsand capabilities in a way that achieves the bestcombined effect. In many cases it will be naturalto emphasise cooperation with like-minded coun-tries – those whose approaches to key maritimeissues are the same as or similar to Norway’s.However, in pursuit of a healthy marine environ-ment and sustainable use, it is vital to interact witha wide range of countries, including those thatare, or may become, significant ocean resourceusers and those whose priorities differ from Nor-way’s.

For many developing countries, lack of capac-ity and weak or underdeveloped institutions seri-ously impede the job of realising national priori-ties. These countries often face major challengesin managing marine resources and are particu-larly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.At the same time, many of these countries havethe potential to grow markedly in the blue econ-omy and therefore seek knowledge, expertise andexperience from countries such as Norway.

Ocean policy is a priority area for influentialcountries in all parts of the world and providesNorway with important, long-term opportunitiesfor cooperation with other countries. Bilateralmaritime cooperation on business, trade, knowl-edge and the environment is therefore of greatimportance.

The Government will

– launch dialogues on ocean affairs with relevantcountries with a view to sharing experience

Box 3.2 International cooperation on marine research in ICES

The International Council for the Explorationof the Sea (ICES) is an independent scientificorganisation that provides advice on managingmarine resources and the marine environmentof the North-East Atlantic. ICES was formed in1902 and currently has 20 member states onboth sides of the North Atlantic. The council’ssecretariat is located in Copenhagen. Norwayhas participated from the start. ICES works toadvance scientific understanding of marineecosystems. The aim is to advise governmen-tal authorities on the basis of the best availableinformation so that they can make scientifi-cally sound choices about the sustainable useof marine environments and ecosystems.ICES has a network of more than 4 000researchers from over 350 marine researchinstitutes. Its scientific work is governed bythe organisation’s Science Committee. TheAdvisory Committee (ACOM) each year pro-vides advice on catches for the most importantNorth-East Atlantic fish stocks. The advice isbased on data and scientific analysis from anumber of expert groups.


and expertise and cooperating on measures topromote clean and healthy oceans, sustainableuse of marine resources and growth in the blueeconomy. Dialogue may extend beyond repre-sentatives of the relevant authorities to partici-pants from academia, business and civilsociety.

3.5 Norway as a responsible polar seas nation

Norway’s ocean interests in the Arctic and Antarc-tic are related to the utilisation of resources and tomanaging this in a way that ensures good ecologi-cal status and safeguards valuable biodiversityand the basis for future use. Experience andknowledge from both the Arctic and the Antarcticgive Norway a solid basis for contributing to manyarenas and viewing global marine issues in con-text.

3.5.1 Norwegian ocean interests in the Arctic

The Arctic is Norway’s most important foreignpolicy priority. In the spring of 2017 the Govern-ment is to present an updated Arctic strategy. Inthe strategy, Arctic policy will be considered inthe context of ocean policy.

Large expanses of Norwegian sea areas arelocated north of the Arctic Circle. Many of theseare areas of high biological production, providingthe basis for important fisheries. The cod of theBarents Sea and the areas off the Lofoten archi-pelago constitute one of the world’s most impor-tant commercial fisheries. Species that previouslywere not found in the Barents Sea, like king crab

and snow crab, are providing new business oppor-tunities. The aquaculture industry is well estab-lished in the north, and if we resolve the indus-try’s environmental challenges the potential foradditional growth along the northern Norwegiancoast is considered good. The Arctic seas are alsoimportant habitats for marine mammals such asseals and whales, and some of the world largestseabird populations are found there.

In addition to traditional ocean-based indus-tries such as fishing and maritime transport, therehave been petroleum operations in the BarentsSea since 1979. Both oil and gas have been pro-duced there since 2016. In the 23rd licensinground, 10 new production licenses were awarded,including three in the newly opened Barents SeaSouth-East area, off eastern Finnmark county. It isestimated that about half of the undiscoveredpetroleum resources on the Norwegian continen-tal shelf are in the Barents Sea. Norwegian seaareas in the north are expected to play an impor-tant role in the future development of oil and gasresources.

Norwegian waters in the Arctic are now under-going major changes as a result of global warm-ing. Globally, 2016 was the warmest year onrecord, and climate change in the Arctic is occur-ring faster than elsewhere. According to someestimates, the North Pole may be ice-free in sum-mer towards the end of this century. In its latestreport the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-mate Change (IPCC) concluded that the risk ofmajor change occurring to Arctic ecosystems isvery high in the long term. Climate change willreduce the habitats of many species found in theArctic today. Several of these, such as the polarbear and the ringed seal, are dependent on sea iceand may eventually disappear from large parts ofthe Arctic. Svalbard is one of the areas where thisis expected to occur soonest; see the white paperSvalbard (Meld. St. 32 (2015–2016)).

Warmer seawater, meanwhile, may increasefisheries productivity in the north and shift fishpopulation ranges northward. How the cumulativechanges will affect the fisheries is uncertain. Theuncertainty is compounded by the fact that oceanacidification occurs fastest in polar waters.

The knowledge required to predict changes isof great importance to the planning of Arctic activ-ities and management measures, but also tounderstanding the global risk associated withthese changes. It is in Norway’s interest to coop-erate with other Arctic countries on such knowl-edge.

Box 3.3 Our Ocean conferences

The Our Ocean conferences highlight theincreased topicality of ocean affairs in recentyears. The first conference took place in June2014 following an initiative by former US Sec-retary of State John Kerry. The main topicsare sustainable fisheries, ocean acidificationand other climate-related impacts on oceans,marine protected areas (MPAs) and combat-ting marine pollution. The EU will host theconference in 2017, Indonesia in 2018. In 2019,Norway will be the host country for thisimportant annual ocean conference.


Greater expanses of open ocean will mean eas-ier access to ocean-based resources and newopportunities for ship traffic. Newly traversablewaters also mean a larger area of operations forNorwegian authorities, including the CoastGuard.

The negative impacts of human activity couldpose a threat to the unique Arctic marine environ-ment. Difficult climate and weather conditionsand long distances represent additional chal-lenges. Norway has jurisdiction over majormarine areas in the north and has a specialresponsibility as a flag, coastal and port state tofacilitate safe and environmentally friendly ship-ping in vulnerable Arctic regions. Accommodatingincreased activity, including resource utilisation,requires a well-developed system of monitoring,information gathering, information exchange,contingency planning and search and rescue ser-vices. A number of different agencies and policyinstruments contribute to these capabilities. Anexample is BarentsWatch, a comprehensive moni-toring and information system for Norwegianmarine areas.

Norway is using substantial resources to buildup knowledge about the seabed. Mapping by theMAREANO programme expands what we knowabout the extent of the habitat types and speciesthat exist in our marine areas, and about the pres-sures on them as a result of human activity. Thisknowledge provides a basis for better manage-ment. The programme will be discussed in a forth-coming white paper on updating the NorwegianSea management plan.

Norwegian ocean management is knowledge-based, so when economic and other human activ-ity at sea moves northward, more must belearned. To meet this need, Norway expends con-siderable resources on ocean-related Arcticresearch every year. Funds are channelledthrough universities, research institutes and otheractors. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs coordi-nates the Government’s Arctic efforts and admin-isters the Arctic 2030 grant scheme, which pro-vides support for a number of projects related tomarine research, climate, search and rescue, ship-ping routes, logistics, safety and oil pollution pro-tection. The Government wants to raise aware-ness about marine issues in the north. In 2017new grants specifically related to the ocean are tobe announced.

Also in 2017, the Government will be support-ing the collaborative ‘Nansen Legacy’ project,which involves several Norwegian universitiesand research institutes. The project will contrib-

ute to increased scientific understanding of thecentral and northern parts of the Barents Sea.Other important initiatives are the FRAM Centrein Tromsø, which is now being expanded, thedevelopment of Svalbard as a platform for Arcticclimate and environmental research, and the con-struction of the new ice-class research vesselKronprins Haakon, which is to be launched inearly 2018.

In Norway, there are strong and well-estab-lished clusters of experts specialising in marineand Arctic matters. The Government thinks theseclusters of expertise could be better coordinatedand promoted, so it intends to work with aca-demia, public administrative bodies and the busi-ness community to determine the best way ofreleasing this potential, including the possibleestablishment of a centre of expertise for oceanand Arctic issues in Tromsø. Such coordinationand promotion must build on existing pillars andstructures for addressing Arctic issues, where thesubject of the ocean has gained in prominence. Inaddition to enhancing coordination and promo-tion, a centre of expertise could stir debate andcall attention to aspects of national and globaldevelopment that affect Norwegian interests andNorway’s manoeuvring room as a coastal andmarine state.

The Government will

– consider establishing a centre of expertise forocean and Arctic issues in Tromsø.

3.5.2 Norwegian ocean interests in the Antarctic and South Atlantic

Norwegian ocean interests in the Antarctic dateback to the 1890s and succeeding decades, andwere based on research and whaling. SouthernOcean whaling accounted for a significant part ofthe Norwegian whale harvest in the decadesbefore and after World War II. Antarctic watersare among the most inhospitable on earth, interms of both climate and weather, but the diver-sity of ocean life is varied and rich. Today, Norwe-gian interests in these areas are related to conser-vation of the unique marine ecosystems, researchand responsible harvesting of living marineresources, such as krill and toothfish.

For more than 50 years, the parties to the Ant-arctic Treaty have managed an enormous conti-nent surrounded by a rich marine area throughpeaceful cooperation across geopolitical dividinglines. The overall objectives of Norway’s Antarctic


policy, priorities and ocean interests appear in thewhite paper Norwegian Interests and Policy in theAntarctic (Meld. St. 32 (2014–2015)). Accordingto this white paper, Norway is to be at the fore-front of ecosystem-based management, whichsafeguards biodiversity and provides a basis forsustainable resource exploitation.

Norway has two areas in the Antarctic: Peter IØy and Dronning Maud Land. As a claimant coun-try, Norway has a special interest in helpingensure Antarctic waters are managed on a soundscientific basis. Norway plays an active role ininternational cooperation on marine issues. Nor-wegian priorities are advanced through workrelated to the Antarctic Treaty, including the Envi-ronmental Protocol and the Convention on theConservation of Antarctic Marine LivingResources (the CAMLR Convention).

Bouvetøya is located in the South Atlantic, butnorth of the Antarctic Treaty area. The island isconsidered one of the most remote in the world.Bouvetøya and the territorial waters around it areprotected as a natural reserve. A white paper onNorwegian interests and policy relating to Bou-vetøya (Meld. St. 33 (2014–2015)) provides thepolicy framework for the island and surroundingmarine areas. The Government will attend to Nor-way’s rights and duties as a coastal state andresponsible resource manager around Bouvetøyaby safeguarding the natural reserve’s environ-mental assets and facilitating information gather-ing and additional research and mapping of theresources in the ocean, including the continentalshelf. An economic zone has not been establishedaround the island. In 2009, Norway submitteddocumentation to the UN Commission on theLimits of the Continental Shelf regarding theextent of the continental shelf beyond 200 nauticalmiles.

Figure 3.1 ‘Heart attack’.

Norway advocates a knowledge-based approach to conserva-tion and sustainable use in Antarctic waters. The red heartshape is a krill swarm under attack by a seal or penguin (thevertical blue line near the top of the ‘heart’). The image wasmade with sonar aboard the research vessel James Clark Rossduring a joint Norwegian-British mission. The image belongsto Norway’s Institute of Marine Research and the British An-tarctic Survey.


Part IIOverall international framework



4 Framework for Norway’s ocean interests

To promote its ocean interests, Norway is depend-ent on the existing international framework, inparticular the UN Convention on the Law of theSea. This is of crucial importance because it pro-vides the world with a predictable legal systemgoverning the rights and obligations of states withregard to use of the ocean and conservation ofmarine resources. The convention forestalls con-flict and promotes predictability by clarifyingwhich rights are applicable.

At the same time, the global community has aneed to develop practical forms of cooperation andfunctional arenas for working together and solv-ing challenges, whether these involve standardisa-tion, management issues, combatting environ-mental threats or other matters. A number ofinternational institutions have been created toaddress the various problem areas.

Norwegian ocean interests also have securityand sovereignty dimensions. Security challengesat sea are complex, varying greatly from region toregion. As the world’s population grows, so willthe need for ocean resources.

We can expect an increase in ocean cargo andpassenger traffic. The consistent exercise ofauthority in accordance with international law is akey to peaceful cooperation. Yet there are seriousinternational security challenges at sea, such aspiracy, environmental crime and the smuggling ofweapons, drugs and human beings. While theseproblems have little connection to Norwegianmarine areas, they do affect Norwegian oceaninterests, whether indirectly or directly. It is alsothe case that destruction of the marine life sup-port system in vulnerable coastal areas can exac-erbate threats to stability and peace, with possibleconsequences for Norway.

4.1 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea – the ‘constitution of the oceans’

The United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea provides the international framework for allactivities at sea. It amounts to a common set of

rules, providing predictability and stability. It istherefore a core Norwegian interest to helpstrengthen and further develop the Law of theSea. Clear rules and stable framework conditionsare necessary for peaceful cooperation betweencountries, economic development and businessactivity, and sustainable environmental manage-ment.

The law of the sea has been developed overcenturies to reconcile the interests of all coun-tries, both in neighbouring areas and in more dis-tant seas. Security and resource utilisation are ofspecial importance in a country’s neighbouringareas, while shipping and harvesting are impor-tant in distant oceans as well. Previously, statesexercised sovereignty in the waters closest totheir coastlines more or less as they did on land.Further out the freedom of the high seas applied,and all states had equal rights to harvest livingmarine resources and engage in maritime trans-port. After World War II a number of stateswanted greater control over their own resources,leading to among other things the UN’s first Lawof the Sea conference, in 1958. It resulted in fourconventions concerning, respectively, territorialwaters, the continental shelf, the high seas andfishing. This led to a new conference, and ulti-mately to the UN Convention on the Law of theSea of 1982. The convention established a historiccompromise between coastal state interests andthe freedom of the seas by giving the coastalstates rights to the resources on their own conti-nental shelf and in zones extending 200 nauticalmiles offshore, while entitling other states to freepassage in the same areas.

The Law of the Sea provides a framework fornational rights, freedom of action and duties atsea. The Convention on the Law of the Sea hasbeen ratified by 168 parties, but enjoys almost uni-versal support due to its balancing of diverse con-cerns, interests, rights and duties. For no countrydoes the convention provide full acknowledge-ment of individual national interests, but the vastmajority of countries see the convention, and thebalancing of interests it stands for, as serving theirinterests overall.


The convention largely reflects customaryinternational law as it has evolved from its empha-sis on freedom of the seas to a greater focus oncoastal state administration. The broad support itenjoys has also had the effect of quickly confer-ring customary international law status on newlegal concepts introduced as a consequence of theconvention’s adoption, such as the right of coastalstates to institute economic zones.

4.1.1 Coastal states and the ocean

The Convention on the Law of the Sea clarifieswhich states own which resources and whichusage rights they have in different geographicalareas. It gives the coastal states special rights andduties. The Convention on the Law of the Seadivides the ocean into maritime zones. Territorialwaters are those closest to the coast.

4.1.1.1 Territorial waters: internal waters and territorial sea

In the territorial waters, the coastal state has fullsovereignty and essentially the same authority ason land. Territorial waters consist of internalwaters and territorial sea. The internal waters aremade up of fjords, bays and small marine areasinside the baseline.1 Baselines form the outerboundary of internal waters and are the startingpoint for calculating the territorial sea and outerjurisdictional areas.

In internal waters the coastal state has full sov-ereignty; other states may engage in activity thereonly to the extent that the coastal state accepts orpermits it. An example of such activity is thearrival of foreign ships at Norwegian ports. Like-wise in the territorial sea, extending 12 nauticalmiles2 from the baseline, the coastal state enjoysfull sovereignty, except that foreign ships are enti-tled to innocent passage. In the contiguous zoneextending 12 nautical miles seaward from theouter limit of the territorial sea, coastal states nolonger have full sovereignty, but are permitted toinspect foreign ships suspected of violating thecoastal state’s customs, health or immigration reg-ulations.

4.1.1.2 Economic zone

In the exclusive economic zone, which extendsto 200 nautical miles from the baseline, thecoastal state has sovereign rights to make use ofall resources and ensure they are not overex-ploited. In this way the fishing interests ofcoastal states are well protected under the Law ofthe Sea. Economic zone rights also include theauthority to implement measures for marineenvironmental protection and conservation.These rights are combined and balanced withfreedom of the seas, which entitles other statesto free passage. For example, Norway maydecline to allow other states to fish in Norway’seconomic zone, but as a general rule it may notimpose ship traffic restrictions beyond thoseadopted by the International Maritime Organiza-tion (IMO), a UN agency.

4.1.1.3 Continental shelf

The continental shelf is the extension of landmasses into the sea. Coastal states are automati-cally assumed to have a continental shelf extend-ing 200 nautical miles from the baseline if not cur-tailed by another country’s continental shelf. Thecontinental shelf of many coastal states reachbeyond 200 nautical miles. In such cases thecoastal state must document the extent of theshelf to the Commission on the Limits of the Con-tinental Shelf (CLCS)3 in New York. The commis-sion issues recommendations which then entitlethe coastal state to establish the outer limits of itscontinental shelf on the basis of the recommenda-tion.

Under the Law of the Sea, all coastal stateshave sovereign rights to natural resources on thecontinental shelf. They are thus entitled to explorefor and extract minerals and other resources pres-ent on and in the subsoil, including sedentary spe-cies such as the snow crab. In this context theimplication of a coastal state’s sovereign rights isthat no one can explore or extract such naturalresources without the express consent of thecoastal state.

The seabed area beyond national continentalshelves is called the Area. There, all states haveequal rights to activity and exploitation. The Areaand the mineral resources there are defined as thecommon heritage of mankind and are managed by

1 Norway’s internal waters are all the waters within its base-lines as drawn in accordance with Part II of the Conventionon the Law of the Sea. Baselines are the starting point forthe mapping of zones and shelves. See also the Act of 27June 2003 relating to Norway’s territorial waters and con-tiguous zone.

2 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km.3 The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf

(CLCS) meets at UN Headquarters in New York.


the International Seabed Authority, located inJamaica.4

4.1.1.4 The high seas, international waters

On the high seas – that is, areas outside nationaljurisdiction – all states have the freedom toengage in such activities as shipping, researchand fishing. No state may place any part of thehigh seas under its jurisdiction, but all states mayallow their citizens and vessels to engage in activi-ties there pursuant to national laws and regula-tions. For example, allowing Norwegian fishingvessels to fish on the high seas and prosecutingthem criminally if there is reason to do so are mat-ters for Norway to decide.

On the high seas, states are obliged to cooper-ate on such issues as fisheries resource manage-ment and marine environmental protection. Nor-way fulfils its duty to cooperate by working in theIMO and regional organisations.

Where a continental shelf extends beyond 200nautical miles, the outer shelf area is in interna-tional waters. This is the case in the central ArcticOcean, where virtually all of the seabed mayprove to be national continental shelf. There, as

usual, the coastal state has sovereign rights toexploit the shelf’s natural resources, while thewater column above is governed by rules linkedto the freedom of the high seas. This creates anumber of problematic issues that require balanc-ing the coastal state’s rights to sustainably exploitits continental shelf resources against the rightsof other states to exercise the freedom of the seas.

4.1.2 Duty to protect, right to use

The Convention on the Law of the Sea combinesthe right to use the ocean and exploit itsresources with a duty to protect the marine envi-ronment. Such use must be sustainable. That is,the use of marine resources shall serve the needsof today’s generation without reducing the abilityof future generations to meet their needs. Thisprinciple, as expressed in the law, applies to eachuse in isolation but logically must also apply to thesum of all uses. Marine management must there-fore take into account the entirety of a situation.Different uses, different pressures and differentspecies, habitats and ecosystems must be viewedin context.

The integrated management plans for Norwe-gian marine areas have been established so thatdifferent activities can be considered in relation toeach other in context. Internationally, Norwayadvocates such an integrated approach in keyforums the United Nations, the Arctic Council andin its bilateral cooperation with Russia.

4 The Agreement of 28 July 1994 on the implementation ofPart XI of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10December 1982 provides special rules on implementingrules for the Area. The agreement became binding on Nor-way on 24 July 1996; see Proposition No. 37 (1995–1996) tothe Storting.

Figure 4.1 Illustration showing the maritime jurisdictional areas of coastal states.

Territorial Sea

Exclusive Economic Zone

The Area

InternalWaters

BA

SE

LIN

E

Contiguous Zone

Continental Shelf

The High Seas

CO

NT

INE

NTA

L S

HE

LF

MA

RG

IN

(The deep seabed)

Norwegian Polar Institute


4.1.3 Regional application of the Law of the Sea

While management of national zones and conti-nental shelves under the Law of the Sea is theresponsibility of coastal states, their right to useand exploit resources outside national jurisdictionis combined with a duty to cooperate on manage-ment. Such cooperation may be carried out in dif-ferent configurations and at different levels. Theshipping industry is distinctly global, and is man-aged appropriately in the IMO. The same can besaid for mining activities in areas outside nationaljurisdiction, which are managed by the Interna-tional Seabed Authority.

In the case of fisheries, regional conditionsand special characteristics have more promi-nence. The Convention on the Law of the Sea andthe UN Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement5

emphasise bilateral and regional schemes for themanagement of fisheries in international waters.

The UN Straddling Fish Stocks Agreementcame into force in 2001. It provides detailed globalrules for fisheries management outside economiczones. It also contains resource management prin-ciples, such as the precautionary approach. Theagreement has lead to the creation of newregional fisheries organisations, including outsidesouthern Africa. It has also brought about revitali-sation and modernisation of existing organisa-tions. In our region, two important forms of coop-eration are exemplified by the North East AtlanticFisheries Commission (NEAFC) and the JointNorwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission.6

Suitable management of the marine environ-ment requires local experience and knowledge. Itis important to work together through regionalcooperation mechanisms such as the UN Environ-ment Programme’s Regional Seas Programme,the OSPAR Convention for the Protection of theMarine Environment of the North-East Atlantic,and the Arctic Council. For fisheries and environ-mental management in Antarctic waters, the mostimportant cooperation mechanism is the Commis-

sion for the Conservation of Antarctic LivingMarine Resources (CCAMLR).

In Norway’s view, the region’s coastal states,by virtue of their knowledge and long-term utilisa-tion of nearby waters, are particularly well suitedto cooperating on and selecting measures foreffective natural resource management and eco-system protection. In accordance with the Law ofthe Sea Norway will therefore continue to workfor regional organisations and mechanisms to bethe first-line option in marine resource manage-ment and protection.

4.1.4 Law of the Sea and Norway’s neighbouring areas

In order to have predictability and stability, inter-national law and associated legal rules must berespected by all states. In Norway’s general vicin-ity there are good examples of ways countriescooperate to comply with the Law of the Sea.

4.1.4.1 Ilulissat Declaration

In 2008 the five coastal states of the central ArcticOcean – Norway, Russia, the United States, Can-ada and Denmark/Greenland – signed the Ilulis-sat Declaration. The countries declared the Law ofthe Sea to be the legal framework for future Arcticcooperation and affirmed they had a specialresponsibility for sustainable management ofmarine areas. They also committed to developingmanagement schemes for the Arctic consistentwith the Law of the Sea and to resolving any disa-greement about overlapping demands in anorderly manner, in accordance with the Law of theSea.

4.1.4.2 Central Arctic Ocean declaration

In 2015, the same coastal states signed a declara-tion on preventing unregulated high seas fishingin the central Arctic Ocean. The declaration wasprompted by a sharp reduction of ice cover inrecent years. The changing ice conditions haveraised the question of whether fish stocks in themarginal Arctic seas, such as the Barents and theBering, might migrate into the central ArcticOcean basin and provide a basis for fishing there.The declaration concerning the central ArcticOcean gave an important boost to the precaution-ary approach in Arctic research and managementwhile strengthening the global effort to limitunregulated fishing.

5 Agreement of 4 December 1995 on implementing provi-sions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea of 10 December 1982 on the conservation and manage-ment of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fishstocks. It came into force for Norway on 11 December2001; see Proposition No. 43 (1995–1996) to the Storting.

6 The Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission wasestablished pursuant to an agreement, dated 11 April 1975,on fisheries industry cooperation between Norway and theSoviet Union. The agreement has been continued with Rus-sia.


Pursuant to the declaration coastal states willnot allow their vessels to fish in the high seas por-tion of the central Arctic Ocean unless a manage-ment regime has been established.7 The coastalstates say in the declaration that commercial fish-ing in the high seas portion of the central ArcticOcean is not likely to occur in the near future.However, the precautionary approach calls for theimplementation of interim measures to deterunregulated fishing in future. Attempts are nowunder way to extend and strengthen the measuresoutlined in the declaration in negotiations for anew agreement that will also include countriesand organisations such as the EU, Iceland, Japan,China and South Korea that are engaged in highseas fishing.

4.1.4.3 Arctic sea areas

The economic zone covers the area between 12and 200 nautical miles outside the baseline.Where there is less than 400 nautical miles toanother state’s baseline, the zone is bounded by adelimitation line agreed between the states. Nor-way has established three zones extending 200nautical miles. An economic zone around the Nor-wegian mainland was created with effect from 1January 1977.

Around Svalbard, Norway has established afisheries protection zone that entered into forceon 15 June 1977. The zone is bounded by Nor-way’s economic zone and agreed delimitationlines between the zone and the economic zones ofGreenland and Russia. The primary purpose ofestablishing the fisheries protection zone was togain control of, and limit, fishing in the area inorder to conserve the resources and avoid anunregulated fishing situation. To achieve this pur-pose it was deemed sufficient to regulate fisheriesusing non-discriminatory provisions for Norwe-gian and foreign fishing vessels.

Norway established a fisheries zone aroundJan Mayen with effect from 29 May 1980. Thedelimited zone borders the waters of Greenlandand Iceland. The fisheries zone provides full man-agement authority over fishing pursuant to theLaw of the Sea.

All coastal states around the central ArcticOcean follow the rules of the Convention on theLaw of the Sea in determining the extent of theircontinental shelves beyond 200 nautical miles. In

2006 Norway submitted documentation on theextent of the Norwegian continental shelf in theBarents Sea, the Norwegian Sea and the centralArctic Ocean. The CLCS’s 2009 recommendationwas by and large in line with the Norwegian sub-mission. It is believed that the other four coastalstates of the central Arctic Ocean also have conti-nental shelves extending beyond 200 nauticalmiles. Denmark submitted documentation for theGreenlandic shelf in the central Arctic Ocean in2014 while Russia supplemented its original 2001submission with extensive additional informationin 2015. In 2013 Canada provided documentationfor some areas and announced that it would comeback later with information on the Canadian conti-nental shelf in the central Arctic Ocean. TheUnited States is not a party to the Convention onthe Law of the Sea, but is preparing documenta-tion on the extent of its continental shelf. Virtuallythe entire seabed of the central Arctic Ocean mayprove to be composed of national continentalshelf, leaving perhaps only a very small interna-tional seabed area there.

Where zones and continental shelves overlap,states must negotiate maritime delimitation agree-ments. For Norway’s petroleum industry it wasimportant to have clear continental shelf delimita-tion agreements with Britain and Denmark as farback as 1965. Norway has since entered intoagreements with Iceland on the areas around JanMayen, with Denmark on the areas betweenGreenland and Jan Mayen (following a judgmentin the International Court of Justice in TheHague) and with the United Kingdom on mari-time delimitation towards the Faroe Islands. Afterextensive negotiations, Norway and Russia signedan agreement on 15 September 2010 that fixed themaritime delimitation between the two states’zones and continental shelves in the Barents Seaand the central Arctic Ocean.

In September 2006, Norway, Iceland and Den-mark signed a negotiation protocol on the proce-dure for delimiting the continental shelf in thesouthern part of the ‘Banana Hole’, a high seasarea in the Norwegian Sea. Since then the CLCShas made recommendations on the delineation ofthe three states’ continental shelf areas there.Final negotiations between the three countrieshave begun on maritime delimitation and othermatters.

Documentation on the extent of the Norwe-gian shelf off Bouvetøya in the South Atlantic wassubmitted to the CLCS in 2009. The commissionis presently processing the submission. At thetime of its Bouvetøya submission, Norway also

7 As early as 2007, Norway introduced a general ban on Nor-wegian-flag vessels fishing in areas where no managementregime exists.


provided documentation for the continental shelfoff Dronning Maud Land. In light of Article IV ofthe Antarctic Treaty and considerations related toAntarctic cooperation, Norway asked the commis-sion not to process for this part of the submissionfor the time being.

4.1.5 Court for dispute resolution

The International Court of Justice in The Haguehas played an important role in resolving mari-time legal disputes between states, and in thecourse of it extensive practice it has helped clarifythe legal status and develop important aspects ofthe Law of the Sea. Among its contributions, thecourt has adjudicated a number of maritimedelimitation cases between states. Norway hasbeen a party in two cases before the court in TheHague, both involving Law of the Sea matters. Thefirst was the so-called Fisheries Case betweenNorway and the United Kingdom, in 1951; the sec-ond, involving Norway and Denmark, concernedmaritime delimitation between Greenland and JanMayen. Judgment was issued in 1993.

The Convention on the Law of the Sea alsoestablished the International Tribunal for the Lawof the Sea (ITLOS), in Hamburg, as a mechanismfor resolving disputes over the convention’s inter-pretation or application. It is part of a set of alter-native dispute-resolution mechanisms that statescan choose from. The Convention on the Law ofthe Sea also allows parties to choose arbitration ora special arbitration tribunal as a dispute-settle-ment mechanism.

4.1.6 Future demands on international marine management

Given environmental challenges, climate change,increased activity and greater pressure on theoceans of the world, more will be demanded frominternational cooperation if we are to use theoceans sustainably and protect them in the future.The Convention on the Law of the Sea’s rules onenvironmental management and exploitingmarine genetic resources in areas outside nationaljurisdiction are general in nature, providing littledetail in comparison with the detailed fisheriesmanagement regulations contained in the UNStraddling Fish Stocks Agreement.

The emergence of the Law of the Sea showsthe ability of the international community todevelop suitable regulations as needs arise. Ongo-ing efforts in the UN to craft a new biological

diversity agreement to apply outside areas ofnational jurisdiction are an example of how theLaw of the Sea is being developed to regulate inresponse to new needs. In 2015 the UN GeneralAssembly appointed a committee to prepare ele-ments of a new agreement on biodiversity inmarine areas outside national jurisdiction by theend of 2017.8 The agreement will then be finalisedin negotiations during a special conference. Theagreement will deal with some of the key issuesaddressed in the Convention on Biological Diver-sity, such as regulation of access to marinegenetic resources, sharing the benefits of theiruse, impact assessments, use of area-based man-agement measures like marine protection areas,capacity building and technology transfer. Theworld community thus has an opportunity todevelop a new agreement promoting integrated,science-based marine management systems andstrengthening the international legal frameworkfor the protection and sustainable use of interna-tional marine areas. Norway will contributeactively to making this happen.

For Norway it is important that any new agree-ment respect the rules and principles of the Con-vention on the Law of the Sea and be incorporatedinto the established Law of the Sea framework soas not to undermine existing agreements and bod-ies. That means the agreement must stipulateglobal rules to be implemented primarily throughregional environmental management mechanismsin cooperation with regional fisheries manage-ment organisations, the IMO, the InternationalSeabed Authority and other relevant bodies. Suchan approach is practical and effective, inasmuchas the existing regional and sectoral structuresalready possess the necessary knowledge, experi-ence and tools.

A new agreement must retain the focus on bal-ancing marine environmental conservation withsustainable use of marine resources. It mustensure that area-based conservation measures aredesigned to fulfil their purpose as effectively aspossible while facilitating sustainable use whenthis is compatible with the conservation goal. It isalso important to respect the rights and specialstatus of coastal states, especially with regard tointernational marine areas located above nationalcontinental shelves beyond the 200-nautical-milepoint.

8 Resolution 69/292 adopted in the UN General Assembly on19 June 2015.


4.2 International ocean cooperation

International organisations and cooperationmechanisms have been established to regulateactivities at sea. Important work is being done atthe global level, for example in UN forums. Overtime, a number of organisations and cooperativemethods have emerged with specific mandateswithin their areas of responsibility.

Norway is active in global, regional and bilat-eral forums concerned with international oceangovernance and management. Norway is alsoparty to a number of international agreementswith relevance to oceans and the marine environ-ment.

4.2.1 Need for cooperation on marine issues

A characteristic of many problems in importantfields, like the environment – where plastic waste,long-range transport of pollutants, climate change

and ocean acidification are major concerns – isthat one nation alone cannot solve them. Oceancurrents and winds can carry pollution and wastefar from their place of origin. Negative impacts ofhuman activity at one place can affect ecosystemsand humans elsewhere. Emissions of CO2 andother greenhouse gases affect climate around theglobe, regardless of where they are released. Tosolve problems we need good cooperation mecha-nisms at both global and regional levels.

Many living sea organisms migrate over longdistances. For a variety of fish species, seabirdsand marine mammals, such behaviour is part ofthe natural lifecycle. For countries intending tocollaborate on resource management, however, itcan be a major challenge. The IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change (IPCC) points out thatclimate change may lead to significant shifts in theranges of marine species, possibly causing exist-ing management challenges to grow more compli-cated.

Box 4.1 Sea of hope. Marine genetic resources and work towards a new agreement on biodiversity outside national jurisdiction

Genetic material from living organisms providesus with important medicinal active ingredients.A search for genetic material, for example, ledus to cyclosporine, which was found in a funguson the Hardangervidda plateau in 1969 by a rep-resentative of a foreign pharmaceutical com-pany. This fungus, it was discovered, had animmunosuppressive effect, and a drug wasdeveloped, cyclosporine, which keeps trans-planted organs from being rejected. Lack of reg-ulation in the area resulted in proceeds from thesale of this drug going to the pharmaceuticalcompany instead of to society as a whole.

Most active ingredients in medicines comefrom land-based life. Organisms at sea are cata-logued to a much lesser extent than those onland. Researchers at the University of Tromsøhave found that sea urchin ‘blood’ contains bac-tericidal substances. Extensive use of antibioticshas caused a variety of antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms to evolve. The world thereforedepends on the continual development of newdrugs. It may turn out that part of the solution isin the ocean. In addition to their use in produc-ing medicines, genetic resources can be used todevelop cosmetics and ingredients for foodstuffsand animal feed. In Norway, the Sea Resources

Act regulates access to marine genetic material.The Nature Diversity Act regulates the extrac-tion and utilisation of genetic material in Nor-way as well as the import and use of geneticresources from other countries. Norwegian leg-islation on genetic material is important globallybecause it includes provisions bolstering legisla-tion in countries that are genetic resource sup-pliers. Anyone who obtains genetic material inanother country must document, when it isimported into or used in Norway, that it wasacquired in accordance with the rules of thecountry in question. Genetic resources fromareas beyond national jurisdiction have thepotential of being sources of important prod-ucts, such as new medicines, that the world willneed in the years to come. For Norway it isimportant that the new agreement on biologicaldiversity outside national jurisdiction allowsmarine genetic resources to be explored andexploited for purposes of innovation and valuecreation while ensuring that the benefits fromsuch exploitation are shared with developingcountries – for example, through access to testsand research data and participation by develop-ing countries in research missions, researchprojects and commercial product development.


A further challenge is the monitoring and con-trol of undesirable activity. Illegal fishing in inter-national waters is an example of an activity that ishard to stamp out. Efforts by individual countriesare often insufficient.

Although existing institutions generally workwell, it is important to consider whether the cur-rent system of ocean governance and manage-ment is well suited to the challenges. Moreover,the challenges we face will change over time.Although different marine activities are ofteninterrelated and exert influence on one other, theyare presently regulated largely by sector. Coordi-nation between international bodies is often some-what ad hoc. Strengthened coordination and coop-eration may result in better tools to handle sharedchallenges, making it easier to achieve Sustaina-ble Development Goal 14.

4.2.2 Key Institutions

Institutions focused on different ocean-relatedissues have been created as the need for interna-tional cooperation has materialised. The Conven-tion on the Law of the Sea imposes on states ageneral duty to cooperate on resource protectionand use and biological diversity. A brief presenta-tion follows on the most important organisationsand other important actors and venues throughwhich Norway operates. Many of these will alsobe mentioned in subsequent chapters.

4.2.2.1 UN and the General Assembly

The UN is the most important forum for develop-ing international norms, and to a large extent itdetermines the overall framework for ocean-basedactivities. Several important conventions relevantto the ocean and marine issues have been adoptedin connection with the UN and UN institutions,including in particular the General Assembly. TheUN is also the arena for approving important dec-larations and setting forth large-scale policy goals,such as the Sustainable Development Goals of2015. To advance Norwegian ocean interests it isimportant to maintain a clear presence in ocean-related arenas, and Norway is an active partici-pant in key UN processes.

The UN plays a central role in the interna-tional Law of the Sea regime. Within the GeneralAssembly framework binding rules are developedand negotiated in the form of new instruments,such as conventions, and non-binding rules, suchas resolutions. Examples of the latter are annualfisheries and Law of the Sea resolutions, which

are of great importance to Norway. Norway isactively involved in General Assembly debatesand in the preceding informal negotiations, wherethe Norwegian delegations consist of representa-tives from the involved ministries.

4.2.2.2 Other UN bodies

Several specialised UN bodies have a normativefunction, with tasks related to monitoring, envi-ronmental protection, management, informationgathering and other topics.

In fisheries and aquaculture a key role isplayed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organiza-tion (FAO). FAO focuses on global food securityand is an important arena in the forging of interna-tional conventions, such as the Port State Meas-ures Agreement, and norms and guidelinesrelated to fisheries and aquaculture. The workdone in FAO to strengthen sustainable globalmanagement of fisheries resources is importantfor Norwegian ocean interests. Norway has had along and close partnership with the organisation.

The Committee on World Food Security is thecentral UN political platform on food security andnutrition. The committee serves as an intergov-ernmental forum within the UN system to reviewand follow up world food security guidelines. Ithas an independent expert panel that publishesreports containing scientific analysis and advice.

The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com-mission (IOC) of the UN Educational, Scientific,Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the UN bodyfor ocean science, ocean observation, ocean infor-mation and data exchange and the development ofservices such as tsunami warning systems. Thecommission strengthens international coopera-tion and coordinates programmes on research,services and knowledge-exchange relating tomarine and coastal areas and resources; it alsoprovides support for management, sustainabledevelopment, marine environmental protectionand decision-making processes in member coun-tries.

The International Maritime Organization(IMO) is the specialised UN body for regulatingshipping. The main purpose is to promote mari-time safety and environmental protection. Theorganisation issues global requirements for ships,ship operations and crews, including ship designand equipment, navigation, communications, sea-farer competence and emissions to sea and air.The IMO also facilitates trade and works to pre-vent piracy and terrorist activities at sea and inport.


The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) isthe UN’s leading body on environmental matters.In recent years, marine environmental issues havebeen gaining attention. UNEP’s mandate includesassessing and monitoring the state of the world’senvironment, highlighting environmental chal-lenges that require global attention, developingenvironmental agreements and conventions, andcontributing to member state knowledge andexpertise regarding environmental managementand sustainable development. The UN Environ-ment Assembly (UNEA) is the programme’s high-est body and adopts resolutions to be pursued byUNEP and the member states. The third assem-bly will take place in December 2017, focusing onpollution.

The UN Development Programme (UNDP) isthe UN’s global network for development, with abroad thematic focus. Through its global oceangovernance programme, UNDP is working inpartnership with other international actors toensure that developing countries benefit frommarine resources in a sustainable way that facili-tates the countries’ development goals.

The number of UN agencies working onmarine issues in one form or another has createda need for some coordination of the various activi-ties. This is being attempted through the UNOceans inter-agency coordination mechanism.

4.2.2.3 Other multilateral and regional organisations

Norway provides financial support for and playsan active role in several other multilateral organi-sations whose mandates relate to ocean affairs,management and marine resources.

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) sup-ports measures to help improve the global envi-ronment. As a financing mechanism for the globalenvironmental conventions, GEF is well posi-tioned to view environmental problems in theirentirety. In the realm of the oceans, seas andmarine resources, GEF has financed the creationof cooperative regional ecosystem and fisheriesmanagement organisations in developing coun-tries.

The World Bank provides development assis-tance, loans and professional expertise to develop-

Box 4.2 UN resolutions can have major practical impact: UN measures against harmful bottom gear

Figure 4.2 UN General Assembly.

Photo: Basil D. Soufi (Creative Commons license).

Implementation of the Convention on the Law ofthe Sea and the UN Straddling Fish StocksAgreement is closely monitored and followedup, including through two annual resolutionsthat are debated and adopted in the GeneralAssembly. The resolutions express political con-sensus by the states on application of the Law of

the Sea in specific matters of ocean managementwith regard to the environment, maritime secu-rity, fisheries, continental shelf issues etc. Con-sensus on measures to protect vulnerable sea-bed habitats from damage by certain types offishing gear, such as bottom trawls, has beenimportant to global marine management. Since2004 the General Assembly has developeddetailed provisions regarding area closure andfishing methods to prevent bottom fishing fromdamaging coral and other vulnerable seabedhabitats. Norway was among the driving forcesin designing the provisions, which were laterimplemented in regional fisheries managementorganisations such as the North East AtlanticFisheries Commission and in Norwegian regula-tions. Their implementation is regularly evalu-ated in special sessions where states, relevantorganisations and civil society all take part. It isa good example of UN resolutions having majorpractical impact by leading to effective nationaland regional implementation of globally formu-lated objectives.


ing countries and middle-income countries and isa key player in international development. Thebank’s focus is wide, and includes support formarine resource management and coastal areas,sustainable fishing and aquaculture, protectivemeasures, combatting marine pollution and infor-mation gathering.

The International Whaling Commission (IWC)is the main global arena for issues having to dowith whales. Part of the IWC’s mandate is toestablish regulations ensuring conservation,development and optimal utilisation of whaleresources on the basis of scientific data. In recentdecades the commission has been dominated byconservation interests, with the result that it is notin fact fulfilling its mandate. The commission’sScientific Committee, in which Norway plays anactive role, has maintained an important role as aknowledge arena for whaling issues. On whalingissues Norway has consistently based its argu-mentation on scientific data and the principle ofsustainable harvesting.

At regional level, a number of bodies with fish-eries and marine environmental mandates havebeen established. Most important for Norway isthe North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission(NEAFC), which for countries in this region is thecentral cooperation arena for fisheries issues, andthe OSPAR Commission, which is the key forumin the region for marine environmental manage-ment and pollution protection cooperation.

The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organiza-tion (NAFO) manages fisheries resources in thewestern Atlantic Ocean. Norway is one of theorganisation’s 12 member countries and has quotarights to some species in delineated areas. Nor-way also participates in the SEAFO regional fish-eries management organisation in the South-EastAtlantic.

Norway is a member of the International Com-mission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas(ICCAT), which manages a number of tuna andtuna-like species, including the Atlantic bluefintuna, an important commercial species interna-tionally for which Norway has a quota. Improvedmanagement within the ICCAT framework hasreturned this species to a level where it can alsobe fished in Norwegian waters.

In the Arctic, the Arctic Council plays a lead-ing role in environmental monitoring, informationgathering and conservation of the oceans, seasand marine ecosystems. The council is an impor-tant arena for Arctic environmental issues,increasingly including issues related to Arcticmarine areas. On behalf of its members the coun-

cil accumulates important knowledge on climatechange, pollution and pressures and impacts onArctic species and ecosystems. Ocean safety andsecurity, oil pollution preparedness and responseand search and rescue are other important topics.Norway is actively involved in this work.

With regard to the Antarctic, Norway cooper-ates with numerous other countries in the Com-mission for the Conservation of Antarctic MarineLiving Resources (CCAMLR).

A number of other regional cooperative organ-isations have the ocean as one of their priority top-ics, including the African Union (AU) and theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).Norway agreed to partner with both of thoseorganisations in 2015. The Government will priori-tise the blue economy in these partnerships. TheLatin American trade block Pacific Alliance, theCaribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Alli-ance of Small Island States (AOSIS) are amongother bodies with oceans, fisheries and maritimeissues on their agendas.

4.2.2.4 The European Union and the sea

The EU is an important political and economicactor and a partner with Norway in many ocean-related areas. The majority of Norway’s maritimeindustry exports go to EU countries. The relation-ship between Norway and the EU is close and wecooperate at many levels – thematic, institutionaland political. There are many areas of commoninterest, though there are also issues where Nor-way’s priorities and the EU’s priorities are notidentical.

The EU’s importance to Norway is evidentfrom the various types of legal provisions thatbecome applicable in Norway through the EEAAgreement. Some of these are relevant to oceanaffairs, including shipping-related requirementsand environmental regulations. Food safety regu-lations and the veterinary aspects of fishing andaquaculture are also subject to the EEA Agree-ment. Aquaculture policy and fisheries resourcemanagement, however, are not part of it. Trade infish and fish products is regulated by a separateprotocol in the EEA Agreement and by bilateralagreements. Norway does not enjoy free marketaccess for fish and fish products to the EU. Mar-ket access issues are discussed in more detail inPart III.

Other maritime regulations that fall outsidethe scope of the EEA Agreement include the EUMarine Strategy Framework Directive and theSafety of Offshore Oil and Gas Operations Direc-


tive, both of which apply by and large to marineareas between national baselines and the outerlimits of national jurisdiction.

Through the EEA Grants, Norway contributesto social and economic equalisation for the EU’sleast prosperous countries. This support alsostrengthens cooperation between Norway and therecipient countries. Some of the funds are chan-nelled to projects and institutional cooperationrelated to oceans, seas and marine resources,including the environment and knowledge acqui-sition and partly within the EU marine strategyframework and the EU Water Framework Direc-tive. In May 2016, a new EEA Grants agreementwas signed with the EU for the 2014–2021 period.

Norway participates in EU research efforts,and there is broad-based research and innovationcooperation with the EU on issues relating to theoceans, seas and marine resources. Many Norwe-gian research clusters work closely with partnerinstitutions in EU countries, and the union’s pro-grammes are an important funding source forNorwegian marine research. Norway is a memberof Copernicus, the large European satellite-basedearth observation and public security pro-gramme. Norway participates in the Horizon 2020framework programme and is actively working toinfluence its design to give ocean-based issues aprominent position. JPI Oceans is a long-termcoordinating and integrating platform involving 21member countries and covering all the sea basinsof Europe, supplementing efforts pursuedthrough the EU and Horizon 2020. Norway headsthe Brussels-based secretariat, which worksamong other things to expand the common Euro-pean effort to combat ocean pollution, includingthe problem of plastics and microplastics (seeBox).

4.2.2.4.1 Key EU priorities on oceans, seas and marine resources

The ocean sector is thought to have great poten-tial to spur growth and innovation in Europeancountries. In 2012, the EU presented its first bluegrowth strategy with the aim of supporting sus-tainable growth in the marine and maritime sec-tors. In 2014, the strategy was augmented to bet-ter release the potential for innovation.

As a share of the EU’s economy, the seafoodsector is modest, but regionally it is of greatimportance. Overfishing has been a long-standingproblem. A reform package adopted in 2014 pro-vided the EU with new policy instrumentsintended to make fisheries management more

sustainable. The EU’s Common Fisheries Policyoutlines the union’s priorities in international fish-eries negotiations, and thus affects Norway. It isuncertain how the UK’s exit from the EU willaffect the union’s priorities in fisheries negotia-tions to which Norway is a party.

EU aquaculture production has developedmodestly since 2000. The ambition is to encour-age growth in the sector in the years to comethrough reforms to the Common Fisheries Policyand work with strategic guidelines.

Norway and the EU have many common inter-ests in marine issues. In November 2016, theEuropean Commission presented a broad initia-

Box 4.3 JPI Oceans

Norway plays an active role in the Joint Pro-gramming Initiative Healthy and ProductiveSeas and Oceans (JPI Oceans), a Europeanresearch collaboration whose goal is to con-tribute to ocean health and productivity. Thisis done by developing shared strategies tofacilitate sustainable growth and better coordi-nating the research funding that is channelledthrough various countries to marine and mari-time research.

JPI Oceans has defined 10 strategic areasand three crossover issues related to policydevelopment, expertise and infrastructure.Through JPI Oceans, several joint projectshave been initiated, including for the purposeof standardising measurement systems andmapping the ecological effects of microplas-tics, seabed mining and dumped munitions.There are also projects for more efficient useof infrastructure, marine observations andmarine technologies, in cooperation with theEU’s Horizon 2020 framework programme.

JPI Oceans has established cooperationwith two other JPIs, whose focuses are foodsecurity and health, so seafood can beincluded in the research and policy develop-ment on food security and nutrition. The cen-tral mission of JPI Oceans is to strengthenknowledge and policy development in order tobetter integrate and coordinate ocean manage-ment. Its emphasis is therefore to increaseknowledge exchange, the development ofcommon standards and observation systems,and cooperation on infrastructure.


tive on ocean-related governance and manage-ment.9 The initiative, which addresses both Euro-pean and global issues, points to a potential forimprovement in the international institutionalframework, the importance of the environmentand sustainable marine management, and theneed for more knowledge and data about theoceans. Actions were proposed with regard toimproving maritime security; combatting illegal,unregulated and unreported fishing; protectingmarine ecosystems; reducing marine litter, includ-ing plastics and microplastics; and investing inmarine research and innovation.

The EU has presented an action plan on circu-lar economy and announced that new legislation isexpected in the second half of 2017. An importantobjective for new marine environmental legisla-tion will be to divert waste away from dumpingsites and thereby reduce the amount that ends upas marine litter.

The EU has agreed to host the annual interna-tional Our Ocean conference in Malta in October2017. It is yet another expression of the union’sambition to play an active role in global maritimeissues. The EU and its member countries partici-pate in a number of other international marine-related arenas of significance for Norway, includ-ing the UN General Assembly, the UN Environ-ment Programme, the Arctic Council, the NorthEast Atlantic Fisheries Commission and theOSPAR Commission. The Government attachesgreat importance to close and constructive coop-eration with the EU on marine issues and wishesto develop this cooperation further.

4.3 Safe seas

The maritime dimension of security policy hasgained importance in recent years. For Norway, itis crucial to pursue a security policy that safe-guards our interests at sea. Elements include theLaw of the Sea, enforcement of sovereignty, exer-cise of authority, freedom of movement and secu-rity, defence and alliance policy.

The Norwegian Armed Forces, through theNavy and Coast Guard, is the primary agent ofauthority in Norwegian areas of interest by virtueof its daily presence in key areas and its readinessto address security-threatening incidents and con-flicts. The Navy participates in exercises and oper-

ations at home and abroad with allies. This helpsensure security at sea. Throughout the year, theCoast Guard is present to safeguard Norwegianinterests, exercise authority on behalf of a numberof agencies and carry out important tasks in coop-eration with other countries.

Security challenges at sea are complex andvary considerably from region to region. As worldpopulation expands, the need for maritime trans-port and ocean resources will increase, giving riseto opportunities and challenges. Agreements onmaritime delimitation and respect for the Law ofthe Sea are the keys to peaceful cooperation.Unsettled jurisdictional issues are potentialsources of conflict.

Other security challenges at sea includepiracy, smuggling of weapons and drugs, smug-gling of human beings and environmental crime.Although in Norwegian marine areas such prob-lems are limited in scale, they do affect Norwe-gian interests, whether directly or indirectly. Cli-mate change may pose a security risk by impair-ing human livelihoods due to – for example – arise in sea level or changes in the ranges of impor-tant fish stocks and other living resources.

4.3.1 The Arctic

Since the end of the Cold War, the interests of theArctic states have by and large coincided in thenorth. Tensions have been low and cooperationsuccessful. The five coastal states bordering theArctic Ocean agree that the UN Convention onthe Law of the Sea provides the legal frameworkfor activity in the Arctic Ocean. The agreementNorway and Russia signed in 2010 on maritimedelimitation and cooperation in the Barents Seaand the central Arctic Ocean exemplifies how set-tling jurisdictional issues is in the shared interestof the parties involved and can provide large bene-fits in a number of areas. Norway and Russiacooperate bilaterally on key Arctic issues such assearch and rescue, oil pollution preparedness,nuclear safety, environmental protection, fisheriesmanagement and people-to-people relations. TheGovernment wants to maintain contact and con-structive cooperation on these issues. This will bemutually beneficial and will help to keep tensionslow and provide predictability.

Conflicts elsewhere in the world have had littleimpact in the Arctic, but it cannot be ruled out thatincreased tension elsewhere in the world couldhave a spillover effect. Russian presence and train-ing activity in the region have increased over time,especially in the maritime realm. Strategically and

9 Joint Communication on ‘International ocean governance:An Agenda for the future of the ocean’, issued 10 Novem-ber 2016.


militarily, the region is very important to Russia,and Norway pays close attention to developmentsin the region.

Norway is a strong advocate within NATO foraddressing the maritime dimension and maintain-ing good situational awareness in the High North.Norway contributes significantly to the alliance’sstanding maritime capabilities, especially in north-ern Europe, and is a driving force in the moderni-sation of NATO’s maritime strategy. Getting mem-ber states to commit sufficient resources to stand-ing maritime groups and maritime operations hasbeen a challenge, but there is now agreement thatmember states will contribute more to the navalforces. It is very important that the standing mari-time groups not become tied down in ongoingoperations, but remain available for collectivedefence and crisis management. During theNATO Summit in Warsaw, in July 2016, it wasagreed to continue strengthening the alliance’smaritime strategy and to continuously assesssecurity in the marine areas that fall within thealliance’s scope of responsibility.

In recent years, NATO has been involved in anumber of maritime operations, including terror-ism preparedness in the Mediterranean, piracysuppression around the Horn of Africa and situa-tional awareness in the southern Mediterranean.

4.3.2 Baltic Sea region

The importance of the Baltic Sea region to secu-rity policy has risen lately due to its strategic posi-tion in the frontier area with Russia. What is nowconsidered the normal state of affairs in theregion is tenser and more unpredictable than itwas in the two previous decades.

The Nordic countries face common regionalchallenges, both in the north and in the Baltic Sea.Although Finland and Sweden are not NATOmembers, they would be very important in deal-ing with a potential security crisis in the region. Itis therefore important that the Nordic countriesremain in close dialogue over developments in theregion. Norway is also well served by NATOexchanging information and cooperating closelywith Finland and Sweden on developments in theBaltic area.

4.3.3 The European Union and maritime security

The EU’s maritime security strategy, dating from2014, aims to ensure that marine areas are open toeconomic development, free trade, transport,energy production and tourism, and that goodenvironmental status is maintained. Security chal-lenges related to marine areas and maritimeboundaries are to be addressed, it is emphasised,in accordance with the Law of the Sea.

Figure 4.3 KV Senja on a mission.

Photo: Norwegian Coast Guard.


Maritime security, including the monitoring ofmarine areas important to EU member states, isanother a key objective in the implementation ofthe EU’s new global security strategy.

Closer cooperation on maritime security is akey element of the July 2016 Joint Declaration ofstrategic partnership between the EU and NATOand of the Implementation Plan approved inDecember 2016 at EU and NATO ministerialmeetings. There, both organisations committed tostrengthening operational cooperation at sea,including with regard to migration. Close coopera-tion between NATO and the EU on maritime secu-rity is positive for Norway.

4.3.3.1 Migration by sea

The ocean is a widely used means of passage forcross-border migration. For several years, Europehas experienced an extraordinary influx of refu-gees and migrants. Most of these come across theMediterranean Sea. Migration by sea is closelyintertwined with human smuggling and is a seri-ous challenge.

The human smuggling is linked to Europe’sasylum system. There are few channels for sub-mitting an application for protection without hav-ing contact with human smugglers somewhereduring the process. According to Europol, 90 % ofthe more than 1 million refugees and migrantswho entered Europe in 2015 used smuggling ser-vices during all or part of the journey.

Maritime operations in the Mediterraneanhave been important in controlling the SchengenArea’s external borders, combatting the smug-gling of human beings and managing refugee andmigration flows.

In October 2016 an expanded mandate for theEuropean Union’s external border protectionagency, Frontex, entered into force. A Europeanborder and coast guard was thus established, withmore numerous and more extensive tasks thanbefore. The main purpose of the expanded man-date is to strengthen control over the external EUand Schengen Area borders. The member stateauthorities responsible for border control, includ-ing coast guard border control tasks, are includedin the expanded mandate. National border author-ities will continue to have the main responsibilityfor external border control.

A large portion of the external EU and Schen-gen borders are at sea. Frontex assists nationstates with maritime border control. Since thesummer of 2015, Norway has contributed twoships to Frontex’s border control and rescue activ-

ities in the Mediterranean: the vessel Siem Pilot,based in Italian territorial waters for OperationTriton, and the Norwegian Society for Sea Res-cue’s vessel Peter Henry von Koss, based in Greekterritorial waters for Operation Poseidon. TheNorwegian vessels help in securing improvedcontrol over the maritime boundaries of the EUand Schengen Area.

The EU’s naval force in the MediterraneanSea, EU NAVFOR MED, has had its operatingarea expanded. The operation is now helpingenforce the UN arms embargo on Libya, and itincludes training the Libyan coast guard and navywith a view to halting weapons smuggling andhuman smuggling in Libyan waters.

4.3.4 Piracy

For Norway, as a shipping nation, security for allforms of maritime transport is important. Piracy isan obstacle to international trade and weakensNorwegian economic activity. It poses a danger tothe life and health of seafarers. Piracy is also dest-abilising for the countries where criminal activityof this sort is based.

The areas most vulnerable to piracy today arethe Gulf of Guinea off West Africa, the westernIndian Ocean and Southeast Asia. Growth in mer-chandise trade and the world’s increasing depend-ence on international trade amplify the conse-quences of piracy.

The fight against piracy ties up navalresources that increasingly are in demand forother missions. Some developing countries havelittle or no means of exercising authority in theirmarine areas. Lack of relevant legislation may be afurther challenge. Reference is made to the anti-piracy measures specified in the white paperGlobal security challenges in Norway’s foreign policy(Meld. St. 37 (2014–2015)). The Government willcontinue its broad-based approach to combattingthis problem.

4.3.5 Environmental crime and the sea

Environmental crime finances organised crime,which in some cases may fuel terrorism andarmed conflict. Environmental crime also causesstates to lose large amounts of tax revenue andaccess to natural resources, and may contribute topoverty. The sea is the main transport route forsuch crime. Environmental crime includes illegaltrade in such goods as timber, minerals, culturalheritage articles and fish, as well as trade in anddumping of chemicals and hazardous waste. Inter-


pol has asserted that illegal activities occur in con-junction with the trading of quotas such as fishingquotas, hunting quotas and climate quotas.

A major challenge in combatting environmen-tal crime is lack of capacity and lack of informationexchange between the police, Coast Guard andsupervisory authorities. This reduces the abilityto supervise and investigate the entire valuechain. An important part of the value chain isenforcement at sea, where most of reloading ontotransport vessels takes place for products like tim-ber and illegal fish. If maritime enforcement is tobe as cost-effective as possible, multiagency coop-eration and sharing of information are important.

The Government is working to achieve an inte-grated approach in which environmental crime isviewed in the context of other forms of organisedcrime, since the same actors and the same trans-port routes and vessels are often involved in dif-ferent types of crime. The Government is empha-sising capacity building for prosecutors, courts,police and supervisory authorities. Norway pro-vides funds to combat environmental crimethrough the United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime (UNODC), Interpol and the UN Environ-ment Programme.

The UN Environment Programme and the UNGeneral Assembly are among the bodies that haveadopted decisions on illegal trade of flora andfauna, including illegal sales of timber and endan-gered species. Norway is actively involved inwork under the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species (CITES) and theUN Convention Against Transnational OrganisedCrime, and the Government is seeking to promotea broader approach to environmental crime thatencompasses fisheries crime.

The measures specified in the white paperGlobal security challenges in Norway’s foreign policy(Meld. St. 37 (2014–2015)) guide Norway’sefforts to fight environmental crime. The whitepaper states that Norway is open to the develop-ment of new legally and politically binding instru-ments to counter new forms of serious cross-bor-der organised crime.

4.3.6 Climate change, the sea and safety

Climate change has been on the security policyagenda for several years. Global warming leads to

sea level rise, extreme weather, flooding, droughtand heat waves. These undermine food security,economic progress and social stability in vulnera-ble areas, especially in tropical and subtropicalzones.

The effects of climate change on the oceansmay exacerbate regional and global security chal-lenges, with possible major implications for Nor-way and Norwegian interests. The most obviousexample is sea level rise, which in the long term,and in combination with more extreme weatherand more frequent storm surges, poses a seriousthreat to many densely populated low-lying coastalareas where many of the world’s largest cities andmost important agricultural areas are located. Butshifts in the ranges of important fish stocks anddiminished catch potential at low latitudes – possi-bly compromising food security – could aggravatethe security situation in vulnerable countries andregions, with possible consequences for Europeand Norway.

Particularly vulnerable, according to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change, is South-east Asia, including small island states. But partsof Africa, North America and Australia could alsobe hard hit. The panel’s most recent report high-lights the risk that a rising sea level, storm surgesand flooding represents for life, health and liveli-hoods in low-lying coastal areas and small islandstates. The same applies to diminished catchpotential and destruction of coral reefs in tropicalareas, partly due to ocean acidification.

Sea level rise in the large and densely popu-lated deltas of Asia and Africa could trigger wavesof migration and intensify conflicts, possibly withserious security implications. One example isBangladesh, where by 2025, according to thecountry’s own scientists, 17 % of land area may beflooded. In addition to more frequent floods, suchareas also face increasing levels of erosion andsaltwater intrusion into rivers and groundwater.

Vulnerable states under pressure fromresource shortages, population growth, povertyand, in many cases, poor governance, are alsothose most affected by climate change. The threatincreases with the degree of climate change, butcan be limited through climate adaptation andmeasures that mitigate the damage from climatechange and strengthen the ability of countries andcommunities to handle the change.


Part IIIPriority areas for Norway


5 Sustainable use and value creation

The blue economy is crucial to Norwegian livingstandards, social welfare and the access we haveto products and services from all over the world.However, the relative importance of the variousocean-based industries will vary over time. Oil andgas resources will continue to play an importantrole for decades, but will eventually give out.Renewable resources like fish can be harvestedforever if we manage them in an integrated andsustainable manner. New industries will emergein Norway and internationally.

Norway has large, rich marine areas that are agood starting point for participating in the expec-ted global growth of the blue economy that theOECD points to in its 2016 report. The Govern-ment has high ambitions for value creation in theocean-based industries, as indicated in its oceanstrategy of 21 February 2017 and previous mana-gement documents.

Value creation is maximised by using the oce-ans in a sustainable manner. That means maintai-ning a sound environment. Doing so is importantin a national perspective, but it is also a fundamen-tal aspect of Norway’s international involvement.Sustainable use of marine resources and valuecreation at sea help in achieving SustainableDevelopment Goal 14, but also the other sustaina-bility goals, such as Goal 2 on eradication of hun-ger, Goal 7 on energy, Goal 8 on decent work andeconomic growth, Goal 9 on innovation and infra-structure, and Goal 12 on sustainable consump-tion and production.

5.1 Oil and gas sector

Among Norway’s ocean-based industries, thepetroleum sector holds a special position. It is thecountry’s largest industry as measured in valuecreation, export value and employment. In 2014,the industry’s total value creation amounted toNOK 668 billion.1 Norwegian oil is a globalcommodity sold to countries around the world.The most important export markets for natural

gas are in the EU, where Norwegian gas accountsfor more than 20 % of demand. In 2015 Norwaywas the eighth-largest exporter of crude oil in theworld and the third-largest exporter of naturalgas.

While traditionally the industry has been cen-tred in the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea, inrecent years exploration and production in theBarents Sea have drawn increased interest. Thefirst gas field in the Barents, Snøhvit, entered intoproduction in 2007, and the first oil field, Goliat, in2016. The supply industry serving the oil and gassector is highly advanced and internationallycompetitive.

The Government’s ambition is for Norwegianpetroleum enterprises to be world leaders inhealth, safety and environment (HSE). Work hasbegun on a new HSE white paper which willinclude a broad review of HSE conditions in theindustry and an assessment of supervisory acti-vity and regulations.

Norway’s management of petroleum activity isexercised within a sound framework, with dueregard for the external environment. An extensiveset of policy instruments helps ensure that thevarious actors consider the environment and theclimate in all phases of activity, from explorationto development, operation and completion. Theauthorities and oil companies work together inresearch, technology development and educationand training.

With population and income per capita rising,the world needs ever more energy. Futuredemand for oil and gas, however, is influenced bya number of factors, including economic growth,technological development and climate policy.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) hasdrawn up three scenarios for future energydemand (World Energy Outlook 2016). In the IEAscenarios, aggregate oil and gas demand willincrease towards 2030. New resources will have tobe developed to make up for falling output fromexisting oil and gas fields. Climate policy and thedevelopment of low- and zero-emission technolo-gies in the energy, transport and other sectors

1 Menon Economics (2016).


could have a major impact on fossil fuel use anddemand in the long term.

Oil and gas production on the Norwegian con-tinental shelf is expected to remain relatively sta-ble in the next few years. The industry is expectedto remain a mainstay of the Norwegian economyfor many years, not only directly but also indire-ctly, through the Government Pension Fund Glo-bal. At year-end 2016, the fund’s value was appro-ximately NOK 7 500 billion.

The oil and gas industry and the related supplyindustry are both globalised and derive increasingshares of their revenue from investments in othercountries and regions. The Government PensionFund Global invests as a general principle only inother countries, not in Norway. An importantaspect of Norwegian foreign policy is to promoteNorwegian energy interests to governments andother actors in the countries of operation, in a wayconsistent with Norwegian petroleum policy andUN Sustainable Development Goals. Sound, trans-parent and predictable investment conditions arein the interests of the energy industry and otherocean-based industries. These are importanttopics in the continuing work of Norway’s missi-ons abroad as they interact with relevant nationalauthorities. Such efforts, both on behalf of ocean-based industries and more generally, were signifi-cantly stepped up starting in autumn 2013.

Norway’s international energy interests wereidentified in the white paper Interests, Responsibili-ties and Opportunities – The main features of Nor-wegian foreign policy (Meld. St. 15 (2008–2009)),which received broad support in the Storting.

5.1.1 International cooperation in the oil and gas sector

The Government promotes Norwegian energyindustry interests through its participation ininternational organisations. That is the case forfree trade and open markets in general, which arepursued in the WTO in particular, and for energyinterests pursued in multilateral institutions thatare more specifically focused on energy.

The International Energy Agency is the coope-rative organisation of OECD countries in energyaffairs. The agency’s goal is to increase supplysecurity for member countries and to promotemore sustainable energy use. The IEA plays anincreasingly important role in analysing globalenergy trends and their implications for futuredemand for and consumption of different energysources. Dialogue has been established with seve-ral non-member countries, and an association

process has begun, with Norwegian support, toincrease cooperation with key countries outsidethe OECD area, such as China.

The IEA is a key organisation in internationalenergy and climate policy and an important bodythrough which to assert Norwegian energy policyviews and interests. By means of its analyses andreports the organisation is an agenda-setter, bothinternationally and in Norway, for global energyand climate discussions. The IEA’s analyses arehighly regarded and constitute part of thecommon knowledge base that informs the outlookfor petroleum resource extraction. The organisa-tion issues forecasts, for example, on future globaloil and gas production. The IEA also analyses thedevelopment of renewable energy sources, inclu-ding offshore wind.

Another energy organisation that Norway par-ticipates in, and helped initiate, is the Internatio-nal Energy Forum (IEF). The IEF’s main tasksare strengthening dialogue between consumerand producer countries and providing data trans-parency in energy markets (oil/gas) by workingfor uniform international reporting of statistics.The organisation currently has about 75 membercountries, including all of the OPEC countries2

and Russia as well as major consuming countrieslike India and China. The IEA and OPEC also par-ticipate in the organisation. The organisation is animportant meeting place for consumers and pro-ducers, where all types of energy issues may beraised, including those related to offshore petro-leum activities and petroleum transport.

International cooperation also extends to mat-ters of security. A significant part of petroleumactivity takes place near or across maritime deli-mitation lines, or across the delimitation lines bet-ween national continental shelves. This creates aneed for close cooperation and informationexchange between the authorities in the differentcountries with regard to regulations, regulationenforcement and lessons learned in the wake ofincidents. To facilitate integrated follow-up measu-res across maritime delimitation lines, Norwayhas entered into agreements with a number ofcountries. Cooperative forums have also beenestablished, such as the North Sea Offshore Aut-horities Forum (NSOAF) and the InternationalRegulators Forum (IRF). A forum for governmen-tal cooperation on Arctic petroleum activities (theArctic Offshore Regulators Forum) was establis-

2 Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, UnitedArab Emirates, Algeria, Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria andEcuador.


hed in spring 2015 under the auspices of theArctic Council.

In the North-East Atlantic, the OSPARCommission is an important forum for developingjoint rules and measures to reduce pollution fromoffshore oil and gas activities.

5.2 Maritime industry

Maritime transport is vital to world trade and glo-bal market access, and is thus a key factor forachieving sustainable development.

Shipowners, shipyards and maritime equip-ment and service providers make up the Norwe-gian maritime industry, which in 2014 generatedNOK 183 billion in value.3 Products and servicesfor the petroleum industry and maritime transportare the main sectors. Norway’s maritime industryis highly international in reach, with ships, drillingrigs and other advanced equipment in serviceworldwide. With the exception of the petroleumindustry itself, it is the industry that contributesmost to Norwegian export revenues. Norway isthe world’s tenth-largest shipping nation whenranked by tonnage, and the sixth-largest by value.Shipping alone represents more than half of valuecreation in the maritime industry. The Norwegianshipping fleet is modern and specialised in techn-ologically advanced, capital-intensive segments.

Our maritime industry is a leader in terms ofquality, expertise and the development and use ofenvironmental technology, and is a supplier ofadvanced technology for complex operations. TheEU countries, the United States, Brazil, Russia,China, Japan, South Korea and Singapore areamong the most important export markets forNorwegian maritime companies. According to theOECD, maritime transport and shipbuilding areamong the sectors that can expect significant glo-bal growth as a result of increased world tradethrough 2030.

The Government’s maritime strategy Mari-time Opportunities – Blue Growth for a GreenFuture, which was issued in May 2015, containsinitiatives and policy instruments of particularrelevance to continued development and valuecreation in this industry.

5.2.1 International cooperation in shipping

Norway is a leading shipping nation, and as one ofour most globalised industries the shipping indus-

try seeks a level playing field across the world.Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea,rules governing this industry are to be formulatedby international bodies. The most important ofthese is the International Maritime Organization(IMO), with about 55 conventions adopted to dateand an extensive regulatory framework. TheGovernment’s goal is for Norway to be a drivingforce for safe and environmentally friendly ship-ping, and the IMO is an important arena in whichto achieve this.

Among the most important conventions is theInternational Convention for the Safety of Life atSea (SOLAS), which establishes a set of minimumstandards for ship construction and equipment,meteorological services, search and rescue andthe handling of hazardous goods. Others includethe International Convention for the Prevention ofPollution from Ships (MARPOL), the Internatio-nal Convention on Standards of Training, Certifi-cation and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)and the International Convention on Control andTreatment of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediment.All of these conventions have been ratified by Nor-way. It is worrying that the IMO Convention forthe Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling ofShips (the Hong Kong Convention) has not comeinto force nearly 20 years after Norway placed theissue on the IMO’s agenda.

Safe shipping is essential to the lives andhealth of crews and passengers, as well as to pol-lution prevention. The Government has ambitiousenvironmental objectives for the maritime indus-try. In its white paper New emission commitmentfor 2030 – towards joint fulfilment with the EU(Meld. St. 13 (2014–2015)), the Government iden-tified environmentally friendly shipping as a prio-rity area.

Although maritime transport is generallyenergy efficient and climate friendly, there is alsogrowing recognition that energy-efficient andenvironmentally friendly ships will fare better infuture market competition. In recent years, ship-ping has become subject to a stricter internationalregime, with rules limiting emissions to air andwater. The Government is a global advocate ofmore environmentally friendly shipping.

Like other industries, shipping will have toundergo radical change to meet climate challen-ges. Such change will be demanding, but at thesame time it represents a large global opportunityfor Norway’s maritime industry. Developing andinnovating new environmentally friendly technolo-gies can reduce emissions cost-effectively whilehaving major ripple effects in the form of increa-3 Menon Economics (2016).


sed export opportunities, value creation and jobs.More efficient ships and additional use of newtechnologies, liquefied natural gas and batteryoperation should make it possible to reduce emis-sions while fulfilling the transport needs of globaltrade. The development of green shipping can bean important part of a green shift nationally andinternationally.

Piracy, organised crime, migration and corrup-tion are all risk factors for international shipping.It is important to contain the security challengesby means of good ship design, ship security,cooperation with naval forces and good access tothreat information.

Norway has a long tradition of cross-sectoralcooperation across government and industry tosafeguard Norwegian-controlled ships in foreigntraffic. The Norwegian Shipowners’ Associationreceives an annual grant to maintain cooperationbetween its industry and public sector bodiessuch as the Armed Forces, embassies and rele-vant ministries. This gives an idea of the resour-

ces that can be drawn on if an incident arises, aswell as the effective information sharing involvedin making sailing plans.

An important task for the diplomatic and con-sular missions is to assist the shipping industry inthe event of an ordinary ship accident, problemsat port, piracy or suspicions of terror-relatedcargo transport. This applies primarily to Norwe-gian-registered ships and Norwegian citizens.

The Government will

– continue to promote the implementation of,and seek to generate support for, global ship-ping rules

– strengthen dialogue with leading countries onways for the shipping industry to contributefurther to environmentally friendly transport atthe global level

– work on long-term measures to help keep pira-tes from Somalia from resuming their attackson shipping in the Gulf of Aden and the Wes-

Figure 5.1 The Norwegian fleet is modern and specialised in technologically advanced, capital-intensive segments. Pictured is an LPG tanker, designed for transporting liquefied petroleum gas.

Photo: Solvang ASA.


tern Indian Ocean, and to support countries inWest Africa so that the region itself is able tohinder piracy

– establish maritime security cooperation withappropriate maritime shipping nations in theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) to promote free and safe maritimetraffic through waters of strategic economicimportance in the Strait of Malacca and adja-cent Southeast Asian waters

– continue providing environment-orientedassistance within the framework of the Interna-tional Maritime Organization’s support todeveloping countries, especially for shipbrea-king

5.2.2 Shipping in the north

Norway has long shipping traditions in the Arctic,and the Government seeks to further enhance ourposition as a leading responsible maritime actor inthe north. More than 80 % of shipping in theArctic takes place in Norwegian areas. We there-fore have a special responsibility to facilitate safeand environmentally friendly ship traffic and toensure good situational awareness and a firm pre-sence.

In recent years we have seen the first commer-cial cargo transit passages between Europe andAsia through the Northern Sea Route along theArctic coast of Russia (part of the Northeast Pas-sage). The number of sailings is still limited, but ifclimate change continues at the present pace andRussia facilitates increased traffic, the route maybecome commercially important at some point inthe future.

Initially, increased ship traffic in the northernmarine areas is expected to consist primarily ofvessels transporting goods to and from destinati-ons within the region and providing services lin-ked to petroleum production. As new maritimeopportunities open up, knowledge acquisition willbe important. The Centre for High North Logis-tics (CHNL) was established in Kirkenes in 2008and has since served as an important knowledgehub about new transport opportunities in thenorth.

Norway has played an active part in thedevelopment of global rules for shipping in polarwaters. The Norwegian Maritime Authority ledefforts to develop the Polar Code in the Internatio-nal Maritime Organization. The Polar Code is akey to ensuring that shipping in polar waters isconducted sustainably and contains stricter safetyand environmental requirements. The code ente-

red into force on 1 January 2017. The search andrescue agreement between the Arctic states (seeBox) also enhances shipping safety in the north.Other important projects are SARiNOR (Searchand Rescue in the High North) and MARPART(Maritime Preparedness and International Part-nership in the High North).

Existing satellite communications systemsthat serve the marine areas north of 75° N lati-tude are limited in performance and capacity.Search and rescue operators, among others, mayfind the situation challenging. The Government isperforming a conceptual study to assess the need

Box 5.1 International cooperation on Arctic search and rescue

The Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronauti-cal and Maritime Search and Rescue in theArctic, signed in 2011 by the member states ofthe Arctic Council, entered into force on 19January 2013. Increased activity and traffic inthe Arctic are what led to the need for greatercooperation by the countries responsible forsearch and rescue in Arctic waters. The agree-ment divides the Arctic into appropriatesearch and rescue regions, establishes natio-nal points of contact and cooperation mecha-nisms, and facilitates information sharing andmutual aid and assistance. The Joint RescueCoordination Centre Northern Norway is theNorwegian operational contact point. Exerci-ses based on the agreement have been condu-cted, most recently in 2016 off the coast ofAlaska, where the training scenario was massrescue from a cruise ship.

The Arctic Council’s Emergency Preven-tion, Preparedness and Response (EPPR) wor-king group is responsible for accident preven-tion, preparedness and response planning inthe Arctic. The EPPR working group facilita-tes implementation of the Arctic search andrescue agreement by focusing on such mat-ters as increased cooperation, informationexchange and experience sharing from exerci-ses and incidents. In 2015, an expert group onsearch and rescue was established under theEPPR. It is led by the Joint Rescue Coordina-tion Centre Northern Norway. The EPPR alsohas a responsibility for implementing the agre-ement on Arctic oil pollution.


and potential for a satellite-based communicationssystem in the Arctic.

The Government will

– work nationally and internationally to ensureeffective implementation of the Polar Code

– work to safeguard the environment, maritimesecurity and emergency preparedness in nort-hern marine areas by strengthening coopera-tion within the International Maritime Organi-zation and the Arctic Council and with othercountries, including a consideration of conti-nued follow-up of the SARiNOR 1 and 2 andMARPART projects

– assess the need and potential for a satellite-based communications system that willenhance performance and capacity for commu-nications in northern marine areas

5.3 Seafood industry

Norway has a seafood industry of considerablescale, and in recent decades it has been heavilyengaged in international cooperation on sustaina-ble fisheries management. The concern is tosimultaneously pursue national interests andassume a global responsibility for the internatio-nal community’s use of the sea. Norway is depen-dent on robust international cooperation to sharein the resources, generate value and contributemeaningfully to global food security, whether inour own vicinity or in other marine areas whereNorwegian operations are conducted. Internatio-nal cooperation on the sustainable use of livingmarine resources touches on central Norwegianforeign policy interests.

In Norway, the marine resource act is animportant tool for managing fisheries soundly andmeeting our international obligations, includingthe protection of biodiversity. The act includesprinciples requiring public administration to regu-larly assess whether a fishery is sound or actionmust be taken. The assessments emphasise anecosystem-based approach, and measures impo-sed must be consistent with the precautionaryprinciple.

The Norwegian seafood industry has seenstrong growth in recent years, both in terms ofvalue creation and export revenues. In 2014, valuecreated in the industry amounted to NOK 41 bil-lion.4 Norwegian seafood is exported to approxi-mately 140 countries. In 2016, we exported sea-

food valued at NOK 91.6 billion, which was a newrecord and 23 % more than in 2015.5 Fisheriesaccount for an important part of the wealth Nor-way derives from the sea, with cod in the BarentsSea representing the single fish stock of greatestvalue.

The greatest value is generated by the aqua-culture industry. The industry, which dates backto the 1970s, has grown significantly and in 2006its export value surpassed that of the fisheries.Norwegian aquaculture is dominated by Atlanticsalmon, and in 2016 about 1 million tonnes of itwere exported to markets all over the world, mostimportantly to countries in the EU and the UnitedStates. Norway produces more than half of theworld’s farmed salmon and is now the largest sea-based aquaculture producer in the world. TheGovernment has ambitions for continued growthin the aquaculture industry.

Today’s level of salmon production would nothave been possible without attending to crucialfactors like the environment and fish health. But

4 Menon Economics (2016).5 Norwegian Seafood Council.

Figure 5.2 Catches landed by Norway’s fishing fleet generate large annual revenues.

Photo: Institute of Marine Research.


as with most forms of economic activity at sea,aquaculture does have environmental impacts.Current problems include area use conflicts incoastal zones, water quality in areas of intensiveaquaculture, contagious diseases (including para-sites such as salmon lice), fish escapes and theuse of medicine and chemicals. Environmentalprotection is a prerequisite for further growth.

Knowledge-based management is at the coreof Norwegian policy for the seafood industry,whether the product is wild or farmed. A clean,healthy ocean in a sound environmental state pro-vides fresh, nutritious fish attractive to customersin Norway and abroad and profitable for the sea-food industry.

5.3.1 International fisheries and aquaculture

Sustainable Development Goal 2 states that by2030 the world shall eradicate hunger and ensureaccess to safe and nutritious food for all people.For the world community this will be a massiveand important undertaking in the coming years.Sustainable Development Goal 14 will play animportant role in the process.

The UN Committee on World Food Securityhas stated that seafood, with its high content ofhigh-quality proteins, omega-3 fatty acids andother important nutrients, plays an important butunderemphasised role in food security and nutri-tion. The Government is working to raise aware-ness of seafood’s role in food security and nutri-tion. Funds have been allocated in 2017 to enableNorway to share knowledge in this area withother countries.

Food production affects the environment. Athird of all food produced is never eaten. Reducedfood waste would make more food available to theworld’s growing population and reduce pressureon the environment. At Norway’s initiative, theFood and Agriculture Organization of the UN(FAO) is now developing guidelines to reducefood waste throughout the fish value chain. TheGovernment is contributing funding for this work.

Per capita consumption of fish protein hasincreased in recent years, due to the growth inaquaculture and lower fish prices. People world-wide are now eating more farmed fish than wildfish. According to FAO, global consumption of ani-mal protein from seafood accounted for 17 % oftotal animal protein consumed in 2013. The poten-tial for seafood to play a greater role in food produ-ction is therefore high. And since wild-caught fishdo not need fresh water, fertilisers, pesticides ormedicines, the environmental effects of catching

wild fish are low compared to other animal-basedfood production, assuming that marine resourcesand marine and coastal areas are managed in asustainable manner.

Although the situation for fish stocks harve-sted in Norwegian areas is good, the situation forfisheries worldwide is somewhat different.Developments are worrying, with the proportionof stocks harvested at a biologically sustainablelevel decreasing, according to FAO, from 90 % in1974 to 68.6 % in 2013. That negative trend meanssome 31 % of the world’s commercial fish stocksare now overfished. The stocks that are not fullyutilised amount to 10.5 %. According to a Febru-ary 2017 World Bank report, the fisheries sectorglobally could earn an additional USD 83 billionannually by fishing less, but better.6 By reducingglobal fishing, overfished stocks would againbecome sustainable. The weight of the catchwould then increase, along with its value and theprice of fish sold. According to the report, thiswould improve food security and increaserevenues for developing countries.

A 2014 FAO study estimated that global aqua-culture production would grow by 58 % by 2022.This could make a significant contribution to glo-bal food security. It is essential that future aqua-culture growth occur within an environmentallysustainable framework. But there are also someenvironmental benefits to ocean-based aquacul-ture. Research suggests that farmed fish have arelatively small climate footprint compared toother protein sources.7 Increased aquacultureproduction could ease pressure on commerciallyimportant stocks in the ocean.

5.3.2 Norway’s neighbouring areas

The length of our coastline and the extent of ourmarine areas, which border on a number of othercoastal states as well as international waters, high-light the importance of effective regional coopera-tion on sustainable management of living marineresources. Norway has played a key role indeveloping the organisations and forums thathave emerged, and that are important in advan-cing Norwegian policies and ocean interests.Active Norwegian participation is a major elementof our foreign economic policy and an important

6 The Sunken Billions Revisited, World Bank, 2017.7 ‘Carbon footprint and energy use of Norwegian seafood

products’, report by SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture,December 2009.


pillar in our bilateral relations with a number ofneighbouring countries.

Norway has actively contributed to thedevelopment and design of regional fisheriesmanagement organisations, not only in ourvicinity but also in other parts of the world.

5.3.2.1 Fisheries management cooperation in the North-East Atlantic

Norway is actively involved in the North-EastAtlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC), one ofthe oldest regional fisheries organisations and onethat is very important to Norway. Its overall obje-ctive is to combine long-term conservation withthe best possible exploitation of fisheries resour-ces in the North-East Atlantic. The members areDenmark (on behalf of the Faroe Islands and Gre-enland), the EU, Iceland, Norway and Russia.Important tasks include the development of high-quality control schemes and ecosystem-based fishstock management. NEAFC also sets quotas forcertain deep-sea stocks in its area of regulatoryjurisdiction and coordinates fishing regulationsfor stocks that migrate between coastal state econ-omic zones and international waters.

Protection of vulnerable marine habitats is animportant issue, and protective measures havebeen introduced against harmful bottom fishing inseveral international marine areas in the organisa-tion’s jurisdictional area. NEAFC has beguncooperating with the OSPAR Commission, whichhas the task of protecting and preserving theNorth-East Atlantic marine environment. NEAFCwas the first regional fisheries management orga-nisation to establish rules for port state control,which is an effective means of combatting illegalfishing.

5.3.2.2 Fisheries negotiations and agreements

Up to 90 % of the fish resources from which Nor-way harvests are shared with other countries. Themanagement and distribution of these resourcesare subject to annual international fisheries nego-tiations. The fisheries agreements signed mustensure that the harvesting of stocks will occur wit-hin a sustainable framework. They are thereforebased on independent scientific quota advice, andcontain binding provisions on quota distribution,management measures and supervisory coopera-tion. Catches landed by Norwegian fishing crewsas a direct result of the international fisheries

Figure 5.3 The Norwegian aquaculture industry has grown significantly since the 1970s. Norway is the world’s largest producer of sea-farmed fish. The picture shows cages used in the production of salmon.

Photo: Norwegian Seafood Council.


negotiations have a significant economic impactannually. Additional value is generated fromprocessing.

There are three overall objectives for Nor-way’s participation in the various negotiationprocesses:– to promote sustainable management of living

marine resources, based on the best availablescience and an ecosystem-based approach

– to secure for Norway a fair share of quotas allo-cated for jointly regulated stocks

– to ensure satisfactory inspection and enforce-ment in the management regimes in whichNorway participates

5.3.2.3 Bilateral fisheries agreements and coastal agreements

Norway concludes annual bilateral agreementswith Russia, the EU, the Faroe Islands, Icelandand Greenland. The agreements with Russia andthe EU are the most extensive, and concerncooperation in the management of important sha-red stocks.

Of special importance, measured in bothvolume and value, are the Lofoten and BarentsSea cod stocks. The total allowable catch (TAC)for 2017, set by the Joint Norwegian-Russian Fis-heries Commission on the basis of scientificadvice, is 890 000 tonnes. This is about the sameas in previous two years, and high by historicalstandards. The status of cod in the Barents Seacontrasts starkly with other cod stocks in theNorth Atlantic. Norwegian-Russian fisheriesmanagement cooperation dates back decades andis an internationally recognised example of sustai-nable management and good international coope-ration.

The annual bilateral agreement with the EUcovers fish stocks in the North Sea. The UK’s exitfrom the EU will have consequences for this agre-ement, as it will for coastal state agreements towhich the EU and Norway are parties. TheGovernment attaches importance to productivedialogue with the UK and the EU on these issues.

In addition to TAC and quota allocations forthe relevant stocks, the bilateral agreements Nor-way concludes cover management and inspectionmeasures and provisions governing quotaexchange and access to one another’s economiczones. The agreement with Russia also includesprovisions relating to research cooperation onliving marine resources in the Barents Sea ecosys-tem.

Norway also signs coastal state agreements onTAC and quota allocation for pelagic stocks thatmay migrate between economic zones and bet-ween economic zones and international waters.The most important pelagic stocks harvested byNorwegian fishing crews are mackerel, Norwe-gian spring-spawning herring and blue whiting.

5.3.3 The Antarctic and other regions

Some of the marine areas around Antarctica arerich in biological production. Krill, an importantcrustacean species, thrive there, and today’s Nor-wegian fisheries interests are focused primarilyon the harvesting of krill and toothfish. In the rela-tively simple Antarctic marine food chain, krill is akey species and the most important food for manyother animals, including fish, squid, penguins,seals and whales.

Management of living marine resources inthese waters has been assigned to the Commis-sion for the Conservation of Antarctic MarineLiving Resources (CCAMLR). The commissioncurrently has 24 member states. It employs anecosystem-based approach to managing krill andother species, with conservation that also includessustainable use of the resources while maintai-ning ecosystem integrity. Emphasis is placed onensuring that the catch does not harm food availa-bility for species that are dependent on the spe-cies being harvested. CCAMLR contributesimportantly to the development of internationalmarine environmental policy and works actively tocombat illegal, unreported and unregulated fis-hing.

In recent years more than half of the krill har-vest in the CCAMLR area has been attributable toNorwegian vessels. Norwegian authorities issuethe same sustainable management requirementsin these marine areas as in other marine areaswhere Norwegian actors harvest resources.

Research activity is an important prerequisitefor resource utilisation. The Institute of MarineResearch and the Norwegian Polar Institute parti-cipate in creating a scientific basis for fisheriesregulation and issues pertaining to marine protec-ted areas. In 2017 the Government will submitplans to the Storting for a research mission to theAntarctic.

5.3.4 Fisheries management in FAO

FAO does important work to strengthen sustaina-ble global management of fisheries resources.Norway contributes on a fixed basis to FAO’s bud-


get and work programme, as well as to specialfunds for particular initiatives. The Government iscalling for higher priority to be given to fisheriesand aquaculture in efforts to improve global food

security, and for FAO to be the main arena forpolicy development relating to global foodsecurity, nutrition and the right to food. The UN

Box 5.2 Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission

Figure 5.4 The Norwegian-Russian agreement on 2017 quotas for cod and other important stocks in the Barents Sea was signed on 20 October 2016. The agreement marked 40 years of good fisheries cooperation with Russia.

Photo: Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries.

Marine research cooperation between Norwayand Russia dates back to the early 1900s andwas institutionalised in the 1950s. Since 1976,Norway and Russia (until 1991 the SovietUnion) have collaborated in the Joint Norwe-gian-Russian Fisheries Commission to managethe most important fish stocks in the BarentsSea. Today the applicable species are the Nor-theast Arctic cod, Northeast Arctic haddock,capelin, Greenland halibut and beaked redfish.

A key task is to facilitate the best possiblemanagement of the shared stocks. First andforemost this means rational harvesting of thecod stock. At the annual commission meeting,the parties stipulate the TAC and share quotasbetween Norway, Russia and third countries.The parties also agree on fishing access to oneanother’s zones and exchange quotas withinshared stocks and national stocks, and theystrive for harmonisation of technical regulationsand agree to cooperate on supervisory controls.The total quotas set by Norway and Russia arebased on catch level recommendations preparedby the International Council for the Explorationof the Sea (ICES), where both Norwegian andRussian scientists are represented. Quota set-

ting is based on uniform, long-term harvestingrules.

Combatting illegal, unreported and unregu-lated fishing (IUU fishing) in the Barents Seahas been an important issue, and there has beensignificant progress. From 2002 to 2005, some100 000 tonnes of cod a year were fished illegallyputting heavy pressure on the stock, and havingserious impacts on the fishing industry andcoastal communities that are dependent on fis-hing. From 2005 to 2009, overfishing was gre-atly reduced as a result of active efforts by theNorwegian and Russian authorities, and inrecent years no significant illegal overfishing inthe Barents Sea has been detected.

In the 1990s the commission’s work expan-ded into new subject areas, with the establish-ment, for example, of the Permanent Committeefor management and control issues in the fis-heries sector (1993). Through this collabora-tion, a number of specific measures have beenimplemented to improve resource control bothat sea and on land.

Inspection and enforcement of fisherieslegislation is at the heart of sound resourcemanagement, with Coast Guard inspections offishing vessels playing a key role. For severalyears the Coast Guard has worked purposefullyto strengthen its investigative expertise. As aresult, a considerable number of cases involvingfishing regulation violations by foreign vesselsare now handled by ‘slow arrest’. This meansthe vessel in question sails towards portaccompanied by the Coast Guard while anattempt is made to settle the matter at sea. If thecase is resolved at sea, there is no need to takethe vessel to a Norwegian port.

The struggle against overfishing in con-junction with joint management strategies andresource control cooperation is a major reasonBarents Sea fish stocks are now in very goodcondition by global standards. The way is thussmoothed for lucrative fishing by Norwegianand Russian fishing crews.


Committee on World Food Security is anotherimportant arena for such work.

FAO has drawn up several sets of guidelinesrelating to fishing and marine resources. Norwayhas provided support, including both professionalexpertise and financial resources, in developingsome of these. Examples of action plans andguidelines include the International Plan of Actionto Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unrepor-ted and Unregulated Fishing; the InternationalGuidelines on By-Catch Management and Redu-ction of Discards; the Technical Guidelines onAquaculture Certification; and the VoluntaryGuidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-ScaleFisheries in the Context of Food Security andPoverty Eradication.

Norway supports FAO’s efforts to developinternational guidelines for catch certificates thatwill make fisheries products more traceable. Thework is expected to be completed in 2017. If buy-ers, distributors and consumers demand that fishproducts have a sustainable origin, sustainable fis-hing will eventually become a competitive advan-tage. Market pressure from conscientious consu-mers could contribute significantly to the develop-ment of sustainable fisheries and aquaculture.Norway also supports cooperation between FAOand the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD); FAO has contributed its expertise tovarious CBD working groups on marine issues.

One of the most extensive nodes of coopera-tion between Norway and FAO is the Nansen Pro-gramme, which is discussed in more detail under‘Fish for development’.

The Government will

– support regional cooperation on managementof shared fisheries resources in accordancewith the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea,the UN Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement andrelevant guidelines prepared by the UN Foodand Agriculture Organization

– maintain and strengthen cooperation with theFood and Agriculture Organization on sustai-nable marine resource management

5.3.5 Good working conditions in international fisheries

The International Labour Organization (ILO), theUN body specialising in working life, was createdto improve living conditions, working conditionsand worker opportunities worldwide. The ILO isresponsible for establishing and overseeing inter-

national labour standards. Internationally, the fis-heries sector is among the sectors where work-related deaths are most common. Another seriousproblem of considerable scale is forced labour andhuman trafficking, in which poor people are victi-mised by organised criminals involved in illegal,unregulated and unreported fishing and fisheries.In November 2015, Norway and the ILO arrangedan international experts’ meeting on labour explo-itation in the fisheries industry. The meeting con-cluded with a recommendation to employ a broad,multidisciplinary approach to the problem.

In June 2007, with Norwegian support, theILO adopted Convention No. 188, on working con-ditions in the fisheries sector, at its 96th Internati-onal Labour Conference. Important objectivesinclude an improved work environment for fis-heries sector workers, safety and health at sea,and treatment ashore for sick and injured fishingcrew members. Norway ratified the convention in2015 and it will enter force in the autumn of 2017.

The Government will

– work to combat forced labour and human traf-ficking in the global fisheries industry and toencourage additional countries to ratify theInternational Labour Organization’s Conven-tion No. 188, on working conditions in the fis-heries sector

– continue promoting human rights-baseddevelopment in fisheries and pursuing equalrights for men and women working in the fis-heries industries

5.4 Emerging ocean-based industries

A wide variety of industries make up the blue eco-nomy, and all make important contributions toemployment and general welfare at regional ornational level in Norway and other countries.Some of the industries are small but have long tra-ditions and the potential to become important intime. There is also an expectation that all-newocean industries will arise in the future. TheGovernment will do what it can to facilitate sustai-nable growth in these industries.

Offshore renewable energy sources includeoffshore wind, tidal power, wave power and oceanthermal energy conversion (which exploits tempe-rature differences). Other sources of energy aresalinity gradient power (which exploits the energypotential of fresh water mixing with salt water)and marine biomass (seaweed and marine waste


used for energy purposes). Norway’s marine-based renewable energy industry has been activeinternationally for many years. Internationally,renewable energy growth is significant. GivenNorway’s long experience in developing offshoreoil and gas technology, Norwegian suppliers arewell positioned to contribute to ocean-based windpower development. In certain niche marketsNorwegian companies have established themsel-ves as significant sub-contractors. For the otherenergy sources mentioned above, research hasbeen carried out over several decades both inNorway and abroad to commercialise the oppor-tunities that exist, but they are not yet profitableenough to gain wider application.

Tourism has a long history in Norway. Coastaland ocean-related tourism includes cruise shiptravel and diverse types of nature-based andadventure tourism. In recent years the sector hasseen steady growth, and the potential for furthergrowth is thought to be considerable.

Exploitation of seabed minerals may becomean important industry. So far, the volume of suchresources has not been documented, but there isreason to assume that the potential is significant,including on the Norwegian continental shelf. Anycommercial extraction of mineral deposits is sometime away, and will require the development oftechnology and regulations as well as studies ofthe environmental impacts. Internationally, thesector is still nascent. The Government will pro-pose a new act on mineral activities on the Norwe-gian continental shelf. Under the new act, respon-sibility for mineral activities on the shelf will restwith the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy.

Extensive research is under way on the far-ming of new species, both in Norway and othercountries. Over time large-scale production of fishspecies other than salmon and rainbow trout willlikely be possible along the Norwegian coast.Another promising aquaculture sector is that ofmacroalgae, which includes a variety of seaweedspecies. Seaweed has been harvested commerci-ally in Norway for more than 50 years and is usedin the food industry, in medicine and as a protein-rich animal feed. There is likely potential in thecommercial harvesting of additional species,while cultivation in separate or combined aquacul-ture facilities represents further untapped poten-tial for Norway.

The Government’s strategy on the bioecon-omy, Familiar resources – undreamt of possibilities,presented in November 2016, includes measuresrelevant to farming and cultivation in the marine

environment. The bioeconomy opens up newopportunities for exploiting renewable marineresources, and further growth is expected in suchfields as the exploitation of new species and resi-dual raw materials. There is reason to believe thatthe rich marine biodiversity could be used as abasis for developing new products in a number ofareas, from pharmaceuticals to process industries,food, animal feed and cosmetics.

5.5 Good international trade arrangements for ocean-based industries

As a small, open economy, Norway benefits gre-atly from the division of labour inherent in inter-national trade. Foreign trade accounts for a largepart of the Norwegian economy and Norwaycould not have achieved today’s level of prosperitywithout it. For the ocean-based industries, openmarkets also mean access to technology and high-quality intermediate goods without having to sur-mount costly and time-consuming trade barriers.

The industries of the blue economy play a keyrole. The economic potential they represent can-not be realised without good international tradearrangements for the goods and services theygenerate. Improving market access and loweringtrade barriers are important objectives in Norwe-gian foreign and trade policy, and the Governmentattaches great importance to them.

Three arenas of cooperation are of particularimportance. These are the World Trade Organiza-

Figure 5.5 Exploitation of seabed minerals may become an important industry in the long term. Pictured are hydrothermal vents in the Soria Moria field, between Jan Mayen and Bjørnøya.

Photo: K.G. Jebsen Centre for Deep Sea Research, Universityof Bergen.


tion (WTO), trade collaboration with the EUthrough the European Economic Area (EEA) andthe bilateral free trade agreements negotiatedwith other member countries of the EuropeanFree Trade Association (EFTA). Many of the mar-ket-access challenges confronting ocean-basedindustries are shared, but some apply only to par-ticular industries. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs,the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries andother relevant ministries work to safeguard Nor-wegian trade policy priorities in the internationalarena.

The Government is pursuing a proactive tradepolicy that safeguards Norwegian interests, as setout in Globalisation and Trade: Trade policy chal-lenges and opportunities for Norway (Meld. St. 29(2014–2015)). This white paper emphasises theimportance of obtaining increased market accessand improved predictability for Norwegiancompanies in the export of goods, services andinvestments globally, whether through the WTO,in negotiations with the EU or in new free tradeagreements, and all while ensuring the ability toimpose regulations that are necessary for achie-ving legitimate national objectives.

The Government’s priorities and ambitions inworking to achieve good international market andframework conditions for Norway’s ocean-basedindustries are expressed in more detail in theGovernment’s ocean strategy, issued on 21 Febru-ary 2017.

5.5.1 Challenges in the world trade system

Open, inclusive and rule-based international tradepolicy cooperation is strongly in Norway’s inte-rest. Accordingly, the primary aim of our tradepolicy is to maintain and strengthen the multilate-ral trading system. Negotiations on the furtherdevelopment of WTO rules are difficult, however,and the trading system has gained a new dimen-sion as major economies negotiate to achieve‘mega-regional’ agreements. For several years theUnited States has been negotiating with the EUthrough the Transatlantic Trade and InvestmentPartnership (TTIP), while an agreement betweenthe United States, Japan and other countries of thePacific region, the Trans-Pacific Partnership(TPP), has been negotiated. However, develop-ments to date have been far from straightforward.The TTIP negotiations have revealed major inter-nal disagreements within the EU and have beenput on hold by the American and European sidesalike. There is also uncertainty as to whether TPPwill be implemented and, if it is, by which

countries, now that the United States has with-drawn. The new US administration is signallingpositions that create uncertainty about the futureof mega-regional agreements.

Development of other regional agreements –in Asia, for example – is continuing, however. TheGovernment will closely monitor developments inexisting and new trade policy initiatives that donot involve Norway and will continually assessmeasures to protect and promote Norwegian inte-rests.

5.5.2 WTO

To promote Norwegian ocean interests theGovernment will make use of the WTO’s regularfunctions as well as negotiations on market accessand regulations wherever possible. The WTOenvironmental goods negotiations, which involve44 member states, including the United States,China and the EU, are focused on obtaining fulltariff elimination for goods that may contribute toimproving the environment and counteracting cli-mate change.

For the ocean, the agreement could have bothdirect and indirect positive effects. It will make apositive contribution to climate challenges bymaking important environmental technologiesmore easily available at a lower price. Examples ofimportant items under negotiation that wouldhave a beneficial effect on the marine environ-ment are ballast water treatment systems and oilspill equipment.

Shipping services and energy-related services,especially those related to the offshore industry,represent key parts of the Norwegian internatio-nal service industry.

Energy-related services assist the oil, gas andelectricity sectors, including all upstream anddownstream activities. Such services are occasio-nally vulnerable to significant government interfe-rence under framework conditions that can affectcompetitive opportunities for Norwegian indus-tries. Negotiations on removing restrictions andcreating obligations in such activities as internati-onal shipping, shipping-related services and portfacility access and usage have not yet producedresults. The current situation poses a risk of arbi-trariness and distortion of competition to thedetriment of Norwegian shipping interests.

The Government strongly supports effortsaimed at obtaining a multilateral agreement crea-ting an open, non-discriminatory internationalshipping services regime, and at achieving broadliberalisation in energy-related services. This is a


key Norwegian trade policy interest, pursued inall available forums. For example, in negotiationsamong 50 or so countries on the internationalTrade in Services Agreement (TISA), Norway hasassumed a leadership role in seeking the mostambitious results possible with regard to shippingservices and energy-related services.

The importance of combatting harmful fis-heries subsidies in the WTO has gained newimpetus with UN Sustainable Development Goal14.6. Many developing countries, including leastdeveloped countries, which are vulnerable tounsustainable fishing conducted by fishing ves-sels from other countries as well, are among theadvocates of a multilateral agreement consistentwith the sustainability goals. There is hope, there-fore, of a result being achieved at the WTO Minis-terial Conference in December 2017. Given thepossibility that an agreement covering all WTOcountries may prove impossible to obtain, a paral-lel process is being pursued to achieve an agree-ment that initially would include the most ambiti-ous countries on the issue, including Norway.

5.5.3 EEA, the internal market and market access

The EU is Norway’s most important trading part-ner, and Norway is integrated into the EU’s inter-nal market, including its internal energy market,by means of the European Economic Area (EEA)Agreement. A well-functioning internal market isimportant for Norwegian value creation. EEAcooperation ensures treaty-based market accessin the internal market and also makes it possibleto discuss and initiate deeper cooperation with EUcountries on ocean and maritime issues.

The EU is our most important seafood market.Trade in seafood between Norway and the EU isregulated by several agreements: Fiskeribrevet of1973 (an addendum to the free trade agreement),Protocol 9 of the EEA Agreement (which providesa preferential duty for whitefish) and a number ofbilateral agreements with approximately 50 tariff-free quotas (‘compensation agreements’). TheNorwegian fisheries industry can also use WTOquotas and the EU’s own import quotas that canprovide tariff-free status to a number of fish produ-cts exported to EU countries. In July 2015, Nor-way and the EU came to agreement on marketaccess for seafood, and the new quotas were ope-ned on 1 September 2016. In this agreement, seve-ral market access improvements were achieved incomparison with previous negotiations. The goalis free trade for all seafood, and the Government

will continue to work to achieve even better mar-ket access to the EU.

The UK’s exit from the EU will also have animpact on Norwegian trade policy interests. TheGovernment will pay close attention to thisprocess.

5.5.4 EFTA free trade agreements

Norway enters into free trade agreements toensure market access and more predictable condi-tions for Norwegian companies. A key principle isto ensure that the framework conditions for Nor-wegian companies doing business in foreignmarkets are at least as good as those that apply tocompetitors from other countries, especially inthe EU. The Government prioritises free tradeagreements with countries where an agreementcan make the greatest contribution to increasedoverall trade and value creation. Emphasis is alsoplaced – when prioritising countries for possiblenew agreements – on foreign and developmentpolicy considerations. The Government’s positionis that such agreements should not limit Norway’sfreedom of action in crucial policy areas, and thatthey should contribute to the overall objective ofsustainable development for Norway and theworld. Norway is currently negotiating EFTA freetrade agreements with a number of countries,including India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia andEcuador. Resumption of bilateral negotiationswith China is a high priority. Ocean-based indus-tries are among Norway’s main priorities in freetrade agreement negotiations.

The Government will

– work to ensure that the WTO EnvironmentalGoods Agreement is concluded as soon as pos-sible, preferably in 2017, and then be revisedregularly to include new environmental techn-ologies of value to the marine environment andmarine management, and work to have morecountries accede to the agreement

– work to achieve non-discriminatory, improvedand predictable market access for maritimeand offshore-related services in the WTO, inthe international Trade in Services Agreement(TISA) and in other agreements affecting tradein services

– work for a multilateral agreement to be negoti-ated at the WTO Ministerial Conference inDecember 2017 that prohibits subsidies for ille-gal, unregulated and unreported fishing as wellas the most harmful subsidies linked to overfis-


hing and overcapacity in the fisheries sector. Inparallel, the Government will also worktowards a plurilateral agreement with a narro-wer group of ambitious WTO members

– work to achieve even better market access tothe EU for seafood

– work to sign free trade agreements that securefor Norwegian industries, including ocean-based industries, market access and predicta-ble framework conditions in markets outsidethe EEA

5.5.5 Diplomatic and consular missions and ocean-based industries

Providing support to the business community ispriority of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and theNorwegian Foreign Service. This is the case forall the missions, although needs will vary fromcountry to country and region to region. Forsome missions, especially in certain East Asianand Southeast Asian countries, working with Nor-wegian ocean-based industries and clusters is amatter of particular importance. In thesecountries, the blue economy looms large in themissions’ contact with local authorities.

Norway’s diplomatic and consular missionsact as door openers and network-builders. Theyhave knowledge of local conditions, market oppor-tunities and access to specialist communities andthe authorities. Their knowledge helps Norwe-gian companies make the soundest possible deci-sions about business activities and partners. The

missions cooperate closely with other actors inthe Norwegian support network, including Inno-vation Norway, the Norwegian Seafood Counciland Norwegian Energy Partners.

The missions coordinate events and promotio-nal activities and create meeting places throughTeam Norway, which is an informal network ofactors relevant to the business community. Animportant function is to assist and implementbusiness programmes during state visits, officialvisits and other visits involving business delegati-ons. The missions are also able to explain the hostcountry’s legal provisions and local rules as wellas any special conditions of note; they ensure,moreover, that companies make contact with theappropriate authorities in cases requiring publicapproval, and they provide follow-up assistance.They can provide consular assistance on visaissues, among other matters, as well as adviceregarding corporate social responsibility and thebiggest challenges facing companies in the hostcountry with regard to environmental matters,corruption and employee and human rights.

The Government will

– in cooperation with the business communityand ocean-oriented clusters, strengthen cross-sectoral cooperation under Team Norway topromote the ocean economy as a whole inareas where this can enhance the effectivenessof our efforts


6 Clean and healthy oceans

Greenhouse gas emissions and pollution are affe-cting the oceans in ways we do not fully under-stand. The world’s oceans are becoming increas-ingly acidified, warmer and more polluted; sealevels are rising, and the amount of waste at sea,such as plastic, is growing. These environmentalpressures have impacts on marine life. Ecosys-tems are being changed or harmed, and biodiver-sity is under threat. The consequences of theseproblems will depend on how the internationalcommunity deals with them. The OECD has iden-tified environmental problems as one of the mainthreats to realising growth opportunities in theblue economy.

We share ecosystems and vital marine resour-ces with other countries, so bilateral and regionalcooperation is crucial to sound environmentalmanagement. In many fields, cooperating globallyis the most effective way forward, as exemplifiedby efforts to reduce CO2 emissions.

6.1 Marine biodiversity conservation

Biodiversity is the foundation for human life onearth. The diversity of species and habitats provi-des us with access to everything from food andmedicines to raw materials and positive experien-ces. Many industries, including ocean-basedindustries, are dependent on natural resources.Safeguarding and ensuring the sustainable use ofmarine ecosystems, so they continue to functionwell, is a vital factor in facilitating value creationand food security and maintaining marine environ-mental assets. It is also important in preventingpoverty and serious effects of climate change.

Increased consumption of natural resourceshas allowed increased food production and higherliving standards for many. At the same time, theincreasing use of land areas and natural resourcesis placing considerable pressure on naturalenvironments. Some of the world’s ecosystemsare under such pressure that they no longer pro-vide the ecosystem services or maintain the natu-ral processes on which humans depend. The mainpressures on marine biodiversity are climate

change, invasive alien species, overexploitation ofresources, poor management and pollution.

Climate change will pose major challenges tobiodiversity in the Arctic. The UN Intergovern-mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) conclu-des that there is an extremely high risk of majorlong-term changes occurring in Arctic marineecosystems. Climate change will alter species dis-tribution and ecosystems that depend on sea ice,and will compromise the habitats of many ice-dependent species. The Barents Sea is among theareas where this is expected to occur fastest. Cli-mate change may also make ice-dependent spe-cies and ecosystems more vulnerable to humanactivity and other pressures. Norway is workingclosely with the other Arctic states to assess thestatus of biodiversity and follow up with measuresthrough the Arctic Council. Two central elementsin this effort are the council’s working groups forProtection of the Arctic Marine Environment(PAME) and Conservation of Arctic Flora andFauna (CAFF). Norway has led the work of prepa-ring a marine biodiversity status report and amonitoring plan to be presented at the ArcticCouncil’s ministerial meeting in spring 2017.

The Convention on Biological Diversity is animportant policy instrument and legal frameworkfor the conservation and sustainable use of naturalresources. It helps protect marine life by suchmeans as identifying ecologically and biologicallysignificant areas and environmental challengeslike noise, pollution and litter, including plasticsand microplastics. Norway participates actively inconvention-related follow-up and implementationwork. Several of the targets under SustainableDevelopment Goal 14 are based on the Aichi Bio-diversity Targets from 2010 under the Conventionon Biological Diversity. National fulfilment of con-vention obligations requires, among other things,developing more specific objectives for the stateof the environment and the use of policy instru-ments in maintaining and improving marine eco-system conditions.

Other conventions are also important to theinternational efforts to conserve marine biodiver-sity. The fundamental principle of the Convention


on International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is to protect ani-mals and plants that are threatened withextinction as a result of international trade. Themain objective of the Bonn Convention is the con-servation of migratory species of wild animals thatregularly cross national boundaries. The objectiveof the Convention on Wetlands is the conservationand sustainable use of wetlands, both freshwaterand marine areas.

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Plat-form on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services(IPBES) is a key knowledge provider on biodiver-sity and policy development at global level, andcan be regarded as a parallel body to the IPCC.

It has been decided to conduct a global assess-ment of biodiversity and ecosystem servicesunder the IPBES, due for completion in 2019. Theassessment will also include marine biodiversityand marine ecosystem services.

The final work programme for the IPBES’ssecond period (2019–2022) has not yet been deci-ded, but will most likely include a report on alienterrestrial and aquatic species, and identify con-crete measures for how to manage them. Dealingwith invasive alien species is also one of the tar-

gets under the Sustainable Development Goalsthat have been identified as a particular challengefor Norway.

Norway’s NOK 432 million in support to theGlobal Environment Facility (GEF) from 2014 to2018 represents a significant contribution to theonly funding mechanism with a mandate to under-take initiatives in all global environmental areas.Since GEF supports initiatives addressing climatechange, biodiversity, the ozone layer, environmen-tally hazardous substances, desertification,deforestation, and marine and water issues,resources can be viewed in a broad context andused more effectively. About 11 % of GEF’s totalbudget is allocated to initiatives related to marineand water issues.

The Government will

– continue to actively participate in the UN’sefforts to strengthen the maritime legal fra-mework for the conservation and sustainableuse of ocean resources

– contribute actively to further development ofmarine efforts under the Convention on Biolo-

Figure 6.1 Camouflage

Coral reefs, coral forests and sponges are sessile animals that form habitats and hiding places for many invertebrate animals andfish. They are therefore important for biodiversity in the oceans. Coral reefs around the world are threatened by ocean acidificationand warmer waters caused by global climate change.Photo: Institute of Marine Research.


gical Diversity and to strengthened implemen-tation of the convention

– continue contributing support to improveknowledge on marine biodiversity and toimprove coordination and cost efficiency in seamapping processes. Priority will be given to theIPBES as a cross-disciplinary knowledge plat-form

– continue helping to improve knowledge on thestate of regional biodiversity and to work on ini-tiatives aimed at conserving marine biodiver-sity in both northern and southern marineareas through the Arctic Council, the OSPARCommission, the Northeast Atlantic FisheriesCommission (NEAFC) and the Commissionfor the Conservation of Antarctic MarineLiving Resources (CCAMLR)

6.2 Marine pollution

Under UN Sustainable Development Goal 14.1,the international community has committed itselfto preventing and significantly reducing marinepollution of all kinds by 2025, particularly fromland-based activities.

Marine and coastal ecosystems are affected byhuman activity at sea, on land and along the coast.Pressures range from fisheries, aquaculture, ship-ping and oil and gas production to runoff of nutri-ents and other pollutants from onshore industry,agriculture and waste water treatment, andmarine litter and microplastics. The impacts aregreatest in coastal regions near industrial areasand large cities. Ecosystems are also affected bylong-range transport of pollution in the atmosp-here and with ocean currents. The influx of pollu-tants combined with overharvesting of marineresources puts significant pressure on biodiver-sity in many places around the world, and mayalso pose a threat to food security.

Discharges from land-based industry havecaused considerable damage to marine environ-ments in many areas. This damage has largelybeen caused by environmentally hazardous sub-stances such as heavy metals and by organic sub-stances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsand other persistent substances. Much has beendone in recent years to reduce and eliminatedischarges of the most hazardous substances bymeans of national and regional regulation and glo-bal conventions. Shipping has a broad range ofenvironmental impacts on both water and air, andcontinuous effort is needed to minimise them.Environmental monitoring findings that show the

spread of environmentally hazardous substancesand the impacts on health and the environmentare important in winning support for internationalregulatory measures.

In some marine areas, such as the North-EastAtlantic, measures have led to considerable redu-ctions in land-based industry discharges andlower concentrations of some environmentallyhazardous substances. There is not much pol-lution in Norway’s open marine areas, but thereare problems in some coastal areas, particularly inport sediments and outside industrial areas, as aresult of previous discharges. Norway monitorsthe levels of undesirable substances in seafood toensure that it is safe for consumption. Data gene-rated from the monitoring programme are openlyavailable through the seafood database of theNational Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Rese-arch (NIFES).

The state of the Arctic environment is alsogenerally good, though some areas exhibit highlevels of certain environmentally hazardous sub-stances as a result of the long-range transport ofpollutants. Environmental issues are a central ele-ment of cooperation in the Arctic Council, and aworking group has been established with a man-date to protect the Arctic marine environment(the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environmentworking group, or PAME). Other working groupshave been appointed to work on pollution (ArcticContaminants Action Program, ACAP), on biodi-versity (Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna,or CAFF), and on prevention and preparedness inconnection with incidents of acute pollution (theEmergency Prevention, Preparedness andResponse working group, or EPPR). The ArcticCouncil expects that in future more demands willbe placed on Arctic marine environmental mana-gement, and has initiated a process to furtherdevelop and strengthen its marine cooperationactivities.

Marine environmental cooperation with Russiais given high priority in Norway’s environmentalprotection cooperation with Russia. The objectiveis to safeguard the purity and bounty of theBarents Sea by contributing to a managementplan on the Russian side of the Barents whoseprinciples reflect those of Norway’s managementplan. Coordinated environmental monitoring andshared environmental knowledge are importantelements of this cooperation.

The pollution situation in certain parts of theworld is a serious problem. Industrial productionand the resultant releases of waste and pollutionhave increased particularly in eastern Asia and in


countries bordering the South Atlantic and theIndian oceans. There is a risk of such problemsgrowing due to the population growth expected incoming decades. Although methods and techno-logy to avoid or reduce emissions do exist, theyhave not been implemented universally. Capacitydevelopment, more environmentally friendly pro-duction and treatment technologies, better met-hods of preventing, collecting and managingwaste, and more environmentally friendly con-sumption behaviour are all needed.

Global partnerships on marine litter, wastewa-ter and nutrients have been established to facili-tate voluntary cooperation under the United Nati-ons Environment Programme’s (UNEP) globalaction plan to protect the marine environmentfrom land-based activities.1

6.2.1 Key environmental conventions relating to marine pollution

A key tool for combatting marine pollution natio-nally and internationally is the range of conventi-ons signed in recent decades. The Government isworking towards fully implementing these con-ventions.

The London Convention is a global agreementestablished in 1972 with the objective of prote-cting the marine environment and implementingpractical measures to combat marine pollutioncreated by human activity. This includes thedischarge of environmentally hazardous industrialwaste and dumping of waste and other materialsfrom vessels and aircraft. The convention willeventually be replaced by the 1996 London Pro-tocol, which entered into force in 2007. The pro-tocol places heavy emphasis on the precautionaryprinciple and includes more stringent environ-mental requirements than the convention.

The UN body on shipping, the InternationalMaritime Organization (IMO), has adopted seve-ral conventions aimed at protecting the marineenvironment against oil and chemical emissions,waste from ships and the spread of invasive alienspecies. Important conventions include: the Inter-national Convention for the Prevention of Pol-lution from Ships; the International Convention onOil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Coope-ration; the International Convention on the Con-trol of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships; theHong Kong International Convention for the Safeand Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships;

and the International Convention for the Controland Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sedi-ments. All these conventions have been ratified byNorway, and the ballast water convention willenter into force in September 2017, partly as aresult of Norwegian support provided through theIMO.

Since 2102 Norway has worked with the IMOto assist Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam,Thailand and the Philippines in implementing andratifying key environmental conventions.

The 2001 Stockholm Convention on PersistentOrganic Pollutants (POPs) is an important treatythat regulates or prohibits the use of a number ofhazardous substances that resist degradation, bio-accumulate along food chains and are transportedacross long distances through air and ocean cur-rents. Norway ratified the convention in 2002.

The Convention for the Protection of theMarine Environment of the North-East Atlantic(OSPAR Convention) regulates internationalcooperation to protect the marine environment inthe North-East Atlantic. OSPAR runs a jointassessment and monitoring programme in whichenvironmental assessments are prepared for anumber of themes and pressures as a basis fordeveloping appropriate measures.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal regulates transport of such wasteacross borders. The parties to the convention arealso committed to the environmentally soundmanagement and disposal of hazardous waste.Norway ratified the convention in 1990.

The Government will

– continue its international efforts to reducemarine pollution. This includes workingtowards regulating more chemicals under theStockholm Convention. Many of the environ-mentally hazardous substances covered by theconvention are relevant in a marine context. Incooperation with UNEP, Norway will worktowards implementing the convention

– increase the use of satellite-based monitoringas a policy instrument for gathering knowledgeon marine pollution, and promote effectiveenforcement of measures to prevent environ-mental crime

– help ensure that marine pollution remains akey priority for the working groups in theArctic Council and to ensure that the OSPARCommission implements measures based on1 Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the

Marine Environment from Land-based Activities.


threats identified in the OSPAR Commission’senvironmental status reports

– continue cooperation with the IMO in provi-ding support to developing countries to ratifyand implement important internationalenvironmental conventions aimed at preven-ting marine pollution, including the Hong KongInternational Convention for the Safe andEnvironmentally Sound Recycling of Ships

6.3 Marine litter and microplastics

Inputs of waste and microplastics to the marineenvironment are growing rapidly. Plastics pose aspecial problem because they break down veryslowly. Marine litter and microplastics have nega-tive impacts on marine ecosystems, biodiversityand sustainable development. Fisheries, the tou-rist industry, vessel traffic and other uses of theoceans and coasts are also affected. A report pre-pared for the World Economic Forum estimatedthat the oceans in 2050 will contain more plasticthan fish (by weight) if extensive measures arenot implemented to combat the problem.2 Thisestimate is tentative, but there is broad globalagreement about the seriousness of the problem.

Under UN Sustainable Development Goal 14, per-taining to the oceans, the UN member states haveagreed to prevent and significantly reduce marinelitter by 2025.

Marine litter originates in many different acti-vities, and consists of many different types. Plas-tics account for the largest portion of all marine lit-ter. Plastics are also potentially more harmful thancardboard, paper, wood, metal and other materi-als. More than half of the plastic waste that endsup in the sea is thought to originate in a few Sou-theast Asian countries.

Plastic waste is spread by ocean currents.Some of the plastic is whirled together by oceancurrents and carried to areas with higher concen-trations of plastics and microplastics, formingsolid belts of plastic waste. However, the highestconcentrations are found along shorelines. Theplastic we can see accounts for only part of theproblem. It is estimated that 15 % of marine wastefloats on the surface, 15 % accumulates on shoreli-nes, and that as much as 70 % sinks and remainson the seabed. Some marine waste is carrieddown by the currents to deep crevices on the sea-bed, where it accumulates and remains, perhapsforever.

In 2017 Norwegian researchers made the firstfinding of a Cuvier’s beaked whale on the Norwe-gian coast. The whale was dying. It turned out thatits stomach was full of plastic, including 30 plastic

2 World Economic Forum (2016), The New Plastics Economy:Rethinking the future of plastics.

Figure 6.2 Map showing where plastic waste management problems are greatest, with risk of plastic ending up in the oceans. Countries marked in white are not included in the source data. Data from 2010.

Source: ‘Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean’, Jenna R. Jambeck, Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, MiriamPerryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, Kara Lavender Law, Science, 13 February 2015.


bags, a two-metre-long piece of plastic sheeting,and many small plastic items. This is one of manyvivid examples of how plastic is threateningmarine life. Plastics may also threaten our ownfood security, both because they threaten marinespecies used as food and may therefore reducefood supplies, and because they jeopardise foodsafety, since chemicals can be passed along thefood chain from animals to humans. Moreknowledge is needed about this issue.

6.3.1 Microplastics

When plastic degrades, microplastics and nano-plastics are formed. Microplastics also end up inthe oceans because they are used as ingredientsin products. In Norway, tyre wear is the largestsource of microplastics from land-based activities.Other sources are artificial grass playing fields,paint, ship and leisure craft maintenance, andsynthetic textiles.

Today, microplastics are found in all marineareas, from sea surfaces to seabed sediments. Inthe Arctic, microplastics have been found frozeninside sea ice. These tiny particles are ingested bymarine organisms. In addition to possibly har-ming the organisms, they can contribute to thespread of hazardous substances that have beenadded to the plastic or that have bonded with it.They can also spread alien organisms such as pat-hogenic bacteria. Researchers have detectedmicroplastics in a wide range of animals, from thetiniest plankton to fish and whales. This alsoapplies to species we eat whole, such as oysters,anchovies and mussels. Research is being conduc-ted on the effects of microplastics on fish, animalsand humans. The smallest particles – nanoplastics– are of particular concern.

No agreements or policy instruments cur-rently exist that deal with measures to reducemarine litter or the spread of microplastics. TheGovernment will follow up the work of the UnitedNations Environment Assembly (UNEA) in thisarea and will contribute to strengthening interna-tional framework conditions for combatting thisproblem.

6.3.2 Broad international efforts to reduce marine litter and microplastics

The extent of the problem shows that prioritymust be given to efforts to reduce marine litterand microplastics. The Government will intensifyits efforts and take a broad approach to the pro-blem. In this white paper the Government propo-

ses measures for how Norway should work inter-nationally to combat marine litter and microplas-tics in the oceans. National measures that focuson the marine environment and maritime sourceswill be closely reviewed in the white paper on theupdated management plan for the Norwegian Seato be presented to the Storting in spring 2017.National measures to reduce inputs and levels ofplastics and microplastics in the marine environ-ment, and Norway’s priorities in respect of the EUin this context, will be reviewed in the white papercurrently being drafted on waste managementpolicy and the circular economy.

The Government will seek to strengthen inter-national cooperation and measures, and to makethem goal-oriented and resource-efficient. Themost effective way of reducing plastic and micro-plastic inputs to the oceans is to establish systemsof sound waste management and waste volumereduction. Development of a circular economy willalso play an important long-term role in reducingmarine litter. The existing marine litter also needsto be cleaned up, particularly in areas where plas-tics threaten animal life, vulnerable naturalenvironments, human health and quality of life,fisheries, and other potentially sustainable uses,such as tourism. This must be done in ways ascost-effective and as environmentally friendly aspossible.

Box 6.1 Circular economy

In a circular economy, waste is regarded firstand foremost as raw material for new produ-ction processes. This brings about a reductionin the amount of new resources used, moreefficiency, more reuse and repair, andrecycling of whatever waste remains. Anotherimportant result is the development of profita-ble industries based on more environmentallyfriendly products and on waste reuse andrecycling. Along with partners from Denmark,England, Ireland and Scotland, Norway parti-cipates in the Circular Ocean project to esta-blish an arena for a circular economy linked tomarine waste. The aim is to transform one ofthe biggest challenges in our marine areasinto a resource for companies and localcommunities along the coastline. The projectis funded by the EU’s Interreg Europe pro-gramme, which promotes social and economicintegration across national boundaries.


To combat marine litter and microplastics,Norway will work nationally, regionally and glo-bally in a variety of international ocean andenvironmental forums. This must be done incooperation with other countries, key multilateralactors, the private sector, research communitiesand civil society. It is important that the internatio-nal community give priority to those parts of theworld where the problems are greatest.

In recent years the Government has taken theinitiative to put marine litter and microplasticshigh on the international agenda. At UNEA Nor-way has submitted resolutions backed by Indone-sia, Chile, Australia and Monaco that have wonbroad support and stirred additional internationalengagement. These resolutions target all actors,including UN organisations, regional marineenvironment conventions, national authorities,business and industry and civil society, andrecommend forms of cooperation and measuresfor prevention and clean-up. The resolutions emp-hasise cooperation on regional waste treatmentplans and on support to countries and regions thatneed financial assistance in developing and imple-menting such plans.

Based on a resolution put forward by Norway,more than 170 member states in UNEA agreed inMay 2016 to carry out a global study of internatio-nal and regional waste management strategiesand legislation. The study will identify the needfor measures to strengthen coordination and for aglobal, legally binding agreement to combatmarine litter and microplastics. At UNEA inDecember 2017, the Government will follow upthe study with a resolution on the way forward.

Another key cooperative arena Norway willprioritise going forward is the Global Partnershipon Marine Litter (GPML). The GPML waslaunched at the initiative of 64 countries and theEU during the United Nations Conference onSustainable Development in Rio in 2012. It is anopen, voluntary partnership that gathers internati-onal organisations, governments, business andindustry, academia, NGOs and others. The part-nership covers concrete projects and measuresfor combatting marine litter. Priority is given toreducing inputs from land-based and ocean-basedsources and to cleaning up waste that has accumu-lated along coastlines and in the oceans. SeveralUN bodies participate in the partnership, andUNEP serves as secretariat. Norway has for seve-ral years contributed funds for measures underthis partnership through its UNEP support.Examples of GPML activities are information sha-ring, support for regional action plans against

marine litter, technology demonstration projectsand public-private partnerships to initiate cam-paigns and carry out actions. The Governmentwill now use this partnership more actively, inpart to generate even greater participation by pri-vate industry and civil society in internationalcooperation projects.

In its general vicinity, Norway cooperatesthrough OSPAR and the Nordic Council of Minis-ters, among other bodies, to improve knowledgeand methods of reducing marine litter and micro-plastics. Norway will seek to further strengthenthese efforts through its presidency of the NordicCouncil of Ministers in 2017 and other means.Norway also addresses this topic in the ArcticCouncil, and will consider options for broadercooperation on it with observers and with busi-ness and industry via the Arctic Economic Coun-cil.

As part of its follow-up of the OSPAR Conven-tion’s action plan against marine litter in theNorth-East Atlantic, Norway is carrying out theFishing for Litter project. This project is a pilotscheme aimed at removing marine litter. Partici-pating fishing vessels gather in the marine littercaught in their nets while fishing. The litter is deli-vered at port for sorting, registration and treat-ment. Any waste suitable for recycling is deliveredto Norsk Fiskeriretur. The project expands whatis known about the various types of marine litterand about materials recycling. The experiencegained will also go towards developing proposalsfor a permanent scheme to ensure that fishingcrews and others who retrieve litter from the seacan deliver it to port at no extra cost, and that asmuch as possible of the plastic litter is recycled.

Another key cooperative arena for Norway isthe Food and Agriculture Organization of the Uni-ted Nations (FAO), where Norway has helped putreduction of fishing gear loss onto the agenda andinto the work being done under the UN resolutionon sustainable fisheries. Lost fishing gear someti-mes remains in the sea and continues catchingfish, a phenomenon often referred to as ‘ghost fis-hing’. Lost gear also contributes to the amount ofplastic litter. Norway has long experience in redu-cing marine litter from fisheries, and Norwegianexpertise in this area is in demand. FAO’sCommittee on Fisheries held an expert consulta-tion on marking of fishing gear to facilitate retri-eval and avoid ghost fishing. Under the marineresources act, Norwegian fisheries are requiredto search for lost gear and report losses to theNorwegian Coast Guard if gear is not retrieved.Similar rules also apply in many of the regional fis-


heries management organisations of which Nor-way is a member. The Directorate of Fisheriesconducts annual operations to retrieve lost fishinggear in priority areas along the Norwegian coast-line. Since the clean-ups began in the early 1980s,some 20 000 nets (almost 600 km) and large amo-unts of other fishing gear have been retrieved.

6.3.3 Development programme to combat marine litter and microplastics

A rough estimate suggests that 80 % of globalmarine waste originates on land, and that the pri-mary sources are countries undergoing rapid eco-nomic growth and with deficient waste manage-ment systems. It is in Norway’s interest to helpreduce litter originating in these countries. Manydeveloping countries lack the capacity and incen-

tive mechanisms needed to overcome the wasteproblem. Consideration may be given to suppor-ting waste treatment measures through perfor-mance-based financing. This would encouragecountries to take responsibility for their ownwaste management processes and to employ localresources. Norway could help in the developmentof appropriate infrastructure by sharing itsknowledge and technology. It would be useful, forexample, to develop incentive schemes that moti-vate actors to achieve concrete results. Norwe-gian experience suggests that this could helpchange consumer behaviour, which in turn wouldhelp reduce the amount of waste in the oceansand make companies and governments accounta-ble. The Government will launch a new aid pro-gramme for reducing marine litter and microplas-tics.

Figure 6.3 Vast amounts of waste are being dumped in oceans and along coastlines. Objects made of plastic, rubber and other poorly degradable materials can remain in the marine environment for hundreds of years and harm animals and humans. Pictured is a beach in Svalbard.

Photo: Peter Prokosch/www.grida.no.


The Government will

– be proactive in UNEA and press for implemen-tation, coordination and further developmentof international legislation to prevent marinelitter and microplastics, including that origina-ting in land-based sources

– use the UN system and other relevant arenas,such as the Our Ocean conferences, toencourage the international community to pur-sue effective measures against marine litterand microplastics and focus attention on areaswhere discharges and other problems are gre-atest

– launch a development programme to combatmarine litter and microplastics, which willinclude waste reduction, better waste manage-ment and other measures to reduce marine lit-ter

– support the Interpol Pollution Crime WorkingGroup in its efforts to combat the illegal dum-ping of plastics and other waste in the oceans

– form strategic partnerships with key Europeancountries and other states that give high prio-rity to combatting marine litter and microplas-tics, and seek to engage business and industry,civil society and other key actors in internatio-nal projects through the Global Partnership onMarine Litter

– work internationally to reduce the loss of fis-hing gear and avoid ghost fishing, in part byencouraging countries to introduce relevantregulations and carry out clean-up operations

– ensure that Norway actively contributes tointernational research into the sources andimpacts of marine litter and microplastics, andinto cost-efficient countermeasures, and that ithelps improve understanding of what plasticpollution means for oceans, ecosystems, foodsecurity and food safety

– actively pursue efforts with the EU to combatmarine litter and microplastics, and to intensifyefforts in regional forums such as OSPAR,NEAFC, the Nordic Council of Ministers andthe Arctic Council

– consider how measures to combat marine lit-ter, including greener production processesand products, can be strengthened in theenvironmental cooperation with countries thatreceive EEA funds

6.4 Climate change

The most important action that can be taken tolimit the negative impacts of climate change onthe oceans is to reduce global CO2 emissionslevels. It is crucial to obtain broad support for, andimplementation of, the Paris Agreement, whichcontains provisions on emissions cuts, climateadaptation and support to developing countries toadapt to a low-carbon economy.

Since the Industrial Revolution, greenhousegas emissions have risen at an increasing rate as aresult of population growth and fossil fuel-driveneconomic growth. Higher concentrations of CO2and other greenhouse gases in the atmospherecause the earth to absorb more heat from the sun.More than 90 % of the extra heat the earth hasabsorbed is stored in the oceans. The result iswarmer ocean water, particularly near the surface.The extent of sea ice in the Arctic has steadilydeclined, particularly in the summertime. Since1900, global sea level has risen on average by 0.19metres. This is because seawater expands whenheated and because glaciers on land are meltingand flowing into the ocean.

According to the IPCC, the risk of seriousimpacts increases rapidly with a global tempera-ture increase of one or two degrees. Global war-ming of more than three degrees increases thatrisk further, due in particular to the higher risk ofrapid and irreversible sea level rise resulting fromthe melting of glaciers in Greenland and Antar-ctica. The risk associated with climate change isunevenly distributed and generally higher forpoor people and societies in developing countries.Low-lying coastal and island states are expected tobe heavily affected. Although adaptation in somecases can reduce the risk, high emissions levelswill oftentimes make adaptation difficult, not leastat low latitudes, where the impacts will be greatestand the capacity to make necessary adaptations islimited in many areas.

Another risk is the destruction of coral reefsbecause tropical marine waters become too warmfor the corals and other organisms in the reefcommunities. This leads to incidents of high mor-tality, coral bleaching and reductions in biodiver-sity and catch potential.

6.4.1 Ocean acidification

Under Sustainable Development Goal 14.3, theinternational community has agreed to minimiseand address the impacts of ocean acidification, for


example through enhanced scientific cooperationat all levels.

The oceans have so far absorbed about 30 % ofthe CO2 emissions generated by human activity.The rate of ocean acidification we have witnessedsince the Industrial Revolution is likely the fastestin the earth’s history.

Unless greenhouse gas emissions are signifi-cantly reduced, ocean acidification will representa significant risk for marine ecosystems, parti-cularly for coral reefs and polar ecosystems.

Simulations carried out by the Bjerknes Cen-tre for Climate Research in Bergen show that aro-und the year 2080, Røstrevet, the largest knowncold-water coral reef in the world, will be exposedto water containing so much CO2 that it coulddissolve calcium carbonate. The impacts of oceanacidification may be extensive in the Arctic, wherespecies of calcifying plankton – which represent avital source of nutrition in food chains – will beharmed. The extent of the impacts of ocean acidi-fication will depend on the extent of greenhousegas emissions and other factors.

The Government will

– continue its funding of research into the extentand effects of ocean acidification, including inthe Arctic. This will strengthen the efforts ofthe IPCC and the IPBES to increase globalknowledge about ocean acidification andimprove the basis for decision-making underinternational conventions

6.4.2 Paris Agreement

Ever since climate negotiations began in 1990, theworld has been aware of the need to manage andlimit greenhouse gas emissions from all countriesthat generate them in significant quantities.Through changing administrations, Norway hasalways strived for ambitious international agree-ments in the climate area. The Paris Agreementrepresents a turning point in international climatecooperation. All parties agree that everyoneshould contribute. A key to ensuring more univer-sal participation is the agreement’s ‘bottom-up’structure, with climate contributions establishedat national level forming the foundation of the

Figure 6.4 There are concerns about how global warming increases the risk of rapid and irreversible sea level rise resulting from the melting of glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica.

Photo: Ann Kristin Balto, Norwegian Polar Institute.


agreement. This allows scope for a more flexibleapproach than in previous agreements.

Norway was an early ratifier of the agreement,whose central aim is to keep the average rise inglobal temperature below 2 degrees and to limitthe temperature rise to 1.5 degrees. The parties tothe agreement have submitted nationally determi-ned contributions to the agreement. The combi-ned contributions submitted so far are not enoughto reach the agreement’s long-term goal, and it isestimated that we face a temperature rise of bet-ween 2.7 and 3.5 degrees by 2100. Although theseestimates are highly tentative, they provide impor-tant information for estimating the potentialimpact on the oceans.

Every five years, starting in 2023, the partieswill assess implementation of the agreement andthe collective progress achieved. This globalreview is intended to guide the parties as theyupdate and improve their measures under theagreement.

6.4.3 Climate and food security

As the global temperature rises, so does the threatto food security in vulnerable areas. According tothe UN, all aspects of food security could be affec-ted by climate change. Food security has to dowith how much food is available in a society andthe extent to which people have access to it. A suf-ficient supply of safe and nutritional food is vital.Global warming will constitute a major risk to glo-bal and regional food security, and that risk growswith rising temperatures. The larger the climatechange, the more complicated the mitigating mea-sures needed to adapt to it. The greatest risk is atlow latitudes.

According to the IPCC, the distribution of pri-mary production and catch potential could changesignificantly. Climate change and ocean acidifica-tion add to and compound the existing threats tofood security from overfishing, pollution, inadequ-ate coastal zone management and other pressu-res. The biggest risk to food security is the pro-spect of reduced catch potential at low latitudes,but there is reason to believe aquaculture can off-set part of the loss. Seafood from northern latitu-des – both wild and farmed fish – may prove vitalto global food security. There is considerableuncertainty about the future impacts on regionaland global catch potential, particularly in regardto the combined effects of warmer oceans, oceanacidification and other pressures.

In coastal zones, a rising sea level may threa-ten food production from agriculture, fishing and

aquaculture. Countries with marine and coastalareas and many island states, where food produ-ction may be adversely affected by sea tempera-ture rise and ocean acidification, are also often vul-nerable to sea level rise and other impacts of cli-mate change that threaten agriculture. Measuresthat may help enhance food security in vulnerablecountries and regions should therefore reflect along-term perspective, with oceans, coastlines andland considered in relation to each other.

The Government will

– seek to incorporate climate change, sea levelrise and ocean acidification considerations intothe work of relevant international institutions,including the FAO’s efforts to promote sustai-nable management of global marine resources.

6.4.4 Extensive Norwegian engagement in climate change issues

In 2017 the Government will allocate more thanNOK 5 billion to climate-related measuresthrough the development assistance budget. Nor-way’s International Climate and Forest Initiative isNorway’s largest climate-related initiative, andmakes an important contribution to the REDD+programme on reducing emissions fromdeforestation and forest degradation. In 2015, Bra-zil and Guyana’s efforts brought about reductionsin CO2 emissions totalling more than 40 milliontonnes. This initiative helps boost the struggleagainst deforestation in a number of tropical fore-sts, and a growing number of countries are expec-ted to be able to report, and receive payment for,verified emissions reductions in the coming years.In addition, Norway contributes to climate measu-res through financial support to a number ofdevelopment banks3 and international funds,including the Green Climate Fund.

Norway has continued providing support forrenewable energy in developing countries and hasincreased its capital infusion to the NorwegianInvestment Fund for Developing Countries (Nor-fund) in order to shift attention towards privateclean energy investments. Norway also supportsthe secretariat of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change as well as climatetechnology projects, projects for clean cookstoves,

3 The most important channels are: the Green Climate Fund,the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the AfricanDevelopment Bank, the Inter-American DevelopmentBank, the Global Environment Facility and UNEP.


the phasing out of fossil subsidies, research anddevelopment in innovative climate financing, pre-vention and adaptation for climate-related disas-ters, climate and weather services in developingcountries, and climate-resilient agriculture. Additi-onally, Norway provides support for climate andenvironmental measures in European countriesincluded in the EEA funding schemes.

The Government will

– strengthen cooperation on climate issues withsmall island states that are particularly vulnera-ble to climate change

– take the initiative to strengthen multilateral dia-logue with Asian countries on effective, greenshipping in the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM)and with the Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN) with the aim of steering glo-bal and local shipping in a more climate-fri-endly direction

– work to establish a closer connection betweenclimate science communities and communitiesthat assess security threats, with a view to bro-adening the approach to assessing long-termthreats

6.5 The blue forest

Like forests and plants on land, forest and plantsin the ocean are particularly valuable in a climatecontext because they absorb and store CO2. Morethan half of all uptake of CO2 occurs in the oceans.‘Blue’ forests such as mangrove, seaweed and saltmarshes play a vital role in this regard. Norwayhelps draw international attention to the impor-tance of blue forests and supports cooperatingpartners in national and international blue forestnetworks.

The importance of blue forests for the uptakeof atmospheric carbon has been highlighted bythe IPCC. A study of all national measures publis-hed in connection with the COP21 conference inParis in 2016 showed that many countries includeblue forests in their measures under the ParisAgreement. They include Haiti, Somalia, Myan-mar and Tanzania, which are Norwegian partnercountries in development policy.

In tropical regions blue forests are estimatedto account for more than 50 % of all carbon storagein seabed sediments, even though they cover only0.5 % of the seabed. This is up to five times moreper areal unit than what tropical rain forests store.In the context of climate change adaptation, tropi-cal blue forests are also important for protectingagainst coastal erosion, storms, floods and tsuna-mis. They also represent a source of income forparts of the coastal population by providing asource of food, medicines and building materials.For example, mangroves are important for thereproduction of local fish species and thereby alsoimportant for local food security in coastal statesin tropical regions.

Norway supports blue forest ecosystem proje-cts in order to improve management and involvelocal coastal communities in fighting poverty bypromoting sustainable use. The Norwegian BlueForests Network4 receives support to strengthenblue forest expertise among national actors. Thisincludes research to better exploit the full poten-tial of blue forests for carbon capture and storage,

Box 6.2 AOSIS

The Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)encompasses 39 UN member states.1 Smallisland states – in UN contexts often referred toas small island developing states (SIDS) – aregaining prominence in both the UN and otherinternational forums that deal with issues ofsustainable development, climate, and oceansand maritime resources. The SIDS have exten-sive marine areas and maritime interests, andare among the developing countries most hea-vily affected by climate change and ocean aci-dification. The Government is seeking closercooperation with AOSIS/SIDS with a view tobuilding partnerships based on mutual inte-rests, including marine, climate and otherareas related to sustainable development. Anagreement signed by the Nordic countries andthe Caribbean Community (CARICOM) in2016 and which is now being followed up inrespect of fisheries management, among otherareas, is important in this work.

1 AOSIS member states: Antigua and Barbuda, Baha-mas, Barbados, Belize, Cape Verde, Comoros, Cook Is-lands, Cuba, , Dominica, Dominican Republic, Federa-ted States of Micronesia, Fiji, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau,Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, , MarshallIslands, Mauritius, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua NewGuinea, Samoa, Singapore, Seychelles, São Tomé andPríncipe, Solomon Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lu-cia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu and Va-nuatu. AOSIS observers: American Samoa, Guam, Net-herlands Antilles, US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.


and a range of other ecosystem services, bothnational and global.

6.5.1 Kelp: the new climate actor?

Kelp forests grow off all continents except Antar-ctica, and cover approximately 35 % of the world’scoastal waters. Large-scale cultivation of kelp is anestablished industry in Asia, and interest inEurope is growing. Since 2014 the Governmenthas granted permits to about 25 companies to cul-tivate kelp in some 35 locations.

We are not as familiar with the carbon seque-stration rate for kelp as we are for mangrove, sea-weed and salt marshes, first and foremost becausekelp grows on rocks with no direct sediment sto-rage. Kelp forests are currently not included in cli-mate negotiations or the work of the IPCC, buttheir carbon sequestration rate is estimated to beconsiderable. Their biomass is estimated by theNorwegian Institute of Marine Research at 50–80

million tonnes, with sizable additional potential ifovergrazed areas are regrown. In Norwegianmarine areas, sustainable development, restora-tion and cultivation of kelp could result in exten-sive carbon sequestration and new forms of busi-ness development.

Kelp forests are affected by sea urchin gra-zing, eutrophication and sea temperature rise (inthe south, but not in the north). It is not knownhow kelp will be affected by ocean acidification.Mapping and research have shown that althoughglobal drivers may have an effect, it is mainly localand regional conditions that affect spread andgrowth. This indicates the importance, for Nor-way and other countries, of sound national mana-gement based on the principle of cumulative effe-cts and taking local and regional conditions intoaccount.

The Government will

– intensify Norwegian participation in internatio-nal knowledge processes centred on blue fore-sts as part of the work towards achievingSustainable Development Goal 13 (combatting

4 The Norwegian Blue Forests Network consists of the fol-lowing organisations: the Institute of Marine Research, theNorwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) and GRID-Arendal.

Figure 6.5 Cuvie is one of the most common kelp species in Norway.

Photo: Janne K. Gitmark/NIVA and the Norwegian Blue Forests Network.


climate change) and Sustainable DevelopmentGoal 14 (conservation and sustainable use ofthe oceans)

– enhance knowledge and capacity support totropical blue forest initiatives in partnercountries with blue forests, namely Haiti,Somalia, Myanmar and Tanzania

– strengthen efforts to include mangrove forestsin the work of reducing greenhouse gas emis-sions associated with deforestation and forestdegradation

– help prioritise research into kelp’s role in theglobal carbon cycle by, among other things,including it in IPCC reports

6.6 Marine protected areas and other area-based management measures

The United Nations Convention on the Law of theSea combines the right to use the sea and toexploit its resources with a duty to protect themarine environment. Such use must be sustaina-ble, meaning that it must be designed to meet theneeds of today’s generation without reducingopportunities for future generations to meet theirneeds. Marine management must aspire to adoptan integrated perspective in which use, pressuresand impacts, and species, habitats and ecosystemsare viewed in relation to each other. Norway hasgiven its support to the goal of adopting such anecosystem-based approach to marine manage-ment in key forums such as the UN GeneralAssembly, regional fisheries management organi-sations, the OSPAR Commission and the ArcticCouncil. At national level, we have establishedintegrated management plans for Norwegianmarine areas in order to maintain such a compre-hensive perspective.

At the World Summit on Sustainable Develop-ment in Johannesburg in 2002, agreement wasreached on establishing a representative networkof marine protected areas by 20125 and reducingthe use of destructive fishing methods. This wasfollowed up by the UN General Assembly in 2002,when all member states were encouraged to esta-blish marine protected areas. This was followedup further in the Convention on Biological Diver-sity with adoption of the global Aichi BiodiversityTargets, one of which is to conserve at least 10 %of the world’s coastal and marine areas by 2020.Parties are encouraged to adopt appropriate mea-

sures for sustainable use and protection in vulne-rable areas by establishing well-connected sys-tems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures. This target wasalso reflected in resolutions passed by the GeneralAssembly and set out in Sustainable DevelopmentGoal 14.

The targets adopted in the UN and in the Con-vention on Biological Diversity are achievedthrough action by states or by the competentorganisations. Regional environmental conventi-ons such as OSPAR may, under the Law of theSea, establish marine protected areas, whilerestrictions on activities that fall under other orga-nisations’ areas of competence are introducedthrough interaction with the relevant organisati-ons. For example, the IMO may establish areaswhere restrictions apply to shipping. Regional fis-heries management organisations, such as theNEAFC, may close areas to fishing or prohibit theuse of harmful fishing gear, while the Internatio-nal Seabed Authority may close areas to mineralextraction.

Norway considers it important to provide a fra-mework for integrated marine management thatwill ensure sustainable use of marine resources.Achieving sustainable use requires knowledge ofenvironmental pressures and the ecological statusof the different marine areas. In addition, we mustdevelop sound policies and take effective manage-ment measures. A sound environment and produ-ctive oceans must be safeguarded using a broadspectrum of policy instruments.

Marine protected areas and other area-basedmanagement measures are important tools in thework of promoting sustainable use and conserva-tion of marine ecosystems.

Under area-based management, areas and eco-systems of differing character are managed in dif-ferent ways, depending on which species andhabitats occur there and their ecological status;some areas, for example, are afforded greater pro-tection. Marine protected areas can range fromareas enjoying full protection to areas that can beused to some degree. Determining which activi-ties to permit in a protected area requires anassessment that takes into account the purpose ofprotection and the cumulative effects of the activi-ties in question. In Norway’s firm view, decisionsto establish marine protected areas should be sci-entifically well founded. Sustainable use must befacilitated wherever this is compatible with thepurpose of the protection measure in question.Where knowledge falls short, the precautionaryprinciple must apply. It is important that a prote-

5 The deadline was later extended to 2020 at the Rio Confe-rence ‘The Future We Want’ in 2012.


ctive measure’s purpose is well defined and thatthe measure in question is effective, targeted andappropriate to ensuring long-term protection ofthe natural environment and the ecosystems.

In Norway a range of area-based measures areused to ensure protection and sustainable use ofthe marine environment and marine resources.Examples include lobster reserves, bans on theuse of bottom gear to protect corals, bans on cer-tain types of aquaculture in specific areas, and theestablishment of nature reserves, national parksand marine protected areas along the coastline.This topic is discussed in more detail in the whitepaper, Nature for life: Norway’s national biodiver-sity action plan (Meld. St. 14 (2015–2016)). In2016 the Government decided to protect severalnew areas in the marine environment.6 Dynamicand purposeful fisheries management also coversthe development of fishing gear that has lessenvironmental impact, closures during the spa-wning season and when large numbers of juvenilefish are present, minimum sizes for a range of spe-cies, bans on directed fishing of certain stocks,and time-limited fishing.

At regional level, a network of marine protec-ted areas has been established in the North-EastAtlantic under the OSPAR Convention. Toimprove cooperation and coordination of prote-ction in the North Atlantic, the OSPAR Commis-sion and NEAFC have entered into importantcooperation on area-based management measu-res, and in several instances have instituted prote-ctions and imposed measures in roughly the sameareas. OSPAR’s protected areas outside nationaljurisdiction coincide geographically in part withNEAFC decisions to prohibit the use of bottomgear that can harm seabed habitats such as corals.The marine protected areas in Norwegian territo-rial waters are included in the OSPAR network,which consists of more than 400 marine protectedareas, including seven in areas outside the natio-nal jurisdiction of the OSPAR member states.

The Arctic Council has prepared a frameworkof common goals and principles for the establish-ment of marine protected areas, which memberstates can use when establishing such areas in the

Arctic. The member states decide which marineareas are to be protected. The Arctic states arenow cooperating on collating information on exis-ting marine protected areas in the Arctic as well asvarious measures for area-based managementthat the states can use to conserve Arctic biodiver-sity. The result will be presented to the foreignministers of the Arctic states at the Arctic Coun-cil’s ministerial meeting in spring 2017.

When considering protective measures ininternational marine areas located above nationalcontinental shelves beyond 200 nautical miles, it isimportant that the rights and special status ofcoastal states be respected. Because of the specialjurisdictional conditions that apply in national con-tinental shelf areas below international waters, apractice has developed, in relevant decisions, ofexpressly specifying that the establishment of amarine protected area or other measure beyond200 nautical miles does not, under the Law of theSea, affect the rights of the coastal state in respectof its continental shelf.

6.6.1 The world’s largest marine protected area

The marine areas around Antarctica have beenlittle affected by human activity. In autumn 2016the members of CCAMLR agreed to establish aprotected area in the Ross Sea. The marine protec-ted area in the Ross Sea is equivalent in size to theNordic region, and is the world’s largest. It wasdesigned using the best available knowledgeabout the area’s environment, and ensures a goodbalance between conservation and sustainableresource use. For the past five years the proposalhas been the subject of detailed assessment by theinternational research community in the commis-sion’s Scientific Committee. Norway worked forseveral years with the other CCAMLR memberson establishing the protected area. Almost threequarters of it is closed to fishing.

This extensive protection provided will securethe habitats of many Antarctic species for thefuture. In the long term, the impacts of climatechange may put Antarctic species under pressure.One reason why protecting such a large area isimportant is that it will result in improved under-standing of human impacts there. To ensure theeffectiveness of the protective measure, theCCAMLR’s contracting parties will have to contri-bute research and knowledge acquisition in thearea. Certain zones have therefore been designa-ted for research harvesting.

6 On 8 January 2016 nine new areas containing cold-watercoral reefs were protected under the Marine Resources Actfrom destruction as a result of fishing activity. Eighteencoral reef areas, representing all of Norway’s marine areas,are now protected. On 17 June 2016 three new coastlineareas were designated as marine protected areas: the coastof Jæren in Rogaland county, and Gaulosen and Rødbergetin Sør-Trøndelag county. This brings the number of marineareas protected under the Nature Diversity Act to six.


The Government will

– continue to work actively in the UN for a newagreement that secures sound maritime legalframeworks for the protection and sustainableuse of biodiversity beyond national jurisdictions

– continue to cooperate with other countries ondeveloping and establishing marine protectedareas and other area-based measures to con-serve marine ecosystems, including helping toclarify which policy instruments may be usefulin reaching the global target of conserving 10 %of the world’s coastal and marine areas by 2020(Aichi Biodiversity Target 11). The Govern-ment will support participation by developingcountries in this work

– promote greater understanding internationallyof the need to ensure that conservation measu-res in international waters can be combinedwith sustainable use that is compatible with thepurpose of protection. This is also important

for Norway’s partner countries in the GlobalSouth and for small island states

– work for a practice in which introduction of pro-tective measures must be based on the bestavailable knowledge, so resource use by inter-national community is as efficient as possibleand the measures imposed are appropriate.This must be followed up with research andknowledge acquisition in order to ensure thatthe protective measures align with protectionneeds

– help strengthen efforts under the Conventionon Biological Diversity to identify ecologicallyand biologically important areas and ensurethat the scientific information is updated andholds a high standard

– work to ensure that coastal states’ rights andspecial status are respected when establishingprotective measures in international marineareas located above national continental shel-ves beyond the 200-nautical-mile point

Figure 6.6 In autumn 2016, CCAMLR members agreed to establish a protected area in the Ross Sea. This area is equivalent in size to the Nordic region, and is the world’s largest marine protected area.

https://mfat.govt.nz/en/environment/antarctica/ross-sea-region-marine-protected-area/


7 The blue economy in development policy

Based on the current rate of population growth,there will be more than 2 billion additional peoplein the world by 2050. Most of them will live indeveloping countries. Many developing countrieshave high hopes for the economic and socialdevelopment opportunities represented by theblue economy. They look to the sea to meet theircurrent and future needs. Optimal utilisation,however, is being hindered by rising pressure onthe environment and resources.

Our own history shows that ocean resourcesmanaged responsibly can build prosperity. Nor-way has been approached by many low-incomeand middle-income countries seeking access toNorwegian expertise in areas related to the blueeconomy. Norwegian experience in sectors suchas energy, shipping, maritime technology, fis-heries and aquaculture is in demand. So is ourexperience with integrated ecosystem-basedmanagement, in which different activities are vie-wed contextually. Norway can point to many yearsof commitment to development policies linked tooceans, seas and marine resources.

The potential of oceans and large freshwaterand river areas as food sources is a key to achie-ving Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2,regarding poverty, hunger, food security andimproved nutrition. Sustainable DevelopmentGoal 14, regarding the conservation and use ofoceans, seas and marine resources in a way thatpromotes sustainable development, is supportiveof Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2 and istherefore a clear and important developmentpolicy goal.

7.1 The potential of the blue economy

Many of Norway’s partner countries in the GlobalSouth have substantial marine resources and ahigh potential for developing blue industries. Thepotential in the fisheries and aquaculture sector issignificant. Between 70 and 80 % of all fishery pro-duction and 95 % of all aquaculture productiontoday occur in developing countries.1 Anothertrend is growth of the blue bioeconomy, meaning

industrial development based on marine resour-ces such as waste products from aquaculture andfishing as well as seaweed, animal plankton andnewly discovered species. For many countriesthese resources may represent considerableuntapped potential. This is also an area whereNorway can learn from other countries.

Oil and gas production is an important newrevenue source for many developing countries. Ifmanaged responsibly, petroleum resources couldhelp generate sustainable economic growth andgeneral welfare for the population. The energypotential of offshore wind is also considerable, butthe technology employed to date has not yet pro-ved lucrative enough in competition with otherrenewable and fossil energy forms.

Many countries are vulnerable to transnationalproblems such as marine pollution, climatechange and crime at sea. Environmental crimeand illegal fishing undermine living conditions forlocal coastal communities. At the national level,low institutional capacity can pose a challenge,adversely affecting the ability of some countries toformulate, manage, monitor and enforce laws andregulations. In combination, these may representa serious impediment to realising blue economypotential.

The severity of these issues varies among regi-ons and countries. The challenges that must bedealt with are both global in nature and nationallycontingent. In its bilateral cooperation, Norwayworks directly with its partner countries or inpartnership with international institutions –through capacity building and research coopera-tion – to promote the sustainable use of marineresources, job creation and business develop-ment.

In the white paper Working together: Privatesector development in Norwegian developmentcooperation (Meld. St. 35 (2014–2015)), theGovernment sets out its intention to providestrengthened and strategically targeted businessdevelopment support that will facilitate privateinvestment, job creation and poverty reduction. A

1 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (2016), FAO.


well-functioning business community is essentialfor job creation, economic growth and povertyreduction. All business development effortsshould occur in a way supportive of sustainableresource exploitation.

Many developing countries have becomeaware of the potential of marine resources, thoughit is not easy to develop plans for their use that arealso sustainable. For more than 40 years, Norwayhas contributed marine and maritime expertisewith emphasis on the entire value chain. Keyactors in the combined effort consist of expertsdrawn from public administration, knowledgecommunities, business and industry, and interna-tional institutions. The aid programmes Fish forDevelopment and Oil for Development demon-strate the significance of mobilising expert resour-ces from across different sectors.

7.1.1 Continental Shelf Initiative

To be able to fully exploit the blue economy’spotential, it is vital that coastal states establish theextent of their continental shelves, including mari-time delimitation lines with the shelves of otherstates. For 54 of the world’s poorest countries,marine areas account for a significant portion ofthe state’s jurisdictional area. Since 2008, throughthe Continental Shelf Initiative, Norway has provi-ded expert assistance to a number of Africancountries so they are better equipped to protecttheir continental shelf interests. The initiative hasbeen carried out in two phases. For many develo-ping countries it has helped secure vital rightsunder the Law of the Sea, which may provide abasis for economic and social development forfuture generations. Many of the countries stillhave work to do to finally establish their continen-tal shelves. Developing countries often lack theexpertise needed to submit documentation on theextent of their continental shelf.

Under the United Nations Convention on theLaw of the Sea, all coastal states have continentalshelves out to the 200-nautical-mile point, whileany shelf beyond that must be documented for theUN Commission on the Limits of the ContinentalShelf. In principle, such documentation must besubmitted no later than 10 years after the UnitedNations Convention on the Law of the Sea enteredinto force for the country in question. In 2008,Norway won UN acceptance for countries to beallowed to suspend the 10-year time limit byshowing that the existence of continental shelfbeyond 200 nautical miles is probable. More than

40 states have so far taken advantage of this met-hod.

Based on experience from Norway’s docu-ment submission in support of its own shelf, andat the request of the UN General Assembly, theNorwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs began todevelop the Continental Shelf Initiative in 2008.Through this initiative, Norwegian experienceand expertise were put at the disposal of develo-ping countries, enabling them to secure their ownshelf interests for the benefit of future generati-ons. In the first phase of the project, 10 developingcountries received Norwegian assistance to sub-mit preliminary shelf data to the Commission onthe Limits of the Continental Shelf. Othercountries also received counsel from Norway.2

Phase II of the Continental Shelf Initiative(2010–2014) was a regional project involvingseven West African countries: Cape Verde, Gam-bia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Senegaland Sierra Leone. The aim of the project was togather and process shelf data and prepare acomplete submission of data to the Commissionon the Limits of the Continental Shelf. Norwayalso provided assistance in establishing baselinesand developing relevant legislation. Africanownership of the process and a regional approachwere key elements. The initiative’s regional appro-ach was cost-effective, but important also becauseneighbouring states had to consent to processingof each other’s shelf submissions in contentiousareas. Liberia received support for a submissionbased on available data, but was not part of themore comprehensive initiative involving the otherseven West African countries. Norway also gavesimilar assistance to Somalia. The Somalia projectwas completed in July 2014 when Somalia submit-ted its documentation to the commission.

In 2014 the West African countries agreed tomake a joint submission of their data. The finaldocumentation was provided to the UN’s Divisionfor Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea in Sep-tember 2014. The joint submission of data byseven countries was historic. Funding support forthe project came to approximately NOK 100 mil-lion.

The continental shelf initiative has been impor-tant for several reasons. It is in Norway’s foreignpolicy interest to ensure that the Law of the Seaworks as intended, allowing all states to takeadvantage of their rights. The shelf initiative the-

2 These were: Benin, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, CapeVerde, Mauritania, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Soma-lia, Togo, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Tanzania and Liberia.


refore serves the interests both of poor countriesand of Norway. For Norway’s part, helping tostrengthen implementation of the Law of the Seais essential. The initiative was also importantbecause the countries involved, in line with theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,took the first important steps towards cooperatingwith their neighbours to settle maritime delimita-tion lines in contentious areas. The initiative hasthus reinforced regional cooperation in a sensitiveand complex area. In addition to the actual datasubmission, a considerable amount of technical,legal and procedural knowledge was transferred.

Several years may pass before the Commis-sion on the Limits of the Continental Shelf willprocess the shelf documentation and thecountries will have to defend their conclusion.

The Government will

– contribute to a follow-up project that will main-tain technical and operative expertise in theseven West African countries that participated inthe second phase of the continental shelf initia-tive, so the countries will be prepared to defendtheir conclusions before the UN’s Commissionon the Limits of the Continental Shelf

– consider the possibility of providing assistanceto maintain technical and operative expertiseon continental shelf issues in sub-Saharan Afri-can countries beyond the seven West Africancountries

– consider increasing political and financialsupport to the work of the UN Division forOcean Affairs and the Law of the Sea(DOALOS) by, among other things, contribu-ting further to the UN assistance fund for mem-bers of the Commission on the Limits of theContinental Shelf, as a measure to promote theLaw of the Sea

7.2 Development assistance for local and regional integrated management

Norway’s model of integrated marine manage-ment plans is of interest to many developingcountries. There is a pressing need to establishand strengthen management regimes that helptap the potential for business development andsustainable use of marine resources and at thesame time ensure good ecological status and well-functioning ecosystems as a basis for future explo-itation.

The developing countries often lack research-based knowledge on managing marine resources.Most ocean research is carried out by or in Wes-tern countries, and no good mechanisms cur-rently exist for international sharing of maritimeresearch findings. Additional capacity and stron-ger national institutions are needed to improvedata collection and data monitoring and to syste-matise knowledge about the environment andresources. Many countries lack an overview oftheir own ocean resources and are therefore una-ble to negotiate favourable agreements with exter-nal actors on resource use. The Governmentsupported Sierra Leone’s efforts to prepare itsfirst comprehensive resource overview, whichwas completed in 2015.3 Capacity building andtransfer will be crucial to resolving common chal-lenges and achieving Sustainable DevelopmentGoal 14.

Norway has long supported the ConsultativeGroup for International Agricultural Research(CGIAR), one of whose research centres, World-Fish, is focused on fisheries. Its research pro-grammes centre on aquaculture, sustainablesmall-scale fisheries, entrepreneurship, valuechains, and the nutritional value of fish. TheGovernment will increase its support to CGIAR.

Cross-sectoral cooperation is a mainstay of glo-bal marine management and a prerequisite forsuccessfully assisting in the development of inte-grated management programmes and a sustaina-ble blue economy. Sound resource managementrequires appropriate rules for ecosystem prote-ction and food security, based on the best availa-ble knowledge and the priorities and policies ofthe countries in question. International conventi-ons and agreements set important parameters fornational legislation. What often fails is regulationenforcement, which requires cooperation frommultiple institutions and actors.

Stronger cooperation between sectoral organi-sations, in areas such as fisheries and the environ-ment, make it possible to view different activitiesand ecosystems in context and thus to regulatehuman activities in a comprehensive manner forthe sustainable use of marine resources. Goodcooperation between regional sectoral organisati-ons, and with global institutions such as the Foodand Agriculture Organization (FAO) and theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO), mustbe facilitated. FAO plays an influential role in thework done internationally on sustainable fisheriesand aquaculture in developing countries. It is

3 http://www.grida.no/publications/default/6638.aspx


important to boost the organisation’s capacity toassist developing countries in this area.

One example of regional cooperation concernsthe Benguela Current along the coastline of SouthAfrica, Namibia and Angola. The natural conditi-ons there support rich fisheries, and the area con-tains spawning grounds for important SouthAtlantic fish species. The management of theseareas is a joint responsibility, and the countrieshave formed the Benguela Current Commission(BCC), a regional management organisation, inpart with the help of Norwegian funding and

expertise. Norway has also contributed to map-ping and monitoring of fish stock trends in thismarine area for many years. Steadily increasingpressure on the stocks – from both legal and ille-gal harvesting – has made this work even moreimportant. The Government will continue itssupport to regional fisheries management organi-sations.

Norway has also given considerable supportto developing the Regional Seas Programme forthe South-West Atlantic under the Abidjan Con-vention.

Box 7.1 Blue forests

Figure 7.1 The UN Environment Programme promotes the management of natural resources along the coast of Haiti. Rehabilitation of mangrove forests is one of many focus areas.

Photo: UNEP

Since 2011 Norway has cooperated with UNEPon natural resources and environmental mana-gement in two of Haiti’s southern provinces, Sudand Grand’Anse. A key component in this coope-ration has been support for fisheries cooperati-ves and local fisheries and coastal zone manage-ment in an area where coastal small-scale fis-heries are one of the key economic activities.Several fishing communities in this region havereceived assistance with building fish markets,installing refrigerating plants, maintaining fis-

hing boats and training in more sustainable fis-hing methods. Support is also given to protectmarine ecosystems by implementing measuresto safeguard coral reefs, rehabilitate mangroveforests and reduce erosion and sedimentation,as well as to develop management plans forHaiti’s largest marine protected areas. SinceHaiti is one of the countries most vulnerable tonatural disaster, the cooperation also aims toreinforce natural protection against extremeweather, using vegetation and natural buffers.


The Government will place emphasis on incre-ased support for regional cooperation through sui-table multilateral bodies. UNEP contributes byserving as an umbrella organisation for the diffe-rent Regional Seas Programmes. UNEP is invol-ved to varying degrees in the programmes. Regi-ons with sound capacity and that can stand ontheir own feet require far less engagement thanregions with less capacity and where managementprogrammes are less developed. In some placesthe organisation acts as secretariat and offerstechnical assistance. Increased support forUNEP’s work to promote the Regional Seas Pro-grammes can help improve marine managementat regional level in developing countries. The aimwill be to use the organisation’s existing system toestablish and strengthen regional forms of coope-ration. Through dialogue with UNEP, assess-ments will be made to document what work isalready under way and any opportunities to rein-force it, and to assess which regions have the gre-atest need. With regard to marine resources, it isimportant that the countries cooperate on sharedstocks via regional fisheries management organi-sations. FAO’s normative work in managingmarine resources plays a key role in this respect.

Consideration should also be given to ways ofcapitalising on the experience of well-functioningRegional Seas Programmes in other marine areas,such as the North-East Atlantic. NEAFC and theOSPAR Commission have important roles to playin this context, in fisheries management andenvironmental issues respectively. It is importantthat UNEP and FAO coordinate their efforts inrelation to the mandates and roles of regionalinstitutions, in order to avoid overlapping.

The Government will

– intensify its efforts to promote regional marineresource and environmental management bysupporting regional fisheries managementorganisations as well as the work of FAO andUNEP in the Regional Seas Programmes

– share with developing countries the experi-ence Norway has accumulated in creating inte-grated management plans for Norwegianmarine areas

– strengthen FAO’s capacity to assist developingcountries with sustainable fisheries and aqua-culture management

– increase support to fisheries science throughthe Consultative Group for International Agri-cultural Research’s WorldFish research centre

– promote international sharing of maritimeresearch findings, and contribute to knowledgebuilding in and capacity transfer to developingcountries.

– continue cooperation with the IMO in provi-ding assistance to developing countries to pre-vent marine pollution from ships

7.3 Oil for Development

Oil and gas production is an important source ofrevenue for many developing countries, and ifmanaged responsibly, the oil and gas industry canmake a significant contribution to economic andsocial development. However, translating oilrevenues into improved general welfare has oftenproved difficult. The goal for the Oil for Develop-ment programme4 is to transfer Norwegian exper-tise so that developing countries can manage theiroil resources in a way that contributes to lastingpoverty reduction and takes due account ofenvironmental issues. By the time the Oil forDevelopment programme was established in2005, Norway had already been providing compe-tence transfer in petroleum management todeveloping countries for decades. This work hasbeen significantly stepped up and expandedthrough the programme, which builds on an inte-grated framework and system of organisation forthe petroleum sector.

The content of the Oil for Development coun-try programme aligns closely with the administra-tive responsibilities of Norwegian governmentministries, and can be divided into four maincomponents: resources, environment, safety andrevenues. The respective Norwegian ministrieswork closely to ensure an integrated programmeapproach:– Resource component: To develop petroleum

policy, legislation and other framework conditi-ons, expertise and capacity, which togetherfacilitate sound resource management and

4 The programme is led by a steering group consisting of fiveministries: the Ministry of Oil and Energy, the Ministry ofClimate and Environment, the Ministry of Finance, theMinistry of Transport and Communications, and the Minis-try of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs hasformal responsibility. The main implementing institutionsare: the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, the PetroleumSafety Authority, the Norwegian Environment Agency, theNorwegian Coastal Administration, Statistics Norway andthe Petroleum Tax Office at the Norwegian Tax Adminis-tration. The secretariat of Norad has responsibility for qua-lity assistance and aid coordination, while the embassiesmanage the agreements.


socio-economically beneficial and sustainableproduction of oil and gas.

– Environment component: To develop theexpertise and capacity needed to interact in aprofessional manner with oil and gas compa-nies, and to ensure that undesirable environ-mental impacts of petroleum activities are keptto a minimum.

– Safety component: To enhance monitoringcapacity to ensure that petroleum industryactors maintain high safety standards, prima-rily to prevent and limit damage associatedwith major accidents, acute pollution and per-sonal injuries.

– Revenue component: To help ensure thatcountries retain a fair share of revenues frompetroleum activities, that resources are usedeffectively, and that revenues are phased intothe economy so macroeconomic instability isavoided as far as possible.

Transparency in petroleum resource managementis a fundamental principle in Oil for Development,and support is provided to train parliamentarians,civil society and the media in order to enhancedemocratic control and supervision of petroleummanagement by the authorities. In this way wecan contribute to a more democratic system ofgovernment, which is a prerequisite for creatinglasting peace, stability and development of benefitto the countries’ citizens.

Demand for the programme has grown amongour partner countries, and the weight given to itsdifferent components is varied to suit individualcountries. The Oil for Development programmecurrently involves 12 countries, most of them inAfrica.5

The programme operates within a complexcontext, with operational risk associated withpetroleum activities and financial risk associatedwith socio-economically effective resource utilisa-tion in a sector exposed to corruption. It is beco-ming increasingly important for the partnercountries to strengthen environmental manage-ment, anti-corruption efforts, oil pollution prepa-redness and operational safety to avoid accidentsand oil spills.

The oil and gas industry is a significant sourceof greenhouse gas emissions. Today, the Oil forDevelopment programme informs partnercountries about greenhouse gas emissions from

oil production and about legislation and regulati-ons pertaining to gas flaring. Through training ineffective resource utilisation and environmentalmanagement, the programme helps reduce nega-tive climate and environmental impacts. Informa-tion is provided about fee systems related to gre-enhouse gas emissions, and assistance is providedfor documenting, measuring and reporting ongreenhouse gas emissions as well as for mea-suring flare gas.

Several evaluations and reviews conclude thatOil for Development has helped lay a foundationfor better petroleum management in the partnercountries and is an example of experience andexpertise raising Norway’s profile in manycountries. However, it is clear that building insti-tutions and capacity takes time.

The Government will

– continue efforts to strengthen the partnercountries’ resource management, environmentmanagement, oil pollution preparedness andoperational safety as well as their revenuemanagement under the Oil for Developmentprogramme. Due consideration will be given tocross-cutting issues such as climate andenvironment, human rights, gender equality,and anti-corruption.

7.4 Fish for Development

The Fish for Development programme waslaunched in 2015 to increase support to fisheriesaid and strengthen the impact of aid initiativesrelated to the sustainable use of living resources,primarily in marine but also freshwater environ-ments. The overriding goal is poverty reductionthrough food security, sustainable managementand profitable economic activity. The programmehas three main pillars: 1) research and education,2) management, laws and regulations, and 3) busi-ness development.

Fish for Development builds on longstandingNorwegian fisheries and aquaculture assistanceand assumes a long-term perspective based ondemand from the countries in question. Modulesin specialised fields are offered through communi-ties of experts in Norway. The idea is to meet thedemand and needs of partner countries withexpertise and capacity from Norwegian know-ledge communities.5 Angola, Cuba, Ghana, Iraq, Kenya, Lebanon, Mozambique,

Myanmar, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.Colombia and Somalia are currently being surveyed.


The programme is intended to help nationalauthorities in partner countries to sustainablymanage their marine resources through capacitybuilding, improved knowledge bases, sound legis-lation, monitoring and control, and enhanced regi-onal cooperation. The Government will helpensure that research, development and education

strengthen the public and private sectors alike,and that marine resource use is both profitableand sustainable.

Cooperation between private business, the aut-horities and research institutions was central tothe development of Norway’s aquaculture indus-try. The experience thus gained has been incorpo-

Box 7.2 National oil pollution preparedness plan

Figure 7.2 Oil spill preparedness exercise outside Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Photo: Ken Opprann

Major oil spills can have serious environmentalimpacts. A national oil pollution preparednessplan and its implementation are critical to beingable to manage oil spills fast and with the rightmeasures. Norway, represented by the Norwe-gian Coastal Administration, has over manyyears developed a national system to managefuture oil spills from shipping and the oil indus-try. Through the Oil for Development pro-gramme, the Norwegian Coastal Administra-tion has assisted relevant authorities with capa-city building in a number of the programme’spartner countries. In Tanzania, Uganda andLebanon, the Norwegian Coastal Administration

helps national authorities put national prepared-ness plans into place. The Norwegian CoastalAdministration has also facilitated a full-scaleexercise in Tanzania involving both land and seaactivities. Delegations from Tanzania, Uganda,Lebanon and other countries have visited theNorwegian Coastal Administration to take partin full-scale exercises in Norway. The work ofthe Norwegian Coastal Administration has ledto better cooperation between all the actors inTanzania’s national oil pollution preparednesscommittee and between national and local aut-horities and the industry.


rated into the Fish for Development programme.The Government will contribute to a strengt-hening of this tripartite cooperation in the Fish forDevelopment programme. In countries with weakpublic administration, civil society organisationscan play an important role, often at local level, bycreating jobs related to small-scale fisheries andaquaculture. International organisations, for theirpart, can help advance transparency, rights-basedapproaches and normative instruments to securedevelopment of sustainable fisheries and aquacul-ture industries.

The programme builds on experience gainedfrom longstanding fisheries assistance activity.Cooperation with Namibia in the 1990s and 2000sshowed that good results can be achieved byviewing all initiatives in context and acting withbroad purpose in a country whose authorities pri-oritise the effort and do their own follow-up.Namibia’s fisheries management is now rankedamong the 10 best in the world. A significantfactor in this achievement has been the country’slongstanding partnership with Norway to create asustainable national fisheries management sys-tem.

Today the Fish for Development programmeis in high demand. The Government will increaseits allocation to the Fish for Development pro-gramme to meet the demand in developingcountries for knowledge and management experi-ence relating to marine resources and the oceans.Which sectors and countries to focus on will becontinuously assessed. The Government intendsamong other things to identify assistance opportu-nities in fisheries and aquaculture cooperationwith Colombia, Ghana and Myanmar.

The Government will

– increase its allocation to the Fish for Develop-ment programme to meet the demand indeveloping countries for knowledge and mana-gement experience in marine resources andthe oceans

– help strengthen effective cooperation betweenthe public sector, private business and acade-mia in the Fish for Development programme

– contribute to competence building in partnercountries by cooperating with relevant Norwe-gian business actors and cooperating on vocati-onal education in ocean-related industries andsectors

– consider initiating cooperation with new corecountries within the framework of the Fish forDevelopment programme

– strengthen cooperation with actors that canprovide expertise and investment, thereby hel-ping to realise blue economy potential in Nor-wegian partner countries

7.4.1 Nansen Programme

Norway has supported the Nansen Programme incooperation with FAO for more than 40 years.This programme, the largest initiative in Fish forDevelopment, supports developing countries’ fis-heries research and management for sustainableuse of living marine resources and increased pro-tection of the marine environment. The long-termgoal is for the partner countries to possess sys-tems and expertise to sustainably manage theirresources. The programme gives researchers andgovernment officials the necessary training andcontributes to the development and implementa-tion of sustainable management plans.

The Nansen Programme is an effective plat-form of cooperation, knowledge generation andtechnology transfer between Norway and partnercountries. The official naming ceremony for thethird in a line of research vessels called Dr FridtjofNansen, a new state-of-the-art research vessel,took place on 24 March 2017. The event also mar-ked a new phase of the programme. The new ves-sel will make it possible to carry out more exten-sive marine research and promote ecosystem-based fisheries management in developingcountries.

The programme’s emphasis will continue to beon assisting developing countries to establish eco-system-based fisheries management in coopera-tion with FAO. This involves collecting physicaland biological information on ocean and coastal

Figure 7.3 Fillet packing at Sea Work in Walvis Bay, Namibia.

Photo: Tone Slenes


research expeditions as well as training local sci-entists in practical marine research and expedi-tion activity. Increased programme resources willbe employed in analysing and processing the col-lected data for use in management decision-making. Furthermore, greater emphasis will beplaced on strengthening management ability touse the data effectively.

The new phase in the programme will strengt-hen environmental and climate-related marineresearch, activities for which the new vessel iswell equipped. Environmental research can be

particularly useful for countries with petroleumactivities and for surveying marine pollution andconcentrations of plastics, microplastics and othermarine litter. During an expedition in the IndianOcean in 2015 the research vessel discoveredplastic particles in all water samples taken.

The Government will increasingly view thenew phase of the Nansen Programme in relationto other Norwegian initiatives, and ensure thatdata collected from research expeditions be usedmore extensively in research and as a basis forintegrated management decisions. More emp-

Box 7.3 Dr Fridtjof Nansen

Figure 7.4 The new research vessel Dr Fridtjof Nansen was christened in March 2017.

Photo: Kjartan Mæstad

The Nansen Programme was started in 1974 onthe basis of Norwegian experience with stockmanagement. The core of the programme hasbeen the Norwegian-owned-and-operated rese-arch vessel Dr Fridtjof Nansen. This vessel hasprovided a platform for measuring fish stocks,training local researchers and managers andexploring the marine environment. Now that the

Government has removed self-financing requi-rements for the participating countries, theInstitute of Marine Research and FAO will beable to organise a far better programme of scien-tific expeditions from 2017 onwards. The newresearch vessel will be able to facilitate moreextensive marine research and ecosystem-basedfisheries management in developing countries.


hasis will be placed on capacity building in orderto support marine resource management in part-ner countries. The Government will also ensurethat Norwegian support to international organisa-tions is viewed in the context of major investmentssuch as the Nansen Programme.

The Government will

– use the new research vessel Dr Fridtjof Nansento facilitate more extensive marine researchand ecosystem-based fisheries management,including capacity building, in developingcountries

– increasingly view the new phase in the NansenProgramme in relation to other Norwegian ini-tiatives related to the oceans, seas and marineresources

– ensure that Norwegian support to internatio-nal organisations such as the World Bank, GEFand UNEP be viewed in relation to other Nor-wegian initiatives such as the Nansen Pro-gramme

7.4.2 Small-scale fisheries

Most fisheries in developing countries operate ona small scale, but are vital to employment andlocal food security. Small-scale fisheries representan important but often underestimated source ofemployment, food security and income in develo-ping countries. It is estimated that about 90 % of allpeople employed in capture fisheries work in thesmall-scale fisheries sector and that 75 % of aqua-culture businesses are small-scale. While 19 % offishers are women, the proportion of women infish processing and sales activities is estimated atabout 50 %. 6

To support such types of fishing activity, in2014 FAO negotiated the Voluntary Guidelines forSecuring Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in theContext of Food Security and Poverty Eradication(SSF Guidelines). In the 2015–2016 period Nor-way provided NOK 15 million in support to FAO’swork implementing the guidelines, which in manycountries will require policy and legislative revi-sion. The Government will consider continuingthis support to FAO and will seek to employ theguideline content in other bilateral and multilate-ral fisheries cooperation.

Business development assistance in small-scale fisheries includes measures to reduce wasteafter the fish are caught and support throughout

the value chain, including processing, so that bro-ader markets with better prices can be reached.Civil society organisations with special expertisein local conditions and the fisheries sector canplay an important role in such measures.

The Government will

– consider continuing its support to FAO’s globalprogramme for implementing the SSF Guideli-nes and seek to employ the guideline content inother bilateral and multilateral cooperation inthe fisheries sector

7.4.3 Training and education

Over many years, Norway has developed educati-onal pathways in fishery subjects, both academicand practical. Many students from developingcountries have received their education in fis-heries science at Norwegian universities. Mosthave returned home and used their education tobenefit their countries. African fisheries ministersand fisheries directors are among those educatedin Norway.

Almost all the assistance programmes Norwaysupports contain some form of competence buil-ding, and capacity development is integral to thecooperation. This approach has contributed signi-ficantly to the development of fisheries expertisein countries such as Namibia, Angola, SouthAfrica and Vietnam, and such study courses arestill in demand. Many countries choose to sendtheir candidates to Norwegian universities. Thisenables Norwegian universities to maintain exper-tise in the fisheries issues faced by the developingcountries.

As African and Asian universities become esta-blished partners with Norwegian universities infishery and marine research, new cooperative pro-jects are being established. Both parties benefitfrom such projects. Moving forward, the Rese-arch Council of Norway can play a role in thiscooperation.

The Norwegian Programme for CapacityDevelopment in Higher Education and Researchfor Development (NORHED) is not part of theFish for Development programme, but its aim isto strengthen capacity in higher education insti-tutions in low- and middle-income countries. Theprojects are selected based on the needs and prio-rities of the partner institutions, and must alignwith national priorities. The areas of cooperationshould also align with Norwegian development

6 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (2016), FAO.


policy priorities and represent areas in which Nor-way has comparative advantages. The programmehas a clear aim of finding synergies with otherNorwegian-funded efforts in the same area. Todate, the portfolio has included projects related to

climate change in coastal landscapes, fish healthand water quality.

The steadily increasing pace of technologicalchange in fisheries, not least in aquaculture, iscreating a growing need for fisheries vocationaleducation. The Government will focus more onvocational training relevant to the blue economyin developing countries. Norway has upper secon-dary schools that provide vocational education infisheries subjects. A similar school was establis-hed in Mbegani, Tanzania, with Norwegiansupport. The Norwegian support ended in 1990,but the school continued to operate under the aus-pices of the Tanzanian fisheries authorities. Nami-bia received support for its fisheries school, theNamibian Maritime and Fisheries Institute, underbilateral cooperation from 1990 to 2005.

Increased focus on vocational training in theaquaculture sector is planned under the Fish forDevelopment programme.

The Government will

– focus more on vocational education, studentexchange and cooperative projects in fisheriesand aquaculture with universities in partnercountries

7.4.4 Fisheries management and legislation

Knowledge about marine ecosystems, a soundlegal framework, a management regime that pro-vides security for private investments, and effe-ctive enforcement mechanisms are all needed toensure successful fisheries management. Aqua-culture in developing countries entails risk, sopolicy instruments that reduce investment riskare often required. Norwegian expertise is soughtafter, not least with regard to the forms of supportand management a fledgling aquaculture industryrequires of government. Norway has providedassistance for aquaculture development in a num-ber of countries, as well as for managing thesector. Norway also supports aquaculture sectorknowledge development through internationalinstitutions; for example FAO’s vulnerabilityassessments of aquaculture in different regions asthe climate changes.

To varying degrees, countries in Africa, Asiaand Latin America adhere to and comply withinternational maritime and ocean laws and regula-tions, and have incorporated them into their natio-nal fisheries management legislation. Soundimplementation is vital to their ability to manage

Box 7.4 Aquaculture cooperation with China

Aquaculture in China goes back thousands ofyears, and the country is the world’s largestfish producer. Since 2011 the Institute ofMarine Research and the Yellow Sea FisheriesResearch Institute at the Chinese Academy ofFishery Sciences have cooperated in theEnvironment and Aquaculture Governanceproject. The project benefits both Chinese andNorwegian partners, and has resulted in closeinstitutional relations, a network for youngresearchers, and establishment of a platformfor research cooperation. A key objective is toidentify and explore areas of aquacultureexpertise in which the two countries can learnfrom each other. The overriding objective is tocontribute jointly to food security and a healt-hier marine environment. The knowledgeexchanged in aquaculture managementcovers topics such as planning tools, ecosys-tem modelling, monitoring systems and inte-grated systems for better understanding cli-mate change impacts.

Box 7.5 Training and education

Building Skills for Jobs is one of Norway’s glo-bal programmes to promote education, with abudget ceiling of NOK 500 million over fiveyears. The programme objective is to helpyouth and young adults acquire skills thatdeveloping country labour markets demand orthat enable them to create their own work-place. Priority is given to five sectors, inclu-ding the fish and marine resources sector andthe maritime sector. Emphasis is placed onbusiness involvement to ensure that the skillstaught are relevant in the labour market. Theinitial call for project outlines is administratedby the Norwegian Centre for InternationalCooperation in Education in cooperation withNorad.


issues related to oceans and lakes in general andto fisheries in particular, including aquaculture.

The Government will

– help partner countries to put fisheries regulati-ons in place that can address the goal of sustai-nability in the sector, both in marine fisheriesand in aquaculture

– assist developing countries, especially in Asia,with measures that promote fish health andenvironmental aspects of the aquacultureindustry

7.4.5 Business development

In light of the expected growth in the aquaculturesector, Norwegian companies are showing increa-sing interest in investing in this sector in develo-ping countries. It is important that these actorsinvest for the long term, and the goal should beindustrialisation of the aquaculture industry, withlarge-scale technology and cages. Development ofthe industry can play a key role in food securityand job creation while helping to shield overexplo-ited fish stocks. Success in aquaculture requiresthe entire value chain to work, and it is importantthat its various inputs be viewed in relation to oneother. This can form a basis for establishing stra-tegic partnerships between public and privateactors.

The Government will focus a larger portion ofits assistance on business development derivedfrom both marine and freshwater resources. Aqu-aculture development has been among the benefi-ciaries of Norway’s business developmentsupport schemes. Fish farmers and other busines-ses in the value chain have also received trainingas part of this support. Support for aquacultureinvestment will be viewed in close connection withother activities in the Fish for Development pro-gramme so that national framework conditionsand aquaculture research support the countries’economic opportunities.

The aquaculture sector as we know it in Nor-way is a high-tech, capital-intensive industry.Local laws and regulations for the sector must bedeveloped and the authorities must implementthem. With establishment of an aquacultureindustry the potential exists for substantial valuecreation, generating employment and sizable taxrevenues for the countries in question. However,there are also many challenges that can cause eco-nomic loss and environmental destruction. Aqua-culture in developing countries is a high-risk acti-vity, and policy instruments to reduce investmentrisk are often required. The keys to successinclude controlled growth and sound control offish health challenges.

The Government will view business develop-ment assistance in close connection with the workdone in the partner countries to strengthen fra-mework conditions, management and educationin the aquaculture sector. Among the pressingneeds of a fledging aquaculture sector are acompetent workforce, support functions and infra-

Box 7.6 Antibiotics challenges in aquaculture

Aquaculture production in some developingcountries consumes relatively large quantitiesof antibiotics. A number of factors may be atcause, including low levels of expertise in fishdiseases, lack of diagnostic laboratories andlimited biosecurity expertise. Often few or nocommercial vaccines are available. The lack ofwillingness to pay for vaccines may be a furt-her challenge. This situation is often resolvedby extensive use of antibiotics, which are rela-tively easily available. Major problems withbacterial resistance and multidrug resistantstrains of bacteria have consequently arisen inproduction of the Pangasius species.

In Norwegian aquaculture it has been pos-sible to minimise antibiotics use by developingvaccines, breeding selectively, maintainingseparation between fish farms and ensuringfish welfare, among other measures. WhatNorway has experienced, including manage-ment measures that effectively address theissues cited above, is relevant to developmentassistance for improving aquaculture fishhealth and reducing antibiotics use.Noteworthy in this context is the One Healthconcept, which highlights the significance ofcross-sectoral cooperation for human health,animal health and the environment – especi-ally in efforts to combat the development ofantimicrobial resistance. The use of antibioticsin aquaculture may have major significance inthe spread of antimicrobial resistance inhuman and livestock environments.


structure operations. Research-based knowledgedevelopment and cooperation are also necessary.

Cross-sectoral engagement is necessary forcontributing to sustainable growth in the blue eco-nomy in developing countries. The Governmentwill facilitate arenas where Norwegian centres ofbusiness, research and expertise contribute tocapacity building, investment, job creation andcooperation with our partner countries.

Food waste is also a serious problem in the fis-heries industry. It reduces food security andrevenue. To combat it several initiatives and inno-vation-oriented measures could be supported.Regulation, technology development and theindustry itself can also help reduce food waste.

The Government will

– use a greater proportion of development aid tobuild up expertise on business development inthe marine and maritime sectors strengthenbusiness development assistance related toaquaculture and view this work in close conne-

ction with the work done to strengthen aqua-culture framework conditions, managementand education in partner countries

– help reduce food waste in fisheries

7.4.6 Financing

Norway is experiencing considerable demandfrom partner countries seeking access to exper-tise and financing in areas related to a sustainableblue economy. Norway is regarded as a preferredpartner in a number of fields, and Norwegiancompanies and knowledge institutions receivemany enquiries about cooperation.

In addition to feasibility study grants beforemaking investment decisions, there is a need foradequate financing schemes at different levels.Such schemes may be to support small-scale initi-atives, small and medium-sized start-ups or accessto capital for large investments in, for example,aquaculture. Common to them all is the provisionof loans, on reasonable terms, that must berepaid. This gives the money additional value andcreates opportunities for more people to start upand develop local businesses.

The Government will consider assigning a cle-arer blue economy identity to a number of impor-tant assistance programmes. The businessdevelopment support scheme is already receivingapplications related to aquaculture, fisheries andseafood. It will be possible to increase investmentin this area. One could envisage incorporation ofthe programmes into an overarching bluedevelopment initiative.

The purpose of Norfund is to help developsustainable business activity in developingcountries by providing equity capital and otherrisk capital, and by furnishing loans and issuingguarantees.7 Norfund makes investments in thefood industry, including aquaculture. Such invest-ments have been given priority in Norfund’s stra-tegy for 2016–2020.

The Government will

– consider strengthening the business develop-ment support scheme related to the blue econ-omy in developing countries

Box 7.7 Science Week

The South Africa–Norway Science Week con-ference was arranged for the first time inautumn 2016. The aim of the conference wasto stimulate cooperation in research, educa-tion, business and innovation. The confe-rence’s target groups were scientists, rese-arch and education managers, business andindustry representatives, students, public aut-horities and research-funded organisations.The Norwegian embassy in South Africa andInnovation Norway create forums for businessdevelopment and job creation. The potential isvast, and not only in South Africa. Several Afri-can countries are now investing in ocean-rela-ted expertise and business development.South Africa, however, has a clear lead givenits infrastructure, its access to three oceans,its functioning bank and finance sector and,not least, its high-quality knowledge instituti-ons. Science Week created and renewed con-nections within many sectors and on manylevels, and offered a good opportunity to buildand strengthen Norway’s position as a keypartner in developing the blue economy.

7 Section 1, Act relating to the Norwegian Investment Fundfor Developing Countries. Norfund was established in 1997as a market-driven investment fund.


Box 7.8 Vietnam: An aquaculture and fisheries law

Figure 7.5 Aquaculture at Halong Bay, Vietnam.

Photo: Ken Opprann

Norway has given support to Vietnam’s fis-heries since 1998. This has proved successful,and Norwegian support is now gradually beingphased out. Two areas in particular were focu-sed on: a sustainable aquaculture industry, anddevelopment and implementation of new fis-heries legislation. Norway has supported aqua-culture research and development since 1998.Vietnam has received a total of NOK 42 million,and the research has enabled poor families toincrease their production by up to 40 % after par-ticipating in an aquaculture trial project with anew type of tilapia fish. Selective breeding resul-ted in a 46-per-cent higher growth rate and grea-ter cold tolerance than with the more commonNile tilapia. Few of the fish farms that beganusing the method experienced incidences of fishdisease, while most of the other fish farms did.In 2001 Vietnam’s total tilapia production was 15000 tonnes, and by 2015 this figure had risen to187 000 tonnes. Through its support, Norwayhas also improved Vietnam’s research capacityin genetics, fish health and marine aquaculture.

Norway’s business development supportschemes have also boosted animal feed produ-ction in Vietnam. Support for training and forhealth, safety and environment measures (HSE)has also contributed to a significant increase inthe proportion of feed ingredients producedlocally, at the expense of imported fishmeal. Ithas also improved HSE training for employeesand suppliers and resulted in training for 500Vietnamese fish farmers in how optimal feedingcan improve production efficiency and quality.

In its work assisting Vietnam to prepare andimplement a new fisheries law, Norway has atta-ched weight to the legislation’s ability to securean environmentally and economically sustaina-ble fisheries industry and provide fishermenand the aquaculture industry with predictableframework conditions. The project was carriedout in two phases between 1999 and 2011. Inrecord time, Vietnam managed to prepare itslegislation and have it adopted by autumn 2003.Norway’s contribution totalled NOK 34 million.The results came in the form of increasedrevenue and fewer violations of the law. Regula-tion under the new law has taken the pressureoff Vietnam’s fish resources by, among otherthings, increasing investment in aquaculture. In1996 fishing accounted for 66 % of total revenuesin the sector; 10 years later this figure washalved. Between 2005 and 2015, aquacultureproduction grew by 7.1 % annually. The value ofaquaculture production in 2015 was 6.9 timesgreater than in 2001. Furthermore, the new fis-heries law introduced regulations to protect vul-nerable species, and 15 new protected areashave been established along the coastline.

Management plans, licensing and supervi-sion have created a better and more predictablemanagement regime. Aquaculture licences havebeen allocated to the population of Thang Loi inthe Halong Bay area. The licences make it possi-ble to obtain credit and loans, and have helpedstimulate economic activity. A survey conductedby local authorities showed that the number ofpoor in the municipality was reduced from 48 %to 18 % between 2007 and 2012. Much has beendone to increase knowledge about the new fis-heries law in order to raise awareness andchange harmful practices. A survey of selectedfisherman four years after introduction of thelaw showed that violations had fallen by 50 % to70 %. The biggest changes came in in ocean pol-lution levels. Competence building in Vietna-mese public administration has resulted in moreactive Vietnamese participation in regional fis-heries cooperation and in international forumssuch as the FAO Committee on Fisheries andthe UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Thishas given Vietnam the opportunity to promoteits own interests and influence international poli-cies.


7.4.7 Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and fisheries crime

Although aquaculture is the fastest-growing partof the fisheries sector, wild fish harvesting willretain its importance for many developingcountries. To ensure that the potential of thissector is realised, sustainable harvesting ofresources is extremely important. Among the gre-atest threats to this is illegal, unreported andunregulated fishing (IUU) and fisheries crime.Many developing countries have a pressing needto establish and strengthen management regimescapable of limiting the losses arising from illegalactivities and helping to develop the potential ofsustainable ocean utilisation. The Governmenthas significant initiatives in place to combat illegalfishing and fisheries crime.

7.4.7.1 Combatting illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

IUU fishing is especially a problem in countriesand regions where fisheries management is weakand systems for monitoring and enforcing regula-tions are inadequate. For West African fish stocksand fisheries, IUU fishing by other states’ fishingfleets is a major problem. The losses incurred byWest Africa alone are estimated at USD 1.3 billionannually.8 The estimated scope of the problem inglobal terms is uncertain, but is believed to beupwards of 26 million tonnes of fish every year.9

This represents more than 15 % of the world’stotal production of wild fish. This problem depri-ves developing countries of vast resources andundermines living conditions in coastal communi-ties.

Norway assists multilateral and regional orga-nisations in combatting IUU fishing through thePort State Measures Agreement, a binding agree-ment to combat IUU that was adopted at the FAOConference in 2009. Norway ratified the agree-ment in 2011, and it entered into force in June2016 after ratification by 25 countries. Worktowards the agreement was initiated by Norway,Norwegian experts contributed to its drafting, andNorway provided most of the funding for thenegotiations involved.

The agreement was an important milestone inefforts to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishinginternationally. Under the agreement, states mustcooperate in turning away catches obtained in

contravention of sustainable management and inthe seizure of vessels involved in such activity ifnational regulations permitting legal action are inplace. The agreement covers measures such asdenial of port entry for IUU-listed vessels,exchange of information, conducting inspections,and preventive measures. The objective is to pre-vent or make it less profitable to land catches notharvested in accordance with sustainable manage-ment principles.

The Government will host the first meeting ofstate parties to the agreement at the end of May2017. Widespread accession to treaty, includingby developing countries, is vital to its acceptance.The Government will encourage new states to jointhe agreement and support its implementation indeveloping countries. Countries with weak insti-tutional capacity may find it challenging to effecti-vely fulfil their duties under the agreement andimplement its provisions.

The Government will

– intensify the fight against illegal, unreportedand unregulated fishing by encouraging otherstates to ratify the Port State Measures Agree-ment and by hosting the first meeting of stateparties to the agreement in 2017

– provide support for implementation of the PortState Measures Agreement in developingcountries

– continue to support regional cooperationagainst illegal fishing

– help prevent the sale of fish caught with IUUtechniques by developing and applying rele-vant international guidelines negotiated byFAO member states

– help promote cooperation and coordinationamong all multilateral organisations with man-dates to address IUU fishing, human rights andfisheries crime. This applies to FAO, ILO, IMO,UNODC and Interpol, among others.

7.4.7.2 Combatting fisheries crime

Fisheries crime refers to various criminal acts thatundermine sustainable management of global fishresources and cause economic and security pro-blems in many developing countries. The problemextends to all criminal offences committedthroughout the fish value chain, from illegal fis-hing to tax crime, customs fraud, other types offraud, corruption, human trafficking in the formof forced labour in the fisheries sector, humansmuggling and drug smuggling. Effective preven-

8 Africa Progress Report, 2014.9 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (2016), FAO.


tion requires efforts across administrative boun-dary lines. In most cases, fisheries crime is conne-cted to transnational organised crime, and callsfor a coordinated international response.

For some developing countries, fisheriescrime poses a direct threat to economic develop-ment. Norway supports training of fisheries con-trol officers to combat fisheries crime throughcooperation with the Nelson Mandela Universityin South Africa. The project will strengthen theability of South Africa – and eventually other Afri-can states – to monitor their own coastal andmarine areas. This can make a positive contribu-tion to regional cooperation on an important issuefor Africa and for Norway.

Fisheries crime is an area that must be monito-red and followed up internationally. Norway is adriving force in developing tools to address theproblem. Its activities include promoting lawenforcement cooperation between national super-visory authorities and the police and throughinternational police cooperation. The Governmentwill work towards adoption of a resolution on fis-heries crime in the UN Commission on CrimePrevention and Criminal Justice.

Coordinating and facilitating informationexchange between supervisory agencies and thepolice is central to combatting illegal activity. InNorway, public agencies collaborate via Barents-Watch on collecting, developing and sharing infor-mation about coastal and marine areas. The Dire-ctorate of Fisheries and the Norwegian CoastalAdministration’s analysis unit at the Vardø VesselTraffic Service collaborates with BarentsWatch toexpose illegal fishing activity and improve safetyat sea. The unit, which possesses specialisedexpertise gained by Norway in combatting illegalfishing in the Barents Sea, does work at the requ-est of both national and international authorities,and has assisted several developing countries incollecting and analysing information on criminalactivities at sea. The unit has also helped train ana-lysts from a number of developing countries.

Fisheries crime is combatted through the judi-cial system and international cooperation. Interpoland the United Nations Office on Drugs andCrime (UNODC) are key actors. Norway pressedfor the establishment of a fisheries crime workinggroup at Interpol in 2013, and supports Interpol’swork in this regard. In November 2016 theGovernment entered into a four-year agreement

Box 7.9 IUU fishing off West Africa

In marine areas off the coast of West Africa, theNorwegian foundation Trygg Mat Tracking(TMT) assists six countries – Liberia, IvoryCoast, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria – inuncovering illegal fishing. The effort has led tothe identification and expulsion from nationalwaters of vessels engaging in illegal fishingsince 2014. Though the Fisheries Intelligenceand MCS Support in West Africa project, TMTand Stop Illegal Fishing (SIF) provide technicalsupport to the Fisheries Committee for the WestCentral Gulf of Guinea (FCWC). The projectprovides information on fishing operators in theregion, facilitates information exchange bet-ween countries, and supports the countries’supervisory activities, such as vessel inspecti-ons. In addition, the national authorities aregiven guidance in application of the Port StateMeasures Agreement. The aim is to achieveeffective national and regional fisheries manage-ment in the area through improved access toinformation, enhanced sharing of informationand cooperation between the countries, enhan-

ced coordination between the different fisheriesmanagement actors in individual countries, andcapacity building in monitoring and supervisingfishing activities in the member countries. Thisapproach has proved effective, and has produ-ced results in that the countries now activelyexchange important information about vesselmovements and reloading, as well as documen-tation concerning the issuance of fishing licen-ces. One of the cornerstones of the project hasbeen the establishment of the West Africa TaskForce (WATF), an operative group consisting ofthe directors of fisheries authorities in therespective countries and the heads of monitor-ing and supervisory activities. Moreover, natio-nal working groups consisting of fisheries aut-horities, naval representatives, port authorities,maritime authorities and other relevant stateinstitutions have been set up. A web-based regio-nal cooperative platform was established and isregularly updated with feedback, with informa-tion and requests for cooperation betweencountries and with technical support enquiries.


with UNODC to provide NOK 39.7 million tocombat transnational organised fisheries crime indeveloping countries. The UNODC will assist byproviding updates of legislation and by buildingcompetence and capacity in law enforcementagencies, customs authorities and judiciaries. TheNorwegian support represents a significantstrengthening of international efforts to combatfisheries crime.

The Government will

– continue Norway’s extensive support to Inter-pol and UNODC, seek adoption of a resolutionon fisheries crime in the UN Commission onCrime Prevention and Criminal Justice, andcontinue being a driving force in the area of fis-heries crime

– support further development of the analysisunit in Vardø and BarentsWatch so as to assistdeveloping countries with analyses and satel-lite-based information aimed at exposing illegalfishing and other illegal activities at sea

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs

r e c o m m e n d s :

that the recommendation of the Ministry ofForeign Affairs concerning the place of the oce-ans in Norway’s foreign and development policydated 24 March 2017 should be submitted to theStorting.

Box 7.10 Interpol’s efforts to combat fisheries crime

As part of its development policy, the Govern-ment supports Interpol’s efforts to combat fis-heries crime and illegal fishing. This is inten-ded to help national authorities in developingcountries to comply with national and interna-tional laws and to enhance cooperation, bothgeographically and between sectors. Norway’spartner in this cooperation is the Norwegiannational advisory group against organisedIUU fishing, whose secretariat is in the Minis-try of Trade, Industry and Fisheries. Norwe-gian support amounts to NOK 42.3 millionover five years (2015–2019). This support hasalready produced concrete results; with assis-tance from Interpol, São Tomé and Príncipecarried out an investigation and trial againstthe owners and senior crew members of Thun-der for illegal fishing in the Southern Oceanand polluting the waters off São Tomé andPrincipe, in 2015. The crew members receivedjail sentences. Operative case meetings on ille-gal fishing, headed by Interpol, have encoura-ged cooperation between industrialisedcountries and developing countries on a num-ber of criminal fishing cases.


Annex 1

List of abbreviations and acronyms

ACAP Arctic Contaminants Action Program

AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program

AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

AU African Union

BCC Benguela Current Commission

CAFF Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna

CAMLR Convention Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCAMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species

COPERNICUS European Earth Observation Programme

EFTA European Free Trade Association

EPPR Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response Working Group of the Arctic Council

EEA European Economic Area

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Ffu Fish for Development

FRONTEX European Agency for the management of Operational Cooperation at the Exter-nal Borders of the Member States of the European Union

GEF Global Environment Facility

ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

IEA International Energy Agency

IEF International Energy Forum

ILO International Labour Organization

IMO International Maritime Organization

INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

IWC International Whaling Commission

JPI Oceans Joint Programming Initiative Healthy and Productive Seas and Oceans


MARPART Maritime Preparedness and International Partnership in the High North

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

NAFO Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization

NEAFC North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission

NIVA Norwegian Institute for Water Research

NORHED Norwegian Programme for Capacity Development in Higher Education and Rese-arch for Development

Norfund Norwegian Investment Fund for Developing Countries

NSOAF North Sea Offshore Authorities Forum

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Ofu Oil for Development

OPEC Organization of the Oil Exporting Countries

OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic

PAME Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Programme

SARiNOR Search and Rescue in the High North

SIDS Small Islands Developing States

SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea

SPU Government Pension Fund Global

TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership

TTIP Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

IUU fishing Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

WTO World Trade Organization

Documents

The place of the oceans in Norway's foreign and ... · The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development policy The place of the oceans in Norway’s foreign and development