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THE PLACE OF JAZZ IN THE NSW SECONDARY SCHOOL CLASSROOM
Kelly Ryu
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Music (Music Education) (Honours),
Sydney Conservatorium of Music,
University of Sydney.
2020
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Acknowledgements
I will forever be grateful for the tremendous amount of time, patience, and support
expended upon me throughout the process of writing this thesis, which coincided with the
most challenging and unpredictable year of our lives. My sincere thanks go to the
following people.
To my supervisor Dr Michael Webb, for his unending encouragement, advice, and
countless Zoom calls in the midst of a pandemic. This project would not have been
possible without your wisdom and dedication. Thank you for putting up with my scattered
thoughts and jumbled sentences as you laboured away at my drafts.
To the wonderful Music Education staff—Dr James Humberstone, Dr Jennifer Rowley, Dr
Jim Coyle—for your incredibly insightful and valuable feedback on my project for the past
two years, as well as your ongoing guidance throughout my undergraduate studies.
To Dr Jeanette Mollenhauer, Dr Catherine Ingram, and Dr Kathryn Marsh, for your
support in the preparation of this thesis and introducing me to the world of research.
To Dr Helen Mitchell, for providing the template used in the preparation of this thesis.
To my participants, for giving up your valuable time and sharing your vast knowledge and
expertise in jazz education. Without your contributions, this project would have been a
mere research proposal.
To my fellow Honours students—Lucas, David, Angus, Karen—for your constant moral
support and quality banter. I sincerely hope that we can keep the group chat alive and I
can't wait to see what the future holds for you all. Go forth and teach!
To my family, for your endless love and support even from 878.4 kilometres away. You
were there every step of the way. Thank you for believing in me and nurturing my love of
music education.
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Abstract
Jazz is one of the most commonly taught musical styles in various educational contexts
worldwide. Nevertheless, jazz teaching and learning resource materials are predominantly
designed for those who have advanced beyond a basic level of competence. Further, the
common understanding of jazz as a uniquely American style, in conjunction with
Australia’s geographical and cultural distance from the USA, tend to feed the perception of
foreignness of jazz when it comes to discussions of its place in Australia. For these
reasons, classroom jazz education poses a unique set of challenges for Australian music
teachers. This qualitative multiple case study examined five NSW secondary school music
teachers’ perceptions of jazz, the extent and nature of its inclusion in their classroom
curricula, and their classroom jazz teaching approaches. Data were collected from a series
of semi-structured interviews, which revealed that although limited by its narrow appeal,
teachers considered jazz to be highly effective in facilitating creativity, collaboration, and
individuality of expression in students when carefully scaffolded and differentiated. The
findings of the study indicate that while jazz may not be highly visible in NSW secondary
schools, it is certainly viable and well-positioned to make a unique and worthwhile
contribution to school music offerings.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents......................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables................................................................................................................vi
Chapter 1 : Introduction ................................................................................................ 7
Jazz and its identities....................................................................................................... 7
Jazz education in Australia ............................................................................................. 8
The study and its significance ......................................................................................... 9
Research questions ........................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 2 : Literature Review .................................................................................... 11
Jazz in Australia ............................................................................................................ 11
Changing approaches to jazz and improvisation pedagogies........................................ 12
The problem of "genre specificity" ............................................................................... 14
Teacher training, expertise, and confidence.................................................................. 16
The syllabus, curriculum, and resources ....................................................................... 17
Gaps in the literature ..................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 3 : Methodology ............................................................................................ 21
The qualitative design ................................................................................................... 21
Participants and sampling ............................................................................................. 21
Data collection .............................................................................................................. 23
Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 23
Validity, reliability, and ethical considerations ............................................................ 24
Chapter 4 : Discussion of Findings............................................................................. 25
Defining jazz ................................................................................................................. 25
The place of jazz in Australia ....................................................................................... 28
The role of jazz in the classroom .................................................................................. 31
Teaching jazz in the classroom vs. other settings ......................................................... 33
Pedagogical strategies in classroom jazz education ...................................................... 34
Benefits and challenges of classroom jazz education ................................................... 38
Key skills and ideas in jazz education .......................................................................... 41
Chapter 5 : Summary and Conclusion ........................................................................ 44
Perceptions of classroom jazz education in NSW secondary schools .......................... 44
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Methods of teaching jazz in the classroom ................................................................... 45
Implications for music teachers and administrators ...................................................... 46
Recommendations for further study .............................................................................. 47
Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 48
References .................................................................................................................. 50
Appendix A : Ethics Approval Letter ......................................................................... 57
Appendix B : Participant Information Statement ....................................................... 59
Appendix C : Participant Consent Form..................................................................... 61
Appendix D : Interview Protocol................................................................................ 63
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List of Tables
Table 1: Participants, years of teaching experience, musical backgrounds, school sectors,
and dates interviewed .......................................................................................................... 22
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Chapter 1: Introduction
The history of jazz as an art form has been long contested from various perspectives,
according to competing cultural interests and narratives. In recent decades, scholars have
pointed out that such narratives are characterised by recurring antonyms or dichotomies
(DeVeaux, 1991; Johnson; 2019; Whyton, 2006; 2013), including that jazz music is
American not European, jazz creativity is masculine not feminine, jazz is improvised and
not composed, acoustic not electronic, and art music not popular music (Whyton, 2013).
Such dichotomising appears to be related to various, often conflicting, historical ideologies
that imbue jazz with a sense of authenticity. In conjunction with other ideals and beliefs
about the music form, some of these antonymic views hold major implications for
educational practice. This chapter delineates the focus of the present study, which
examines the current place of jazz in classroom music education in New South Wales
(NSW), Australia—the extent and nature of its inclusion, as well as teachers’ perceptions
of and approaches to the music.
Jazz and its identities
Defining jazz is considered to be difficult for a number of reasons (Ake, 2016; Chessher,
2009; DeVeaux, 1991; Murphy, 2008). Due to cross-cultural influences, jazz has
undergone a massive transformation throughout its history, and is still evolving in many
parts of the globe (Dorin, 2016; Nicholson, 2005). It has also been argued that this state of
constant flux is a defining characteristic of jazz, and that no fixed definition can encompass
the diversity of the art form (DeVeaux, 1991; Murphy, 2008). For the purposes of this
study, the term jazz will refer to the hybrid popular-art music form which originated in the
United States of America and subsequently assumed characteristics in response to the new
contexts in which it was taken up as it was transmitted to different parts of the world
(Johnson 2019; Nicholson, 2005). It will also include many sub-genres and styles that fall
under the umbrella of jazz, including Dixieland, swing, bebop, hard bop, cool jazz, modal
jazz, free jazz, and fusion jazz.
Jazz is claimed by some American scholars to be America’s classical music (Ake, 2016;
DeVeaux, 1991), not only in terms of its origins, but also its artistic development, which, it
is held, has occurred almost exclusively within the United States of America since the birth
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of the art form in the early 1900s (Ake, 2016; Chessher, 2009; DeVeaux, 1991; Johnson,
2014; Murphy, 2008; Nikolsky, 2012; Robson, 2015; Shand, 2008). Johnson has recently
challenged this account of jazz's history in his sustained study, Jazz Diaspora: Music and
Globalisation (2019). Even so, this widely held perception of jazz as a uniquely American
music form, in conjunction with Australia’s geographical, cultural, and political distance
from the USA, may feed the perception of the foreignness of jazz when it comes to
discussions of its place in Australian music education (Nikolsky, 2012).
Jazz education in Australia
Jazz is one of the most popular and widely taught musical styles in secondary and tertiary
institutions around the world (Ake, 2003; West & Titlebaum, 2019; Whyton, 2006). It also
remains the only improvisation-based style available for formal study in many institutions,
particularly in Western countries (Worthy, 2013). There exists a considerable body of
research outlining the educational benefits of teaching and learning jazz, and such benefits
have been linked to the artistic and theoretical complexities of the style (Ake, 2003;
Forster, 2010; Murphy, 1968; West, 2011; Worthy, 2013). It has been widely recognised
that jazz education is associated with positive social-cognitive development in students,
such as improved peer interaction and mentorship (Borgo, 2007; De Bruin, 2019; West &
Titlebaum, 2019). This has been attributed to the practice of teaching and learning jazz in
communal, interactive settings, as well as its pedagogical values of experiential,
exploratory learning (Borgo, 2007).
Currently, jazz is taught in a range of educational settings worldwide. In Australia, private
studio teaching, group lessons, and extracurricular ensembles are some of the most
commonly encountered pre-tertiary contexts of jazz education (Chessher, 2009). This study
aims to investigate a less common and as yet largely unstudied pedagogical context—the
practices and perceptions of secondary school classroom music teachers who are currently
teaching, or who have previously taught, jazz as a topic for study in Years 7-12.
In New South Wales, there is no curriculum mandate for the teaching of jazz in the
classroom (Forster, 2010), although jazz is listed as an elective topic for study in all NSW
Music syllabuses (Board of Studies NSW, 2003; 2009). Further, in the syllabus teachers
are “encouraged to include improvisation as an integral part of teaching programs” (Board
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of Studies NSW, 2003, p. 19), and jazz is the only specifically mentioned performance-
based context for improvisation in this section. Teaching jazz in general classroom settings
presents unique challenges for teachers, as it is generally understood that jazz requires
highly specialised skills and expertise that are only acquired through years of training
(Ake, 2003). This notion is commonly referred to as genre specificity, which holds that the
idiomatic skills acquired through jazz training are not transferable to other styles of music
(Ake, 2016; Borgo, 2007; Lill, 2015; Solis, 2016). Such an idea may lead teachers to
perceive jazz music to be less pedagogically relevant in classroom settings, and thus may
influence their decision to exclude it as a topic for study.
The study and its significance
This study examined five NSW secondary school music teachers’ perceptions of jazz and
its place in classroom music education, as well as their classroom jazz teaching practices.
The research comprised a multiple case study design within a qualitative framework. It
concentrated on classroom music teachers’ perceptions of the historical and cultural
relevance of jazz, the reasons behind their views, and how their beliefs influence their
classroom practices involving jazz.
Although numerous studies have concentrated on the issues that challenge jazz education
faces more broadly, very little has been written with reference to the Australian context.
This is noteworthy given that jazz programs have been well established in tertiary
institutions around the country for many decades (Robson, 2015). Moreover, there is a
clear lack of Australian literature that discusses jazz education in the secondary school
classroom. A review of the existing literature found that most jazz education research is
devoted to teachers and students who teach and learn jazz in specialist, post-secondary
music institutions, rather than in general, secondary classroom settings (Richardson, 2019).
With the majority of jazz education research being conducted in the USA, this modest
study offers a current and uniquely Australian perspective on such matters.
Addressing this gap in the literature, it is hoped that the present study will identify and
evaluate some of the current trends and challenges facing NSW classroom music teachers
who are or may be considering teaching jazz. It aims to contribute to the development of
more comprehensive, well-informed jazz programs and curricula in Australian secondary
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schools. The study aims to be of benefit to both pre-service and in-service classroom music
teachers as well as students in Australian school settings.
Research questions
Three research questions were developed to guide a research process that seeks to
understand the range of factors impacting jazz education in the NSW secondary school
classroom:
1. How do NSW secondary school music teachers perceive jazz?
2. How do NSW secondary school music teachers approach the teaching of
jazz in the classroom?
3. What do NSW secondary school music teachers consider to be the benefits
and challenges of teaching jazz in the classroom?
The first question examines music teachers’ attitudes towards and opinions and beliefs
about jazz, and how they might differ from attitudes towards other genres and styles of
music they teach. The second question explores the ways in which music teachers design
and implement jazz lessons in the classroom, including the use of the syllabus, resources,
lesson planning, assessment, differentiation, scaffolding, and curriculum design. The final
question specifically addresses the teachers’ accounts of the strengths and weaknesses of
their jazz teaching experiences as well as the reasons for their views. These questions
inform the research design and facilitate a multifaceted discussion relating to jazz
education in NSW secondary school classrooms.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
This literature review examines five contrasting issues relating to jazz education: 1) jazz in
Australia, 2) changing approaches to jazz and improvisation pedagogies, 3) the “genre
specificity” problem, 4) teacher training, expertise, and confidence, and 5) the NSW
syllabus, curriculum, and resources. Due to the complex and varied nature of jazz
education, it is important to examine such aspects separately as well as collectively within
their current educational setting. The discussion contributes to establishing the study’s
theoretical and empirical foundation, which seeks to examine the pedagogical visibility and
viability of jazz in the NSW secondary school classroom.
Jazz in Australia
When jazz was introduced to Australia in the early twentieth century, it was in reaction to
the refined aesthetic conventions of nineteenth-century Anglo-European art music
(Johnson, 2006; 2014). What was considered to be jazz in Australia during this time was
somewhat removed from New Orleans culture and its early styles such as Dixieland (Ross,
2014). In Australia, jazz was promoted as a type of ballroom dance music for an upper-
class audience (Whiteoak, 2014; 2015). According to Whiteoak, Australians perceived jazz
to be synonymous with what was considered “modern”, “popular” or “fashionable” (p.
235). Similarly, Johnson (2019) describes jazz during this time as a “threat to traditions”
(p. 36). Further, the flapper movement in the 1920s emerged as a symbol of strong
resistance by young women to traditional gender role expectations. In this regard, it may be
said that the importation of jazz has contributed to the modernisation of the Australian
society (Johnson, 1995; 2006; 2019).
On the other hand, the history of jazz in Australia is often associated with racism,
xenophobia, and exoticism (Johnson, 2014). Whiteoak (2015) offers a socio-empirical
perspective on this issue, citing examples of the early history of jazz in the country. He
argues that the “overwhelmingly white roots of the Australian [jazz] tradition … were
metaphorically ‘black’ from the perspective of xenophobic white Australian
misconceptions” (p. 245). Similarly, Ake (2003) describes this phenomenon as “a
frequently misinformed fascination with things African and African-American” (p. 256).
Many of these racial misconceptions originated from the problematic, misguided notions of
12
cultural authenticity advanced by cultural outsiders—in this context, White Australians.
Johnson (2006) states that for this audience, jazz was considered to be both of the “New
World and Black” (p. 257). This misplaced duality perceived by Australia’s jazz
consumers implies that they imposed attitudes of exoticism and primitivism on the art form
(Johnson, 2006; Whiteoak, 2014; 2015).
Over time, perceptions of jazz in Australia have changed significantly. Currently,
Australia’s progressive jazz scene is often defined by its lack of outside influences, largely
due to geographical remoteness and a sense of “cultural detachment” from USA’s jazz
culture (Murphy, 2008, p. 5). Jazz critic John Shand describes jazz in Australia as a
“particular genre of creative music [that] unravels from its original American spool”
(Shand, 2008, ix). Similarly, Robson (2015) refers to jazz in Australia as “a local
expression of a global form” (p. 3), and Chessher (2009) argues that “no consensus exists
on what exactly constitutes Australian jazz” (p. 2). A sense of disconnection has allowed
Australian jazz practitioners to interpret the art form on their own cultural terms (Chessher,
2009; Johnson; 2019; Murphy, 2008; Robson, 2015; Ross, 2014).
Compared to its considerable artistic development, the commercial growth of Australian
jazz has stagnated for decades (Letts, 2020; Murphy, 2008; Nikolsky, 2012; Shand, 2008).
The art form appears to have limited appeal to contemporary mainstream audiences.
Murphy (2008) attributes this to jazz’s outdated language and “social disconnectedness”
(p. 8). She also argues, “for the art form to continue and thrive in Australia, Australian
[jazz] practitioners must reconnect their art form with their current cultural context” (p. 3).
More research is needed on current practices and perceptions of jazz among Australians
generally, as well as in educational contexts and the various associated challenges.
Changing approaches to jazz and improvisation pedagogies
Jazz education has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. The
institutionalisation of jazz as an academic discipline from the 1950s was one of the most
significant factors impacting this change, as it led to the formalisation of jazz and
improvisation pedagogies (Coss, 2018; De Bruin, 2019; Gough, 2018; Sidran, 2002;
Whyton, 2006; Worthy, 2013). In the early twentieth century—before university-level jazz
education was introduced in the United States of America—high school students were
13
performing jazz in their own student-led bands outside the classroom without any formal
guidance or instruction (Sidran, 2002; Worthy, 2013). During this time, jazz practitioners
were living in close proximity to each other, learning and teaching jazz in local, mostly
informal settings (Gough, 2018). Ake (2003) states that “older or more established
musicians from local neighbourhoods acted as models for succeeding generations, enacting
a ‘passing down’ that continues in many cities today” (p. 258). As USA’s jazz scene
continued to grow, this traditional approach became less viable.
As the number of pretertiary performing arts schools grew rapidly in the last decades of the
twentieth century, a comprehensive jazz curriculum was offered to high school students for
the first time (Sidran, 2002; Murphy, 1968; Worthy, 2013). The components of this
curriculum typically included “theory and analysis, improvisation, arranging/composing,
history, keyboard, and pedagogy, all specifically within the realm of jazz” (Worthy, 2013,
p. 3).
The establishment of formal pedagogies also implied new ways of assessing students (Ake,
2003; Whyton, 2006). Assessment methods were heavily influenced by the invention of the
so-called chord-scale theory—a system based on the harmonic relationships between scales
and chords, with an emphasis on the right and wrong notes to play when improvising (Ake,
2003; De Bruin, 2019; Forster, 2010; Sidran, 2002). The chord-scale theory holds that
every mode or scale can be combined with its corresponding chord in order to construct
improvised solos and has been widely used by jazz educators and students globally
(Chessher, 2009). Forster’s (2010) qualitative study examines the application of this
theory-based approach in the secondary school classroom, where it was assumed that the
chord-scale theory is an essential component of jazz pedagogy. A series of questionnaires
revealed that a high percentage of students understood and appreciated the use of theory in
jazz improvisation. On the whole, the chord-scale theory was used to teach students the
correct ways to identify, articulate, and imitate particular intervals, harmonies, and scales.
This posed several problems for teachers who favoured a freer, less structured pedagogical
approach (Coss, 2018; Whyton, 2006).
Borgo (2007) argues, “conventional jazz education … appears stuck in an information-
processing mode” (p. 76). In this context, “conventional jazz education” essentially refers
to the use of pedagogical models such as the chord-scale theory. Jones’ (1997) qualitative
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study advocates this traditional approach, stating that “a sound knowledge of music theory
is essential if one is to improvise jazz” (p. 158). Wilson (1982) also supports this view,
recommending the use of theory textbooks, play-along recordings, and transcriptions of
accomplished jazz musicians’ improvised solos. However, in more recent research, some
educators have argued that this is an ineffective, outdated approach that focuses merely on
problem-solving skills (Ake, 2003; Borgo, 2007; Whyton, 2006). Many jazz and
improvisation teachers have expressed their concerns about their students’ over-reliance on
theory, thus “neglecting the musicality of their solos” (Chessher, 2009, p. 24). This idea
was supported by Sidran (2002), who argued that the chord-scale theory offers “little
assistance in generating musical direction” (p. 126). This debate encouraged teachers to
consider and develop a new pedagogical approach for those who wish to improvise freely
without theoretical and stylistic constraints.
Some recent research shows that the use of free jazz, an avant-garde aesthetic movement
that developed in the 1960s, is now considered a way to combat this issue facing teachers
(Ake, 2003; Borgo, 2007; Chessher, 2009; Stewart, 2016). The free jazz movement, as a
whole, represents a reaction against the formulaic rigidity of harmonic and structural
conventions commonly found in other styles of jazz. It allows students to engage in
uninhibited, spontaneous forms of improvisation in which no musical gesture is deemed
wrong. Borgo’s (2007) research examines this free approach—what he calls “an ecological
perspective” (p. 61). His pedagogical method “de-emphasises the musical dimensions that
are most easily represented by notation” and is instead in favour of “subtle temporal,
timbral, and expressive concerns” (p. 76). The implications of such research, which align
with the findings of other studies, contribute to the growing body of knowledge in
contemporary jazz and improvisation pedagogies.
The problem of "genre specificity"
Most of the difficulties associated with classroom jazz education emerge from the
specificity of the genre (Ake, 2016; Borgo, 2007; Lill, 2015; Solis, 2016). In other words,
it is commonly understood that most idiomatic, style related skills acquired through jazz
improvisation training are not transferable to other genres and styles of music. Solis (2016)
explores in detail this “problem of genre”, which lies in the fact that “most improvisation
pedagogy is oriented to producing idiomatic players of specific genres” (p. 98). Many
15
academic jazz programs were often focused solely on replicating pre-existing
improvisational language, rather than facilitating creativity and self-expression (Borgo,
2007; Burke, 2015; Cahn, 2005; Solis, 2016). This leads to the question of the art form’s
relevance in the classroom, because for the reasons above, music teachers may not see the
benefits in teaching students who do not wish to pursue jazz training to improvise in jazz
styles. However, recent studies have suggested several ways of solving this dilemma.
Research confirms that children and adolescents often musically improvise freely and
without constraints long before they are formally introduced to jazz and improvisation
pedagogies (De Bruin, 2019; Kanellopoulos, 1999; Ladano, 2016; Lill, 2015). In
Kanellopoulos’ study, several eight-year-old children were observed engaging in
spontaneous song and play-based music making through improvisation without formal
instruction. Examples of this musical behaviour were also seen in adolescence. Lill’s
(2015) ethnographic study examined the prevalence of musical improvisation in
secondary-aged students’ classroom learning practices; students improvised music while
learning and performing popular songs in band settings. She concluded that improvisation
was “the primary means through which young people followed interesting tangents,
leading to musical development over time” (p. 139). The students were not previously
trained in jazz or improvisation. Following these results, Lill is critical of genre-specific
improvisation pedagogy—thus supporting Solis’ (2016) arguments—stating, “in many
cases it [improvisation] is taught as a distinct skill rather than being integrated throughout
all musical experiences” (p. 235). Kanellopoulos (1999) supports Lill’s view, rejecting the
ideas of formal pedagogy and arguing that “improvising emerges as an open and self-
determined process of discovery” (p. 181).
Ladano (2016) found that the use of free improvisation that does not rely on students’
theoretical knowledge can be an effective learning tool. The term free improvisation
should not be confused with free jazz as discussed by Borgo (2007). While free jazz refers
to an aesthetic movement and is popularly known as a subgenre of jazz, free improvisation
is widely considered to be a genreless concept. The aim of using free improvisation in the
classroom is to focus on “offering a valuable creative outlet where one need not worry
about playing a wrong note” and the “liberation from mistakes” (Ladano, 2016, p. 49).
Solis (2016) too advocates this idea, stating that improvisation pedagogy is only effective
when “its basic orientation is not to teaching a single set of genre markers” (p. 105).
16
Percussionist William Cahn (2005) attempted to formalise this as a music making
approach, and his ideas of free improvisation are also endorsed by Kanellopoulos (1999)
and Lill (2015). In practice, however, research shows that educators tend to favour a genre-
based approach; jazz still remains the central focus of improvisation training in most
institutions (Ake, 2016).
Teacher training, expertise, and confidence
Many pre-service and in-service classroom music teachers consider their lack of
knowledge of jazz and improvisation to be a professional weakness (Ake, 2003; Chessher,
2009, Madura Ward-Steinman, 2007; Richardson, 2019; West, 2011; West & Titlebaum,
2019). As a result, they lack confidence to teach jazz in the classroom. This is strongly
linked to the fact that most pre-service music teachers major in classical music
performance and related studies (Ake, 2003), and there are limited opportunities for those
who wish to familiarise themselves with jazz and improvisation pedagogies (Richardson,
2019). In a USA-based study, this issue was examined by way of a qualitative experiment
design. Madura Ward-Steinman’s (2007) research set out to improve teacher confidence
through a series of vocal jazz workshops, with most of the participants being classically
trained classroom music teachers and choir directors. Despite its small sample size, the
study found that the workshops helped the participants gain confidence in teaching jazz
and improvisation. This research finding, alongside those of similar studies, raises several
questions surrounding the issue of teacher training in classroom jazz education.
Currently, all undergraduate music education students at the Sydney Conservatorium of
Music are required to complete a unit of study titled Teaching Jazz in Secondary School
(University of Sydney, 2019). This remains, to date, the only tertiary jazz pedagogy subject
for students studying a music education degree in Australia (Richardson, 2019). The unit
was designed with the aim of giving pre-service music teachers some confidence to present
jazz in the secondary school classroom, as both pre-service and in-service music teachers
agree that jazz has an essential role in tertiary music education training (West, 2011).
There is a need for further research on the effects of such teacher training initiatives on the
pre-service teachers’ perceived levels of confidence and expertise.
17
Teachers often feel ill-equipped to facilitate classroom discussions on jazz discourses and
history, including its issues of racism, sexism, classism, and others surrounding privilege
and inequality (Stewart, 2016), which is a significant factor influencing teacher confidence.
In Stewart’s study, a group of undergraduate music students undertaking a jazz
improvisation subject were assigned weekly readings on the topics of gender and race in
jazz. Students expressed their frustration by voicing such questions as, “Sexism and racism
are things of the past … So why do we have to keep talking about them?” (p. 36). Stewart
stated that “these conversations were not easy or comfortable” (p. 37), describing a
common predicament that many teachers face in the classroom. As this study was carried
out in a tertiary institution, it is unclear whether the same findings can be applied to
secondary school settings. It might be said that some teachers do not consider the subjects
of gender and race to be a relevant component of their music curriculum, although syllabus
documents list these under “cross-curriculum content” (Board of Studies NSW, 2003, p.
20) Nevertheless, there remains a potential for further research in this area.
The syllabus, curriculum, and resources
Currently, three secondary-level music syllabuses are in operation in New South Wales
(NSW). These are: NSW music years 7-10 syllabus, Music 1 Stage 6 syllabus, and Music 2
and Music Extension Stage 6 syllabuses (Board of Studies NSW, 2003; 2009). Research
examining the use of these by NSW classroom teachers as a lesson planning and
programming tool is limited. The syllabuses’ content and organisational structure have
significant implications for teacher practice. It is certainly possible that a teacher’s decision
whether or not to include jazz in their curriculum is impacted by such matters. Frank
Murphy (1968), possibly the earliest advocate for jazz education in Australia, argued that
the Australian syllabuses “ignore jazz entirely” and are “outmoded” (p. 46). While syllabus
documents have changed significantly since the 1960s, more recent studies have identified
the same issue. Forster (2010) notes that the NSW music syllabuses “expound the need and
encourage the teaching of jazz improvisation but suggest no method by which this could be
taught” (p. 1). This underscores the need for a more comprehensive jazz and improvisation
curriculum and related resources to be made available to classroom teachers (Worthy,
2013).
18
Jazz first appeared as topic suggested for study in the NSW Music 2 Unit A (now Music 1)
syllabus document in 1979 as the eighth on the list of 30 additional topics (NSW
Department of Education for the Board of Senior School Studies, 1977). This can likely be
accounted for by the establishment of Australia’s first tertiary jazz course at the NSW State
Conservatorium (now the Sydney Conservatorium of Music) six years earlier, in 1973. In
the Years 8-10 course (now mandatory and elective courses – Years 7-10), “jazz and its
influences” was first introduced as a topic for study in 1984 (Secondary Schools Board,
1983). Currently, jazz remains as a suggested topic in both the mandatory course (Stage 4
– Years 7 to 8) and the elective course (Stage 5 – Years 9 to 10), as well as the Stage 6
curriculum (Years 11 to 12) (Board of Studies NSW, 2003; 2009). With specific reference
to jazz, all syllabuses include improvisation as a key performance skill that is encouraged,
but not mandated. Improvisation, in the general sense of the word, is a learning outcome
listed under the Composing learning experience. Overall, jazz is mentioned somewhat
frequently as a recurring topic among many other options. There has been little research
examining the frequency with which teachers select jazz as a context or topic for study in
secondary schools across New South Wales.
Among the earliest examples of Australian teaching resources dedicated to the topic of jazz
are Roger Frampton’s (1992) Sounds Australian: Australian jazz teaching kit and Lorraine
Milne’s (2007) A way back—Lachlan Davidson resource kit, both of which were published
by the Australian Music Centre. Such resources were devised for the purpose of having
students engage with Australian jazz works through listening, improvisation, composition,
performance, and aural analysis activities. The teaching kit devised by Roger Frampton
(1992), in particular, includes jazz scholar Bruce Johnson’s analysis of Australian jazz
history, with an emphasis on post-war developments of the art form. More recently, a
teaching resource titled Jazz for school ensembles (2012) was created by Australian
saxophonist Gai Bryant, comprising scores of arrangements of works by notable Australian
jazz musicians as well as teaching activities aimed at secondary school stage bands and big
bands. Several implications arise from the presence and availability of such resources, the
most significant being the overall efforts to create an Australian jazz canon and the
growing need for comprehensive jazz teaching resources for music teachers (on the subject
of an Australian jazz canon and its educational implications, see Nikolsky, 2012).
19
Other recent initiatives in Australian jazz education include Sydney Improvised Music
Association (SIMA)’s Young Women’s Jazz Workshops, established in 2002 by
Australian saxophonist Sandy Evans, and Jazz Workshop Australia (JWA), founded in
2007 by jazz educator Saul Richardson and producer Karen Richards. Further, the NSW
Department of Education website provides a small number of jazz teaching and learning
modules, developed by James Morrison and The Arts Unit for schools to engage with
International Jazz Day (NSW Department of Education, 2020). The demand for resources
such as these suggests an increasing interest in jazz education on the part of students,
parents, and educators. However, evidence surrounding the utilisation of these resources
and their prevalence in Australian classroom music education is yet to be found.
This issue may be attributed to patterns seen in the selection of musical works for
classroom study. Research has identified the overwhelming dominance of Eurocentric
classical music traditions in classroom music education (Cain, 2015; Sidran, 2002).
According to the common antonymic perception that jazz is American not European
(Whyton, 2013), teachers may consider jazz to be in some way inferior to European art
music. This is not a recent issue; an article by jazz educator Keith Wilson (1982) states that
“unfortunately, many music teachers in Australia still hold the traditional view that
‘serious’ music is the only music which is worthwhile studying” (p. 25). This stance
indicates that early music education researchers were advocating cultural and educational
reform—to close the gap between serious and trivial musics—long before the emergence
of formal music curricula. With regard to current trends in Australian classroom music
education, Cain (2015) states that “while ‘other’ musics have been included in the
curriculum, they have been allocated a position of limited power and thus offer little
potential for challenging the canon” (p. 82). Although it is unclear whether jazz is
considered an “other music” in the context of this study, Australia’s geographical
remoteness and cultural distance from the United States, where jazz originated, may lead
teachers to perceive the art form to be foreign. This study seeks to examine whether this
notion of otherness influences various lesson planning and programming approaches
adopted by Australian classroom music teachers.
20
Gaps in the literature
There is considerable research directed towards various issues associated with jazz
education and improvisation pedagogies, however few studies have focused on the
Australian context (Chessher, 2009). Literature dealing with jazz and secondary school
classroom music is even more limited. With the majority of jazz education-related studies
being carried out in the United States, it is currently difficult to determine whether their
findings apply to Australian educational settings.
There is also a paucity of literature discussing the practical implications of teaching jazz in
the general classroom setting. In relation to teaching strategies, many educators and
researchers have solely focused on tertiary-level private lessons and ensemble scenarios in
specialist music institutions (Richardson, 2019). In other words, most existing jazz
education research is devoted to teachers and students who have pursued jazz as a formal
discipline beyond an introductory level. More research is needed on the methods and
approaches used by secondary school teachers who teach jazz to students with diverse
musical backgrounds, including classically trained students, students who play non-
Western instruments, and students who are self-taught. Varying interests, skill levels, and
learning abilities of students should also be taken into account. This is particularly relevant
for Stage 4 (Years 7 to 8) mandatory music course students, some of whom may have had
no previous musical experience. Such research is necessary for an evaluation of current
pedagogies, which may contribute to the development of new educational approaches for
the benefit of pre-service and in-service classroom music teachers, as well as for students
themselves.
Other gaps in the literature exist, notably on the current usage of the NSW music years 7-
10 syllabus, Music 1 Stage 6 syllabus, and the Music 2 and Music Extension Stage 6
syllabuses (Board of Studies NSW, 2003; 2009). Very little has been written not only on
their organisation and content, but also on their implications for teacher practice in
particular. Currently, it is not clear how teachers typically interpret the curriculum
requirements set out by the documents, such as mandatory and additional topics for study,
as well as the integration of improvisation. It would be beneficial to investigate the various
strategies they employ in selecting genres and repertoire for study.
21
Chapter 3: Methodology
The qualitative design
This study employs a qualitative research design. Such research encompasses the
contextual interpretation of people, ideas, and issues, as well as related analysis,
description, and triangulation methods (Bresler, 1992; Roulston, 2006). As the study seeks
to investigate classroom music teachers' perceptions of and beliefs about jazz education, a
qualitative paradigm can be considered to be ideal.
A multiple case study design was chosen in order to develop a thorough understanding of
the differing perceptions and experiences of NSW classroom music teachers, drawing
similarities and differences across the results gathered through each individual case study
and across cases (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 2006; 2008). In the context of this study, each
case is a participant representative of the broader NSW secondary classroom music
educator community. Within each case study, the participant provided their perspective on
a range of topics such as jazz culture, history, pedagogy, and curriculum while drawing on
their own experience and expertise. A multiple case study design also allows the researcher
to interpret various issues and events from the participants’ points of view, which helps to
identify the commonalities of perceptions and behaviour across cases (Stake, 2006). The
research process also remained sensitive to the individual circumstances of each case, as
emphasised by the principles of qualitative research (Liamputtong, 2013; Marshall &
Rossman, 2011).
Participants and sampling
Five secondary school classroom music teachers were selected to participate in the study.
They were variously employed across the public and independent school systems, live and
work in New South Wales, and have previously taught or are currently teaching jazz in the
secondary school classroom. This sample size was intended to be representative of the
relatively small population of secondary school classroom music teachers who are
knowledgeable and/or trained in jazz, or who are simply willing to discuss jazz music in
some technical detail. In order to minimise the possibility of bias, the researcher identified
two groups of teachers; those who were classically trained through tertiary-level music
education (that is, they completed a bachelor’s degree in classical performance), and those
22
who were jazz-trained through similar means (a bachelor’s degree in jazz performance).
This strategy was to ensure a balance of perspectives between the number of participants
who received formal training in jazz and the number of those who did not, so as to explore
a wide range of understandings of and experiences in jazz education. Further, a broad
range of teaching qualifications (i.e. graduate diploma, bachelor’s, and/or master’s degree)
and classroom teaching experience was seen among these participants.
A purposive sampling procedure was chosen due to the highly specific nature of the
phenomenon of classroom jazz education, thus requiring individuals with expertise and
experience in this area (Burns, 2000). Using a passive snowballing strategy, teachers were
initially contacted by the researcher’s mutual contacts by phone or email with information
about the study. Those who confirmed their voluntary participation in the study were then
contacted again by the researcher, with electronic copies of the Participant Information
Statement (see Appendix B) and Participant Consent Form (see Appendix C). Due to the
limitations of the snowball sampling method, one participant (a known contact) was
approached directly in person by the researcher in order to involve a teacher from a
government school.
Table 1: Participants, years of teaching experience, musical backgrounds, school
sectors, and dates interviewed
Name Classroom
teaching
experience
Specialisation/
background
School sector Date
interviewed
Liam 3 years Jazz Independent 20/4/2020
Sophie 7 years Classical Independent 21/4/2020
Ethan 27 years Classical Independent 13/5/2020
Andrew 18 years Jazz Independent 21/5/2020
Michelle 25 years Classical Government 6/8/2020
Note. Pseudonyms have been used.
23
Data collection
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, with the aim of obtaining a wide
range of opinions and beliefs about jazz education with a certain degree of flexibility
(Burns, 2000). A single 40-60 minute interview was conducted with each participant via
Zoom or in person. An interview protocol (see Appendix D) was used in order to clarify
the focus and the purpose of the interviews, and to outline the emergent themes and topics
based on the literature and the guiding research questions. Depending on the experience
and expertise of each participant, the questions were modified during the interview process
to allow for a level of flexibility for the participants to express their opinions in their own
terms.
To enable transcription and coding, all interviews were audio recorded with the
participants’ permission. The recordings were stored on the researcher’s password-
protected computer and backed up onto an external hard drive for secure storage.
Following each interview, transcripts were reviewed by the participants to ensure the
accuracy and validity of their responses. Field notes were taken during and immediately
after interviews in order to record and verify any non-verbal observations and activities
that might illuminate or otherwise inform the data analysis process.
Data analysis
Data analysis was undertaken in keeping with grounded theory methodology, whereby data
is systematically gathered, examined, then grouped into categories of information
(Creswell, 2003; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Common themes, concepts, and
recurring ideas were identified through the analysis of interview transcripts, which were
labelled using codes according to topics.
To assist this process, a large-scale spreadsheet was created to systematically organise
interview annotations, descriptions, and additional comments. This method was informed
by Kramer’s (2012) evidence to argument model, which emphasises the connection
between the collection of smaller, detailed observations and the determination of larger
meanings. As new categories were generated, the data analysis process allowed the
researcher to review and modify various aspects of the data collection method. This
systematic approach was informed by the principles of the qualitative research paradigm as
24
discussed (Liamputtong, 2013; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The process of coding
enabled further examination of the similarities and differences across the interview results
(Creswell, 2003). The key concepts and themes identified through the data analysis process
will form the basis of the discussion of findings.
Validity, reliability, and ethical considerations
This study utilised triangulation in an effort to ensure the validity and reliability of the data
collected and analysed. The process of triangulation aims to minimise the possibility of
bias and prejudice by combining multiple theoretical and empirical models (Stake, 2006).
In a multiple case study design, triangulation can occur within each individual case, as well
as across cases. In the context of this study, it involved both data or source comparison and
theoretical perspectives. The participants’ accounts and understandings were compared on
the basis of their background, training, and experience, as well as with alternative
theoretical schemes within the literature, particularly those associated with narratives
relating to jazz history, authenticity, and identity. This strategy allowed the researcher to
identify the multiple realities and meanings discerned within the data gathered, with the
aim of reinforcing the credibility of the study.
The ethical considerations for this study were outlined in the ethics application submitted
to the University of Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) (see Appendix
A). Before and during the study, participants were asked for their consent to be interviewed
and recorded. All participants were informed that they may choose to withdraw from the
research at any time should they so wish, and that this would have no impact on their
current or future relationship with the University of Sydney or the researcher. Pseudonyms
have been created for both participants and schools in order to ensure anonymity and to de-
identify the data. Following the conclusion of the study, participants were also offered the
opportunity to receive feedback concerning the overall results of the study.
25
Chapter 4: Discussion of Findings
This chapter examines the participants’ understandings of jazz and the ways they
incorporate jazz into teaching and learning experiences in their classrooms in NSW
secondary schools. It begins by considering their responses to a set of semi-structured
interview questions developed in relation to the overarching research questions. After
transcribing the interviews in full, the participants’ views were meticulously examined
employing a process proposed by Michael Kramer (2012) in order to “transition from
evidence to what to make of that evidence” (para. 4), or from evidence to analysis and
ultimately, to argument. The research findings are presented through a number of topics
that were raised and discussed in the interviews, including definitions of jazz, jazz in
Australia, the role of jazz in the classroom, approaches to teaching jazz, the benefits and
challenges of teaching jazz, and essential skills in jazz education.
Defining jazz
Considered first are the participants’ perceptions of the music form itself. It was apparent
from their opening comments in response to a question about how they would define “the
genre of jazz” that the participants with jazz training were more confident than those with
classical training—or at least less reticent—regarding what they perceived jazz to be.
Michelle, an experienced classroom teacher with a classical background, was particularly
reluctant to put forward her definition of jazz, as she stated: “I think the definition of jazz
is a bit like, what is classical music? It’s the same question.” She further noted that there is
a “mystique around jazz amongst musicians generally”, describing the common
perceptions surrounding the aesthetic and theoretical complexities of the jazz art form.
Considered in retrospect, the interview question itself was biased to the extent that it
assumed genre status for jazz, as Liam, one of the jazz-trained participants pointed out
when he stated: “I don’t know if I’d even define it as a genre; it’s a musical style and an art
form”. On the other hand, Andrew, another participant with formal jazz training
confidently concurred that jazz is a genre, and quickly backed up his view up by listing
what he considered to be some of its essential defining characteristics: “I personally see it
as a genre which must include improvisation, but also is somehow connected to the roots
of jazz and blues.”
26
All participants rather quickly singled out improvisation as a key feature of jazz, although
as can be seen below, Liam paired improvisation with “personal expression” as primary
features:
Liam: There’s an emphasis on improvisation and personal expression.
Sophie: I suppose I would say jazz usually has an element of improvisation.
Ethan: I guess, [it’s] an improvisational form of music predominantly.
However, this jazz-trained participant quickly qualified the kind of improvisation he
believed was characteristic of jazz:
Andrew: For it to be jazz, it’s essential that the compositions include an
aspect of improvisation, but also that it’s not like free form, although
obviously, there are examples of free form improvisation.
Sophie, whose background is in classical music, stated that jazz “usually [involves] fairly
simple forms – even the most complicated jazz, the formal structure is fairly predictable”,
by which she likely meant 12 bar blues and 32 bar song form. By implication, like
Andrew, Sophie rules out jazz innovations dating from around 1960, such as the so-called
free jazz styles associated with Ornette Coleman and John Coltrane, characterised by its
seemingly “unconventional” and “otherworldly” form, tone, and technique (Ake, 2003, p.
268). It should be noted that here both participants may well be describing the kinds of jazz
they feel are most suitable for classroom exploration.
Further related to this point, as regards the historical roots of jazz, three of the participants
pointed to early jazz styles and national, ethno-cultural, and blues-based origins as being
among the defining features of jazz. In particular, Andrew confidently stated that jazz must
include or make reference to certain recognisable characteristics heard in early jazz
recordings, such as rhythmic and harmonic patterns (Ake, 2003).
Liam: It’s certainly music that comes originally from America and has its
origins significantly in the blues.
Sophie: … it’s a particular kind of culture that comes from the Black
American story.
27
Andrew: … it needs to have some connections, whether it’s swing feel …
some reference to the early jazz and blues.
According to Ethan, who was also concerned about how students grasped jazz, it has an
“easily traceable origin”, however he did not make specific reference to its historical and
cultural roots: “It’s easy for students to understand that you can put your finger easily on
really identifiable aspects of the development of jazz. You can divide it, easily, into eras
and styles and genres”. This statement is consistent with the common—but not
uncontested—periodisation narrative of jazz (DeVeaux, 1991). Also, with the general
exception of Liam, the participants’ statements were consistent with what Tony Whyton
(2013) terms “dominant antonyms” and commonly held assumptions about jazz that it is an
“essential Black music” that is “improvised not composed” and “American not European”
(p. 13).
All participants alluded to the diversity of jazz substyles, with some mention of
conventional musical features such as swing rhythm and syncopation. Classically trained
Michelle referred to jazz as a “hybrid” and a “combination of things”, describing the so-
called roots or routes debate as discussed by Robson (2015). This debate draws a
comparison between what is now considered the jazz tradition (DeVeaux, 1991), shaped by
the African American cultural experience, and the eventual globalisation of the art form
(Shand, 2008).
Michelle: I look at it from two perspectives—a historical thing, which we can
trace obviously, but also the idea of taking something and making
something else with it.
While there was a clear consensus on jazz and its historical relationship with black New
Orleans culture, no comments were made with regard to earlier jazz antecedents such as
African American slavery in the American South, ring shout dance tropes, and minstrelsy
(Ake, 2003; Whiteoak, 2015). This may perhaps indicate that while teachers are invested in
helping students understand the hybrid origins of jazz, they are less concerned with the
ongoing recontextualisation of the American Civil Rights Movement and its influence on
the jazz art form.
28
The place of jazz in Australia
Following the participants’ discussion of their perceptions of jazz in its broad sense, they
were asked what their perceptions were of the cultural and historical significance of jazz in
the context of Australian music. While most participants acknowledged the significance of
the relationship between jazz and its American origins, this question about the place of jazz
in Australian society, as well as our historical relationship with jazz, prompted slightly
differing responses. Only one participant—classically trained Ethan—confidently stated
that there is an “identifiably Australian [jazz] sound” (Shand, 2008), while others were
hesitant to describe what makes Australian jazz unique.
Sophie: I suppose it’s a very different culture in Australia, from what I can
tell, to what it might be in America … the history of the jazz culture
in Australia has not got so much sociocultural significance as it
might in New York or Chicago or New Orleans.
Michelle: I think that there’s some really strong jazz musicians and jazz
history here, but probably like most music in Australia, [jazz]
doesn’t get enough exposure … like rock or pop.
Andrew: I do think it has a very important place, in many facets and on many
levels.
Ethan: There is a reputation that Australian jazz performers enjoy … there
is a respect, internationally, for Australian jazz musicians.
When discussing aspects of the artistic and commercial developments in Australian jazz,
two of the participants attributed its “international reputation” to the impact of Australian
“greats” of the past such as Don Burrows, Graeme Bell, Bernie McGann, and Allan
Browne, most of whom are considered the “elder statesmen” of Australian jazz (Nikolsky,
2012, p. 79).
Andrew: … obviously, the American greats are significant … However, I
think, referencing some of the Australian greats, whether it be
people like Don Burrows … is important in teaching jazz as well, so
there’s that relevance … and quite often, they’ve also had an
international impact as well.
Ethan: I think that Australian jazz musicians—thanks to, probably, James
Morrison … there is an interest in Australian jazz by overseas
artists.
29
Classically trained Michelle stated that Australian jazz practitioners “unfortunately … still
have to go overseas to make a name.” This response was in contrast to Ethan’s comment
above, which affirmed that Australian jazz has an internationally recognisable sound,
contributing to its global artistic impact. Although there is a clear lack of mainstream
audience support for jazz in Australia, it has been described as a culture sustained and
supported by numerous “micro-communities” and “affinity clusters” (Robson, 2015, p.
43). In fact, this notion was discussed by four of the participants, who agreed that while
the Australian jazz scene is “small” and niche, the music form appeals to a passionate and
supportive group of people—its performers and audiences (Shand, 2008; Letts, 2020;
Robson, 2015).
Ethan: I think that our scene is small compared to other countries … I think
it’s probably bordering on a subculture. But I think that that
subculture is very supportive. You know, the audiences that like jazz
and support jazz, are very dedicated.
Liam: When it comes to Australian jazz, we certainly have maybe a small
scene, a very passionate group of people around the country who
love playing jazz, and it’s really important to them.
Following this last comment, Liam added that the narrow appeal of the jazz market is not
unique to Australia, but that this is the case globally, including in the birthplace of jazz.
Liam: It’s small—but it’s also small everywhere. It’s less than one per cent
of the music market in America, in the place where it’s from.
Only one participant—Sophie—drew a comparison between American and Australian jazz
cultures with reference to local “club” scenes and the ways in which audiences engage with
local performers. She also stated that Australian jazz performers and audiences enjoy a
freedom in this cultural difference (Johnson, 2014; Robson, 2015; Whiteoak, 2015), as
geographical remoteness helped to minimise the “sense of obligation” and “undue
repercussions” of defying USA models (Shand, 2008, p. 3).
Sophie: The canon isn’t quite so strong here. I remember that my dad … He
said that he’d go to a jazz club there [USA], and it was totally
different to here. You know, you’d have to be quiet and listen in a
serious manner. But here in Sydney, you sort of chat while you’re
listening. It’s a different kind of scene … but maybe there’s a
freedom in that—that you don’t have to pay all your dues.
30
Similarly, while participants agreed that the jazz narrative has been largely shaped and
dominated by the extent of the artistic developments in USS jazz, they did not perceive this
as a detriment to the viability of Australian jazz. When asked a follow-up question about
Murphy’s (2008) notion that Australian jazz practitioners experience a sense of isolation,
or a “cultural detachment” (p. 5) from USA’s jazz culture due our geographical and
political distance, one participant answered in this way:
Ethan: I don’t think that isolation is an issue too much. I think that
Australian jazz musicians—if they’re credible enough and have the
means—will travel overseas and hold their own in other countries …
I think that Australian jazz musicians are keeping up with what’s
current.
Only one participant, again Sophie, made specific reference to archetypal ideas such as
race, gender, and class associations in Australian jazz culture, describing it as a “middle-
class, young white male thing”. She emphasised that this is particularly apparent in
tertiary-level academic jazz courses. Some scholars have been especially critical of such
associations, attributing them to Australia’s “foundational criminality” and “convict-era
stained past” (Whiteoak, 2014, p. 25). Johnson (2019) also discussed the “tendency to
misogyny” throughout Australia’s jazz history, characterised by a “social veneer of
vernacular blokiness” (p. 113). However, Sophie commented that this was simply “part of
the culture” and therefore not necessarily “bad”.
Sophie: If you look at the Con [Sydney Conservatorium of Music] jazz
course … when I was there, it was mostly middle-class white males,
and there was the occasional woman who played the bass …
Because it is a young white male thing. Now that doesn’t mean it’s
bad, that just means that’s part of the culture of it.
It was found, to some extent, that the participants’ knowledge and perceptions of jazz in
the context of Australian music history and culture influenced their beliefs about classroom
jazz education. The remainder of this chapter will explore the place of jazz in the
Australian secondary school music classroom, with reference to teaching strategies,
benefits, challenges, key skills, and ideas.
31
The role of jazz in the classroom
When asked about the role, if any, of jazz in secondary school classroom music education,
the participants unanimously agreed that jazz had an important place in their respective
curricula. Given the nature of the purposive sampling procedure employed in this study,
these responses were expected, as all participants had previously taught or are currently
teaching jazz as a topic for study in the classroom. Nevertheless, various reasons were
given for the participants’ perceptions of the art form’s place in the classroom. To begin,
two of the participants criticised the NSW music syllabuses, curriculum design, and
common teaching approaches in classroom jazz education. Both participants discussed the
limitations of a topic-based approach, and jazz-trained Liam criticised music teachers’
reductive use of jazz as a tool for theoretical and stylistic understanding using clearly
defined jazz styles or eras (DeVeaux, 1991).
Sophie: Classroom music, in New South Wales at least, is trying to cover
everything and do a bit of everything. You do a different topic every
term, and that’s not necessarily the best way to learn music.
Liam: … at one of my prac [practicum] schools, there was a jazz unit for
Year 10 students. It essentially was about them learning seventh and
ninth chords—that was really all it was for … they were trying to
draw really neat boxes around bebop versus swing versus fusion …
for me, that was pretty disappointing.
On the other hand, classically trained Sophie favoured the theory-based approach as
endorsed in the literature by Jones (1997) and Forster (2010), describing jazz as a way for
students to learn about chords, modes, and forms.
Sophie: I use it as a way for them to learn about form in music, chord
patterns, and their formal role, how to notate syncopation, how to
look at the connection between modes and chords, and how to
understand seventh chords.
Other participants stated that they use jazz primarily as a tool for introducing
improvisation, facilitating creative expression, and building motivation and confidence in
students (Borgo, 2007; De Bruin, 2019; Sidran, 2002; Solis, 2016). In particular, Michelle,
who currently teaches a dedicated jazz unit of work to her Year 11 students, emphasised
the role of collaboration and peer learning in classroom jazz education. This practice is
32
rooted in early jazz history, wherein a “passing down” of musical parameters, ideals, and
“local aesthetics” occurred among musicians living in close proximity (Ake, 2003, p. 258).
Andrew: It’s certainly a great window into improvisation … improvisation is
obviously found in a wide variety of genres. However, to hopefully
introduce that freedom of improvisation and what’s capable, I think
jazz is a great window into that, and that works well in the
classroom.
Ethan: … it’s interesting, it’s motivating, because depending on where you
start your study … it presents challenges and sequences for learning,
right through a kid’s entire musical life … it provides creative
opportunities for someone to be free in the way they express
themselves.
Liam: … teaching the more general music/life thing of being confident in
your ideas, sharing them, and being open with other people sharing
their musical ideas.
Michelle: … [Year 11 jazz unit] is a really good way of getting them to work
with each other to create music together.
Another view regarding the historical and contextual study of jazz was expressed by
Andrew, Michelle, and Ethan, and it became apparent that this was an important
component of their jazz-focused lessons. This supports Chessher’s (2009) research
findings describing the prevalence of jazz history in classroom jazz programs. However,
Ethan and Michelle made clear that this was not of primary significance to their respective
curricula, as Michelle described that jazz history was a “kind of incidental” component of
her jazz units of work.
Andrew: … working through from early New Orleans music right through to
quite modern jazz and stepping through everything in between,
there’s a lot of historical significance, and it also lines up with
particular eras.
Ethan: … as much as I don’t like to talk too much about music history…
the history of jazz presents itself in very clearly defined moments of
time. Lots of students find those historical aspects … [it] gives you
something to hang on to.
In her final comment on the role of jazz in the classroom, Sophie reflected that a music
form should not be defined by its educational purpose. This statement helped to elucidate a
viewpoint that was not previously considered—music educators should aim to develop a
33
broad, multifaceted outlook on all art forms outside of the classroom context, so as to
circumvent prejudice or the likelihood of developing rigid beliefs and expectations about
certain musics.
Sophie: … it has a role. You try not to subsume the genre into the role it has
in the classroom, but that’s true of any music, I suppose.
It was evident that all participants were proud of their jazz-based lessons and of their
ability to adapt their jazz programs to suit their students’ learning goals and interests. This
was attributed to the diverse and versatile nature of the music, which allowed for a flexible
approach. Following the above responses, the participants discussed their jazz teaching
experiences in the classroom in comparison with teaching scenarios outside of the
classroom.
Teaching jazz in the classroom vs. other settings
In addition to their classroom teaching experience, all participants were previously or are
currently involved in non-classroom jazz teaching scenarios such as private instrumental
lessons and co-curricular or extracurricular ensembles. It was initially assumed that the
participants’ pedagogical approaches in these situations would differ greatly from those
seen in the classroom, as highlighted by the literature (Chessher, 2009; Richardson, 2019).
When asked to compare these teaching scenarios, all participants made reference to the
theory/performance dichotomy as the main point of difference. While jazz-trained Liam
and Andrew stated that their non-classroom jazz teaching experience was more theory-
focused, in contrast with their performance-focused classroom teaching approach, the exact
opposite was the case for classically trained Sophie, Michelle, and Ethan.
Andrew: There’s more of a focus on theoretical knowledge outside of the
classroom … Quite often, [in] external or private lessons, there’s
usually more assumed knowledge … more of an understanding.
Sophie: When it’s been outside of the classroom, there’s been far less
emphasis on learning scales and learning chords … the emphasis is
more on just playing a lot … and much less notation as well.
Liam criticised the overemphasis on jazz theory seen in some classroom jazz programs,
while noting that there is a “missing link” between established jazz pedagogies in various
34
teaching contexts. This notion has been discussed by Whyton (2006) who describes it as an
“another unhelpful polarity” (p. 76). Similarly, Borgo (2007) recommends an “embodied,
situated, and distributed” (p. 62) type of learning in the classroom as an attempt to close
this gap. Liam advocated the use of the Orff Schulwerk approach in classroom jazz
education, which emphasises the comprehensive integration of practical music making and
movement and speech-based experiences.
Liam: I’d love to see more of that Orff-style pedagogy [in the classroom]. I
think that could be really beneficial both for primary students and
probably for high school students as well … They could definitely
do it if it was taught in this less theoretical kind of way.
Ethan, who has considerable experience directing large jazz ensembles, mentioned that he
does not “get too hung up on analysing harmony or thinking historically about a piece” in
ensemble scenarios. On the other hand, he described his classroom teaching approach as
being more “formal”, as he aims to expose his students to a “logical sequence of
understanding” involving theoretical and stylistic conventions.
Ethan: So you’re digging deeper in the classroom. You’re digging deeper
into conventions and concepts, and you’re talking about structure
and all that … in a very formal way.
From the above responses, it was apparent that the classically trained participants largely
favoured a structured, theory-focused approach in the classroom as endorsed by Forster
(2010) and Jones (1997), though this approach was used in conjunction with freer
improvisation activities. The overemphasis on jazz theory seen in some jazz units of work
was criticised by the jazz-trained participants, whose comments were aligned with the
recommendations made by the proponents of embodied jazz education such as Ake (2003),
Borgo (2007), Richardson (2019), and Whyton (2006). The discussion that followed this
topic focused on the specific pedagogical methodologies employed by the participants in
their jazz-focused classroom lessons.
Pedagogical strategies in classroom jazz education
Three major themes emerged from the participants’ responses to a question about their
classroom jazz teaching strategies: scaffolding, assessment, and differentiation. Due to the
apparent scarcity of literature surrounding established classroom jazz pedagogies and
35
related curricula or resources, it was anticipated that the participants’ individual
approaches might vary considerably in scope and detail.
Sophie discussed the role of simplicity in her jazz units of work and the rationale behind
her view. When introducing a unit, she emphasised that she “keep[s] the theory separate to
the improvising.” This approach was attributed to the large number of classically trained,
“AMEB-oriented” students in her elective music classes, for whom there is an “expectation
of virtuosity” which is “quite paralysing when you’re coming at jazz for the first time.”
Classically trained Michelle supported this scaffolded approach. Generally, group
improvisation was considered to be an effective strategy for introducing the topic of jazz to
students due to its accessibility and pedagogical opportunities for peer modeling. In
particular, Michelle stated that this method allowed students to improve their confidence
and overcome their initial fear of improvisation.
Sophie: We always start with improvising on one, two, or three notes … so
they’re forced to use tone colours and rhythms to improvise … I try
not to start with scales and chords … That actually forces them not
to go up and down the scales the boring way.
Michelle: … could be a blues progression or a simple 4-bar, 8-bar jazz
progression … get them to improvise rhythmically first as a class …
it’s gonna sound like a muddle, but that’s alright. The kids build the
confidence to do something without being on the spot.
Similarly, jazz-trained Andrew used one of his Year 11 lessons as an example—what he
described as an “introduction of the modes”, which encompasses “listening examples,
composition, and performance.” In this lesson, students were instructed to improvise using
only the mixolydian mode through increasingly difficult activities. This scaffolding model
based on guided improvisation was also discussed by classically trained Ethan and
Michelle, who provided opportunities for students to progress from “fairly basic to more
complex, in easy chunks.” Ethan’s comment below indicates that his views were aligned
with Forster’s (2010) belief that experienced jazz musicians do not “pick notes out of thin
air” (p. 3), and that a theoretical understanding of chords, scales, and key centres plays an
essential role in jazz improvisation.
Ethan: … [I] say to them, “Just use those five notes starting on C.” Give
them a couple of parameters to work with … When jazz musicians
36
do this, they don’t just make it up on the spot. They’re working
within parameters.
All participants mentioned the relationship between their scaffolding approach and
assessment, with the overall aim of helping students move progressively towards a formal,
end-of-term task. Assessment methods varied in scope, but they primarily involved
composition or arrangement in various jazz substyles demonstrating theoretical and
stylistic knowledge. Sophie criticised her own assessment design, describing it as “anti-
jazz” and “inauthentic” due to its undue emphasis on notation.
Andrew: … the end goal is to arrange and perform their own jazz standard, so
not to necessarily copy a particular version but … make it their own.
Sophie: The overriding assessment for the unit is—what I usually say is very
anti-jazz …—they have to write a blues form, head with an
accompaniment … It’s completely notated, any dynamics and
expressive techniques, the improvisations.
Participants were then asked to describe their differentiation strategies for students with
varying skill levels and backgrounds in their jazz-focused lessons. Most strategies were
linked to performance and aural activities, presenting a range of challenges and sequences
for learning regardless of the student’s level of conceptual knowledge, technical facility,
and note-reading abilities. Teachers at times favoured the use of ability-based grouping and
differentiated instruction, with the overall aim of extending the skills of virtuosic,
technically accomplished students. On the other hand, for students with less musical
experience or technical facility, teachers focused on specific and achievable goals such as
keeping the beat and playing in time.
Sophie: [As a challenge] I might get someone who’s an amazing saxophone
player to play the keyboard … get them on the wrong instrument …
it kind of frees them up a bit.
Andrew: Where I had a more developed flute player, a saxophonist … as
opposed to giving them a score, they had to listen to the piece …
transcribe it themselves on the spot … where for our bass player and
guitarist, just playing in time and keeping a solid groove was quite
the challenge.
Michelle: With the more advanced students, you’re able to extend the chords
and get them to experiment further.
37
While all participants agreed on the importance of ability-based differentiation in the
classroom, the issue of students’ differing musical backgrounds and interests proved
somewhat contentious, as seen in the following exchange:
Interviewer: Is there a difference in the instructional language you use when
you’re talking to classically trained students versus popular music
students?
Andrew: No. I try to, wherever possible, use the appropriate language for the
genre or style.
Liam: With the classical students, you need to be much more explicit about
the differences in playing style, articulation, and what makes
something sound good, than you do with students who are more self-
taught.
Michelle: With the advanced kids, you’re using the correct language, and you
don’t have to explain it.
Liam, in particular, emphasised the distinction between a so-called classical sound—often
developed through years of rigorous formal music training—and a jazz sound, and that
these two playing styles can be identified through the differences in their “subtleties.” This
idea of a “good jazz sound”, as discussed by jazz educators, is often related to the sonority-
based norms of intonation and timbre heard in early jazz recordings (Ake, 2003). This
notion is closely related to the previously mentioned issue of genre specificity (Ake, 2016;
Borgo, 2007; Lill, 2015; Solis, 2016), as it holds that a jazz sound requires years of formal
instruction and training and cannot be easily replicated by musicians with rigorous
classical training. It was evident that this perception has prompted him to adopt such
differentiation strategies in his jazz-focused lessons.
Liam: I need to say to them [classical students], “The standard jazz
articulation for a crochet is the fat crochet … When you play swing
rhythms, you need to slightly emphasise the off beats more … that’s
how you should articulate.” I have to be really explicit with them
because they’ve learnt a specific way of playing. That often means
that even when they play good jazz melodies, they don’t sound right.
All the subtleties of tone, inflection, phrasing, and articulation are all
very classical and makes it sound stilted.
Lastly, two of the participants discussed the role of teacher attitudes and their impact on
student learning in classroom jazz education, with an emphasis on demonstrating a sincere,
38
positive outlook towards the music as a modeling strategy. It is worth noting that Andrew,
a jazz-trained teacher, highlighted the importance of showing his enthusiasm and
excitement towards the music, while Sophie, a classically trained teacher, approached the
music with a sense of curiosity and intrigue in the classroom.
Andrew: … my enthusiasm, my interest and my skills become apparent in the
lesson, which then helps with engaging the students … if you’re
passionate about it yourself, that’s fairly infectious.
Sophie: I’m always fairly honest with my background … I’m a classical
musician teaching jazz … I’m sort of presenting myself as someone
who’s very curious and loves jazz but has a go and is not very good
at it.
In relation to teaching strategies, it was apparent that each of the participants had
developed a highly individualised approach to delivering their classroom jazz lessons,
which can perhaps be attributed to the lack of established jazz curricula available for
classroom use in Australia. Most teachers noted that their respective jazz programs were
carefully planned through a number of adjustments and improvements, and that this was a
continuous, reflective process.
Benefits and challenges of classroom jazz education
The benefits of jazz education have been largely linked to the popular perception that jazz
is an aesthetically complex and rich art music form that also facilitates creative expression
through improvisation (Ake, 2003; Forster, 2010; West, 2011; Worthy, 2011). This view
has allowed jazz scholars and educators to distinguish the art form from other
improvisation-based styles in educational contexts. As expected, improvisation was one of
the primary benefits of classroom jazz education recognised by the participants. Among
the other related benefits mentioned were student motivation, improving composition and
listening skills, and the stylistic diversity of the art form.
Ethan: There’s a different level of motivation and engagement that, I think,
you get from a really great jazz performance.
Sophie: [That’s] the nice thing about jazz … certain genres of jazz prioritise
more virtuosity, improvisation, and harmonic language than other
genres.
39
While the literature has singled out the problem of “genre specificity” as the biggest
challenge facing teachers in classroom jazz education (Ake, 2016; Borgo, 2007; Lill, 2015;
Solis, 2016), none of the participants’ responses attested to this issue. In fact, when asked
specifically to discuss this phenomenon, all participants confidently stated that their
respective jazz programs focused on the “transferability” of jazz skills and therefore
considered it to be a benefit rather than a difficulty.
Liam: … the way that I was teaching [jazz] … they could definitely apply
all their skills to other contexts. They’re learning about
improvisation, composing through improvising, listening to each
other, playing as a group, and maintaining a steady beat.
Sophie: … we’re focusing on the transferability of it. Learning to hear forms
and learning chords. We just did a unit on baroque music, and we
were finding all these 2-5-1s and cycles of fifths.
Ethan: I don’t see the use of language as being an issue … we say …
“These are the musical concepts, and they are common across all
styles of music.” So we do try and use a combined language … that
students can take from one year to the next, or one subject or topic
area to the next.
Michelle: I think they’re all interlinked actually. All that harmonic knowledge,
tritone substitutions … it’s more about being able to analyse
something and have that grounded knowledge … I think it’s
transferable in that way.
While further clarifying her view, one participant mentioned that the “genre specificity”
problem is largely seen in tertiary institutions due to the specialised nature of academic
jazz programs, and therefore explained that it should not be considered a difficulty in
classroom jazz education. This viewpoint was in clear contrast to the previously discussed
challenges of teaching jazz in pre-tertiary contexts. In fact, all five teachers stated that their
jazz programs facilitated the cumulative development of foundational concepts and skills
such as the knowledge of harmony, modes, and scales, rather than specific jazz idiom or
terminology.
Sophie: … the way that jazz is taught at a conservatorium—you have to
jump through certain apprenticeship hoops to show that you can play
in this person’s style … but in the classroom, you’re not limited by
that at all because you never actually get to that level.
40
Among the challenges discussed by the participants were meeting curriculum standards,
assessment design, lack of resources, and building student confidence. Liam discussed the
difficulties associated with curriculum design and adhering to its components such as
learning objectives and success criteria, as this presents a direct conflict with the most
widely recognised values of personal expression in jazz education.
Liam: … the expectations of NESA [New South Wales Education
Standards Authority] are that you will write a curriculum or unit
which shows how each activity is mapping to the standards, and that
there’ll be a formal assessment … you can turn your jazz unit into
something that is—by the end of it, students will be able to play
these four licks and transpose 2-5-1.
Four of the participants commented on the fear of improvisation and the performance-
related inhibitions seen in older secondary school students (Ladano, 2016). According to
Andrew, younger students are less likely to display the same anxieties in the classroom:
“The younger they are, the more open they are to giving it a try, and they’ll have a great
time.” Michelle drew on her own schooling experience, with reference to learning to
improvise for the first time, stating: “As a classical musician, the thought of improvising
was terrifying.” This was related to her previous comment describing the perceived
“mystique” surrounding jazz improvisation. Similarly, Ethan noted that this issue is largely
seen in virtuosic, technically accomplished students. According to his teaching experience,
the “average to satisfactory performer is often the less inhibited kid … they’re happy to
have a go at improvising because they’ve got nothing to lose.” Andrew also added that his
female students were often more likely to experience this type of apprehension, supporting
the widely held antonymic view that jazz creativity is masculine not feminine (Whyton,
2013).
Andrew: … the biggest difficulty to deal with, is students who may be shy or
uncomfortable with improvising … particularly with the older
students … and often girls, not only limited to girls … [they] just
find it difficult to express themselves.
All participants observed that their jazz teaching programs have enabled a multifaceted
educational experience for their students, primarily due to the aesthetic and stylistic
diversity of the art form. Teachers also attested to the transferability of jazz skills across
musical styles. The adaptability of jazz pedagogies across age groups and skill levels was
41
also discussed, as Liam affirmed, “I think jazz can be taught to any age group in some
form, but what you’re going to teach … [is] going to be quite different.” Teachers
expressed mixed views about the perceived and actual challenges of classroom jazz
education, some of which were linked to the students’ perception of foreignness and lack
of familiarity with and knowledge of jazz. However, most teachers confirmed that such
obstacles were only trivial and did not pose a major hindrance to their students’ overall
learning experience. According to Ethan, “… as long as it’s managed correctly … there’s
really no drawbacks at all, to studying jazz,” emphasising the teacher’s responsibility to
mitigate such challenges through careful planning.
Key skills and ideas in jazz education
With the exception of improvisation, the NSW Music syllabus documents do not explicitly
define the key musical skills and knowledge that should be integrated into and
demonstrated in classroom jazz lessons. Instead, the “suggested aspects of study” for the
topic of jazz include general terms such as “a specific style” and “music of a group”
(Board of Study NSW, 2003, p. 38). In an attempt to elucidate this matter, participants
were asked which skills and ideas they considered to be the most important in classroom
jazz education. Immediately, all participants singled out improvisation as the main musical
skill that they wish to impart to their students through the teaching of jazz. This belief was
presumably shaped by their understanding of improvisation as the key defining feature of
jazz, as discussed previously. Jazz was also considered to be one of the most motivating
and aesthetically diverse contexts for the study of improvisation. Sophie gave the
following reason for her view:
Sophie: I would like them to be comfortable improvising, not only because
it’s fun, but also because it’s a skill that is good for composition
more generally … composition is another one of those elements of
the syllabus that often get neglected. People become technically
virtuosic at their instrument without ever having composed
anything, or ever having improvised, or ever playing anything by ear
… Jazz requires you to teach that, so that’s a good thing.
Jazz-trained Liam also mentioned “training your ear and being able to hear harmonic
rhythm” as an important musical skill, as this allows students to “move freely within” a
harmonic progression and “not lose your place” with reference to improvisation. This
42
comment was followed by a discussion of rhythm in jazz and its pedagogical role, as
observed in the students who have studied jazz:
Liam: I think hearing, listening, and really, rhythm. I think rhythm is king
… having a good internal metronome … the jazz students at school
who have studied jazz have a much stronger sense of time than those
who haven’t studied it.
It should be noted that Liam was the only participant who mentioned rhythm as a key skill
in jazz education, supporting Sidran’s (2002) view that there is a clear “deemphasis of
rhythm” in most academic jazz programs (p. 117). Despite the apparent prevalence of
swing and syncopation in jazz, as well as the popular understanding that a jazz sub-style is
largely defined by its feel, rhythm still appears to be a commonly neglected aspect of jazz
in educational scenarios. It may also be said that rhythm in jazz is often taught incidentally
rather than explicitly through the cumulative development of improvisation skills.
Ethan commented on the use of reflective practice in jazz education as a tool for
motivation and personal development, emphasising the role of enjoyment and confidence
in the teaching and learning process. This response indicated that the pedagogical benefits
of jazz are often not only linked to the art form’s musical values, but also its emphasis on
key life skills such as self-awareness and metacognitive regulation. Similarly, Michelle
singled out “having a go” and “going out of your comfort zone” as the most important skill
in jazz education, further highlighting the use of jazz as a means of instilling a positive
attitude towards learning in students.
Ethan: We do a lot of video recording of kids’ performances … that we
play back to them for reflective practice. By watching themselves,
they can see themselves improving … We just want to see kids get
better and enjoy getting better … that’s what, I think, the kids get
out of it too.
Another key idea discussed by Andrew was the importance of individuality or “finding
your own sound” through the teaching of jazz improvisation, including harmonic language
and sonority-based characteristics such as timbre and intonation (Ake, 2003). In his view,
students should also be encouraged to understand the “importance of the greats and their
sound”, and that “if a jazz listener hears one of the greats, they are recognisable by their
43
tone, their sound, and their feel.” By saying this, he affirms the role of the “dominant jazz
history canon” (Coss, 2018, p. 8) in his jazz programs.
Andrew: … when it comes to the point of them improvising, that’s when they
need to develop a different sound and really put their stamp on it,
which is hopefully somehow educated, or somehow refers to the
greats and the significant artists that have come before them.
Among the other musical and non-musical skills mentioned were ensemble skills,
transcription skills, confidence, and peer modeling, although not all participants discussed
these themes explicitly. On the whole, it was evident that teachers recognised the
importance of facilitating engagement and creative expression through the teaching of jazz.
Beyond musical skills, various personal competencies and attitudes to learning were
considered essential to jazz education. These findings resemble those of other jazz
education-related studies by Chessher (2009), Coss (2018), De Bruin (2019), and
Richardson (2019), which underscore the values of experiential, enculturative learning.
44
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusion
This study examined the current place of jazz in New South Wales secondary classroom
music education as well as teachers’ perceptions of and approaches to the inclusion of jazz
in their classroom teaching. Data were gathered through a multiple case study design using
semi-structured interviews conducted with five secondary school classroom music teachers
living and working in New South Wales, all of whom have previously taught or are
currently teaching jazz in the classroom and who included a school term-length jazz topic
at elective music level in their programming. Three of these participants had received
classical music training; the remaining two had undergone tertiary jazz training.
Analysis of the interview data found these classroom music teachers consider jazz to be a
valuable topic for study in their respective classroom curricula. They expressed a range of
opinions regarding the cultural and historical significance of jazz in Australia, including
that while the art form has an important place in contemporary Australian society, it has
limited appeal to a mainstream audience due to its perceived complexity or otherness and
its meagre representation in the broadcast media (Letts, 2020). Despite this perception, all
participants stated that jazz has considerable potential for facilitating creativity,
collaboration, and individuality of expression in the twenty-first century secondary music
classroom.
Perceptions of classroom jazz education in NSW secondary schools
While music teachers attested to the pedagogical value of classroom jazz education, they
identified the students’ perception of foreignness and lack of familiarity with and
knowledge of jazz to be a challenging issue impacting student learning. Teachers attributed
this to limited media exposure and commercial availability of jazz and consequently, the
shortage of young Australian jazz audiences (Letts, 2020; Shand, 2008). Although teachers
considered jazz to be a small, specialised culture in Australia, they agreed that jazz appeals
to a dedicated and supportive group of performers and audiences.
The role of jazz in classroom music education was linked to the artistic diversity and merit
of the music, as well as its emphasis on particular musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
skills. Jazz was perceived to be a valuable pedagogical tool for the development of
45
improvisation, composition, and listening skills in students, as well as being of cultural and
historical significance. In addition to musical skills, teachers highlighted the importance of
fostering positive attitudes to learning through the use of jazz, modeling an enthusiastic
and curious outlook towards the art form in order to motivate their students. Teachers also
reported that the use of collaboration and peer learning in classroom jazz lessons boosted
student confidence and engagement.
Teachers’ perspectives on the benefits and challenges of classroom jazz education helped
to elucidate a broad range of pedagogical issues. While most existing jazz education
research singled out “genre specificity” as the greatest difficulty facing teachers of jazz
(Ake, 2016; Borgo, 2007; Lill, 2015; Solis, 2016), participants believed that most
idiomatic jazz skills and knowledge are transferable to other genres and styles of music. As
a result, teachers did not perceive this phenomenon to be a learning obstacle. It was found
that most teachers’ classroom jazz-based lessons focused on the development of a diverse,
varied skill base incorporating performance, composition, and listening through the use of
a jazz-based repertoire, rather than specific jazz conventions or idioms. This strategy was
perceived to enhance the transferability of the students’ musical abilities to other contexts
and topics studied in the classroom, including classical, baroque, rock, and non-Western
styles. Some of the challenges of classroom jazz education were linked to the lack of
student confidence towards improvisation, curriculum requirements, and assessment
design.
Methods of teaching jazz in the classroom
The pedagogical strategies employed by the participants in their classroom jazz lessons
included a range of scaffolding, differentiation, and assessment approaches. On the whole,
teachers emphasised the use of small, easily achievable goals to break down larger tasks,
allowing students to move progressively towards a stronger understanding of concepts and
skills. When introducing jazz improvisation to students, teachers advocated the use of
modeling and setting clear parameters for students to work within, such as limiting the
number of notes they may use or providing a simple rhythmic idea as a starting point.
Group improvisation was found to be the most common method used to introduce the topic
of jazz to students. This strategy was to facilitate peer modeling and instruction, a widely
46
accepted practice rooted in early jazz history, learning and teaching jazz in local, mostly
informal settings among musicians living in close proximity.
Differentiation methods in classroom jazz lessons primarily focused on adjusting
instruction and modeling approaches to suit their students’ needs and prior knowledge,
such as explaining the concept of swing and rhythmic irregularity using explicit, detailed
terminology for virtuosic, classically trained students. All teachers favoured the use of
ability-based grouping in the classroom, particularly for performance and composition
tasks to further facilitate differentiation. Assessment methods varied in scope and detail,
but were mainly presented as a summative, end-of-term task involving the performance,
composition, or arrangement of a jazz standard demonstrating stylistic and theoretical
knowledge.
While all five teachers supported the use of free, often group-based, jazz-like
improvisation activities as a starting point for the study of jazz, a clear theory/performance
dichotomy was established among their general teaching approaches. The classically
trained teachers described their classroom jazz teaching methods as being more formal,
structured, and theory-focused when compared to their jazz teaching experiences outside
the classroom, which were more performance-based and less concerned with theory. On
the other hand, the jazz-trained teachers favoured a freer, practical approach in the
classroom, while using a more in-depth, theory-based approach in their co-curricular or
extracurricular jazz lessons. This was attributed to higher levels of assumed knowledge and
skills in students undertaking jazz lessons outside the classroom. It was concluded that on
the whole, teachers valued the importance of developing a personalised jazz teaching
approach to suit their students’ prior knowledge and musical experience.
Implications for music teachers and administrators
The study findings indicate that the inclusion of jazz in NSW secondary school classroom
music education has the potential to be very beneficial. There is an apparent lack of
established school-based jazz curricula and teaching resources available for classroom use
in Australia, resulting in a reluctance among teachers to include the topic of jazz in their
teaching. Jazz was perceived to be a valuable pedagogical tool for student learning not
only for its artistic, cultural, and historical significance, but also improving student
47
motivation and developing confidence and facilitating creative expression. Even so, jazz is
largely considered a niche, foreign culture to the general public in Australia, secondary-
aged students in particular, due to limited media exposure. For this reason, interested
classroom music teachers might consider ways to collectively address the current state of
the jazz art form in Australia and how best to include it in their teaching to sustain its local
culture. Teachers and administrators may also benefit from collaborating with existing jazz
education and performance organisations such as Sydney Improvised Music Association
and Jazz Workshop Australia, as well as local jazz musicians. Moreover, the Australian
Society for Music Education and its state chapters could play a role here, with support and
advocacy. The study of jazz in the secondary school classroom could positively contribute
to the financial and artistic growth of jazz in Australia, and to the development of a larger
young jazz audience.
Recommendations for further study
This study did not set out to analyse the development of Australian jazz history and
culture, which has been examined in some detail in Johnson (1995; 2006; 2019), Shand
(2008), and Whiteoak (2014; 2015), among others. Further, the study should not be read as
a critique of Australian classroom music teachers’ individual jazz teaching approaches.
It is, however, an analysis of the current attitudes and approaches relating to the classroom
inclusion of jazz, among a handful of New South Wales secondary school classroom music
teachers. The research concentrated on the teachers’ approaches to jazz performance and
improvisation; the musicological study of jazz works, including those by Australian
composers and arrangers, was not emphasised or highlighted in the study.
Due to the study’s small sample size its results cannot be generalised to the wider
population of music teachers. The findings of this study are also limited to teachers
working in Government and Independent school sectors in New South Wales. Further
research is warranted on a broader range of perspectives among a larger population of
music teachers in various Australian states, as well as teachers working within all school
systems (Government, Independent, Catholic) across these regions. It is also worth noting
that all participants were currently practicing classroom music teachers with considerable
teaching experience between them. It may be beneficial to examine the perceptions and
48
practices of pre-service music teachers in order to evaluate the efficacy of current teacher
training programs involving jazz education.
While the participants selected for the study expressed their views regarding the cultural
and historical place of jazz in Australian classroom music education and discussed their
classroom jazz teaching strategies, no opinions were conveyed with regard to the role of
the dominant jazz discourse (Whyton, 2013) in their students’ learning experiences.
Further research is needed to explore which strategies, if any, teachers employ in order to
help students learn about the issues of homogenisation and authenticity in jazz, including
the establishment of the jazz canon as discussed by DeVeaux (1991) and its Australian
equivalent (Nikolsky, 2012).
Although the use of semi-structured interviews in this study facilitated in-depth discussion
of classroom jazz education, more comprehensive research using a range of additional
qualitative and quantitative data collection methods would provide a more complete
picture of current attitudes and practices relating to jazz in the secondary classroom. This
may be enabled through methods similar to those of Mandura Ward-Steinman (2007), in
which participants rated their confidence in teaching improvisation before and after
undertaking a series of vocal jazz workshops. Such studies would greatly benefit and
contribute to the growing body of knowledge in contemporary jazz education.
Conclusion
Teaching jazz in the Australian secondary school classroom presents teachers with a
unique set of challenges. While jazz is largely considered one of the most aesthetically rich
and historically significant of global musical art forms, it receives limited media exposure
and offers few commercial opportunities in Australia. Further, there are even fewer
resources and initiatives dedicated to the teaching of jazz in the classroom. As a
consequence, this leads the majority of teachers and students to perceive the art form to be
foreign and inaccessible when it comes to its place in Australian music education.
However, the pedagogical potential of jazz has been highlighted by a large volume of
research and was certainly supported by the teachers in this study. The benefits of
classroom jazz education have been linked to increased student motivation, the
development of improvisation, performance, composition, and listening skills, and the
49
aesthetic diversity of the art form. It may be said that the study of jazz in the secondary
school classroom has considerable potential to play an important role in young musicians’
lives and could contribute to the artistic and commercial growth and support for jazz in
Australia, including unique local jazz expressions. It is evident that Australian classroom
music teachers and their students would benefit from including jazz in their classroom
curricula.
50
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Appendix A: Ethics Approval Letter
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Appendix B: Participant Information Statement
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Appendix C: Participant Consent Form
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Appendix D: Interview Protocol
