The Photographic Eye

R E V I S E D E D I T I O N

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYELearning to See with a Camera

Michael F. O'Brien & Norman Sibley


Michael E O'Brien & Norman Sibley

Davis Publications, Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts

Copyright 1995Davis Publications, Inc.Worcester, Massachusetts U.S.A.

To the photography students ofSeoul American High School, past,present and future.

No part of this work may be repro-duced or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic or mechan-ical, including photocopying and re-cording, or by any informationstorage or retrieval system withoutthe prior written permission of thecopyright owner, unless such copy-ing is expressly permitted by federalcopyright law. Davis is not autho-rized to grant permission for furtheruses of copyrighted selections or im-ages reprinted in this text without thepermission of their owners. Permis-sion must be obtained from the indi-vidual copyright owners as identifiedherein. Address requests for permis-sion to make copies of Davis mate-rial to Permissions, Davis Publi-cations, Inc., 50 Portland Street,Worcester, MA 01608.

Editor: Claire Mowbray Golding

Design: Greta D. Sibley

Printed in the United States ofAmerica

Library of Congress Catalog CardNumber: 93-74644

ISBN: 0-87192-283-5

1 0 9 8 7 6 5

Cover: Student photograph by LeahGendler.

Student photograph by Gregory Conrad.

4 The Photographic Eye

Contents

7 Introduction

Part 1 Getting Started

11 Chapter 1 From Blurs to Big BusinessHistory • Photographic Careers

Part 2 Elements of Composition

35 Chapter 2 ToolsManual or Automatic? • The Camera, Inside & Out • Exercises: Testing the Shutter & Aperture• Loading Film

51 Chapter 3 What is Composition?Snapshots vs. Photographs • Structure, Balance, Dynamics • Exercises: Mat Frame • Cropping

67 Chapter 4 Developing A Critical EyeCritique Session • Evaluating a Print • Exercise: Sample Crit

83 Chapter 5 Point of Departure (f!6 at 1/125)Starting Simply • Doing it Right

87 Chapter 6 LinePattern, Structure, Direction • Exercise: Pattern

95 Chapter 7 TextureExpressing the "Feel" • Exercise: Leaves

103 Chapter 8 ShapeMass, Proportion & Relation • Using Negative Space * Exercise: Circles & Ovals

113 Chapter 9 LightControlling Exposure • Information & Mood • Using a Light Meter • Other Functions of Light• Depth of Field * Exercise: Bracketing

129 Chapter 10 MotionThe Science of Blurs • Stop and Co • Exercise: Blurred Movement

137 Chapter 11 PerspectiveLenses • Different Ways of Seeing • A Point of View • Exercise: A Point of View

Part 3 People, Places & Things: Exercises & Examples

151 Chapter 12 ThingsExercises: Bicycle • Hubcaps & Taillights • Eggs • Object & Its Shadow • Bottles & Classes • Water• Old Things

167 Chapter 13 PlacesExercises: Landscape • Architecture & Environment • Neighborhoods • Zoo/Farm • Store Windows* Construction Sites

181 Chapter 14 PeopleExercises: Hands • Elders • Children • Soft-Light Portrait • Side-Lit Portrait • Prop Portrait • DetailPortrait • Mood Portrait

197 Chapter 15 Putting It All TogetherExercises: Fairs • Open Markets • Rain • Playgrounds • Sports Events

209 Chapter 16 Breaking the RulesExercises: Night • Monotone • Silhouettes • Grain and Diffusion • Double Exposure • Photo-CopyPhotos • Panel Panorama • Text and Image

Appendixes

227 Appendix 1 ProcessingProcessing Film • Printing • Manipulation

243 Appendix 2 ColorFrom B&W to Color • Technical Considerations

253 Appendix 3 Manipulation & PresentationPresentation * Manipulation

265 Appendix 4 Advanced TechniquesTools

272 Mat Frame (template)

273 Cropping L's (template)

275 Bibliography

279 Glossary

281 Index

287 Acknowledgments


Introduction

P hotography is both an artand a science. As an art, itexpresses a personal vision.

As a science, it relies on technology.This double nature is not unique tophotography. Every kind of creativeexpression —such as music, dance orpainting —has both a purely artisticside and a more scientific or tech-ological side as well. For example,paints are a kind of technology, andusing them well involves a consid-rable amount of technical skill. Themain difference between photogaphyand more traditional visual arts, suchas painting, is the complexity of itstechnology.

In any of the arts, the first steptoward excellence is mastering tech-ique — learning to use a specific tech-ology skillfully and effectively. Inphotography, this means that youmust learn to control the camera anddarkroom equipment, rather than let-ting them control you.

No artist, however creative, canproduce a masterpiece without asound basis in technique. On theother hand, no amount of technicalskill can make up for a lack of artisticvision. Both are essential. The goalof any artist is to use good techniquecreatively.

Simply speaking, a camera is amachine that produces a two-dimensional (flat) copy of a three-

dimensional scene. The process bywhich this is done may seem likemagic. (In fact, when cameras werefirst introduced, many people all overthe world thought that they weremagic.) Fundamentally, however,there's no magic in the camera. It'sjust a box with a hole in it. Yousupply the magic. When you, thephotographer, use a camera creative-ly, it changes from a simple,mechanical machine into an artist'stool. Instead of making randomcopies of things, it begins to saysomething about them.

Here are some of the technicalquestions a photographer mustanswer for every photograph: Howwill the lighting affect the clarity andmood of the photograph? How fastshould the shutter speed be? Howlarge a lens opening should be used?What should be in focus? Whatbelongs in the frame, and whatdoesn't? What lens should be used?

All these factors influence eachother, and they all affect the finalphotograph. A photograph is "suc-cessful"—in the technical sense —when these factors all work welltogether and are combined with cor-rect darkroom procedures. When acreative composition is added, thephotograph becomes aestheticallysuccessfully as well.

Eventually, you will learn how to

control each of these factors toachieve the effect you want. But itwill take time. As you may alreadyknow, it's often hard to keep all ofthem in mind every time you take apicture.

Fortunately, it is possible to beginmore simply. This book is designedto help you do that. It begins with abrief summary of photography'spast, present and future, including adiscussion of photography careers.This is followed by an introductionto the camera itself. Chapters 3 and4 provide a set of guidelines for com-posing and evaluating photographs.Chapter 5 explains a simple way tostart producing correctly exposedphotographs. As soon as you get thatbasic background behind you, youwill begin your first photographassignments. Chapters 6 through 11deal with specific "elements" ofphotography. At the end of thesechapters are exercises that will helpyou learn to recognize and use eachelement discussed.

The remainder of the book is com-posed of additional exercises (withexamples) and an Appendix, cover-ing most of the technical information(including a section on color photog-raphy). Finally, there's a glossary toclarify any confusing terminologyand a bibliography to help you locatemore detailed information.

7

part 1 Getting Started

Student photograph by Edward Maresh.

9

Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936. Gelatin silver print. Library of Congress,Washington, D.C.

From Blurs toBig Business

chapter 1

S urprisingly few new artforms have been invented in

I the course of recorded his-tory. Depending on how such termsas "art" and "new" are defined, thenovel as a form of literature mayqualify, as may rock 'n' roll andother kinds of electric and electronicmusic. More recent candidates in-clude computer graphics and thecurrent wave of digital creationsknown as multi-media.

One form that certainly qualifiesis photography. From its beginningsas a technological curiosity, it hasgrown into one of the most impor-tant influences in our society andculture. Every day, we encounterhundreds of images produced withcameras and film. We learn aboutthe latest fashion trends from photo-graphs — and about the latest war orfamine. We also learn about the re-markable planet on which we liveand about the people with whom weshare it.

HISTORY

There is no single correct answer tothe question of how and when pho-tography began. No one person canbe credited with inventing it. In-stead, it emerged through centuriesof tinkering.

The first printed photographs were

rheain

made between 1816 and 1840. Thefirst recorded discovery that certainchemicals turned black when exposedto light was made in 1725. The basicdesign of the cameras we use todayhas been in use since the 1500s. TheChinese figured it out even longer agothan that — as early as the fourth cen-tury. So, photography is between1,500 and 150 years old.

PreludeThe first stage of photography'sevolution in Europe was the cameraobscura, which is Latin for "darkchamber" (camera = chamber orroom; obscura = dark). The cameraobscura was a room, or a small build-ing, with no windows. One tiny hole,fitted with a lens, projected imagesfrom outside the room onto the farwall inside it.

The image was upside down andnot generally very clear, but it wasgood enough to become a useful toolfor artists. The projected image couldbe traced, providing an accuratesketch, which might then be devel-oped into a painting. Portable ver-sions of the camera obscura weredeveloped by the 1660s. The cameraexisted, but photography hadn't evenbeen imagined yet.

In 1725, a German professor ofanatomy, Johann Heinrich Schulze,attempted to produce a phosphores-

cent stone (one that would glow in thedark). He mixed powdered chalk intoa nitric acid solution and was sur-prised to discover that the mixtureturned purple in sunlight. After in-vestigating, he discovered that his ex-periment had been contaminated withsilver salt (silver chloride) and thatthis was causing the reaction to light.

Schulze was curious enough aboutthis phenomenon to experiment withit. He covered bottles of his mixturewith stencils so the light would"print" letters onto it, but the letterswould disintegrate as soon as the mix-ture was disturbed. Evidently, henever thought that his discoverymight have any practical application.

Early PrintsIn 1777, a Swedish chemist, CarlWilhelm Scheele, repeated Schulze'sexperiments. He also discovered thatammonia would dissolve the silverchloride and leave the image intact.With this second discovery, the basicchemistry of photography (exposingsilver chloride to produce an imageand "fixing" it with ammonia) wasestablished, but —again —what itmight lead to was not recognized.

Forty years later, the plot began tothicken. A number of people begantrying to produce a photographicimage on paper. In France, JosephNicephore Niepce developed an

11

Joseph Nicephore Niepce, world's first permanent camera image. Courtesy Gernsheim Collection, Harry RansomHumanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

emulsion (a light-sensitive varnish)out of bitumen of Judea, a kind ofasphalt. Instead of turning black, thismaterial is hardened by light. So, toproduce an image, Niepce coated aglass or pewter plate with his emul-sion, exposed it to light and thenwashed the plate with solvents. Thesolvents dissolved the unexposed (andstill soft) emulsion, producing aprint: the world's first permanentcamera image. It was only some blursof light and dark, and the exposurereportedly took eight hours, but itwas a real image.

Meanwhile, a painter in Paris

named Louis Jacques Mande Da-guerre was also trying to produce acamera image. He got in touch withNiepce and the two worked togetheron the problem. Niepce died, poorand discouraged, a few years later,but Daguerre continued (withNiepce's son Isadore as his newpartner).

Daguerre was convinced that silverwas the key to producing a better im-age than Niepce's asphalt prints. In1835, his conviction paid off. Hediscovered that if a silver plate wereiodized (treated with iodine), exposedfirst to light and then to mercury

vapor, and finally "fixed" with a saltsolution, then a visible, permanentimage would result. This discoveryformed the basis for the first photo-graphic process to be used outside ofa laboratory: the daguerreotype.

In England, William Henry FoxTalbot was also experimenting withcamera images. By 1835 he too hadsucceeded in producing a number ofphotographs. With his process, thefirst exposure produced a negativeimage on paper treated with silvercompounds. The exposed paper wasthen placed over a second sheet oftreated paper and exposed to a bright


light, producing a positive image onthe second sheet.

Thus, Talbot's process —called acalotype or talbotype —enabledphotographers to make multiplecopies of a single image. This was notpossible with a daguerreotype, whichproduced a positive image directly ona metal plate. Because the calotype'simage was transferred through apaper negative, however, it was notas clear as the daguerreotype.

In 1851, another Englishman,Frederick Scott Archer, introducedthe collodian wet-plate process,which offered the best of bothworlds: a high-quality image andmultiple copies. Talbot tried to claimcredit and licensing rights for this newprocess as well. In 1854, the courtsoverruled him and followed Archer'swishes by making the process freelyavailable to everyone.

The collodian process, like thedaguerreotype, was difficult to use.First, a clean glass plate had to beevenly coated with collodian (a sub-stance similar to plastic and contain-ing potassium iodide). While stilldamp, the plate had to be dipped intoa silver nitrate solution, inserted intothe camera and exposed. It was thendeveloped immediately, and finallyallowed to dry. If the plate driedbefore the process was complete, theemulsion would harden and the pho-tograph would be ruined. It wasn'teasy, but it worked.

Photography Goes PublicPhotography, dominated by the col-lodian and daguerreotype processes,began to take off. Cameras were setup in studios and loaded onto cartsto photograph portraits, landscapesand battles. Tourists collected inex-pensive prints of local attractions,called cartes-de-visite, by the

thousands. The stereoscopic camera(which produced a three-dimensionaleffect by combining two images) wasintroduced in 1849. By the 1860s, noparlor in America was consideredcomplete without a stereo viewer anda stack of slides to entertain guests.

Photography had more serioususes as well. As early as the 1850s,books of photographs were publishedshowing the harsh conditions of lifein the streets, factories, mines andslums of England and the UnitedStates. Lewis Mine, a sociologist,produced powerful photographs ofchildren who worked long hours in

Julia Margaret Cameron, AlfredTennyson with his sons Hallamand Lionel, 1865-69. Albumenprint, W/2 x 8>/4" (27 x 22 cm).Gift of David Bakalar, 1977.Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts,Boston.

From Blurs to Big Business 13

Lewis Mine, Doffer Girl in NewEngland Mill, c 1910.

textile mills and other industries. Hiswork helped to bring about new lawsto protect children's rights.

At the start of the Civil War, a suc-cessful portrait photographer namedMathew Brady asked President Lin-coln for permission to carry hiscameras onto the battlefields. Per-mission was granted, and Brady andhis staff compiled a remarkablerecord of that tragic period ofAmerican history. Like many of pho-tography's pioneers, he paid for theproject almost entirely by himself anddied penniless as a result.

In the 1880s, Eadweard Muybridgeinvented a device called a zooprax-iscope which produced a series of im-ages of a moving subject. It is said

that he did so to settle a bet as towhether or not running horses liftedall four hooves off the ground at onetime. By photographing a horse withhis device, he proved that they do. Healso contributed tremendously to ourunderstanding of how animals (andhumans) move.

These and other similar uses ofphotography often achieved a highdegree of aesthetic quality —a highdegree of art. Their primary pur-poses, however, were practical: topromote social reform, record his-torical events and aid scientificinvestigations.


Mathew Brady, Magazine inBattery Rodgers, 1863. Library ofCongress, Washington, D.C.


Eadweard Muybridge, Atti tudes of Animals in Motion, c 1881.

But Is It Art?At the same time, another group ofphotographers were dealing with thepurely aesthetic issue of how photog-raphy relates to the traditional arts,particularly painting. Is photographyan art at all? If so, how should it beused? What should "art photog-raphy" look like? These same ques-tions continue to provoke discussionand argument even today. Photog-raphy is st i l l defining itself.

By the 1850s, two opposing fac-tions of artist-photographers hadbeen established. The Pictorialists,led by Oscar Rejlander and HenryPeach Robinson, believed that aphotograph should look as much likea painting as possible. Their idea of

what a painting should look like washeavily influenced by the Romanticistpainters (such as Delacroix). The Pic-tor ia l is t photographers, l ike theRomanticist painters, believed that anartist should improve upon nature byusing it to express noble ideas. Bothfavored elaborate i l lus t ra t ions ofscenes from ancient mythology.

The other faction called themselvesNaturalists. They were led by PeterHenry Emerson and George Davison.The Naturalists believed that aphotograph should capture nature'sown truth. They preferred the Bar-bizon painters, who took their easelsout to the forests, fields and streams,and painted them directly. The Nat-uralist photographers did the same

with their cameras, specializing inpeaceful scenes of country life. Theywere also increasingly fond of usingsoft focus (blurred edges) in theirphotographs.

Despite the differences betweenthem, both the Pictorialists and theNaturalists believed that a work ofart ought to express a "correct senti-ment" and that it ought to be decora-t i ve—pre t ty . This is what most setthem apart from the "practical" pho-tographers, like Brady and Muy-bridge, whose work showed the hardedges of reality, wi th all its flaws.


New Tools & ProcessesIn the late 1880s, flexible film ap-peared for the first time, replacingclumsy and heavy glass plates. By the1890s, George Eastman had intro-duced the Kodak camera, the firstthat was reasonably easy to use. Thecamera itself was simple: a box witha lens, a cord to cock the shutter, abutton to release it and a crank towind the film. What made thiscamera special was that it cameloaded with enough fi lm for 100photographs. When the film wasused up, the entire camera wasreturned to the Eastman KodakCompany. The film was then devel-oped and printed, and the camerawas reloaded and returned, ready for

another 100 photos. Eastman'sslogan was "You press the button; wedo the rest." (The name "Kodak," in-cidentally, doesn't mean anything.Eastman selected it because he felt itwou ld be easy for people toremember.)

In 1925, Leica introduced its "mini-ature" camera, the first to use 35mmfilm. Though not quite as simple touse as the earlier Kodak model, it wastechnically more sophisticated andquite a bit smaller As a result,amateur photography became an in-ternational passion.

Other technical advances con-tinued to appear all t he time. Thefirst commercial color film, Auto-chrome, hit the market in 1907.

Autochrome produced transparencies(slides) that could not be enlargedvery much without showing the grainof the starch dyes used to create theimage. It also took fifty times as longto expose as black-and-white film.

Then, in 1935, Kodak introducedKodachrome, an improved slide film,followed in 1941 by Kodacolor, formaking color prints. The familyphotograph album, which had existedfor only 100 years, was now bothwidespread and increasingly in fullcolor.

Peter Henry Emerson, Gunner Working Up to Fowl, c 1886.


FOCAL POINT: Alfred Stieglitz, 1864-1946

Alfred Stieglitz was in many ways thefirst "modern" photographer .Though his early photographs werecarefully manipulated to imitatepaintings, he soon recognized thatphotography was an art in its ownright —and deserved to be treated asone. He saw the need to free photog-raphy from the conventions and lim-itations of painting. Consequently,Stieglitz promoted what came to beknown as "straight" photography —making prints with little or no crop-ping, retouching or other alteration.

He was a founding member andleader of the "Photo Secession," agroup of photographers who weredetermined to break away from pho-tography's past and to chart itsfuture. Stieglitz was editor andpublisher of the group's magazine,Camera Work, the first publicationto deal seriously with photography asan independent art form. He work-ed with Edward Steichen to establish"Gallery 291" in New York City,which exhibited contemporary pho-tographs along with paintings byPicasso, Matisse and GeorgiaO'Keefe (whom Stieglitz latermarried).

When photography was first in-vented, it was a scientific novelty.Soon, it evolved into an excellentrecord-keeping tool. Photographerscould be hired to make a lastingrecord of a person, place or event. Bythe late 1800s, photographers werestriving to elevate their craft into arecognized art. They did this by im-itating the content and visual effectsof paintings. Stieglitz'great achieve-ment was to bring photography fullcircle: he merged its artistic potentialwith its ability to produce a factual

record. He returned to the straight-forward approach of the earlyphotographers, but he did so with theinsight and confidence of a trueartist.

Stieglitz was among the firstphotographers to produce work that,even today, does not look "dated."Though clothing and architecturalstyles have changed considerablysince his time, his best work still looksthoroughly modern. The main reasonfor this is that he used the camera as

we use it today —as a familiar tool forexploring reality.

The attitudes and interests thatStieglitz brought to photography canbe traced to his upbringing. He wasborn in Hoboken, New Jersey, theson of German immigrants. He orig-inally intended to become a mechan-ical engineer. While in Berlin study-ing for this purpose, he happened tosee a camera in a store window. Hebought it and soon decided it wasmore interesting than engineering.

Alfred Stieglitz, The Rag Picker, New York, 1895.


Alfred Stieglitz, The 'Flat Iron', 1902.

Alfred Stieglitz, Sun Rays-Paula-Berlin, 1889.

When he returned to the U.S. at theage of 26, he was delighted to findthat photography was extremely pop-ular. But he was also dismayed by thelack of publications and galleries pro-moting it as an art. For the next 56years, he devoted himself to correct-ing this situation. Along the way, heproduced some of the finest photo-graphs in history.

FOCAL POINT: James Van Der Zee, 1886-1983

James Van Der Zee, Couple in Raccoon Coats, 1932. Courtesy Donna Van Der Zee.


James Van Der Zee was unique inmany ways. First and foremost, hewas perhaps the most accomplishedblack photographer in history, and iscertainly the best known today. Hisrecord of Harlem in the 1920s is un-surpassed, in both quantity andquality. But he was unique in otherways as well.

Stylistically, he employed bothstark realism and dreamy roman-ticism. Technically, he produced

v.

"straight" prints in the style of thePhoto Secessionists (Stiegli tz,Weston, Steichen, etc.) as well asheavily manipulated images, whichthe Photo Secessionists had rejected.Moreover, he used both approachesinterchangeably, according to his in-terpretation of a particular scene.One day he might do a straight out-door portrait of someone on thestreet. And the next day he mightpose a newly-wed couple in his

studio, and produce a double-exposed print showing their yet-to-be-born child as a ghost beside them.

Van Der Zee's photographic careerwas far from easy. Though hebecame interested in photography atthe age of 14 (when he purchased amail-order camera and darkroomkit), he was 30 before he was able toearn a living at it. In between, heworked as a waiter, elevator operatorand even as a violinist in a dance or-

chestra. His first photographic job,in 1914, was as a darkroom assistantin a department store in New YorkCity. Two years later, he opened hisown studio in Harlem. Though heoften had to change its location, VanDer Zee kept his studio in businessuntil 1969.

In addition to skill and creativity,he was blessed with good timing.Black culture was flourishing inHarlem during the 1920s. Duke Ell-ington and others were redefiningAmerican music. Adam ClaytonPowell, Langston Hughes, CounteeCullen and Marcus Garvey were help-ing to build a new black identity. AndJames Van Der Zee was the officialand unofficial photographer for allof it. He photographed proud blackcouples in the streets of Harlem andin elegant clubs. Celebrities and "or-dinary people" posed in his studio.He photographed weddings andfunerals. All together, he compiledsome 75,000 glass plates, negativesand prints. All of it revealing a worldthat was all but ignored by the better-known photographers of that time.

Van Der Zee received virtually norecognition outside of Harlem until1967. At that time, he was featuredin an exhibit, entitled "Harlem on MyMind," at New York's MetropolitanMuseum of Art. For the last 14 yearsof his life, his photography waswidely exhibited, published andpraised. He died at the age of 97,while in Washington, D.C. to receivean honorary degree from HowardUniversity.

proaches to photography.In Europe, Andre Kertesz, Eugene

Atget, Brassai, and Henri Carder-Bresson were among the most not-able of the new wave of artistphotographers. They each devotedthemselves to capturing life as itreally was, in the boulevards andback alleys and country lanes ofEurope. Yet each did so with adistinct and original style, a unique"way of seeing." They saw thatphotography was a new and indepen-

A New BreedPhotography was coming into itsown, both as an art and as a business.Alfred Steiglitz united photographyand painting by opening "Gallery291," which exhibited new work ineither medium. In his own photog-raphy and in his critical judgmentSteiglitz promoted a lively realismthat eventually became the standardfor art photography. From 1902 to1917, he published Camera Work, thefirst magazine devoted to artistic ap-

Eugene Atget, L'Escalier de L'Hotel Charron, 7900.


Edward Steichen, Gloria Swanson,1924.

dent art, not merely a cheap imitationof painting. Because of this, they —along with Steiglitz and otherAmerican peers — may be thought ofas the first modern photographers.

More practical applications ofphotography also continued. One ofthe most notable examples was aphotographic survey, begun in 1935,of conditions during the GreatDepression. Dorothea Lange, Walk-er Evans and other first-rate pho-tographers were hired by this pro-ject by the U.S. government's FarmSecurity Administration and com-piled hundreds of photographs thatrank among the best ever produced.

The use of photographs in publica-tions, a novelty as recently as 1900,was expanding rapidly. Life magazinestarted in 1936 and began a wholenew kind of publishing: photo-jou rna l i sm. Alfred Eisenstat ,Margaret Bourke-White and otherphotographers on Life's staff quicklybecame famous as they recorded theworld's events with their cameras.

By the end of the 1930s, all thebasic ingredients that continue todefine photography were in place:Photography was increasingly ac-

1937

The SLR(single lens

reflex)camera

introduced tothe U.S. by

Exacta.

1938

Automaticexposure

initiated byKodak with

its 6-20camera.

1939

Electronicflash

developed byDr. HaroldEdgerton.

1947

FirstPolaroidcamera

developed byEdwin Land.

1954

Firsthigh-speedfilm, Tri-X,comes onto

market.


Yousef Karsh, Ethiopian Bride,1963. Courtesy Woodfin Campand Associates.

cepted as an art in its own right.Photojournalists were a major sourceof information and insight for thegeneral public (a role that has sincebeen largely taken over by televisionreporters). Advertising had begunusing photography to catch attentionor communicate a message. Portablecameras had made snapshots a na-tional hobby.

Where Now?The list of technical advances inphotography continues to get longerand longer (see the photographic timeline), and the ranks of greatphotographers has expanded steadilyas well. Edward Steichen, MinorWhite, Sebastiao Salgado, EdwardWeston, Ansel Adams, Diane Arbus,Ernst Haas, Eugene Richards...the listis long and subject to fierce debate.

Photography is still a young art.Painting, sculpture, writing, dance,acting and music have all beenaround for thousands of years. Eventhey continue to change at an oftenalarming rate. This is all the moretrue of photography, which has

1959

Developmentof first

zoom lens,the Zoomar

36-82.

1966

Konicaintroduces

firstprofessional

qualityautomaticexposurecamera.

1972

Polaroidaddscolortoils

instantcameras.

1985

Minoltaintroduces

the firstprofessional

qualityautomatic

focus camera,the Maxxum.

1987

Canondebuts first

"CommercialStill Video"

system.

1991

Kodaklaunches

Photo CDsystem and

digitalcamera.


FOCAL POINT: Manuel Alvarez Bravo, 1902-

Manuel Alvarez Bravo, Retrato de lo Eterno (Portrait of the Eternal),1935. Courtesy The Witkin Gallery, New York.

Throughout the world, photog-raphers have used the camera toobserve, interpret and record theirown cultures and environments. Inthe process, some have also achiev-ed unique styles that are particularlyappropriate to specific times andplaces. Manuel Alvarez Bravo isamong a select group of photog-raphers who have gone a stepfurther —discovering a way of seeingthat seems to express the spirit of anentire culture.

Great works of art are rarelycreated in a vacuum. Instead, eventhe most gifted artist draws on alifetime of experiences and impres-sions. The work of other artists isalmost always an important in-fluence. Additional influences mayinclude one's level of wealth orpoverty; the personalities and valuesof friends and family; the climate,colors, sounds and rituals that arepart of daily life. By combining avariety of local and international in-fluences, some artists are able tocreate art tha t breaks th roughcultural barriers without losing asense of cultural roots. Bravo is onephotographer who has done th is .

In his case, the culture is that ofMexico. He was born in Mexico City,and has continued to be based therethroughout his life. His father andgrandfather were both artists, one apainter and the other a photographer.Before becoming interested in pho-tography, Bravo studied literature,music and painting, beginning in1917. In 1922, he began experimen-ting with photography. By 1926, hewas using a camera to produceabstract images of folded paper. Bythe early 1930's he was among the

leaders of a creative surge in Mexicanart.

His first solo exhibit was held inMexico City in 1932. Soon after, hebecame acquainted with Paul Strand,Henri Carder-Bresson, Walker Evansand other photographers who weregaining internat ional attention.Bravo also met Andre Breton, whois credited with creating the Surrealiststyle of painting. Surrealism, whichemploys the symbols and imagery ofdreams, became a major influence onBravo's photographic style.

In his best work, Bravo combinesthe technical skill and confidence ofphotographers like Strand andEvans; the ability to capture a"decisive moment" that is char-acteristic of Carder-Bresson; and theoften disturbing dreamlike qualitiesof Surrealist paintings. To this mix ofartistic influences, he adds a deep andproud understanding of Mexican cul-ture and a keen awareness of lightand mood. The result is a vision thatis both highly private and universallyaccessible.


Minor White, Moon and Wall Encrustations, 1964.

barely passed its first century of wide-spread use.

With most of the traditional arts,change has primarily been a matterof style. Michaelangelo and Picassoused essentially the same materialsand techniques to produce vastly dif-ferent results. Writers may use com-puters now, rather than quill pens, butthe process of writing hasn't reallychanged very much since Shake-speare's day. Writing styles, however,have changed enormously.

In the case of photography, al-most the opposite is now true: Pho-tography's essential nature (what it is

and how it works) is in the midst ofradical transformation — a techno-logical revolution. Photography it-self is mutating into something newand strange and unpredictable.Compared to that , stylistic changeshardly seem to matter.

What is actually happening is thatphotography (along with computergraphics, electronic music and othertechnology-based arts) is movingaway from the traditional, "manual"arts (such as painting or classicalmusic). As a result, we are discover-ing entirely new ideas of how art maybe created and experienced.

The old distinctions between oneform of art and another are breakingdown. Words, images and music areall beginning to merge. The musicvideos on MTV are one typical ex-ample of this trend. They aren't sim-ply songs and they aren't quitemovies. They are a new hybrid: mu-sic and film merging into a new formof creative expression. Some of themtell stories. Some are more like mini-documentaries. Some resemble thesong-and-dance numbers of aBroadway musical. Similarly, it is in-creasingly difficult to define the dif-ference between a painting and a


photograph, or even between a pho-tograph and a poem.

In addition, all of the arts are be-coming more participatory. In thevery near future, it may no longer bestandard procedure for an artist tocreate some specific "thing" - aphotograph or a symphony — whichothers simply receive by looking orlistening. Instead, each individualviewer or listener will have the powerto edit, combine and transform anenormous array of images andsounds. Your photograph will be rawmaterial which you may manipulatein any way you please, and to whichothers may then add their own inter-pretations — and it will all be doneby computer. It is far too early to tellif all of this is actually an improve-ment, but it is certainly a change.

That is what's coming. But it isn'tquite here yet.

We are standing on the bridge be-tween photography's past and its fu-ture. And so we are able to moveback and forth between them. Wecan shoot a roll of f i lm on UncleFrank's old Pentax, make a print in atraditional darkroom and then re-interpret it on a copy machine — orscan it into a Mac and make it alllook really weird. There is still a se-cure place for conventional art pho-tography, and a wide open field forexperimentation.

We are at the end of an era — andat the start of a new one. This is aprivileged place to be. Enjoy it.

PHOTOGRAPHICCAREERS

The number of people who earn a"living wage" from any art is alwaysrelatively small. Photography is cer-tainly a case in point. Most pho-tographers are hobbyists who take

Wedding photography requires technical accuracy, good social skills and andthe ability to quickly arrange natural poses for individuals and large groups.Photograph by Donald Butler.

pictures for pleasure. Even many ofthe best-known art photographerspay their bills by doing commer-cial photography or other work onthe side.

Unfor tunately , being "good" oreven "the best" won't necessarilymake any difference. Many excellent

photographers have died penniless.At least a few have made good liv-ings without having much skill orcreativity. That's the way of all art —timing, luck and who you know areat least as important as masteringyour craft.


Fortunately, however, commercialphotography can be a very rewardingcareer or sideline. Everything fromweddings to wars seems to require aphotographic record. Most commer-cial products rely on photography forpackaging and advertising. And thereis even a steadily growing market forphotographs as pure art — though it'snot likely to make you rich.

The basic categories of profes-sional photographic work include:weddings and other social events,portraiture, journalism, productphotography and fashion. Dependingon the work you choose, the time youdevote to it and your luck and skill,you could earn from a few hundredto over a thousand dollars a day.

In each of these categories, thereare two ways of working: staff andfreelance. A staff photographer isjust like any employee, receiving asalary and clocking regular hours. Afreelance photographer is hired forspecific jobs and is generally paid by

the day. Freelancers tend to earnmore than staff photographers foreach day they work, but staff photog-raphers work more steadily. In otherwords, staff photographers are lesslikely either to get rich or to go broke.Freelancers take more risks and havea better chance of making it big.

Weddings and PortraitsProbably the largest number of pro-fessional photographers are primarilydevoted to photographing socialevents, especially weddings. The paycan be quite good —several hundreddollars per day. Many wedding pho-tographers are represented by anagent who sets up photo assignmentsfor them. Many work only a coupleof days each week, generally week-ends (when weddings are most com-monly held). Wedding photographersmust be able to produce consistentlygood results, since there's no chancefor re-shooting if things get messedup. They must be especially good at

Arnold Newman, Igor Stravinsky,1946.

flash photography, since much oftheir work is done indoors on loca-tion. In addition, they must be skilledat interacting well with all sorts ofpeople. By and large, weddingphotography does not demand muchartistry —most clients don't want art.It's a good line of work for anyonewho enjoys the technical side ofphotography and who likes tosocialize.

Closely related to weddings andsocial events is po r t r a i t u re -photographing a single person orsmall group. Whether it's for apassport photo or a prom portrait,everyone needs a photographer some-time. Virtually every town in thecountry has at least one studio forjust these kinds of things. Here again,the main requirements are technicalconsistency —particularly in terms ofstudio lighting —and social grace.


FOCAL POINT: Margaret Bourke-WhitePhotojournalismJournalistic photography rangesfrom covering a fire on Elm Street forthe local newspaper to traveling toTahiti for a major magazine. Photo-journalists must possess good in-stincts above all else. Sensing whena photo opportunity is about to oc-cur and knowing how to handle it areof vital importance. Being a first-ratephoto-technician is helpful . . . butnot strictly essential.

A more commercial field related tophotojournalism is freelance locationphotography. Corporate annualreports, slide presentations, promo-tional brochures, in-house publica-tions, trade magazines (Plumbers'Digest or New England BeverageRetailer, for example) all requireprofessional-quality photography.Being able to handle any lighting orcomposition challenge quickly andaccurately is the critical factor here.An ability to blend into the corporateenvironment is also essential.

Razzle DazzleAt the top of the career heap finan-cially are illustration, product, foodand fashion photography. This iswhere knowing the right people andbeing in the right place at the righttime are of critical importance. Aflair for style helps too. You alsohave to be very good if you expect tohave more than a brief career. Thecompetition is s t iff because therewards are high. A top-notch pro-duct, food or fashion photographerwill charge $2,000 or more per day.A comparable illustration photog-rapher might earn the same amountfor a single photograph. Nice workif you can get it.

Today we take photojournalism forgranted. We expect our magazine ar-ticles to be illustrated with photo-graphs that add insights and impactof their own. But, like photographyitself, photojournalism had to be in-vented. One of the people who playeda major role in inventing it wasMargaret Bourke-White.

While in college, Bourke-Whitediscovered that she excelled at pho-tography. After graduating fromCornell, she began working as a pro-fessional photographer. She wasespecially intrigued by the surge oftechnological developments at thattime and used her camera to conveythe power and beauty she saw ineverything from clock parts to steelmills. From 1929 to 1933, she was anindustrial photographer for Fortunemagazine. Her work there was notlimited to machine parts and con-struction projects, however. In 1934,she covered the drought known as the"Dust Bowl" that swept through theGreat Plains, showing how that trag-edy affected the lives of farmers andtheir families. This article was a mile-stone in photojournalism. Thoughother photographers, such as LewisHine, had done similar reporting onsocial issues, none had done so for amajor magazine.

After becoming a staff photog-rapher for Life magazine in 1936,Bourke-White continued to coverboth technological progress andhuman suffering. The very first issueof Life featured one of her photo-graphs on the cover: a dramaticimage of a massive dam constructionproject. She provided extensivecoverage of World War II, mostnotably the horrors discovered whenthe Allies liberated the concentrationcamps. She photographed the gran-deur and starvation of India in thelate 1940s, black South AfricanMiners in 1950, and the Korean Warin 1952.

By the mid-1950s, Bourke-Whitewas suffering from Parkinson'sDisease, which progressively reducesthe body's ability to control its move-ments. She left the staff of Life in1969 and died two years later.

Though she was neither a masterstylist nor an exceptional technician,Bourke-White was among the first toclearly understand the camera'spower to record "history in the mak-ing." She helped establish standardsfor commitment, concern and sheerenergy that photojournalists havestruggled to live up to ever since.


1904-71

Margaret Bourke-White, Airship Akron, Winner Goodyear Zeppelin Race, 1931.


A flair for the exotic and a sophisticated sense of humor are important assets in fashion photography. Photograph byBane Kapsu.


VariationsMixed in with these general categoriesare numerous photographic special-ties: scientific, sports, underwater,travel, architectural, art reproduc-tion, etc. Matching your skills and in-terests to one of these niches may bethe most satisfying career path of all.By specializing in one particularaspect of photography, rather thancompeting in a broader category, youhave a good chance of establishing aclear identity and of focusing in ona steady market. Word-of-mouth rec-ommendation is always a photog-rapher's best advertising. You standto benefit most from it if you earn agood reputation for a specific set ofskills.

If you enjoy photographing build-ings, for example, you can make acareer of it, hiring yourself out to ar-chitectural and construction firms orto design magazines. If you're veryprecise and detail oriented, you mightget into photographing art formuseums. If you like flying, youmight consider aerial photography. Ifyou prefer swimming, considerunderwater photography.

There are career opportunities inphotographic processing as well.Here again, developing a specific setof skills is recommended. Some pho-tographers specialize in a photo-graphic style that requires certainprocesses, such as antique style sepia-toned or hand-tinted prints. Whensomeone needs that particular stylefor a magazine illustration or cor-porate annual report, a specialist willgenerally be selected. The same ruleapplies to those who offer processing

services to other photographers.Retouchers, for example, are paidhandsomely to fix mistakes or other-wise alter a photo's appearance.Skilled darkroom techicians, special-izing in black and white or color, arehighly regarded and well paid.

Finally, there are many other jobsthat don't require regular use of acamera or darkroom but can, none-theless, keep a photographer "intouch." These include selling andrepairing cameras, mainta iningphotographic libraries or stock-agency files, curating in photographygalleries or museums, or even help-ing to develop new designs, formulasand processes for cameras or film.

Looking AheadIn virtually any photography-relatedfield, the key to getting started is toput together a winning portfolio —an elegant, professional collection ofyour best work. Your portfolio willtell a prospective employer or clientwhat you can do, so it should be of aconsistently high standard — rightdown to the details of excellent printquality, good mounting techniqueand slick presentation. If you arefortunate enough to have some ofyour photographs published (by a lo-cal newspaper, for example, or evenin a school publication) these -called tear sheets (as in a torn-outpage) — should be included as well:Cut out the full page on which yourphotograph appears and mount it asyou would a standard print, or slip itinto a plastic sheet. (Use part of apage if the whole thing is too big tofit the size mat you're using for your

prints, but be sure to include the run-ning head or foot that indicates thename and date of the publication.)

Your portfolio should also be tai-lored to the kind of work you'reseeking. If you hope to be hired as alab technician, emphasize printquality. If you want to cover localnews events, include some goodaction shots. If advertising interestsyou, try to create some still-life pho-tographs that have the "look-and-feel" of studio composition andlighting. If you'd like to pursue fash-ion photography, you might team upwith a friend who aspires to a careerin modeling — working together toproduce some fashion shots that youboth can use. And, of course, if youhope to sell your work as art, thenyour portfolio must show that you'veattained a high level of skill and crea-tivity.

As you progress through thiscourse, it is a good idea to keep yourlong-range goals in mind. It's nevertoo early to begin preparing forthem. Even if you have no interest ina photographic career, your portfo-lio is your own record of achieve-ment. And you never know when itmay come in handy, so you may aswell do it right.

Effective presentation (and atten-tion to detail) is vitally important inany line of work. Mastering photo-graphic technique and preparing agood portfolio will teach you valu-able skills which will serve you well,no matter what career you ultimatelychoose.


part 2 Elements of Composition

Student photograph by Michael Grassia.

33

Student photograph.


chapter 2 Tools

P hotographic technology ischanging so fast that it is ut-

I terly impossible to definethe standard tools-of-the-trade withany degree of precision. Camerasnow in use range from clumsy boxeswith lots of knobs and dials to thelatest high-tech whiz-bang contrap-tions which look like props from StarTrek. Photographic images can nowbe stored on an astonishing array offilms — plus CDs, computer disksand video tape. By the time you readthis, it is likely other new technolo-gies will have appeared, promisingeven greater ease, efficiency and op-portunities.

This is all well and good, but thereis also real value in understandingthe basic principles of photography— and that is much easier to do withthe old fashioned, manual ap-proach. True, it does take more timeto produce a photograph in this way.And potentially great shots can bemissed while you fiddle with thoseknobs and dials. But there is aunique satisfaction in knowing ex-actly what your camera is doing andwhy, controlling it to achieve the ef-fect you choose rather than merelypointing and shooting.

So, it is perhaps fortunate thattechnological advances take sometime to settle in and push aside thepast. Just as there are times when

writing with an antique fountain penis infinitely preferable to tapping at acomputer keyboard, there are bene-fits to cameras that lack the latestautomation.

The essential point to all this isthat there's no need to worry if youcan't afford to buy a slick new cam-era with all the bells and whistles, astash of fancy lenses and a suitcase

full of clever attachments and acces-sories. In fact, odds are that you willbecome a better photographer if youbegin with a second-hand, second-rate old clunker that looks like anartifact from the Stone Age.

Not everyone needs the same kindof tool —whether that tool is acamera or a musical instrument. Aconcert violinist may require the best

35

If you choose your camera carefully and practice with it often, you'll soonlearn to use it with very little effort or conscious thought. It will becomesimply an extension of eyes and hands—responsive, accurate andcomfortable. (Student photograph by Trevor Bredenkamp.)

violin money can buy, but a bluessinger may make fine music with anold beat-up guitar. Similarly, some ofthe world's best photographers usethe latest "high-tech" cameras; othersuse antiques held together with rub-ber bands and tape. The right choicefor most of us is somewhere betweenthese extremes.

Like any tool, each camera has a"personality" —a mixture of oppor-tunities and limitations that you con-trol to express your personal vision.The goal in selecting a camera is tofind one that does what you need itto do, no more and no less. In otherwords, the right camera for you isone with a "personality" that matchesyour own.

So, the first rule for choosing acamera is to make the best of whatyou already have or can easily afford.After you become more experienced,you'll be more able to decide exactlywhat features you need. That's thetime to invest in your particulardream machine. For now, however,use what you have. If you don't yetown a camera, buy the least expen-sive one that meets your basic needs.The money you save can be spent onfilm and chemicals, which are farmore important at this stage than thequality of your camera.

One thing that is important, nomatter which camera you buy, isdurability. No matter how carefulyou are, your camera is likely to getknocked around a bit. Get one that isstrong enough to take abuse.

One of the most important dif-ferences among cameras is the lensesthat can be used with them. An inter-changeable lens can be removed fromthe camera body and replaced withanother lens that produces a differenteffect. For example, a telephoto lens,which works like a telescope, may be

Manual cameras provide a greater amount of creative control, especiallywith lighting. This photograph would have been virtually impossible withmost purely automatic cameras, since the lighting effect is not "normal."(Student photograph.)

used to make distant objects appearcloser.

The most popular and inexpensivecameras have a fixed lens. A fixedlens cannot be removed and, there-fore, cannot be changed. Though notessential, interchangeable lenses canbe a great asset.

Some modern cameras offer acompromise between fixed and inter-changeable lenses: permanently at-tached zooms. Others allow you toswitch from a wide-angle to a tele-photo lens, both of which are at-tached to the camera body.Generally, these kinds of lenses aretoo limited to be very useful, butthey'll do in a pinch.

There is no need to rush out andbuy a telephoto or any other non-standard lens immediately. For yourfirst assignments, you will be usingonly the standard 50mm lens. Even-tually, however, you will probably

want to try other lenses, so it is agood idea to use a camera that willallow you to do this. Once again,however, it is not essential. If yourbudget restricts you to a fixed-lenscamera, you will still be able to takeperfectly good photographs.

Manual or AutomaticIf you are buying a camera, you havetwo basic choices: manual orautomatic. Manual cameras havebeen in use far longer than automaticcameras, and they are still preferredby many professionals. They requireyou to load and wind the film, selectthe shutter speed, set the aperture,and focus. Automatic cameras willdo some or all of these things for you.

The big advantage of a manualcamera is that you always controlwhat it is doing. You make the deci-sions, and the camera does what you


Automatic cameras are especially useful for "grab shots," when there's notime to fiddle with knobs and dials. By letting the camera make thetechnical decisions, the photographer is able to concentrate on getting thetiming just right. (Student photograph by Lauren McDermott.)

tell it to do. As a result, you will learnwhat works and what doesn't. Youwill also make mistakes (which is howyou learn). The main disadvantage ofa manual camera is the amount oftime required to set up a shot.

Most manual cameras now avail-able in the 35mm format have a built-in light meter. The meter informs youof the lighting conditions, and you setthe speed and aperture accordingly.Older cameras, and many studiomodels, require you to use a hand-held light meter to "read" the light,before you set the camera.

Cameras with automatic lightmetering also fall into two categories:full automatic and manual-override.A full automatic chooses the apertureor shutter speed, or both, accordingto a built-in computer that is pro-grammed to make the decision youwould probably make anyway. While

this may sound very appealing, thereis a problem — and that problem is the"probably."

As you become a more experiencedphotographer, you will sometimesdisagree with your camera's choice.You may want a picture to be a bitdarker or lighter for effect, or thecamera may be "confused" by a com-plex lighting situation. With fullautomatic, there's not much you cando to change the camera's decision.This is a poor choice for anyonewho really wants to learn aboutphotography.

Manual-override offers a solution.When you're sure the camera willmake the right decisions (i.e. whenyou want a normal photograph in anormal lighting situation), you let thecamera decide. When you disagree,you set the camera manually. If youmake an effort to pay attention to

what the camera is doing, you can usethe automatic light meter most of thetime and still learn how to use lighteffectively. If you don't make that ef-fort you won't learn much, and you'llend up taking a lot of "normal" andprobably boring pictures.

If you are shooting a lot of "can-dids" (quick, unposed photographs),like most photojournalists, theautomatic option can be a big help —since you won't miss a good shot orannoy your subject while you fumblewith knobs and dials. If you're doinga lot of still-life or nature photog-raphy, or if you prefer to take yourtime, as most art photographers do,a manual camera will do just as well,and will teach you more.

All the other automatic featuresare far less important. Loading andwinding the film manually will soonbecome second nature to you, so hav-ing it done automatically is not muchof an advantage (unless you havereason to be in a real hurry). Auto-focus is another asset for the "grab-shooter," though focusing shouldn'ttake more than a split second onceyou get the hang of it.

What Format?Most modern cameras use 35mmfilm. This is a relatively small formatthat allows many frames to fit on asingle roll. As a result, it costs less pershot than larger formats. In addition,the smaller format means the cameracan be smaller and lighter, so it'seasier to carry and use.

There is one advantage to largerformats: the grain of the film. Allfilm stores images in tiny dots. Whenthe film is enlarged, the dots begin toshow. This is grain. If you are mak-ing a large print (such as for an ex-hibit or a full page in a magazine),grain can be a problem. Too much

Tools 37

Each kind of lens has its own characteristics and uses. The wide-angle lens used for this photograph produced aslightly surreal effect. Much of the photograph's impact would have been lost with either a normal or a telephotolens. (Student photograph by John Berringer.)

grain reduces the image quality. Itbegins to look "grainy."

For most uses, including most ex-hibit formats, the ease of using35mm outweighs the drawbacks ofgrain. And, as films continue to im-prove, grain is becoming less and lessof a problem. After you've devel-oped your skill and style, you maywant to move up to larger formats,but you can decide that later.

Choosing a LensIn many ways, choosing the right lensor lenses is even more important thanchoosing the right camera.

Once you've selected some brandnames you trust and can afford, youface another choice: which lenses tobuy. Most cameras come equippedwith a 50mm lens. This is the stan-dard lens for 35mm photography,because it is closest to normal vision.What you see through the camera will

look the same as what you see withyour own eyes. Whatever lenses youeventually buy, you will want to in-clude the 50mm range. (By the way,if you find 50mm lenses and 35mmfilm confusing, don't worry. Theseand other terms will graduallybecome familiar to you as you usethem.)

If you have a choice (and you oftenwon't) you might consider buying thecamera body and lens separately.


This will enable you to choose avariable focal-length, or "zoom," lensinstead of a "fixed focal-length" lens.

As explained in Chapter 11, thefocal-length of a lens determines howwide an area you can see through it.In effect, the 50mm lens draws a boxwithin which objects are normal insize and proportion. A shorter lens,such as a 35mm, draws a larger box,and makes objects appear smallerand somewhat "bent" or distorted. Alonger lens, such as a 135mm, drawsa smaller box, making objects appearlarger and more compressed (withless space between them). With eachfixed focal-length lens you have onlyone choice.

With a zoom (variable focal-length) lens, you have many choices.A zoom lens is essentially severallenses in one. For example, if a zoomlens ranges from 35mm to 135mm,you will have the same choices as youwould if you bought the three focal-lengths just mentioned (35mm,50mm and 135mm), plus all thefocal-lengths in between.

Any good modern zoom lens willmatch the image qual i ty of a typicalfixed focal-length lens. (Early zoomsproduced poor image quality at "in-between" focal-lengths, such as42mm. This problem has been cor-rected on most modern models.) Youwill, however, almost certainly losesome of the lower (larger) aperturesoffered by fixed focal-length lenses.Since a large aperture lets in morelight than a small one, a zoom lensmay limit your ability to photographin low-light situations or at high shut-ter speeds.

If your budget permits, it is usefulto have the three basic lens ranges:wide-angle, "normal" (50mm), andtelephoto. However, the normal lensis the most important. Do not start

your photo career with only a wide-angle or only a telephoto. It's per-fectly all right to start it with only a50mm. Once again, the best pro-cedure is probably to start simply,with just a standard lens, and addothers as you decide you need them.If you are thinking of investing inmore than one lens, review Chapter11 before making any decisions.

What Price?How much should you pay for acamera? Well, it really depends onwhat you can easily afford. Goodcameras are available for as little as$50. Top professional models cancost several thousand dollars.

If your budget limits you to under$100, buy the best manual camerayou can f ind —perhaps a goodsecond-hand model. If you can af-ford more, take a careful look at the$100 to $500 range, keeping in mindthe features you care most about(automatic features, manual features,durability, lenses), and buy the onethat best suits you. A fully profes-sional camera system —which you ab-solutely do not need at this stage — i slikely to cost over $1,000, dependingon your choice of lenses.

Before buying any camera, readreviews of several in cameramagazines (see the Bibliography fornames of some good ones). Asksomeone you know who does a lot ofphotography to give you somerecommendations. Then make an in-formed decision.

Selecting a lens may be more dif-ficult. The quality of the glass andconstruction varies considerably. Acheap lens may result in photographsthat are always out of focus, blurryaround the edges or grainy.

A good rule of thumb is to stickwith the brand names you know. All

camera manufacturers make lensesfor their cameras that you can trustto be as well-made as the cameras. Inaddition, cameras with automaticfeatures may require that you staywith the same brand when buyinglenses. However, many companiesproduce lenses designed for use witha variety of cameras. These may beas good as or better than the cameramanufacturer's own lenses and oftencost less. Read the reviews in cameramagazines and ask for the advice ofexperienced photographers beforeyou decide.

One final note on lenses: Buy a UV(ultraviolet) or a "skylight" filter foreach lens, attach it and leave it on atall times. Either of these filters willhelp a little to reduce haze undersome lighting conditions, but theirreal use is to protect the lens itselffrom damage. Should you acciden-tally scratch the filter, it can be inex-pensively replaced. Replacing the lenswould of course be far more costly.

SummaryThere are only three key points youneed to understand at this point:First, start with the basics —a simple,relatively inexpensive camera with a50mm lens. Ideally, your camera willpermit you to use other ("inter-changeable") lenses as well. Youshould have at least one lens thatopens up to f/2.8, and all lensesshould have UV or skylight filters at-tached. Second, choose a camera thatincludes manual controls for apertureand shutter-speed. Full manual isfine; automatic features are nice ex-tras, but they are not necessary.Third, make sure that both yourcamera and lens are manufactured bya reliable company. If you begin withthese essentials, you'll be wellequipped to learn photography.

Tools 39

Additional ToolsOnce you've selected a camera andlens (or lenses), you have taken careof the big decisions. Later, you maywant to add other tools, such as atripod and flash, but they can wait.Refer to Appendix 4 for more infor-mation on them when the timecomes. There are, however, a fewother inexpensive tools you'll need inorder to get started.

As soon as you begin producingphotographs, you'll want to storeyour negatives and prints, to keepthem clean and organized. Plasticsheets specially designed for storingnegatives are available that fit into astandard three-ring binder. Buy a boxof these and a binder to file them in.

Immediately after developing anddrying each roll of film, you will cutthe roll into shorter lengths (fiveframes each) and slip them into thenegative file. The next step is to placethe film directly onto a piece ofphotographic paper to make a con-tact print (see Appendix 1 for ex-planation). With a plastic negativefile, this can be done directly. Paperfiles are also available. They requireyou to remove the film to make acontact print, however, so are not aseasy to use as plastic sheets.

Similar sheets are available forstoring prints. If your photo storedoesn't carry them, you can probablyfind them in an office supply store.Any plastic sheet that will hold8'/2" x 11" paper, with holes for athree-ring binder, will do fine.

You will also want an ordinarygrease pencil (yellow or white) tomark your contacts when you'redeciding which frames to print.Grease pencil marks show up wellin the darkroom, and they can berubbed off if you change your mind.

Finally, be sure to have the instruc-

tions for your camera available at alltimes. If you are buying a newcamera, this will be easy. If not, youmay have to search a bi t , or buy oneof the many books available describ-ing different camera models. If youcan't locate instructions, have some-one who knows the camera well showyou how it works —and be sure totake notes.

Basic Tools ChecklistThe following tools are all you willneed to get started. Check to see thatyou have them, and that your cameraand lens meet the key requirementslisted here:

Camera RequirementsDurabilityManual Aperture & Shutter-Speed ControlsReliable ManufacturerInterchangeable LensCapability

Lens RequirementsStandard Focal-Length(50mm)172.8Reliable Manufacturer

_ UV Filter

Additional ToolsPlastic Negative FilesPlastic Print SheetsGrease PencilOperations Manual or OtherInstructions for Camera

THE CAMERA, INSIDE& OUT

Most 35mm cameras are fairly similarin the design and placement of keycontrols. For example, the film ad-vance lever (the "winder") is generallyon the top right, next to the shutterrelease. Advances in electronics,however, are turning cameras into

mini-computers. Many are utterlyunl ike the traditional models. Somenew ones, for example, come with abuilt-in auto-winder and don't havea film advance lever at all.

So, the following pages are not in-tended as a substitute for yourcamera's manual. No one list can becorrect and complete for all camerabrands and models. You may have tohunt a bit to locate some of the com-ponents on your camera, since eachmodel tends to have its little quirks.Check your own manual to be surethat you know where each compo-nent is located on your camera andhow it works.

The following pages are intendedas a summary of the basic com-ponents of a typical, traditionalcamera. This will give you an idea ofhow your camera compares to mostothers.

You may not find all of the com-ponents that are listed here, eitherbecause they are not included in yourcamera or because they have beenreplaced by an automatic feature. Itis still a good idea to become familiarwith all of them. Understanding eachcomponent of a traditional camerawill help you understand how eventhe simplest or most automaticcamera works. And knowing how acamera works is vital to using it well.

As you read this section, compareeach description with your owncamera. Be sure to have your owncamera's manual on hand to clarifyany questions. Look for each compo-nent as it is described, and try it out.Do not put film into the camera un-t i l instructed to do so.


The Camera Body: Outside• ViewfinderThe first thing to look at on yourcamera is the part that allows you tolook through it. The viewfinder, insimplest terms, is just a rectangularwindow that shows you what will bein your photograph when you clickthe shutter. (Actually, viewfindersgenerally show you a bit less thanyou'll actually get. This is usually anadvantage, as it gives you a little"slack" when you're making a print.)

Your viewfinder is probably quitea bit more than just a window,however. It certainly will includesome kind of focusing aid. One com-mon focusing aid is a split circle(called a split-image focusing screen)in which out-of-focus objects do notline up correctly. Another commonkind is a series of circles (called aground-glass focusing screen) that goin and out of focus as you turn thefocusing ring on the lens.

The split-image screen is especiallyhelpful if you're at all nearsighted. Touse it, you simply adjust the focus-ing ring until both sides of the circleline up. It works best when the splitis placed across a line of some kind,such as an eyelid or a branch, so youcan see what you're lining up.

In addition, most modern camerasuse the sides of the viewfinder toshow you important information.This may include the aperture of yourlens, the camera's shutter-speed,

Tools 41

whether the camera is in manual orautomatic mode, whether your flashhas recharged, etc.

Take some time to explore yourviewfinder. If you aren't certain whateverything in it means, consult theuser's manual for your camera or askan experienced photographer.

• ASA/ISOThe first step of any photo assign-ment is to set the correct film speed.This will be listed on the film carton,or box, (and also on the canister, themetal container holding the film) asASA or ISO. These two terms areused to describe the same thing: thefilm's sensitivity to light. In fact theyoften appear together, as ASA/ISO.ISO is becoming the more commonterm, however, so we'll be using itthroughout this book. (Both "ASA"and "ISO" are the ini t ials oforganizations —the American Stan-dards Association and the Interna-tional Standards Organization —thatestablish scientific measurements.)

The ISO indicator is generally builtinto the rewind knob, on the left sideof the top of the camera. The ISOnumbers are usually visible througha little window in the rewind knob.Each number is usually double thepreceding number: 25, 50, 100, 200,400, 800, etc. Dots between thenumbers indicate settings in betweenthese numbers. So, for example, ISO125 is one dot above ISO 100.

You must remember to change theISO setting every time you use a dif-ferent kind of film. If you are usingany automatic exposure system, yourcamera will base its decisions on theISO setting you've selected. If it'swrong, all your photos will be incor-rectly exposed.

The same holds true for the cam-era's internal light meter. If you'resetting the shutter speed or apertureaccording to the meter, your ex-posures will only be correct if the ISOsetting is correct. Even if you're do-ing everything manually, the ISO set-ting is an important reminder of whatkind of film you're using.

To change the ISO setting, yougenerally turn a knob that moves thenumbers through the indicator win-dow. You may first need to press abutton, lift the knob or otherwiserelease a lock designed to prevent youfrom changing the setting acciden-tally. On many modern cameras,you'll change the ISO by pressing abutton until the right number comesup in a display panel. Some cameraswill set the ISO for you automat-ically, reading the proper setting froma code on the film canister. (Film thathas been coded for this purpose islabeled "DX.")

Locate the ISO indicator on yourcamera. Adjust the setting to see howlow and high it goes. Professionalcameras will provide ISO settings aslow as 6 and as high as 6400. Manypopular models have a range of 12 to3200. Don't worry if yours doesn't goas high or as low as that. Most filmsfall between ISO 25 and 1200.

Once you've checked out the limitsof your camera's ISO indicator, setit to ISO 125. This is the speed forKodak's Plus-X film, which you willbe using in your first assignment.

• Shutter-Speed ControlThe shutter-speed control is almostalways on the top right of the camera.It determines how long the shutterwill remain open for each photo-graph. It is simply a timer. When youpress the shutter release, the shutteropens, light enters through the lens,and the timer begins counting. Whenthe shutter has been open for theamount of time you have selected, itcloses again. The numbers on theshutter-speed control indicate frac-tions of a second (60 = 1760 of a sec-ond, and so on), so the timer has tocount very quickly.

The most commonly used shutterspeeds are probably 60 and 125. Bothare fast enough to stop most actionwith a 50mm lens, while allowing fora fairly small aperture in mostlighting conditions.

Notice that 125 (or 1/125 of a sec-ond) is almost exactly twice as fast as60 (or 1/60 of a second). The nextspeed above 125 is 250— twice as fastagain. Depending on your camera,the highest speed may be 1000 or evenhigher, fast enough to "freeze" a birdin flight or a race car at the Indy 500.

Moving down from 60, the nextspeed is 30. Again depending on yourcamera, the shutter speeds may go aslow as 1, for 1 second. Some camerasprovide even longer automaticallytimed exposures, even as long as aminute or more.

The last indicator on the shutter-speed control should be a "B." This

stands for "bulb." In the early daysof photography, the shutter wasreleased by squeezing a rubber bulb,and it stayed open as long as the bulbwas squeezed. The photographer hadto decide when enough light hadentered the camera, and then let goof the bulb to close the shutter. Sincefilm was very slow in those days, thatwasn't as hard as it sounds.

Today, although everything aboutthe cameras we use is far more com-plex, this term remains the same. The"B" simply means that the shutter willremain open as long as the release isheld down. This is useful for verylong exposures, primarily at night.To use the "B" setting, you willalmost certainly need to use a tripodand a cable release, which (like theold-fashioned bulbs) is used to avoidshaking the camera.

• Shutter ReleaseNext to the shutter-speed control (topright of the camera) you should findthe shutter release. It is simply a but-ton which, when pressed, triggers theshutter mechanism. (Note: On somecameras, the shutter release is pressedpart-way down to measure the lightor "freeze" the aperture setting.)

• Film Advance LeverThe film-advance lever (or winder) isgenerally located directly behind theshutter release, making it easy toclick-and-wind quickly.

Try turning the winder (counter-clockwise). If it doesn't move morethan an inch, press the shutterrelease. You should hear a sharpclick. Then try the winder again. Itshould swing easily out to the side ofthe camera and snap back into placewhen you let go of it. If you had filmin the camera, you would have justtaken a photograph and advanced thefilm to the next frame.• Rewind ReleaseAs you wind film through thecamera, it travels from its canister (onthe left) to the "take-up reel" belowthe advance lever (on the right).When you reach the end of a roll, thelever will jam. You will no longer beable to turn it easily. The next stepis to rewind the film back into thecanister.

Before you can do that, you'll needto release the lock that keeps the filmfrom slipping backwards by acci-dent. Remove the camera from itscase and look on the bottom of thecamera body. You should find asmall button directly below the filmadvance lever.

Pressing this button will release thelock, so you can rewind the film.(Until there is film in the camera,however, it won't have any effect, sodon't bother testing it yet.)

• RewinderOnce you've released the film lock,you'll need to crank the film back in-to its canister, using the rewind knobon the left side of the camera's top.Generally, a small crank is lifted outof the rewind knob for this purpose.There should be an arrow indicatingthat the crank turns clockwise, in caseyou get confused. As you rewind thefilm, it is a good idea to keep yourfinger on the rewind release button soit doesn't lock again and tear thefilm's sprocket holes.• Battery CompartmentAnother important component isgenerally located on the bottom ofthe camera: the battery compart-ment. If yours is there, it will prob-ably have a round metal cover witha slit in it. To open the compartment,you place the edge of a coin (a pennyworks well) into the slit and turn itcounter-clockwise. When the cover isremoved, a small packet with one ortwo coin-shaped batteries should slideout. These batteries are very sensitiveand may not work if you get dust orfingerprints on them. So treat themcarefully. Fortunately, your batteriesrarely need changing.

If you found a round metal coverwith a slit in it, but did not find anybatteries under it, then you've prob-ably just discovered your camera'smotor-drive connector. This is a gearthat connects a separate motor-driveunit to your camera's film advancemechanism. (To learn more about

Tools 43

motor-drives, see Appendix 4.) Inthis case, your camera's battery islocated elsewhere. Most likely it's ina compartment on the front of thecamera body, on the right side. If so,it's likely that your camera uses bat-teries to run both the light meter anda variety of automatic features. Themore automatic features your camerahas, the more power it requires, andthe more frequently you'll need freshbatteries. Check your manual to findout how to change them.• Battery CheckThe placement and operation of thebattery check varies considerablyfrom one camera model to the next.It may be activated by a button onthe top or on the front of the body.It may cause a needle in the view-finder to move to an assigned spot,or light up an indicator lamp. Or itmay be fully automatic, activating anindicator only when the battery islow. Take a moment to locate thebattery-check function on yourcamera, using the manual, and besure you know how it works. Fewthings are more depressing inphotography than discovering toolate that your camera has deadbatteries.

• Hot ShoeNearly all modern cameras comeequipped with a "hot shoe." This isa small clamp right above theeyepiece, onto which a flash can be

mounted. It establishes an electroniclink between the flash and thecamera. This link enables the camerato "trigger" the flash while the shut-ter is fully open. It may also enablethe flash and camera to "communi-cate," so the flash can "tell" thecamera what aperture to use, or thecamera can "tell" the flash when it hasreceived enough light. (See Appendix4 for more information on flashes.)• AccessoriesThe next three components are notessential and are not included in allmodels. If your camera has them,however, they can be useful.

Self-Timer The primary purposeof the self-timer is to permit you totake a picture of yourself. It usuallyconsists of a lever that you turnbefore pressing the shutter release.The timer starts counting as soon asthe shutter release is pressed, gen-erally giving you a few seconds toposition yourself in front of thecamera and work on your smile.Most self-timers also include a littlelight that blinks to tell you it'sworking.

Multiple-Exposure Control Thisfeature stops the film advancemechanism from working, so you canmove the lever without moving thefilm. This enables you to cock theshutter for a new shot, while the filmstays where it is. You can then putmore than a single shot onto a single

frame of film. If you want to playwith multiple images, "ghosts" andrelated special effects, this mech-anism will allow you to do so.

Depth of Field Preview ButtonNormally, your lens will stay open tothe largest aperture available untilyou click the shutter. This gives youas much light in the viewfinder aspossible to help you focus precisely.The depth of field preview buttontemporarily closes the lens down tothe aperture you've selected, so yousee exactly what the film will see. Asexplained in Chapter 9, the smallerthe aperture, the greater the range ofdistance that will be in focus. Thisrange is known as depth of field.

If you have selected a small aper-ture (say, f/16) pressing the depth offield preview button will cause theviewfinder to become dark (due tothe small aperture). If you lookcarefully, you'll see that nearlyeverything is in crisp focus. If you'veselected a moderate aperture (say,f/5.6), the background will be out offocus when the foreground is infocus, and vice versa. If you'veselected your largest aperture, thedepth of field preview button won'thave any effect at all, since the depthof field stays the same.

The primary function of the depthof field preview button is to help youselect the correct aperture when depthof field is of critical importance.You'll find it especially useful whenshooting close-ups.• Camera Back ReleaseNow comes the tricky part. Becauseyou don't want your camera to openitself accidentally, the latch thatkeeps the back shut is often cleverlyhidden. In addition, releasing it tendsto require several steps. Generally,the release is connected in some wayto pulling up the rewind knob (which


also frees the film canister from itssprocket). If in doubt, once again,consult your manual.

The Camera Body: InsideBefore we explore the internal work-ings of your camera, a few generalwords of caution are in order.Though the outside of most camerascan stand a fair amount of abuse, theinside can't. Once you've opened thecamera back, you have exposed somevery delicate machinery. This is onetime that strict rules do apply: Don'tpoke around with your fingers untilyou know what you're poking. Don'ttry to "fix" things, even if they appearto be broken. If you think some-thing's wrong, take the camera to anauthorized repair shop. Open thecamera back only when absolutelynecessary (to change film), and closeit again as quickly as possible. Pro-tect the interior from dust andmoisture. If you're shooting in dustyor wet conditions, aim your back in-to the wind and cover the camera asmuch as possible. In short, becareful!

• ShutterThe first thing you're likely to noticeonce you open the camera back isalso the most fragile and important:the shutter. This is a piece of clothor a series of small metal plates cover-ing the rectangular space directlybelow the viewfinder. It is as delicateas it looks, so do not touch it.

When you click the shutter, threethings happen. The lens closes downto the aperture you've selected. Amirror between the lens and the shut-ter (which you'll see a little later) liftsup out of the way. Then the shutterslides open, stays open for the dura-tion of the shutter speed you'veselected, and slides shut.

Sound simple? In a sense it is, ex-cept that all this has to happen withabsolute precision in a fraction of a

second.The metal plate attached to the

camera back (see it?) presses the filmfiat. (This is another of the camera's"don't touch" parts.) The shutteropens and closes, letting a veryprecise amount of light in through thelens. The light exposes one piece (orframe) of film, initiating the chemicalreaction that produces a negative im-age. The film is advanced to a fresh(unexposed) frame and the process isrepeated until the film has all been ex-posed. That, in very simplified form,is how a camera works.

• Film SpoolTo the left of the shutter screen is thefilm spool. This is where you'll inserta film canister. Notice the prongs thatprotrude from the end of the spool.These must be fitted to matchingopenings in the film canister. Noticealso that the entire spool slides up outof the way when you pull the rewindknob. This provides just enoughspace for you to slip in the canister.You then push the knob back down,fiddling with it, as needed, to slip theprongs into their respective openings.

Tools 45

• Take-Up ReelThe final step in loading film occurs

• Film-Advance SprocketJust to the right of the shutter screenthere are two sets of sprockets (gears)on a reel. This is the next step inloading film. The small rectangularholes along the upper and lower edgesof the film must be positioned overthese sprockets. Each knob of thesprocket should slide easily into ahole in the film as they turn together.

at the far right, just past the film-advance sprocket. This is the take-upreel. In most cameras, this reel issimply a tube with slits in it. Your jobis to insert the end of the film in oneof the slits and then wind the reel un-til the film catches and holds tight.

On some newer cameras, the take-up reel is equipped with a specialmechanism to make it easier to insertthe film. Some even load the filmautomatically. Once again, if youhave any questions, consult yourmanual.

The LensThe lens is a camera's eye. Like ahuman eye, its opening expands andcontracts (opens and closes) as the

amount of light it is "seeing"decreases and increases. Also like ahuman eye, it focuses on some thingsand not on others. Unlike the humaneye, however, a camera lens requireshelp to do these things. With mostcameras, that help must come fromyou, the photographer.

You expand and contract the open-ing of the lens by adjusting the aper-ture ring. You use the focusing ringto select what is in and out of focus.The aperture and focusing rings areused together to determine how muchis in focus. By decreasing the aper-ture, you increase the depth of field.In other words, a smaller lens open-ing means that more of your photo-graph will be in focus.


• Aperture RingLet's start with the ring that is usuallyclosest to the camera body and moveoutwards. On most cameras, this willbe the aperture ring.

The aperture ring consists of aseries of numbers —4, 5.6, 8, 11,etc.-that can be turned to line upwith a marker. The lowest numberwill probably be 1.8, 2.8, or 3.5,depending on your lens. The highestis likely to be 16 or 22.

Each of these numbers stands foran aperture or f-stop, a different sizelens opening. The lower numbersrepresent larger openings; the highernumbers represent smaller ones.

On cameras with automatic meter-ing, you're likely to see an "A" orsome other symbol ind ica t ing"automatic." If so, you may need topress a button to release the ring soyou can turn it. In this case, the ringlocks itself on automatic, so youdon't accidentally bump it intomanual mode (which can result in alot of ruined photos.)

• Depth of Field ScaleGenerally, there is another ring withthe same numbers (usually smallerand sometimes colored) right next tothe aperture ring. This one does notturn. It is the depth of field scale, andis there only to give information. Thescale tells you what range of distancewill be in focus at each f-stop. Forexample, at f/16 everything from 7to 30 feet away from you will be infocus. At f/4, the depth of field ismuch smaller: from 7 to about 9 feet.

Basically, the depth of field scalegives you the same information as thedepth of field preview button. Thedifference is that one tells and theother shows you.

• Focusing RingIf you've been checking out the depthof field scale, you've probablyalready figured out the focusing ring.The focusing ring is marked withdistances, virtually always in bothfeet ("ft") and meters ("m"). Youturn the ring to adjust the focus.

Normally, of course, you won't seethe numbers, since you'll be looking

through the lens. The main use of thenumbers is to give you the option ofguessing at the correct focal distance.This can come in very handy if youwant to sneak a shot of someonewithout being noticed.

• Lens Release & MountNow that you know how the lensworks, let's take it off . On mostcameras, you'll f ind a buttonsomewhere that you must press asyou turn the lens (and some turn oneway, some the other). Absolutely,positively, with no exceptions, do notattempt to remove a lens from anycamera until you're sure you knowhow. This goes double for trying toput the lens back on. (One of the bestways to ruin a camera, outside ofdropping it on concrete, is to forcea lens on the wrong way —and thereare lots of wrong ways.) Alwayscheck the manual first.

Once you have studied the manualcarefully, practice removing the lensand putting it back on again until youcan do it quickly and effortlessly.Before you do, make sure you haveeverything correctly lined up, andthat you have a clean, safe place toput the lens when you take it off.Finally, never leave a lens lyingaround off the camera and out of itscase, or a camera lying around withno lens on it. Either way, you're justasking for trouble.

Tools 47

EXERCISE

Testing the Shutter & Aperture

By now you should be familiar withall the components that have an ef-fect on the shutter. Let's take a lookat them all in action.

Set your shutter speed to "B" andyour lens to its largest aperture(remember, that 's the lowestnumber). Make sure the film advancelever has been wound, to cock theshutter. Open your camera back.Aim the lens at any convenient lightsource. While looking at the shutterscreen, press the shutter release but-ton and hold it down.

You should find yourself lookingthrough a hole about the size of aquarter, through which you'll be ableto see whatever's in front of yourlens . . . except everything will be up-side down and probably out of focus.

Let the shutter close and then cockit again. Set your lens to its smallestaperture (the highest number). Lookthrough again and press the shutterrelease.

This time you should see a muchsmaller hole, with five or more sides.The hole gets its shape from overlap-ping metal plates in the lens. Theplates come closer together as theaperture decreases, and they spreadf u r t h e r apart as the apertureincreases.

Set the lens to its largest apertureagain. Cock the shutter and set theshutter speed to 60. Click and watchagain. Try the same thing at 125. Tryit at 30. Can you tell them apart?Move up and down the shutter speed

dial to get a sense of how the speedsdiffer.

Do the same thing with all the dif-ferent apertures with the shutter setat "B," so you can see the differentsized openings.

Now close the back of the cameraand remove the lens. Set it asidewhere it will be safe. Look into thecamera from the front. If you havean SLR (or Single-Lens Reflex)camera, you should see a mirror setat an angle. Above the mirror you'llsee the focusing screen. If you lookvery carefully, you may also be ableto make out some of the otherdisplays you saw in the viewfinder.The triangle on the camera's top is aprism that "bends" the image of thefocusing screen around to the view-finder so you can see it.

Aim the back of the cameratoward a light source and look intothe mirror. You should be able to seeout through the viewfinder, thoughmost everything will be blurry.

With the shutter speed still set at"B," cock the shutter. Press the shut-ter release and notice how the mirrorswings up out of sight. The black rec-tangle you see at the back is the metalplate that holds the film in place. Letgo of the shutter release and you'll seethat the mirror drops right back intoplace. Now try the same thing at yourcamera's fastest shutter speed.

That concludes the testing exer-cises. Now it's time to do it all forreal.


Loading FilmTo start, open a box of film andremove the canister from its plasticcase. It's a good idea to save the caseto protect the film once you've fin-ished shooting it. It's also a good ideato read over the instructions in thebox if this is the first time you've usedthis kind of film.

Set the ISO as indicated on the filmbox or canister. (Always do this first,so you don't forget — and before youlose the box and hide the film insidethe camera.)

Hold the camera securely in onehand, pin it between your knees orplace it on a flat, clean surface. Thelens should be pointing down and thetop of the camera aimed away fromyou. Open the back. The film spoolshould be pulled all the way up andout of the way. Place the film canisterinto the compartment on the left side,so the film runs straight out of thecanister across the shutter screen.Slide the film spool back down intoplace.

Tuck the end of the film into a sliton the take-up reel. Click the shutterand advance the film until it beginsto stretch tightly across the shutterscreen area. Check to be sure thesprockets are correctly aligned withthe openings along the edges of thefilm. Click and wind once more totighten the film, holding it tight withone finger at the canister's opening ifnecessary.

Close the camera back and checkto be sure it is securely locked. Clickand wind twice to advance to an un-exposed frame.

Congratulations. You're ready toshoot.

Is a plastic hose interesting? It is if it is photographed well. Notice how composition and lighting can add impactto what could have been a very dull image. The hose is positioned slightly left of center, which accentuates itslooping curves. The shadow that nearly touches the upper right-hand corner promotes a sense of balance. The"negative space" between the hose and the frame of the photograph creates unusual and intriguing shapes. Whatelse makes this photograph "work"? (Student photograph by James Schmid.J


chapter 3 What is Composition ?

photograph is a rectangularframe with something in it.That, in essence, is all it is.

Yet, within that simple definition,there are countless possibilities.Before you can begin to achieve someof those possibilities, you will need tolearn how to make certain decisionswith precision and creativity.

First of all, you'll need to decidewhat to place within that rectangularframe. Then you'll need to decidehow to place it . Should it fill thewhole frame or just a part of it?Should it be placed toward the top orbottom of the frame, to one side, orin the center? Should the frame con-tain a single object or several? Thesequestions, and others like them, arequestions of composition.

Composition is the arrangement ofvisual elements within the frame ofa photograph. In photography as inchemistry, elements are basic units ofcomposition which cannot be brokendown into smaller parts. They arecomposition's raw materials.

The most important elements inphotography are line, texture, shape,light, motion and perspective. In vir-tually all photographs, several ofthese elements combine to achieve aspecif ic e f f ec t . A photographachieves greatness when every singleelement in it contributes to oneoverall effect, and none is wasted.

You'll need a considerable amount oftrial-and-error experience before youcan expect to reach this goal, but it'sa good idea to keep it in mind fromthe very beginning.

A good photographer is like amaster chef who mixes a certainnumber of ingredients (or elements)together in just the right proportionsto create a memorable dish (or com-position). In both cases, followingrecipes is a useful way to get started,but soon you'll want to be morecreative and try new things. A truemaster breaks the rules a bit andcreates something unique. Before therules can be broken creatively,however, they must be understood.

Understanding is very differentfrom memorizing. You've memorizedsomething when you can repeat it.You've understood it when you canapply it .

You already know that composi-tion is the arrangement of elementswithin the frame of a photograph.Now let's poke at the idea of com-position to see if we can achieve agenuine understanding of it.

SNAPSHOTS vs.PHOTOGRAPHS

Perhaps the best way to do this is toconsider the difference between a"snapshot" and a "photograph." You

know what a snapshot is and what itgenerally looks like: Aunt Molly sit-ting by the pool, grinning at thecamera. A snapshot is a casual recordof some event or person or object.

When you look at a snapshot, themain thing you're looking at is amemory: "Oh, so that's what AuntMolly used to look like." It doesn'tmatter if part of her head got cut offor if she's slightly out of focus. Allthat matters is that the picture is clearenough to preserve some memories.

A lot more matters in a truephotograph. A photograph is, orshould be, an artistic interpretationof an event or person or object. Itspurpose is to tell the viewer —anyviewer —something about its subject.It should show not just what the sub-ject is, but what it is like. And itshould do so with impact and style.

To accomplish this, a photographmust be composed. All its elementsmust be selected and arranged towork together toward some unifiedeffect.

The main difference between asnapshot and a photograph is the carewith which each is produced. Takinga snapshot involves little more thanpointing the camera in the right direc-tion and clicking the shutter. Takinga photograph requires paying atten-tion to every detail within the frame,and getting all of them just right,

51

Attention to detail is the primarydifference between a snapshot anda photograph. In the snapshot(right) the head and feet of thetaller girl are poorly cropped andthe background is distracting. Thegirls' expressions are stiff and un-natural and the compositiondoesn't "do" anything. In thephotograph (above) the same twogirls have been posed in a more in-teresting way. Their expressionsconvey a real mood, the back-ground is less distracting, and thecomposition is much stronger.Snapshot and photograph by MikeWiley.

before the shutter is clicked. That'swhat composition is basically allabout: paying attention.

No matter how interesting yoursubject may be, you have not reallyphotographed it until you haveplaced it carefully within the frame,gotten rid of anything that distractsattention from it, made sure that allthe various elements are workingtogether, and set the camera to thecorrect aperture and shutter speed forthe effect you want. In a broad sense,the subject of a photograph is far lessimportant than its composition. Ab-solutely anything can be photo-graphed well —or poorly.

This in itself is a valuable lesson.Once you've begun seeing with aphotographer's eye, you'll discoverthat there are wonderful images allaround you —far more than youcould ever hope to capture on film.Whether you continue to practicephotography or not, the way youlook at the world around you willprobably be changed forever.

Photography is an art of discovery.It is an exploration of the endlessvariety of line, texture, shape, light,motion and perspective — a l l the fun-damental elements of composition.Not many people have an oppor-tunity to learn to explore the worldin this way. You have now becomeone of the lucky few who do. Enjoythe exploration.

Before focusing in on eachseparate element, it's important todevelop a sense of how they all worktogether. So, though each elementwill have its turn, we're beginningwith the "big picture": composition.We've already discussed what it is,and provided some clues as to why itis important. Now let's look at howit works.


STRUCTURE, BALANCE,DYNAMICS

These three things — s t r u c t u r e ,balance and dynamics —define thecomposition of a photograph as awhole. They provide a visual frame-work, a context, within which thevarious elements of the photographfind their proper places. Withoutstructure, balance and dynamics, aphotograph would only be a jumbleof random objects. It would have lit-tle impact and might not make muchsense.

StructureStructure in photography works inmuch the same way as it works inarchitecture. The structural elementsin a building are the posts and beamsthat hold it together. Non-structuralelements are the walls, doors andwindows that determine how thebuilding looks and what it is for.

In a photograph, the basic struc-tural elements are line, shape andposition (the placement of an objectwithin a composition). These threeelements hold the photographtogether. Non-structural elements —

As an example of the fact that aphotograph can be "about"absolutely anything, here's one thatis pure structure. Notice how thethree structural elements—position,line and shape —can make even thesimplest image come alive. (Studentphotograph by Augustine Go.)

texture, light, motion and per-spective—are added to complete theimage, a l te r ing its appearanceand effect.

In a building, the design may re-quire a generally non-structural ele-ment, such as an interior wall, tobecome structural. In this case, someother part of the building, such as thefloor above i t , depends on that wallfor support . If the wall wereremoved, the building would prob-ably collapse.

It's the same with photography.Occasionally, texture or light (or anyof the other elements that are gener-ally "non-structural") become so im-portant to the composition that it,too, would collapse if they wereremoved.

In practical terms, this means thata photograph may, for example, be"about" texture, so much so that lineand shape are irrelevant. This is,however, an exception. By and large,composition is determined by line,shape and position.

How do they do this? Primarily bybreaking the photograph up intosmaller frames within the main one.Each of these smaller frames, whichwe'll call zones, is in effect a picturewithin a picture. Ideally, each zonewill produce some particular effecton its own, as well as producing withall the others one overall effect.

What is Composition? 53

Weighting this photograph over to the left side is one element that makesit interesting. What other elements contribute to its impact? (Studentphotograph by Renee Adsitt.)

• The Nine-Zone GridExamine the composition griddiagram. It contains nine zones.These zones are produced by dividingthe frame into thirds vertically (thetwo gray lines) and horizontally (thetwo dotted lines). By thinking aboutcomposition in terms of these zones,you may find it easier to get a senseof how it works.

Each zone need not produce a dif-ferent effect in order to be doing itsjob. Most of the zones may be exactlyalike, with only one or two doingsomething different. When that is thecase, the zones that are differentstand out more clearly in contrast totheir surroundings: a lighted area ina photograph that is mostly dark, forexample, or a figure standing in themidst of blank space.

Sometimes, on the other hand,there's so much happening in aphotograph that it's hard to decidewhat to look at first. In this case, ithelps tremendously to "anchor" themost important objects by placing

each one in its own zone.However you decide to use each

zone, it's good to check all of themto be sure they are all doingsomething. If a zone is not adding tothe effect you want, it should be cor-rected or cropped out. Usually, cor-recting a zone involves nothing morethan shifting your angle, movingaround a bit or waiting patiently forthe composition to change on itsown. Waiting for —and catching —just the right moment is especially im-portant when you're photographingpeople. When you're photographinga small object, of course, you canalways move it to improve thecomposition.• PositionIf you examine the grid, you'll seethat you have three choices for posi-tioning a subject vertically: top,center and bottom. You also havethree choices horizontally: right,center and left. This gives you a totalof nine choices ( 3 x 3 = 9).

Most photographs have a domi-

54 The Photographic Eye J

nant subject: an object or person thatattracts the most attention. Usually,but not always, the dominant subjectis the largest object in the frame.Sometimes it is a relatively small ob-ject that is carefully placed to com-mand the most attention. It may alsobe a cluster of several objects orpeople.

Positioning the dominant subjectof a photograph in a zone is calledweighting. A photograph may beweighted toward the top, bottom,center or to either side. It may alsobe weighted toward any combination

of these directions —for example, theupper right-hand corner.

If the subject of a photograph isstrongly weighted toward the top ofthe frame, it will appear far away andmay, as you might expect, appeartop-heavy. Though this can be veryeffective, it produces an unusual andoften disturbing effect. It should beused sparingly and only with goodreason.

A photograph that is stronglyweighted toward the bottom tends toappear very firmly grounded. What-ever is in the upper part of the

In this example of bottom-weighting, notice how the buildingsseem to press down on the twocars at the focal point. Also noticehow line is used to draw your eyeto the focal point. How many linespoint at the two cars? (Studentphotograph by Charles Chinas.)

photograph will generally seem topress down on the subject. The feel-ing this may convey ranges fromheavy and trapped to free andliberating, depending on how theother elements are employed. For ex-ample, if the upper part of the photo-graph is filled with massive, darkbuildings, the feeling is likely to beheavy and oppressive. If, instead, thephoto is dominated by clear sky, thefeeling will be quite different.

A photograph that is stronglycenter-weighted tends to look static,as if the subject is "frozen" in place.Placing a subject in the exact centerof the frame is against the "officialrules" of composition. It can,however, be very effective.

Finally, strongly weighting aphotograph to either side tends tosuggest movement. If a subject facesthe same side it is weighted toward,it will seem to be moving out of theframe. This is especially true if it isweighted toward a corner as well. Ifthe subject is facing the opposite side,it will seem to be moving into theframe. In most cases, moving into theframe is preferable.

In most of your photographs,you'll probably want to place themain subject near where the linesdividing the zones cross each other.In other words, you will usually wantyour subject to be a little off-center,slightly weighted toward the top, bot-tom or one side. This produces amore subtle effect. The subject will


still seem to be interestingly distant,grounded, static or mobile, but nottoo much so. Later on, you will beencouraged to test the extremes. Eventhough you probably won't use themmuch, it's good to understand the ef-fects they produce. This will allowyou to use them skillfully if and whenyou want one of those effects.

One thing you may have noticed isthat the "rules" of composition soundmore like suggestions. That is entirelyintentional. Some photographersemploy these rules very strictly. Most,however, bend and break them asthey please. You should feel abso-lutely free to do the same —onceyou've understood what the "rules"are, why they exist and how theywork. After you've reached thatpoint, they are indeed only sugges-tions, or guidelines.• LineWeighting is generally achieved bypositioning. It is often reinforcedwith line. For example, if you decideto weight a photograph strongly bypositioning the dominant subjectnear the top of the frame, the impres-sion of distance you create will bestrengthened if lines starting in theforeground converge (get closer to-gether) as they get nearer to the sub-ject. One example is a photograph ofa person walking along a sidewalk.The person will seem more distant ifthe receding lines of the sidewalk areemphasized. Fortunately, you don'thave to do anything to the sidewalkto achieve this effect; the lines willconverge naturally as a result ofperspective. (Perspective will be ex-amined in greater detail later.) Allyou need to do is to keep your eyesopen for the effect when it may beuseful.

In this photograph, weighted toward the upper left-hand corner, the emptyspace of the window contributes to the dreamy quality of the image.(Student photograph by Kristin McCauley.)


How does line affect this centered,top-weighted photograph? Wheredo the perspective lines converge?Does that tell you what thephotograph is about? What is thephotograph about? (Studentphotograph by Kenneth Griggs.)

How does this photograph's composition fit on the 9-zone grid? How is itweighted? How do the shapes in it work together? (Student photograph.)


FOCAL POINT: Composition Tips

As you continue to practice photog-raphy and begin discovering yourown style, you'll also begin definingyour own approach to composition.The guidelines that follow will,however, help you get off to a goodstart. If you pay close attention tothese guidelines, many of the photo-graphs you produce now will lookpretty good even after you become amaster photographer.

Get in close. The most commonmistake made by beginning photog-raphers is staying too far away fromthe subject. Admittedly, a distantshot can sometimes be very effective.As a general rule, however, the closeryou are to your subject, the more in-teresting your photograph will be.

Why? Well, first of all, the largerthe subject is within the frame, themore detail it will have. Detail tendsto add interest. Making your primarysubject large also helps the viewerunderstand that it is the primary sub-ject. (It's very frustrating to "wanderaround" in a photograph trying tofigure out what the photographerwanted you to look at first.) Finally,getting in close reduces the size of thenegative space, making it moreinteresting.

A good way to practice this tip isto shoot a subject several times, mov-ing in closer with each shot. See howclose you can get and still produce anunderstandable image. You may besurprised.

Pay attention to negative space.Keeping negative space relativelysmall is half the battle, but not all ofit. In addition, it's important to ex-periment with the placement of yoursubjects until you achieve an effectthat is not merely interesting, but

Student photograph by Janice Pata.

exciting.Get into the habit of scanning the

edges of the frame —before you clickthe shutter — t o see what the negativespace looks like. If it doesn't exciteyou, change your position or cameraangle until it does. This will geteasier, even automatic, with practice.

Edit your image. You don't scorepoints as a photographer merely bybeing present for a photograph. Youhave to work at it. Anything withinthe frame that doesn't contribute tothe whole image doesn't belong in it.Edit it out.

Once again, this is done by mov-

ing closer or to one side, or by shif-ting your camera angle until every-thing that should be in is in andeverything that should be out is out.Never let yourself mutter, "Thatthing just got in the way." It's up toyou to get it out of the way.

Watch your edges. While you'reshooting, printing or critiquing aphotograph, look carefully at theborders, especially the corners. Linesthat cut through the corners, randomflecks of light or shadow and littlebits of confusing detail along theedges will draw the viewer's eye awayfrom the point of interest.


Keep verticals vertical and horizon-tals horizontal. Buildings that appearto lean or horizon lines that tilt arelikely to make your viewers nervousor queasy. Avoid them by holdingyour camera level, or correct the printby cropping. Receding lines in thebackground are rarely a problem, butbe sure the central image lookssteady, unless you have a good reasonto do otherwise.

Place your subject in its environ-ment. As another general rule, it ishelpful to give the viewer some senseof the subject's surroundings. Thisdoes not mean, for example, that youneed to pull away to show the entireneighborhood where a person is stan-ding. A little bit of background detailmay be all that's needed to providea suitable context. Even clothing canprovide an environment for a per-son's face.

Here's an excellent example of a highly structured photograph. Notice howthe lower hand forms a downward triangle with the two girls' heads. Thehands of the girl on the right form a second triangle (pointing up). Whatlines emphasize the triangles? How does the sweater of the girl on the leftrelate to the background pattern of the jungle-gym bars? How does theposition of the girls relate to the vertical lines of the 9-zone grid? How dothe bars relate to the horizontal lines? (Student photograph by Jun Hwang.)

Line can also contribute to thestructure of a photograph without be-ing directly involved in the positionof its subject. The most common wayit does this is by literally dividing theframe up in some kind of grid pat-tern. The grid produced by lines in aphoto may or may not be the sameas the compositional grid we havejust been looking at. The lines maymake a different grid of their own.In this case, the grid produced by thelines is added to the basic composi-tional grid. The rules concerning thecompositional grid, however, remainthe same.

In fact, as you experiment withline, you will probably discover thatthe compositional grid corresponds

quite accurately to the best placementof the most important lines in theframe. For example, horizon lines aregenerally most pleasing, and seemmost natural, when they are placedvery near one of the two horizontallines in the compositional grid.Similarly, a key vertical line, such asthe edge of a wall, will generally workbest when it is placed near either ofthe two vertical lines of the grid. Thisobservation leads to another: in mostphotographs that employ lines, thelines have merely weighted the pho-tograph in one or another direction,depending on how they have beenplaced within the compositional grid.In other words, lines work within thegrid just as any other objects do.

What is Composition? 59What is Composition? 59

An unusual kind of balance is produced by composing a photograph sothat it "pulls" in opposite directions. This photograph is weighted towardboth the upper-right-hand and lower-left-hand corners. What effect doesthat have on its impact and mood? (Student photograph by BrianMacMillan.)

• ShapeShape affecls structure in two ways:by where it is . . . and by where itisn't. Though the idea may be hardto grasp until we explore it further (inthe chapter on Shape), every objectin a photograph actually has twoshapes. The first shape is the obviousone: the space an object takes upwithin the frame, known as positivespace. The second is less obvious: thespace that surrounds an object. Thissecond shape is called negative space.Because careful composition is re-quired to make negative space in-teresting, it is one of the main dif-ferences between photographs andsnapshots.

Negative space is defined byborders —the borders of an objectand the borders of the photograph'sframe. The closer those borders areto each other, the more effective thenegative space will be. If the subject

of a photograph is surrounded by toomuch negative space, the overall ef-fect may be weakened. In this case,the borders of the frame may be toofar away from the object to interactwith it in an interesting way.

So, when you position a shapewithin the frame of a photograph,you need to pay attention to twothings:

First, is the shape itself interesting?If not, you can usually improve uponit by either altering the shape (askinga model to change position, for ex-ample) or by changing the angle fromwhich you are photographing i t . It isnot enough simply to find an in-teresting subject; anyone who takesa snapshot does that. The photog-rapher's job is to make an interestingphotograph of an interesting subject,which is quite a different thing.

The second point you need to thinkabout when you position a shape is

how it fits within the frame. Does itdo something interesting in relationto the other objects and the frame?If not, you probably need to movethe object or move your camera.

BalanceBalance is an equal relationship be-tween two or more things. If youplace two objects on a balancingscale, they are balanced when bothsides of the scale are of the sameweight. It's no different in photog-raphy. A photograph is balancedwhen the various elements "weigh"the same. This does not mean thatthey must take up the same amountof room. What it does mean is a gooddeal more complex.

Let's say you are taking aphotograph of a tree. You canbalance the photograph in severalways, depending on the tree's sur-roundings and on the effect youwant. If the tree stands alone againsta blank sky, you'll probably want itto nearly fill the frame-in whichcase the negative space will interactwell with the frame. In this case, thephotograph has a single subject: the


tree.If the sky is interesting, you may

choose to weight the tree toward thebottom of the frame. In this case,there are actually two subjects in thephotograph: the tree and the sky. Ifthe ground under the tree is interest-ing, you might weight the tree towardthe top of the frame. Again, you havetwo main subjects: the tree and theground.

If there is a person standing off tothe right side of the tree and if the skybehind is interesting, you mightweight the tree to the lower left of theframe. You now have three subjects:the tree, the sky and the person.

In all these examples, you achievebalance by making sure that the sub-ject or subjects are placed in an in-teresting relationship to each otherand to the frame of the photograph.Each should take up exactly the rightamount of room it needs to achievethis relationship.

To make things clearer, let's seewhat happens when a photograph isunbalanced. Go back to the photo-graph of the tree isolated against ablank sky. If you photograph it so the

tree is small and weighted toward thebottom, what happens? First, the treeitself loses interest simply because itis small. Second, the sky loses interestbecause it is too big to create muchnegative space. There's so much neg-ative space that the eye gets lost in it.This effect, which is almost alwaysundesirable, is called dead space.Space that doesn't do anything isdead.

The photograph we've just de-scribed is uninteresting because itssubject is not balanced with thenegative space. Make the tree largerand move it further up into theframe, and the photo begins togenerate interest.

DynamicsDynamics are about movement,specifically the movement of aviewer's eye as it explores a photo-graph. When you look at a photo-graph, your eye naturally moves fromone object within the frame toanother. Ideally, that movementbegins with the most important ob-ject, the primary subject, and thenproceeds to less important ones,


Two kinds of dynamics are atwork in this photograph. First, theviewer's eye naturally follows theeyes of the subject, to see whathe's looking at (which, in this case,is beyond the frame). Second, thecurved lines of the subject's jacketcollar and hair create a sort of"funnel" that reinforces thedynamic flow. (Student photographbyJeffFrye.)

secondary subjects. Finally, it comesfull circle back to the primary subjectagain.

In a poorly composed photograph,on the other hand, one of severalthings can happen to the dynamics.The viewer's eye may get stuck on oneof the secondary subjects, whichweakens the impact of the primaryone. It may get distracted by some-thing that wasn't supposed to be asubject at all (such as an annoyingwhite space near one corner), inwhich case it may not really "see" thephoto at all. Or it may find so manysecondary subjects competing for at-tention that it just bounces aroundthe frame until it gets tired and looksaway.

Part of your job as a photographeris to arrange the objects in a photo-graph so the eye naturally movesaround it in a way that strengthensthe photograph's impact. Generally,this means that the objects are ar-ranged so the eye first notices theprimary subject, then begins to ex-plore how it relates to the secondarysubjects, and finally comes back tothe primary subject before goingaround one more time. The moreinteresting these relationships are, themore often the viewer's eye willrepeaX its path around the photo-graph. This is what dynamics are allabout —generating and holding in-

terest by directing the eye around thephotograph.

Dynamics can be enhancedthrough the use of lines. Actual lines,as in the sidewalk mentioned above,may connect two or more subjects.This creates a sort of road map of thephotograph. The eye finds its wayaround by following the lines.

Implied lines can achieve the sameeffect. I f , for example, a person in aphotograph is looking at another sub-ject in it, the viewer's eye will nat-


urally look to see what that other sub-ject is. There is an implied linebetween the person's eye and the sub-ject it is looking at. Similarly, manyobjects can, in effect, point at others.A fence, for example can point at atree, even if the fence doesn't actuallytouch the tree. The viewer's eye willnaturally tend to follow the line ofthe fence. When the fence ends, theeye will keep on going until it reachesthe tree. This is another implied line,and another example of dynamics.

At its best, the dynamics of aphotograph bind all of the variouselements together. Notice how thetuft of grass beneath the subjectrises to the scarf, which then runsstraight up to the face. The linecontinues, through the subject'shair, around the face and (back tothe scarf again) spills over thesubject's left shoulder. Thesimilarity between the tuft of grassand the subject's bangs is a niceadded touch. (Student photographby Indira Suganda.)

Take a few moments to test thetheory of dynamics we've just out-lined. Look at any photograph in thisbook and pay careful attention tohow your eye moves about within theframe. Try this with several photo-graphs. Which ones are most dy-namic? Which hold your interestlongest? Which contain distractingelements that interfere with thedynamics?

While they may work alone, bal-ance and dynamics often worktogether. A photograph conveysstatic balance when its subjects are ofequal weight and appear immobile,"frozen." Static balance is essentiallybalance without strong dynamics. Ina statically balanced photograph, theviewer's eye tends to take in every-thing all at once, without movingaround the frame. This can be effec-tive if the subject and composition sointeresting that they hold the viewer'sinterest on their own. Portraits ofpeople with especially interestingfaces or expressions often employstatic balance.

A photograph achieves dynamicbalance when its subjects are posi-tioned to encourage the eye to movearound within the frame.


EXERCISE

Mat FrameTurn to the back of the book andlocate the "Mat Template." Trace thetemplate onto sturdy paper and dry-mount it onto a piece of dark matboard. (See Appendix for instruc-tions on mounting.) Then carefullycut through both the mat and thetemplate along the dotted lines. Forbest results, use a sharp knife(such as an X-acto) and a metalstraight-edge.

You have now constructed a matframe with roughly the same propor-tions as your camera's viewfinder.Hold the frame an arm's length away,with the dark side toward you, andlook through it. Wherever you hap-pen to look, you'll have some kind ofcomposition within the frame. Eval-uate it. Is the composition inter-esting? Is it well-balanced? Whatkind of dynamics does it have?

Next, shift the frame to either side,up or down, and observe how thatchanges the composition. Move itcloser to you to fit more into it, orfurther away to crop more out of it.Rotate the frame so it goes fromhorizontal to vertical and back again.Try as many adjustments as you canthink of until you've made the bestcomposition you can. Then turnaround and try the same process inanother direction. Select an objectnear you and experiment with it.How many interesting compositionscan you produce with a single object?Can you make an interesting com-position out of absolutely anything,or do only certain kinds of thingswork well?

Student photograph by Han JuneBae.

This exercise is, in a sense, aphotographer's "warm-up" exercise.Its purpose is to loosen up yourphotographic "muscles" before youactually go out to shoot photographs.By exercising with just a frame, youmay find that you notice things thatyou might miss with all the complica-tions of a real camera. This is likelyto be true whether you've alreadyused a camera for years, or are justgetting started. It's a good exercise tocome back to at regular intervals, justto "freshen up" your eye— so keep thetemplate handy and use it often.


EXERCISE

CroppingThis exercise begins much like theprevious one. First, locate the "Crop-ping L's" template at the back of thisbook. Trace it, dry-mount it ontomat board and cut out the L's. (Theyare called L's because they're shapedlike L's.)

Place the L's on top of the photo-graph on this page. See if you canfind a better or at least different com-position within that photograph byadjusting the L's.

Try cropping in on one smalldetail. Try trimming out any un-necessary details or background. Tryshifting the balance to one side, upor down. See how many good photo-graphs you can find in this one.

Then turn to any other photographin the book (the larger the better) andtry the same t h i n g . Cont inueexperimenting with a variety ofphotographs.

Try working with a partner, takingturns cropping the same photograph.

Is there only one good compositionwithin each photograph? Is there onebest composition in each? Doeseveryone tend to agree on which isbest?

Keep your cropping L's handy, anduse them often to evaluate composi-tions. Try using them during critiquesessions (see the next section) to showthe class how you would crop a pho-tograph differently. Locate or obtainsome magazines with a lot of largephotographs (Life, National Geo-graphic , Smithsonian, fashionmagazines, etc.) and see how manyof the photographs you can improveby cropping.

Student photograph by FrankHal!.


Student photograph by Jay Le Claire.


chapter 4 Developing a Critical Eye

efore you begin doingsomething, it is generallyhelpful to establish some

goals. If you have some idea of whereyou're headed —or where you shouldbe headed —you ' re likely to arrivemore quickly. You'll also be ableto measure your progress moreaccurately.

The best way to start setting yourown photographic goals is to critiquethe work of other photographers.Once you begin begin producing yourown photographs, you'll progressmore rapidly if you let others critiqueyour work as well. When a photo-graph is critiqued, all the variouselements of it —good, bad or indif-ferent—are evaluated. Critiquing isno! the same as criticizing, which onlyinvolves pointing out flaws. In a truecritique, positive and negative com-ments are balanced. This is an essen-tial skill that every photographermust develop.

CRITIQUE SESSIONS

The critique session —or "crit," as itis popularly called — i s one of themost valuable tools for developingskill as a photographer. In simpleterms, a crit involves a group of peo-ple looking carefully at a selection ofphotographs, such as those you willbe producing for the exercises in thisbook, and analyzing or judging them.

Though a crit session does usually in-volve ranking the photographs, itsprimary purpose is group analysis.

There are three basic questions toask yourself about each photographyou critique: What is good about it?What is not good? How could it bebetter? The primary goal is to trainyour eye —to learn to see clearly as aphotographer, when looking atothers' photographs and when takingyour own.

You'll probably find that it's a bitless threatening to critique someoneelse's work, rather than your own.You won't be so close to it and,therefore, will be able to spot itsstrengths and weaknesses more objec-tively. This is one benefit of a groupcrit. Another benefit is that you canlearn from each other's comments.

EVALUATING A PRINT

Take a look at the photograph to theleft which we will use as an "exam-ple photograph" for the next fewpages. Like most of the photographsin this book, it was taken by a stu-dent. Ask yourself the three questionsmentioned above: What's good aboutit? What's not good? What could bebetter?

As you ask these questions, afourth one may come to mind: Wheredo you start?

Most people, when asked to judge

a photograph, will start by sayingwhether they like it or not. Peopletend to like a photograph when theylike what's in i t , and to dislike aphotograph when they don't likewhat's in it. And many will stopthere.

Your first goal, as a photographer,is to move beyond your own likes anddislikes; to identify the technical, ob-jective factors that define a photo-graph and to evaluate them. Theessential distinction here is betweenstyle and standards.

Style is largely a personal matter.In time, every photographer developsan individual style, a unique way ofseeing things and expressing them —just as a singer or a writer developsan individual "voice." This does notmean that all of that photographer'swork will look the same —far fromit — b u t there will be certain stylisticthemes that connect all the images inthat photographer's portfolio.

Similarly, each photograph has astyle of its own, a mood or an inter-pretation of the subject. In the bestphotographs, that style is con-sistent — everything in the photographcontributes to the overall impact. Theresult is a single clear image, ratherthan a collection of random details.

Liking or disliking that style is amatter of opinion — a subjective judg-ment. It has very little to do withwhether the photograph is skillfully

67

produced. Skill is the key ingredientof standards, and standards can bejudged objectively. They are, by andlarge, matters of fact, not opinion.

The place to start in your critiqueis to determine the facts about aphoto. Once you've done this, youhave a good basis for determiningyour opinions about it.

Four basic factors determine aphotograph's standards: value,clarity, composition and presenta-tion. Ideally, a photograph will scorewell on each of these factors, but oneor another factor may be so well rep-resented—or the image so striking —that the photograph will be successfulas a whole even if one (or more) ofthe other factors is lacking.

ValueValue, in a photograph, concernslight —not price. Specifically, it refersto the range of light in the photo-graph: from black through shades ofgray to white.

As a general rule, the more con-trast a photograph has — or the widerthe range between its darkest andlightest elements —the greater itsvisual impact will be. (As with anyrules, there are exceptions; a photo-graph that is all grays, with no whitesor blacks, can be very effective. But,in general, it's good to aim forcontrast.)

If, however, everything in a photo-graph is either black or white, withno grays, it may have a lot of impact,but will generally lack interest. Oncethe eye has taken in the bold image,there is not much reason to keeplooking. So, in addition to a goodbalance of black and white, it'sdesirable to have a range of grays todefine shapes and provide shading.

When evaluating a photograph'svalue, it's important to distinguish

A photograph of normal value contains black blacks, white whites and avariety of grays. (Student photograph.)

between good and bad grays. Theformer are consistent and clear; thelatter are best described as "muddy."Muddy grays may result from under-exposing when shooting, under-developing the film, using an incor-rect paper grade, over-exposing theprint or removing it from thedeveloper too soon.

Take another look at the "examplephotograph." Evaluate its values.You'll probably notice right awaythat this is an exception to the rule

about contrast. There is not muchrange between the photograph'slightest and darkest elements, yet theman's face is so expressive that thephotograph works. If you lookclosely, you'll also notice that the onearea with good contrast is the eyes —and the eyes are what grab your at-tention when you look at the photo-graph. So, while value in the overallimage is limited, it is strong at themost critical point —the eyes. In fact,it is largely because the rest of the


Student photograph.

A low-contrast or "monotone" photograph has a very narrow range ofvalue. And notice how this one is dominated by mid-range grays andcontains virtually no white or black. (Student photograph by CharlesStuart Kennedy HI.)

A high contrast photographcontains predominantly blacks andwhites, with few grays in between.(Student photograph by JonPort is.)

image is so subdued that the eyes areso penetrating.

Improving ValueWhen you have determined that thevalue of a photograph is weak, thenext question is: How could it bebetter?

Assuming the subject was reason-ably contrasty to begin with, there aremany possible causes for poor value.The most common is incorrect expo-sure when taking the photograph.Too little light will result in a dark,"muddy" print. Too much will causehighlights (white areas) to be"washed-out" or "burned out"—sowhite that no details are visible inthem. (The upper corners of the "ex-ample photograph" are an example ofthis —though, again, the image worksdespite this flaw.)

How the film is processed will alsoaffect its values. The longer the filmstays in the developer, the more con-trasty it gets. Gray areas continuedeveloping, getting blacker andblacker on the negative and, there-fore, lighter and lighter on the print.If the film is removed from the devel-oper too soon, its contrast will below; the resulting prints will be weakand gray. Special chemicals are avail-able with which you can re-developfilm to increase or reduce thecontrast.

Additionally, the kind of paperused to make the print has con-siderable effect on its contrast. Papergrades, which range from low to highcontrast (generally numbered 1through 5) allow considerable oppor-

Developing a Critical Eye 69

Another "rule breaker"—this timewithout any real whiles and fewblacks. Notice how the grays arecrisp and varied—not muddy.(Student photograph by MicheleDearing.)

tunity to adjust the contrast up ordown when making a pr int .

Other causes include paper that isaccidentally exposed to the l ight, ex-hausted chemicals and improperdeveloping of the print. Even slightamounts of light leaking into adarkroom can "fog" the paper,resulting in an overall gray tone.Chemicals that have been over-usedor left out too long can become ex-hausted (or weak), resulting in un-predictable results. Too much or toolittle exposure of the paper under theenlarger and too long or too short adeveloping time will also distort thevalues of the final print. In all thesecases, careful and consistent dark-room habits are the cure.

ClarityThe second key factor is clarity. Theprimary key to clarity is focus —notjust whether or not the photographis in focus, but whether it is correctlyfocused. There is a difference.

In a correctly focused photograph,a subject may be either sharp or soft.With sharp focus, all edges are veryclearly defined. With soft focus, theedges blur a bit. When something isout of focus, the edges blur morethan they should. Here's another casein which personal style varies con-siderably. For some photographers,any blurring at all is unacceptable;others deliberately shoot with ex-tremely soft focus to achieve a par-ticular effect.

Often, the best way to treat an im-age is to choose some elements that

will be sharp, leaving others in softerfocus so they are less distracting. Thishelps direct the viewer's eye to thefocal point of the photograph, and italso makes your photograph moreclosely resemble normal sight. (Testthis yourself: look at an object closeto you and notice how the back-ground goes out of focus.)

So, the questions to ask are:What's in focus? What should be infocus? Generally it is the center ofinterest-what the photograph isabout —that should be in focus.

Then look at what is not in focus.Why is it not?

Soft focus throughout a photo-graph may be effective, especially inportraits (to obscure blemishes orenhance the mood) or in landscapes(to achieve a dreamy effect). Specialfilters are available for this purpose,which work better than shooting outof focus.

In addition to appropriate focus,clarity depends on an appropriateshutter speed and an appropriatedegree of contrast between the sub-


"What to leave in, what to leaveout . . . " is the critical decisionregarding focus. Notice that thehelicopter in the background is justclear enough to be recognizable.This helps to keep our attentionfocused on the man in theforeground. (Student photographby Trevor Bredenkamp.)

ject and background. If the shutterspeed is too slow, the subject will beblurred —either because it moved orbecause the photographer did. Blurscan be effective . . . if they are doneon purpose. If the shutter speed is toofast, it may reduce the photograph'simpact. For example, a race car thatshould look like it's zipping past mayinstead look like it's standing still.

The relation between the subjectand background in a photograph hassomething to do with light and value,with line and with composition.Common mistakes include photo-graphing a dark subject against adark background (causing the subjectto vanish mysteriously), composing aphotograph so trees are growing outof the subject's head, and placing acomplex subject in front of a complexbackground (causing another vanish-ing act).

Returning to the "example photo-graph," the lines on the face, themouth and, especially, the eyes arequite sharp. This reinforces their im-pact. The fur hood, zipper and but-ton of the jacket are softer. They areclear enough to provide a context, orsetting, for the face, but not so sharpas to compete with it for the viewer'sattention. The nose is also a littlesoft, adding depth to the face. Theshutter speed was fast enough to pre-vent any blurring, and the whitebackground (what there is of it) setsthe whole figure off nicely.

Selective focus works again in this photo, in which the crowd is reducedto a suggestive blur—keeping our eyes on the quarterback. (Studentphotograph by Jerry Wisler.)


Placing everything in sharp focushelps to accentuate shapes andpatterns, as well as giving theviewer's eye "permission" to wanderabout the composition. (Studentphotograph by Lena Aiken.)

Occasionally — very occasionally — apoorly focused photograph canwork just fine . . . even better thanif it were focused "correctly."Notice how the soft focus on thiswoman affects the photograph'smood and meaning. What does thephotograph seem to be about?What feelings does it convey toyou? (Student photograph byJonathan Serenius.)


Wide depth of field can providethe viewer's eye with plenty ofentertainment after a photograph'sinitial impact (in this case, thevisual joke of the balloon) hasworn off. How does thisphotograph make use of the 9-zonegrid? Of weighting? Of value?(Student photograph by DavidChmielewski.)

Improving ClarityThere are, again, a number of causesfor poor clarity. Focus is the mostcommon problem. It is generallycaused by a failure to set the correctdistance on the focusing ring. A lessobvious, and slightly less common,cause is using too large an aperture.

As the available light decreases, a

photographer can make up for thislack of light in two ways (assumingno flash is being used). The shutterspeed can be decreased, or the aper-ture can be increased. As the apertureis increased — as the lens opening getslarger — t h e depth of field, or rangeof distance that will be in focus at anytime, decreases. Something will

always be in focus . . . but it may notbe in the frame of the camera. Thetrick is to focus more carefully as youuse larger apertures. After focusing,do not move forward or backward.When the subject is relatively closeand the depth of field is very shallow,this can be crucial. (Depth of fieldwill be covered in Chapter 9.)

A third cause of poor clarity con-cerns the other half of the shutter-aperture equation: As the shutterspeed decreases, the chances of blur-ring a picture increase. This may becaused by a subject that moves, or by"camera shake," particularly in low-light situations.

You have little control over themovement of a subject (other thanasking it to sit still), but you can con-trol camera shake. Try pressing thecamera tight against your foreheadand cheekbone, holding your breathwhile you shoot, or bracing yourselfagainst a wall — o r all three at once.Another good technique is to propyour elbows on a solid surface or, ina pinch, on your knees.

You will soon learn how slow ashutter speed you can safely use,which (as we'll discuss in Chapter 10)will vary according to the length ofthe lens you're using. Forphotographs that require a lowerspeed, use a tripod (see Appendix 4).

In addition, a print may be fuzzybecause the enlarger was incorrectly


focused. Use a focusing aid (see Ap-pendix 1) to correct this. If the prob-lem persists, have your eyes and yourlens checked. Your eyesight may bepoor or your lens may be either faultyor dirty.

PresentationThe third factor to look for is the careand skill with which the final printhas been produced. In addition to thecontrast and focus already men-tioned, one telltale indication of aprint's quality (and, therefore, of thephotographer's commitment to stan-dards) is how clean it is. Look forwhite flecks, variously known assatellites, glitches, scuzz, hickies orglop —stuf f on the negative thatshouldn't be there. Other categoriesinclude fingerprints on the negativeor print (keep your fingers out of thechemicals!), scratches, and darkcircles caused by poor agitation whendeveloping the film. In general,following instructions carefully, us-ing anti-static brushes and othercleaning tools and keeping thedarkroom as dust-free as possible willdo the trick. It is possible to produceflawless prints, though at first it maynot seem to be.

Other aspects of presentation tolook for include neatly trimmed edges(use a good sharp cutter), squaredcorners and proper adhesion to themat board.

CompositionYou already know something aboutcomposition. Of the four basic fac-tors of "standards," it is the trickiestto define, because it is the closest to"style." There are, however, a num-ber of aspects of composition thatyou can evaluate objectively. We'llreview them quickly to refresh yourmemory.

Where is the point of interest in this photograph? Is it cropped effectively? Isthere wasted space in it? What would happen to the mood and impact of thephotograph if it were cropped more tightly? Student photograph.

• Point of InterestFirst and foremost, is there a pointof interest? Does it stand out or is itlost in the surrounding confusion?With rare exceptions (and there arealways exceptions), a photographshould have one clear point ofinterest —a single dominant element.Generally, the point of interestshould be near the middle of theframe, though not usually right at thecenter.• CroppingOnce you've identified the structureof the photograph, consider its crop-ping, or the way it is framed. Is it"tight" —is the frame filled with im-portant elements, or is there wastedspace? Blank areas, or negativespace, can enhance a photograph'simpact, but should interact with thecentral image in some way or thephotograph will instead have lessimpact.

As a general rule, it is good to keepthe "idea" of the photograph "clean"

and simple. The frame should narrowin on what's important, leaving outunnecessary details.

What about the overall balance ofthe composition? Is it top-heavy, lop-sided, boring? A composition may bebalanced in two ways: static ordynamic.

Static balance just sits there, butthat can be quite effective. The mostcommon way of achieving static bal-ance is to weight the composition, orconcentrate its point of interest, nearthe center.

Dynamic balance suggests move-ment. Generally, this is achieved byweighting the composition away fromthe center, toward one side or theother, or toward the corners.• LinesLines and curves within a composi-tion often have a tremendous effecton its impact. Sometimes this will beobvious, as in a photograph with acrisscross pattern in the background.Often, however, you'll need to look


more closely to locate the straight andcurved lines.

Even a single line can "pull" or"point," drawing the viewer's eyetoward or away from the point of in-terest, increasing or reducing thephotograph's drama.

Examine the lines of the "examplephotograph." Look for curves: thehood, the lines on the man's face, thecircles under his eyes, the button, theslope of the right shoulder. All theseadd to the visual impact of the com-position, creating a complex patternwhich, in turn, creates an appealing"visual tension" in contrast to theeyes. In addition, the curves of thezipper help to anchor the composi-tion, giving it a base and opening upinto the face.

AestheticsFinally, we come to "style" —tha telusive something that makes the dif-ference between a skillful photographand genuine art. Often, a photographwill have all the right elements butstill not work. Sometimes, however,a photograph will lack many criticallyimportant elements, yet work verywell. And, of course, all the rightelements may combine to achieve aneffect that is greater than the sum ofits parts. Something special happens,a certain spark ignites, and the resultis . . . magic.

It's difficult to pinpoint whatmakes this difference, but it isprecisely what all photographersstrive to achieve. As you progress,you'll become increasingly aware ofwhich photographs have that some-thing, and which don't, and why.And you'll begin to make it happenin your own photographs. A verygood way to start, probably the onlyway, is to master the techniques ofproducing consistently good photo-

How does the presentation of this photograph (using lith film to produce ahigh-contrast print) affect its impact? Do you think it probably improves thephotograph? Is the presentation appropriate? Student photograph byChristopher Moiles.

graphs, and to train your eye torecognize the great ones when theycome along. Eventually, they will.


EXERCISE

Sample Crit

Describe the dynamics of this photograph. What elements contribute to them? Assess the value of the photograph.The composition (9-zone grid anyone?). How does it make you feel? What sort of person do you suppose thesubject is? What sort of person do you suppose the photographer is? (Student photograph by Alison Sheehy.)

Now it's your turn. Evaluate each ofthe photographs on the followingpages, applying the criteria we'vediscussed in this chapter: value,clarity and composition. (Presenta-tion is a bit hard to apply to photo-graphs in a book.) Notice the use ofnegative space in each photograph.Can the cropping be improved? Is theprimary subject well placed on thenine-zone grid? Is the photographwell balanced? How about itsdynamics? Does it work?

As you explore these and other

questions, try to determine why eachelement of the photograph does ordoesn't work. Ask yourself how youmight improve each element. Wouldthe photograph be equally or moreeffective if it were shot from a dif-ferent angle? What changes inlighting might increase the photo-graph's impact? In some cases you'relikely to see a number of possiblealternatives or improvements. Inothers you may decide that thephotograph is close to an ideal treat-ment of its subject.

Take some notes as you evaluateeach photograph. Jot down what youlike about each photograph and whatyou think could be improved: "Goodvalue range and mood; negative spacecould be enhanced by cropping incloser to face"; etc. Discuss yourobservations to see how others res-pond to the same photographs. Keepyour notes on file and check themagain in a few months to see if yourperceptions change.


How does this photograph fit on the 9-zone grid? How would you rate its value? What about the cropping (i.ethe missing head)? Is it annoying? What, if anything, does the photograph say to you? What sort of person doyou suppose the subject is? (Student photograph by Jeff Frye.)


The value of this photograph is restricted to black and a very narrow range of grays. Is it appropriate andeffective? How is the composition structured? Do you suppose the starfish was found where it is or placed thereby the photographer? Does it matter to you? What elements do you consider most important in it? How does thephotograph make you feel? What thoughts or memories does it provoke? (Student photograph by Amy ChristineZorovich.)


Does this photograph have any composition? (Look carefully and remember the grid.) What do you think of it?How about its values? Its focus? What, if anything, is it about? (Student photograph by Jon Portis.)

Developing a Critical Eye 79Developing a Critical Eye 79

How would you evaluate this photograph? (Student photograph.)


How would you evaluate this one? (Student photograph by Chong Street.)


Used correctly, the "point of departure" setting will produce consistently good results in bright sunlight. (Studentphotograph.)


chapter 5 Point of Departure(f/16 at 1/125)

No\v that you are familiar withyour camera, and havebegun to evaluate composi-

tion, it's time to start putting yourknowledge to work —by actually tak-ing some photographs. In order tohelp you begin taking good photo-graphs immediately, technical con-cerns will initially be kept to aminimum. At first, you will be doinglittle more than aiming your camera,focusing and shooting. As you pro-ceed through the various exercises,however, you will gradually add onnew techniques, learning new ways toexpress your own vision. By the timeyou reach the end of this book, youwill have a solid foundation of skilland the beginnings of a personalstyle. Later, as you continue to pro-gress on your own, you'll be able topush your skill and style to the limit.But for now, we'll stick to the basics.

STARTING SIMPLY

Your first assignments will be basedon a "point of departure" that willenable you to produce technicallysuccessful photographs without get-ting bogged down in details. You willbe using a standard aperture andshutter-speed setting: f/16 at 1/125of a second.

By using one standard setting,you'll be able to concentrate on learn-

ing how to "see" with a camera. Inaddition, starting with this setting willhelp you learn how the cameraworks. This, in turn, will provide abasis for all your future photog-raphy. Once you've had some ex-perience with the standard setting,you'll be able to make informed deci-sions about how to handle a varietyof other lighting situations.

You will be using black-and-whitefilm with an ISO of 125, such asKodak's Plus-X. Your shutter will beset at 1/125 of a second, fast enoughto "freeze" most action. Your aper-ture will be small —f /16 —so almosteverything will be in focus. Afterloading the film, you'll adjust yourcamera controls to these settings —and leave them there.

You may find yourself tempted tochange the settings if your light meterdisagrees with them. (After all, that'swhat the light meter is for, right?)But for now, just pretend the lightmeter isn't there.

There are several good reasons notto rely on your light meter at thebeginning. First, if you learn to shootwithout it, you'll be better equippedto do so when necessary —such aswhen your batteries die on you, 100miles from the nearest camera shop.(Many cameras can be used manuallywithout batteries, though somemodern ones cannot.) A second good

reason is that your light meter is notalways accurate. Light meters assumeyou want the average value in yourphotograph to be gray. Usually youdo. But when you don't, or whenunusual lighting conditions "confuse"the light meter, then it's vital that youknow how to work without it.

When you start shooting your firstassignments, you will need to pay at-tention to only one technical concern:make sure your subject is well lit.This means that you will need toshoot outdoors in sunny weather. Aday with some clouds is okay, but aheavily overcast or rainy day is not.It also means that you will generallywant the sun to be behind you —soit is shining on your subject, not inyour lens.

So long as your subject is well lit,and you stick to f/16 at 125, you willproduce correctly exposed photo-graphs. That's a promise. Try it.

DOING IT RIGHT

The need for good light brings upanother important point: Don't waittill the last minute. For each of yourassignments, take the time to locateinteresting subjects and to shoot themwell. Keep an eye on the weather, andbe ready to make use of it when it'sgood. (Bear in mind that overcastskies, rain and snow can be "good,"

83

Student photograph by LindaRaymond.

once you've learned how to usethem.) Do some exploring before youstart shooting. Don't just step intoyour back yard and grab a few quickshots. Sometimes you will find agreat subject there, but even so, giveyourself enough time to really see it.

Every time you photograph a sub-ject, try to take several shots of itfrom several completely differentangles. Use your camera to explorethe subject, to learn about it, todiscover how it interacts with otherobjects, with light, with space. Neverallow yourself to take just one shotand call it quits. Who knows whatyou might have missed?

Though it is important to reservetime to devote to your photographyassignments, try to keep them inmind at other times as well. Whenyou're out walking, shopping intown, travelling —anytime you're do-ing anything —keep your eyes openfor photographic possibilities. Evenif you don't have a camera with you,or never go back to make use of thosepossibilities, it's good practice to lookfor them. Photography is essentiallya way of seeing, a way of sortingthrough all the images that rush pastyou every day and noticing the specialones. The more you train yourself tosee in this way, the better you'll dowhen you set out to capture some ofthose special images on film.

On a more practical level, you'llfind that you enjoy your assignmentsmore if you've already compiled amental list of interesting places to ex-plore with your camera. You mayeven want to write that list down, soyou'll have a ready source of inspira-tion when you need it. If you do, youwon't waste time later wandering

around in search of something tophotograph.

Great shots are very rarely quickand easy. Usually, they require pa-tience and imagination. The moretime you devote to each assignment,the more you will learn — and the bet-ter your results will be. There's aspecial sense of accomplishment thatonly comes from working slowly,carefully and creatively. Making thatyour goal, from the very beginning,is well worth the effort.

Finally, as you're shooting eachassignment, keep reminding yourself

of its theme. It's easy to get so caughtup in a subject that you forget to lookfor line or texture or whatever else theassignment is supposed to be about.While such enthusiasm is commend-able, it is important to stick to thethemes of the assignments, and toseek out subjects that are specificallyappropriate to them. Once you'vedone that, you can always take a lit-tle more time to just shoot whateverinterests you.


Student photograph by JonGinsberg.

Student photograph by KennethGriggs.

Point of Departure 85

There are three basic line effects in this photograph. What are they? (Student photograph by Wendy O'Connel.)


chapter 6 Line

T he "point of departure"camera setting (f/16 at 125of a second) provides an un-

complicated introduction to themechanics of photography. We'llnow do the same thing with composi-tion. The first subject in photo-graphic theory is, quite simply,line.

PATTERN, STRUCTURE,DIRECTION

You may recall that in geometry aline is a one-dimensional series ofpoints. Several lines are required todefine a three-dimensional shape.

You could say that a line is anedge, a border between one thing andanother. It can also be the connectionbetween two things, like a clotheslinetied between two trees. Straight,curved, bent or zig-zagged, it goesfrom one place to another.

Understanding lines is one of theprimary requirements of photog-raphy. Virtually every photograph,of course, has lines in it. Some ofthese lines do more than merelydivide or connect objects. They mayalso suggest moods and rhythm,create patterns, indicate directionsand structure. The various qualitiesof the lines in a photograph combineto produce an overall impression,called line.

How do your eyes react to this highly linear shot? Does it hold theirinterest? If so, why? (Student photograph by Jean Ann Hall.)

Line is not passive. Instead, it is astrong visual force that pulls theviewer's eye around in a picture. Usedwell, it suggests movement, conveysimpact and helps to focus attentionon the key points of the composition.Used poorly, it distracts attention andweakens the composition's effect. Itmay be simple, but is also powerful.It is a bit like electricity. And likeelectricity, it must be controlled to beuseful.

Line may be a subject in itself (asit will be in your first assignment), orit can play a supporting role foranother subject. Lines may be con-nected in a larger pattern or isolatedfrom each other, evenly distributedacross the frame in an orderly man-ner, or scattered at random. A photo-graph may be dominated by just oneline or packed with many. A line neednot be "real" to have its effect. Ob-jects of the same height (such as a

Line 87

lull I ill 11J 111 ll II Hill 111 I l l l l 111

How many basic line effects are inthis photograph? (Studentphotograph by Robert Muller.)

How many basic line effects arethere in this photograph? Noticehow the lampshades and theseveral open windows add"punctuation" to the overallpattern. (Student photograph byJohn Pang.)


What "instructions" do these lines give to your eye? How does your eyemove around the photograph? Where, if anywhere, does your eye come torest? (Student photograph by William Roche.)

row of fence posts) and the borderbetween a building and the sky bothproduce an implied l ine that worksjust as well.

All of these possibilities boil downto three basic functions: pattern,direction and structure.

As pattern, line is often a photo-graph's primary element. The linesthemselves interact in some in-teresting way that is more importantthan any other elements within theframe. A photograph of buildings orcornfields or blades of grass is likelyto emphasize pattern.

As direction, line helps the viewer'seye travel around the picture. Vis-ually, the lines say, "Go here. Lookat that. Stop. Move on." A photo-graph with many different kinds ofobjects especially needs strong direc-tions to help the viewer understandit. Without directing lines, the overallimage can simply seem like chaos(which, of course, may be the pho-tographer's intention).

As structure, l ine divides aphotograph into smaller areas, pro-viding a skeleton to support the otherelements and link them together. Astrongly structured photograph willoften seem to be several photographsin one. A photograph of several facespeeking out of windows is one exam-ple of this.

Line also conveys movement, orthe lack of it . A rigid grid of straightlines tends to make an image appearstatic, flat, immobile. Lines that con-verge (that are closer together at oneend than at the other) or that shootoff toward the corners of the frametend to suggest motion. Straight linessuggest the full-speed-ahead motionof a train, or the up-and-down of apiston. Curves tend to suggest move-ment that is more like dance.

Similarly, lines can increase or

Line 89

Notice the soft-focus lines behindthe tennis player. What instructionsdo they give to your eye? Whateffect do they have on thephotograph's composition? On itsimpact? (Student photograph byJon Portis.)

decrease the apparent depth of an im-age. If you shoot a flat surface froman angle, the lines in it will be closesttogether at the point where the sub-ject is furthest away from you.This creates the illusion of three-dimensional space, or depth. If youshoot it straight on, so the lines re-main parallel, you reinforce the im-pression of flatness. You decidewhich effect you want.

You can even make a round object

appear flat by shooting it straight on,right at its exact center, and using asmall aperture. Any lines that wouldnormally indicate its roundness willappear straight and flat. This ap-pearance will be strengthened by theextreme depth of field (almost every-thing in focus) provided by the smallaperture.

Finally, different kinds of lines ex-press different moods or emotions.Straight lines tend to seem rigid,


What's the "tune" of this woodpile? (Student photograph by Frank Hall.)

harsh, intense. Curved lines andcircles are more inviting, calm andsoothing. Zig-zags seem busy, con-veying excitement or confusion.Thick lines seem imposing. Thin onesseem delicate.

To get a sense of how these effectswork, look at different kinds of linesand see what sounds and rhythmsthey suggest to you. What sort ofmusical instrument or tune remindsyou of wavy lines? Zig-zags? Circles?Straight lines in a row? It may seemodd to think of listening to lines, butwith a little experimentation you'llprobably discover that it comes verynaturally. Different kinds of lines dohave different characters.

The key point is that lines are ex-pressive tools. As a photographer,you'll need to learn to use themeffectively.

Before you can use them, however,you have to find them. Where shouldyou look? Well, just about anywhere.Here's a short list: sidewalks, streets,

telephone poles, buildings, bowls,wheels, trees, grass, rivers, forks andspoons, cracks, mountains, pencils,curtains, clothing, hands, arms,chairs, fields, tennis courts, bleachersand jungle-gyms.

Once you start noticing lines, you'llfind them everywhere. And that is ex-actly the point. It is because they areeverywhere that lines are so fun-damental to photography. They arethe basic vocabulary of the photo-graphic language.

It may seem odd to think of pho-tography as a language. But that's ex-actly what it is. Both a sentence anda photograph ought to have a sub-ject. And just as a sentence may haveverbs, adverbs, objectives and prep-ositions, a photograph may havemovement, mood, perspective andrelation. Understanding line is thefirst step toward learning to ex-press yourself in the photographiclanguage.

What sort of musical sounds dothe bent lines in each of the glassessuggest? What about thebackground lines? What instrumentmight play them? (Studentphotograph by Tyler Smith.)

Line 91

EXERCISE

PatternYour assignment is to find and shootpatterns. Any series of lines createsa pattern.

Look above your head, down atthe ground, as well as straight ahead.Try to find subjects that are primarilypatterns, not just ones that have somepattern in them. So far as possible,have the pattern fill the frame of thephotograph. Try to have nothing inthe photograph except pattern.

Though your assignment is toshoot pattern, you may want to con-sider some of the other qualities ofline as well, such as direction or struc-ture. See if you can add them into aphotograph without losing sight ofyour primary goal. Use these otherqualities to strengthen the pattern,not to detract from it. For example,you may want to use perspective soyour pattern recedes into the dis-tance, suggesting direction. Or youmay find a series of small patternscontained in a large one, creatingstructure.

Remember to keep your camera onthe point of departure setting (f!6 at1/125 of a second), and to shoot inopen sunlight. The rest is up to you.

Student photograph by Allison Page.


...Experience the illusion of motion in this vivid image, created by the vertical lines of fences and their horizontalshadows. Do you get a sense of overlapping fences pumping up and down ? Can you feel how the shadows and stairsproduce a nearly circular sweep, up to our left and back down on the right? (Student photograph.)

Line 93

Can you distinguish line from texture in this shot? (Student photograph by Han June Bae.)


chapter 7 Texture

ow that you've begun todevelop an eye for line, it'stime to complicate things a

bit by adding texture. Actually,you've probably already done this onyour own. The photographs you shotfor the pattern exercise almost cer-tainly included texture as well. Likeline, texture is hard to avoid. Almosteverything has some texture: rough orsmooth, patterned or irregular, dra-matic or subtle.

One thing you'll begin to notice isthat the various elements of photog-raphy tend to overlap. Though youwill be exploring them separately, itis often difficult, even impossible, toseparate one element from another.You may not always be able to say,for example, "This is line; that is tex-ture."

Don't worry about this lack ofprecise categories. The importantpoint is to recognize and understandall the different elements. It is far lessimportant to always be able to tellthem apart. Learning to notice themseparately, however, will help youlearn to combine them effectively.

EXPRESSING THE "FEEL"

Texture mainly concerns the surfacesof things. In the previous section, wesaw how line can convey the impres-sion of three-dimensional realism by

Many photographs have more than one "level" of texture. The undulatingsurface of the cloth is one level of texture. The smaller variations in theweave of the cloth is another. (Student photograph by Evelyn Wight.)

suggesting depth or height. Texturestrengthens that impression by pro-viding visual clues to the "feel" of asubject. In a sense, texture enablesthe eye to "touch" the subject.

A photograph, like a painting, istwo-dimensional. It reproduces athree-dimensional image on a flatsurface. To break through the limita-tions of that flat surface, a photog-

rapher, like a painter, has to employvisual "tricks." These tricks create theillusion of three-dimensional space.

Depending on the angle fromwhich you take a photograph, youcan use line to represent an objectthree-dimensionally, or to flatten it.With texture, however, you arealways working in three dimensions.Flattened texture is simply pattern,

95

Student photograph by Man-McCoy.

and pattern is simply a combinationof lines.

Look at the photographs of a brickwall on this page. The first thingyou're likely to observe is the patternproduced by the lines between thebricks. If you look more closely,however, you'll see that the bricksstick out beyond the lines. Thiscreates one kind of texture. If youlook even more closely, you'll noticevariations in the surface of the bricks.That's another texture.

If the wall is evenly lit from thefront, the strongest element will beline. The wall will look like a flat sur-face, divided into a grid pattern.Variations in the surface of the wallwill not show as much.

If, however, the wall is lit from oneside, the element of texture will bestrongest. The most noticeable thingabout the wall will be the variationsin its surface. The line grid will stillbe there, of course, but it won't standout as much.

Once again, you'll notice that lineand texture are similar. The dif-ference between them dependsprimarily on the angle of light.

Texture is far more sensitive thanline to shifts in lighting. If you con-tinued to look at that brick wallthroughout the day, you would seethe texture constantly changing as thesun passed over it. It would be mostdramatic early and late in the day,when the sunlight strikes it at a lowangle. This has the effect of stretch-ing out all the small shadows createdby variations in the surface of thewall. As the shadows get longer andmore exaggerated, they appear moredramatic.

One of the most important tasksfor a photographer is to observe andmake use of changing light. This isespecially vital when shooting for


texture, which depends on l ight .In addition to enhancing the im-

pression of reality in a photograph,texture adds visual interest. Pure lineor pattern can be very impressive, butmay fail to hold the viewer's interest.Texture, particularly if it is irregularor complex, gives the viewer's eyemore to play with. It creates littlenooks and crannies for the eye to ex-plore. It invites the viewer to lingera while and look around. It also pro-vides information about the subject —its age, condition and other qualities.

The photograph of a building onthis page is a good example of the dif-ferent effects produced by line and

texture, and of how they can be com-bined to increase impact. The firstthing you're likely to notice about thisphotograph is the strong lines of thebuilding. As you look more closely,however, your eye will probably becaught by the complex texture of theforeground. Finally, you mightnotice how the glass distorts thereflection of another building, in thecenter of the frame.

The first impression, then, is line.The second is texture. The third isshape, which we'll cover in greaterdepth in the next section. Each pro-vokes a different kind of interest.

As you continue to examine the

Contrasting patterns of white snowagainst dark steps creates a sort ofzigzag motion aimed at the upperleft corner of the image. Notice howyour eyes move as they look at thispicture. Do they settle at any onepoint? How does this feel? (Studentphotograph by Amy Ferrais.)

Texture 97

photograph, your attention may alsofocus on the small wedge in the lowerlefthand corner: line again. By com-bining several elements, and con-trasting two linear effects, thephotograph gains interest that wouldbe lost if it had concentrated only online.

You can test this idea yourself, bycovering up the foreground so onlythe lines are visible. How does thataffect your interest in the image?How does it change your impressionof the building?

This does not mean that texturenecessarily improves a photograph.How you use it, and whether you useit at all, is strictly a personal choice.It is, however, one of your basic toolsas a photographer. Learning to noticeit is one step toward masteringtechnique.

Used creatively, texture can provide enough information so that even avery abstract photograph makes perfect sense. Do you have any troublerecognizing the subject of this one? (Student photograph by LynneMattielli.)


Texture itself can be an effectivesubject for a photograph. (Studentphotograph by Bjorn Goldis.)

Texture can be very effective as acontext for another subject. Noticehow the highly textured vegetationsets off the shape and the soft furof the rabbit. (Student photographby Craig Hurst.)

Texture 99

EXERCISE

LeavesYour next assignment is to shootleaves. Not just any leaves, but leaveswith texture. As noted previously, itis important to keep the theme of theassignment in mind, as well as thesubject.

Look for as many kinds of leavesas you can f ind. Leaves on trees, oron the ground. Even pine needles areofficially acceptable, though they arenot strictly leaves.

In order to f u l f i l l the texturerequirement, you'll want a goodamount of contrast. This means thatthe leaves should be in open sunlight.Try to do your shooting in the morn-ing or afternoon, not in the middleof the day. That will ensure that thelight is striking your leaves at anangle, enhancing their texture. Onceagain, use the point of departure set-t ing f/16 at 125.

Keep an eye out for interesting ef-fects of light and shadow: one leafcasting a shadow on another, or onthe ground or branch beneath it.Finally, unless you're lucky enoughto find a single leaf of extraordinaryinterest, you'll probably do bettershooting several together. Notice howthey interact with each other and withthe frame of the picture. Crop inclose enough so there's no wastedspace, but don't forget that space canbe a useful compositional tool.

Student photograph by David Kleinfelt.


Student photograph by AlexandraBerg.

Student photograph by William Roche.

Texture 101

A series of similar curves, an interesting juxtaposition of two objects (the sunglasses and the BMW hoodornament) and effective use of negative space all lend impact to this simple still life. (Student photograph byTrevor Bredenkamp.)


chapter 8 Shape

n the two previous exercises,you've begun training youreye to see line and texture.

Both are vital, but relatively simple,compositional elements. The nextone, shape, is more complex. Toapply it well, you will have to payparticular attention to the relation-ships between objects within theframe of each photograph.

You've already done a "test run" onthis in the framing exercise. The nextstep is to take the lessons learned inthat exercise and translate them effec-tively and consistently into actualphotographs.

As we've mentioned earlier, thephotos you produce in the exercise onshape will probably contain line andtexture as well. That's precisely whatshould be happening. While each ele-ment can be effective by itself, it'slikely to be most effective in com-bination with others. The goal of thisentire section is to provide composi-tional "building blocks" that you willassemble in new and interesting ways.

MASS, PROPORTION& RELATION

When we look at something, its shapetells us what it is. There are, ofcourse, other ways of figuring thisout —by smell or touch or sound —but shape is the way that is most

familiar. If someone asks you todescribe something, you would prob-ably start with its shape.

For a photographer, however,shape is something more than ameans of recognition. Shape helpsconvey the nature of a subject; notjust what it is, but what it is like. Isit heavy, light, big, small, beautiful,ugly, interesting, plain? Shapeanswers questions like these. It alsoanswers questions about the way anobject interacts with its surroundings:Which object is biggest, closest, mostimportant?

So, the functions of space in aphotograph can be grouped into threecategories: mass, proportion andrelation. Mass has to do with theamount of space an object fills up,how big and heavy it is. Proportionhas to do with how the mass of oneobject compares to that of another,and how the various parts of a singleobject "hang together."

Relation is probably the most com-plicated aspect of space, and the mostimportant. Relation is primarily con-cerned with how objects interact.This can mean physical factors, suchas whether they are close, touching,far apart, similar, different, etc. In-teraction between objects can also beextended to include interpretive fac-tors, such as which object is more at-tractive, which is more important,

which is dominant, whether theyseem to belong together, and so on.

Relation tends to require somedegree of judgment. For a relation tobe clear, somebody usually has todecide what that relation is. You, asthe photographer, for example, maymake value judgments. You may de-cide that object "A" is more attrac-tive or interesting or important thanobject "B," and you may compose aphotograph to indicate that relation.Or someone in your photograph maybe making the decision, by looking atan object in a certain way, or touch-ing it, or using it. Even the physicalrelationships of objects in a photo-graph often depend on how one islooking at them. Two objectsphotographed from a distance mayappear close together. The same ob-jects shot close up may appear farapart.

Like the relation between two peo-ple, the relation between two shapes(called a spatial relation) tells us morethan just that they happen to betogether. It asks us to consider whythey're together.

Imagine two people you've neverseen before, walking into a room.What do you notice about them?What do you want to know? You'relikely to observe them first as in-dividuals, noticing each of theirfaces, clothes, mannerisms, etc. Then

103

In this high-contrast print, shape is all there is . . . but it's enough. The chair shape is clearly a chair and theperson shape is clearly a person's shadow. The spatial relation between the two is a/so clear. The shapes in thephotograph don't just convey information, however, they also convey a mood. This photograph is "about" morethan its graphic impact. (Student photograph by Amy Thomas.}

you'll probably start wondering whythey're together. If they seem to bean obvious pair, like two business-men or two athletes, you may notwonder very long. If, on the otherhand, you notice something oddabout them, you might keep wonder-ing. What if the businessmen wereboth dressed like circus clowns, or theathletes were singing an opera?Wouldn't your next question be:"What's going on here?"

These are examples of how peopletend to respond to seeing odd per-sonal relationships. The same thing

holds true for spatial relationships. Iftwo objects are seen together thatdon't normally belong together, theyare likely to catch our attention andinterest. In addition, they may tell ussomething —about themselves, aboutspace, about relation —that we didn'tknow before.

In the best photographs, spatialrelations are used to tap us on theshoulder and say "Look, isn't that in-teresting!" We may be entertained,amused or saddened, but we will havelearned something new about theworld.

Perhaps the best way to summarizethis is to say that spatial relationships(and, therefore, shapes) are rarelywithout meaning. What that mean-ing is —and who decides— is an openquestion. It is perhaps the questionthat photographers are most con-cerned with answering. You can useyour camera to express your own in-terpretation of objects and events.You can use it simply to explore rela-tionships, without imposing any spe-cific interpretation. You cannot,however, avoid interpretation al-together. As soon as you make the


Notice how the large expanse of negative space in this photograph of astadium establishes the visual "theme" of semi-circles (semi-ellipses to beprecise). How many times is that theme re-stated in the photograph?(Student photograph by Michael Rodgers.)

At its simplest and deepest level, acircle is a symbol of fullness. Thatworks perfectly in this shot ofplump sacks of beans and grain.Would the photograph have thesame effect if the beans and grainwere stored in square boxes?(Student photograph by MichaelRodgers.)

decision to include one thing and notanother, you are interpreting. That'swhat photography is all about.

USING NEGATIVE SPACE

As mentioned in the chapter on com-position, a photograph is simply animage of something within a frame.That thing actually has two shapes.The first is the contours (the outershape) of the thing itself. The secondshape is the effect that those contourshave on the surrounding space, in-cluding the rectangular box of theframe. This kind of shape is callednegative space. For a photographer,it is every bit as important as the firstkind of shape.

Think of an apple. In your mind'seye, draw a box around it. Then drawa line around the apple, tracing itscontours. Finally, erase the apple,leaving the line. Negative space iswhat you have left. It is everythingexcept the apple.

In this case, because there'snothing but the apple in the picture,the negative space is everything be-tween the apple and the frame. Ifthere were other objects in the pic-ture, like a banana, the negativespace would be everything betweenthe apple and the banana andeverything between them and theframe.

To make things a little clearer, let'slook at an actual picture, the photo-

Shape 105


Student photograph by MichaelGrassia.

graph of a teakettle. Where's thenegative space? If you're not sure,draw an imaginary line around theteakettle and imagine that the tea-kettle has been erased. Everythingelse is negative space.

Now, look more closely and pickout areas where the negative space isinteresting. You might notice the areabetween the handle and the top of thekettle. It creates a circular shape thatresembles the opening in the tea-kettle, just below it. This kind ofrecurring (repeating) shape is oftenused to create visual harmony in aphotograph. It makes the photographinteresting because the human eyeautomatical ly looks for suchsimilarities.

As you continue to look for shapesand to point them out in critique ses-sions, you will become increasinglyaware of these visual harmonies.Your brain will decide that they areworthy of notice and, as a result,you'll begin to see them directly.Most people only sense visual har-monies vaguely, because they don'tneed to do more than that. As aphotographer, however, your job isto use these and other compositiontools, so you must learn to recognizethem.

At first you may need to make aneffort to train your brain to take noteof visual harmonies. The way to dothis is to ask yourself questions. Forexample, how many circular shapesdo you see in the photograph? Thereare at least five. Can you pick out allof them?

What other areas of negative spaceare interesting in the teakettle photo-graph? Look at the tip of the spout.Notice how it almost touches the

Negative space can be black (or gray) as well as white. This photograph ofa construction site would be very bland without the dramatic angularframe of black space. (Student photograph by Mina Murphy.)

frame of the photograph. Like visualharmonies, this also generates visualinterest. Anytime an object comesnear another or comes near the frameof a photograph, it creates visual ten-sion. It's almost as if the object ispressing against the space between.Oddly enough, the tension isstrongest when objects almost, butdon't quite, touch. Michelangelo'spainting of the hand of God reachingout to the hand of Adam is a famousexample of this effect. The effectwould be weakened if their fingertipsactually met.

Where else in the teakettle photo-graph is a similar effect achieved?

Now, what about the rest of thenegative space? You may notice thatthe sides and bottom of the teakettle(not counting the spout) are all justabout the same distance from theedge of the frame. What effect doesthis produce?

If you're not sure, take a moment

to study it. Compare it to the effectof the protruding spout. The spoutcreates tension. The placement of theteakettle within the frame has the op-posite effect. It centers the teakettle.This conveys a static sensation. Theteakettle "feels" like it is sitting verysolidly on the ground. It appears tobe firmly placed, or grounded, withinthe frame.

If you've been looking closely, youmight have observed that the top ofthe handle is also about the samedistance from the frame as the bot-tom and sides are. This increases thesense of stability.

The main part of the teakettle iscloser to the bottom of the photo-graph than it is to the top. It isweighted toward the bottom. Onceagain, this reinforces the sense ofstability. If it were weighted towardthe top, it would appear "top heavy,"and would tend to convey the impres-sion that it might roll right out of the

Shape 107

As with line and texture, a photograph can simply be "about" shape. Here, a nicely balanced series of irregularshapes creates a satisfying landscape. (Student photograph by Mark Pry.)

frame. In this case, weighting towardthe bottom helps to promote the im-pression of realism. The teakettlelooks like it "should" look, and thetension produced by the spout addsvitality and, therefore, interest.

Welcome to the world of negativespace. Learn to use it effectively andyou'll be well on your way to master-ing photography.

One more thing should be said atthis point. In order to explain com-positional elements like shape andnegative space, we are discussingthem as if a photographer must beobjectively (consciously) aware ofthem before taking a photograph.Photography may seem like somekind of visual mathematics. You may

suspect that a photographer goesaround measuring everything andmaking all sorts of mental diagramsbefore taking any pictures. In prac-tice, most photographers work farmore subjectively (relying on intui-tion). Once they understand thevarious elements of composition,they stop thinking about them. Theysee a subject and intuitively arrangethe elements into an effective image.

In essence, the purpose of discuss-ing these elements objectively is totrain your intuition. Once that is ac-complished, you will be free to shootwhat you see without a lot of calcula-tion. The math will become auto-matic. You won't have to think toomuch about i t , because you'll feel it.

Developing that inner sense of pro-portion and relation is one of the keysto learning to see as a photographer.Don't worry if it takes awhile. It willcome to you if you just keep at it.

Before we leave the teakettle pho-tograph behind, take a minute tonotice how line and texture work init. As indicated above, elements canbe combined to produce an effectthat is greater than the sum of itsparts. For line, look at the stepbehind the teakettle. Notice the cor-ner of the doorway above it and thesubtle lines of the bricks below. Fortexture, look at the surface of theteakettle, the step, the ground, thewall, the grip of the handle. What ef-fects do these elements have on the


whole image? What do they tell youabout the objects? How do they worktogether?

Now let's get back to the usualmeaning of shape —the contours ofobjects. In the discussion of theteakettle photograph you may havenoticed that circles kept showing up.As you probably know, a circle is one

of several basic shapes. Others in-clude squares and triangles, plus avariety of polygons (which literallymeans "many sided shapes"). Thenthere are the less regular shapes,from oblongs to "blobs." Creativeuse of any of these can enhance yourphotographs — if you remember tolook for them.

In certain cases, the negative spacecan be larger than the subject of aphoto without losing its impact.While the wall behind this womanhas some texture to it, it functionsessentially as negative space,surrounding her and providing adramatic setting that seems fullyappropriate. (Student photograph.)

Shape 109

EXERCISE

Circles & OvalsUse at least one roll of film to shootonly circles and ovals. You may haveother shapes in the photographs aswell, but be sure that each frame isdominated by one or more circularshapes. You may want to set up someof the shots (try experimenting witha cup and saucer, with spoons, platesor bowls), but at least half of yourshots should be of "found" circles orellipses (i.e. ones that you just hap-pen to see in your yard, neighbor-hood or town).

Try to find a variety of composi-tions using circles or ovals. Try somewith just one circular shape, somewith lots and some with a few. Trysome shots in which one or more cir-cular shapes interact with squares orother shapes. Shoot in bright sunlightat the point of departure setting.

Keep in mind the various functionsof shape and spatial relation as youdo this assignment. Without losingsight of your primary theme (circlesand ovals), see if you can use shapeto indicate mass, such as the "big-ness" of a pumpkin or a boulder. Tryto produce interesting examples ofproportion and compelling spatialrelations. In addition, try to come upwith a few shots that express whatyou think or feel about a subject.

All these shapes are available toyou as a photographer, just as theyare available to any artist. You justhave to find them.

This is not as hard as it may sound.Once you begin keeping an eye outfor interesting shapes, you'll probablybe amazed at how many are outthere, just waiting for you to capturethem on f i lm.

Start by looking for individualshapes. Then pay attention to how

Student photograph by Scott Olson.

those shapes may repeat themselvesand establish visual harmonies.Finally, allow interpretations toemerge as you experiment with dif-ferent compositions, different com-binations of objects, different view-ing angles. Allow space and spatialrelation to tell you something aboutyour subjects . . . and then try topass that "something" on to othersthrough your photographs.

Don't be at all surprised if the

"something" that you learn and wantto pass on can't be expressed inwords. If it could be, you could justsay it or write about it, and youwouldn't need to photograph it. Thebest photographs present an image oridea or feeling in a way that only aphotograph can. Strive to noticethose things tha t need to bephotographed, rather than spendingtime on those that simply can be.


Student photograph by CharlesGibbs.

(Student photograph by John Pang.)

Shape 111

Student photograph by Bruce Cakebread.

112 The Photographic Eye112 The Photographic Eye

chapter 9 Light

ou don't really have muchcontrol over the composi-tional elements we've dis-

cussed so far: line, texture and shape.For the most part, they're just "outthere" in the world, waiting for youto notice them. You can change theirpositions within the frame of yourviewfinder, by moving forward orback, or to one side or the other. Youcan make one element more domi-nant than the others, and you can editout distractions. Outside of that,however, you don't generally haveany real control over them.

The next three elements (light, mo-tion and perspective) are more "in-teractive"—they allow (and may re-quire) more choice on your part.They are, of course, also "out there"waiting for you, just like line, textureand shape. But there's an importantdifference.

You can choose whether to acceptthe light that's "given" to you —or youcan change it . You can, if youchoose, make daylight look like mid-night, and vice versa. More subtly,you can choose whether an objectthat's in shadow will simply be darkerthan its surroundings or utterly invisi-ble. In fact, you have to choose.Following the recommendation ofyour light meter is a choice, especiallysince you must decide what source oflight the meter is reading.

The soft, indirect light of open shade is more subtle and moody thanstraight sunlight. It tends to convey a pleasant, rather dreamy, thoughtfulor wistful quality. This is the sort of neutral gray tone a light meterassumes you want. (Student photograph.)

CONTROLLINGEXPOSURE

You have now used the "point ofdeparture" setting for several photoassignments. If you've followed in-structions careful ly, you shouldalready be producing consistentlygood results. It has probably oc-curred to you, however, that youcan't count on the sun to provideenough light for this setting to be cor-rect all the time. You may already

have missed some good shots becausethe light wasn't bright enough. It'stime to start putting your camera'saperture ring to work.

Before we do that, we'll need toreview shutter speed as well, to gainan understanding of how apertureand shutter speed work together.

Set your camera at the point ofdeparture setting. Your aperture ringwill be on f/16, and your shutterspeed dial will be set at 125.

Change the aperture setting to

113

Bright sunlight is best suited tocheerful "ordinary life"photographs . . . though it can beused to suggest that ordinary life ispretty strange. (Student photographby Dick Waghorne.)

f/11. You have just doubled theamount of light that would enter thecamera if you clicked the shutter.Remember that increasing the aper-ture by one "stop" always doubles thesize of the lens opening. (Alsoremember that a lower number in-dicates a larger opening.)

Now change the shutter speed to250. Since 1/250 of a second is half

as much time as 1/125, the amountof light reaching the film has justbeen cut in half. So you're back at thepoint of departure exposure again. Inother words, so far as the amount oflight is concerned, f/11 at 250 willproduce the same exposure as f/16 at125.

These two settings will not produceexactly the same photograph. Both


Indirect light also tends to be themost flattering for portraits. Itminimizes blemishes andencourages a relaxed, openexpression. (Student photographby Marciano Pitargue, Jr.)

time you moved from one aperture toanother. If so, the first click indicatesa half-stop, a lens opening halfwaybetween two standard apertures.

If, for example, you started at f/16at 125 and opened the lens half astop, you would be letting 50 percentmore light into the camera. Theresulting photograph would belighter, but not twice as light. Half-stops are very useful for fine tuningan exposure.

the depth of field and the visible mo-tion in the photograph will be slight-ly different, as will be explained lateron. The amount of light in each pho-tograph, however, will be the same.

Set your camera on the point ofdeparture setting again: f/16 at 125.Now change your shutter speed to500. What aperture will give you anexposure that matches f/16 at 125?Adjust the aperture ring to thisf-stop.

What aperture will give you twiceas much light as f/16 at 125? Again,

adjust the aperture ring to this f-stop.What aperture will give you half as

much light as f/16 at 125? If you'veended up with your aperture ring atf /11 (with your shutter speed still at500), then you're getting the idea. Anaperture of f/8 and a shutter speedof 1/500 of a second will match f/16at 125. An aperture of f/5.6 at 500will give twice as much light, and f/11will give half as much.

As you've been going through thisexercise, you may have noticed thatthe aperture ring clicked twice every

Light 115

An unlighted subject against a light background produces a very graphic silhouette. With luck and skill, the shapeof the figure will convey all the basic information needed to make sense of the image. (Student photograph byMark Bissel.)


A well-lit subject conveys additional information —in this case, primarilyfacial expression and three-dimensional shape. (Student photograph byMelanie Fernandez.)

INFORMATION & MOOD

By now you know that light is whatmakes a photograph possible. With-out light bouncing off of objects andinto your lens, you wouldn't be ableto photograph anything — or see any-thing. Beyond this, though, light hastwo primary photographic functions:It provides information and it in-fluences mood.

Information is facts. Your eyesconvey facts to your brain, which thebrain then translates into understand-ing. "That is a building." "That is aperson." "The person looks largerthan the building." "Aha!" says thebrain. "The person is standing infront of the building." That, more orless, is how visual information works.

But it gets more complicated thanthat. Variations in brightness andshadow, the intensity of textures, theway in which shading may exaggerateshape, and other factors all con-tribute to our visual perceptions ofthings. And they are all influenced bylight.

For example, compare the twophotographs of a person kicking atthe camera. The first is a silhouette.Because there is far less light on thesubject than on the background, thesubject appears black. How much in-formation does the photograph pro-vide about the person in it?

Now look at the second "kick"photograph. How much informationdoes this photograph provide? Asyou can see, the two photographs aresimilar in content and composition —but very different in lighting.

In extreme cases, light may deter-mine whether a photograph is con-fusing or clear. More commonly, theway you handle light may make thedifference between immediate anddelayed recognition of what some-

Light 117

Low-light tends to be very somber,even sinister. It is difficult to use,since the subject must be placed inexactly the right spot in order tobe visible. Used well, however, itcan be highly dramatic. (Studentphotograph by Chris Jacobs.)

thing is or what it means. This, inturn, may make the difference be-tween a strong emotional response ornone, between sustained interest orboredom.

Mood is another vital ingredientprovided by light. We tend to res-pond to lighting in much the sameway as we respond to weather. Brightlight, like a sunny day, tends to makeus feel cheerful, relaxed. If the lightis harsh, however, as it is on a brighthazy day, the mood will tend to bestark and unfriendly. Soft light, likemist, tends to make us nostalgic,wistful, dreamy. Darkness, like nightor an approaching storm, makes usfeel worried, frightened, serious.

You can use these natural reactionsto heighten the effect of a photo-graph. By filling a photograph witha lot of darkness and shadows, you'llincrease the impact of such "dark"emotions as fear and foreboding. Byfilling it with bright light, you'll in-crease the sense of well-being.

Sometimes, however, you'll wantcontradictions in your photographs:a sad face or scene in bright light, ora cheerful one in shadows. This isanother way that light can be useful,by "playing against" the prevailingtone of a subject. Though such con-tradictory impressions may createconfusion, if they are handled wellthat confusion itself will be in-teresting. The viewer will want tofigure out what's going on.

To apply light effectively you mustkeep information and mood in bal-

ance with each other. If you concen-trate too much on information andchoose l igh t ing tha t is brightthroughout the frame, your photo-graph may lack emotional impact.

On the other hand, it is equallypossible to emphasize mood so muchthat the photograph loses its abilityto convey information. You've prob-ably seen photographs in which, forexample, people's faces are lost inshadow. It may be moody, but it also

tends to be annoying.Fortunately, you have two chances

to modify the light in a photograph:when you shoot it and when you printit . While you're shooting, you maychoose an exposure that is based oneither the highlights (brightest areas)or shadows (darkest areas), or for amid-range of grays ("average" areas).

Imagine that you are photograph-ing someone who's wearing a whiteshirt and a dark jacket. If you expose


By intentionally reducing the light entering the camera, dramatic climatic effects can be enhanced, adding moodand impact. (Student photograph.)

for the highlights, then all the detailsin the white shirt will be clear, butsome shadow detail —such as the tex-ture of the jacket —may be lost. I f ,on the other hand, you expose for theshadows, the jacket will look great,but the white shirt may disappear.

The reason for this is film latitude.Every kind of film is sensitive to aspecific range of light. Very few filmscan handle all the variations inlighting that our eyes can see. Inblack-and-white photography, thislimitation is most evident whenyou're trying to capture a wide range

of grays. If the lightest and darkestgrays are so different in value thatthey exceed the film's range, orlatitude, then you have to com-promise. (Review value, if necessary,in Chapter 4.)

This is where the second chance tomodify light comes in. When youshoot, the photograph, you canchoose to stress one part of the valuerange. Then, when you print it, youcan re-adjust the balance —but onlyto a certain extent. If certain infor-mation (such as the texture of theshirt or jacket) did not get recorded

by the film, there's nothing you cando to bring it back.

The safest approach to exposure,therefore, is to aim for the middle:average gray. This is exactly what alight meter does. Any light meter,whether built into a camera or hand-held, assumes that the average lightin any scene is predominantly gray.(Note: If you're using a hand-heldlight meter, refer to the Appendix.The rest of this section deals with in-camera meters.)

Light 119

FOCAL POINT: Light Meters

If your camera is less than 15 yearsold, then you will almost certainly beusing a light meter that is built intoyour camera (internal). If your cam-era is not equipped with a built-inmeter, then you will need to use ahand-held model.

Depending on the brand andmodel, you may be informed of thelight reading by a needle that movesup and down, a series of lights, or anumerical display showing the cur-rent recommended aperture. Withonly a little practice, you should beable to respond to your camera's lightmeter and achieve the effect you wantquickly and accurately.

Before you can do this, however,you'll need to know what the lightmeter is actually trying to tell you. Alight meter may "read" either incidentor reflected light. Incident light is thelight that is generally available in agiven lighting situation. Imagine, forexample, a black cat sitting in a whitechair in an evenly lit room. The inci-dent light reading will be the same forboth. That means the amount of lighton the cat is the same as the amounton the chair. Reflected light is thelight that actually enters the camera.This is the light that is reflected by agiven subject. If your meter ismeasuring reflected light, it will givea much higher reading for the whitechair than for the black cat. This isbecause the chair, being brighter, willreflect far more light.

Light meters that are built intocameras measure only reflectedlight — t h e light that enters thecamera's lens. There are two kinds ofreflectance meters: averaging metersand spot meters. An averaging metergives you the average light reading

for a large area. A spot meter focusesin on a small area. Some cameras areequipped with a switch that lets youchoose either kind of meter. Most,however, compromise by giving youa "center-weighted average" reading.This means that the light meteraverages the light throughout theimage area, but pays special attentionto the center of the frame. (Thecenter is often indicated by a circle of

some kind.) If the image area isgenerally bright, but dark at thecenter of the frame, a center-weighted averaging meter will in-dicate a larger aperture than an or-dinary averaging meter would. If youaimed a spot meter at the dark areaat the center of the frame, the readingwould be lower still.

Most of the time, an averagingmeter works adequately, since high-


lights and shadows tend to balanceeach other out. A center-weightedmeter usually works better, becausethe main subject tends to be near thecenter of the frame. A spot meter canbe very useful, however, when youare photographing a scene in whichthe light is quite different in differentparts of the picture. It can be espe-cially useful when large areas of thepicture are either very bright or verydark. When the sun is behind yoursubject, for example, making the skyvery bright and leaving your subjectin shadow, you will need to make aspot reading of the subject to be surethat it is correctly exposed.

Fortunately, there's an easy way todo this, even without a spot-meter.Simply move close enough so yoursubject fills most of the frame. Thenstep back and compose your shot,setting the exposure as indicated byyour close-up reading. Some cameraspermit you to "lock" the exposurewhere you want it by pressing aspecial button. When you use thistechnique, be sure that you don'tcreate any shadows on your subjectwhen you move in for the close-upreading.

Hand-held meters read both re-flected and incident light. For thereflected light reading, you aim themeter's lens at your subject, just asyou would with a built-in meter. Forthe incident reading, you place atranslucent cover over the meter'slens, stand near your subject and aimthe meter toward your camera ortoward the light source. If you'reshooting outdoors in even light(either all sunny or all cloudy, for ex-ample), you can obtain an all-purpose average reading by taking an

incident reading from the sun.Hand-held meters have one addi-

tional advantage. If you attempt totake any photographs in very lowlight (at night, for example), you maydiscover that your camera's lightmeter doesn't work at all shutterspeeds. It may shut off when you getdown to 1 /8 of a second, perhaps, or2 seconds. A decent hand-held meter,by contrast, will give you a readingfor shutter speeds of 4 minutes ormore (depending on the ISO of yourfilm).

One final point: as noted in thischapter, reflectance light metersassume that your subject is neutralgray in tone. If you want to photo-graph a subject that is brighter overall(such as a snowy field) or darkeroverall (such as a black cat), you'llneed to change the aperture accord-ingly. If you don't, both the snowyfield and the black cat will turn outgray . . . which is probably not whatyou want. For the snow scene, you'llneed to use a larger aperture than in-dicated, and for the cat you'll needto use a smaller one.

USING A LIGHT METER

The specific gray that a light meterassumes you want is one that re-flects only about 18% of the l i gh t itreceives from the sun. (Pure whitereflects close to 100%; pure blackclose to 0%.) This figure-"18%gray" — h a s been sc ien t i f ica l ly cal-culated to represent average light-ing for most scenes.

So, if the average l ight reachingthe light meter is darker than an18% gray, the light meter will recom-mend a larger aperture or a slowershutter speed, to let more light in .If the average light reaching themeter is brighter than an 18% gray,the meter wi l l call for a smalleraperture or faster speed, to let lesslight in.

Nine times out of ten, this isprecisely the kind of advice you want.The light meter will recommend thecamera setting you'd choose your-self, if you took the time to figureit out.

Ah, but what about tha t one timeout of ten when the l ight meter's ad-vice is not what you want? Supposeyou're photographing someone whois standing between you and the sun.Because the sunlight is coming rightat you, it is very bright. Unless theperson is filling up most of the frame,your light meter will react to thebright sunlight and tirge you to selecta very small aperture or a veryfast speed. Wha t will it do to yourphotograph?

By lett ing only a li t t le light into thecamera (just enough so the sunlightshows up as a nice gray), the personyou intended to photograph will looklike a black blob. This is probably notthe effect you hoped for.

Here's another example: You'rephotographing a black cat on a black

Light 121

couch. The average light in the sceneis quite a bit darker than an 18%gray. Your light meter will tell you touse a very large aperture, or a slowshutter speed, or both. The result? Awashed-out looking gray cat on agray couch.

None of this means that a lightmeter is a bad thing. A light meter isa great tool. Its primary drawback isthat it wants to make everything gray.Knowing this can help you use itmore effectively. If you're shootingunder tricky lighting conditions (anyconditions in which precision is im-portant), take a meter reading offsomething that is close to an 18%gray, and set your camera accord-ingly. Your blacks will be black, andyour whites will be white. If you wantto make the photograph darker orlighter than "normal," you can thenadjust your aperture or shutter speedaccordingly. If , for example, youdecide that you'd like the whole sceneto appear darker than it actually is,you can take a reading for an 18%gray and then decrease the apertureby one or two stops.

Fine, but how are you supposedto find a sample of 18% gray whenyou need it? You can buy a 18%gray card that is scientifically pro-duced to be exactly 18% gray.Or you can use the gray card youalready have: the palm of yourhand. Whether you're black, white,hispanic or oriental, you can ob-tain an acceptably accurate mid-range reading simply by holdingthe palm of your hand in the lightand aiming a meter at it.

When you do this, be sure that thelighting on your palm is the same asthe lighting on the subject of yourphotograph. Your hand should beheld so that the light strikes yourpalm at the same angle as it strikes


By metering off the subject's face, rather than averaging the entire scene, arich black context was produced for this striking portrait. (Studentphotograph.)

your subject. Don't let the cameracast a shadow on your palm. Also besure to hold your camera closeenough to ensure that other light isnot confusing the reading. Mostmodern cameras have center-weighted averaging meters. Thismeans that they read light fromseveral points around the image area,but give more importance to the

reading at the center. Therefore, yourpalm should fill most of the imagearea, and should especially cover thecenter.

(Note: To increase the precision ofyour "palm readings," comparethem to readings from a gray card.Place it in open shade and take a lightmeter reading from it. Be sure thatthe card fills your view-finder. Then


Shadows, produced by angled light, help to "anchor" objects so/idly aswell as adding visual interest. (Student photograph by Joshua Noble.)

If you don't want a silhouettewhen shooting a subject against abright sky, it is essential to meterthe subject . . . not the sky. This isthe sort of shot that automaticcameras tend to mess up. (Studentphotograph by Steve Gates.)

take a reading from your palm in thesame light. The difference betweenthe two readings indicates how faryour palm varies from an 18% gray.You should add or subtract thisamount whenever you take a readingoff your palm. For example, if thegray card reading was f/5.6 and thereading for your palm was f/4, thenyou should always open your lens upone stop more than indicated by a"palm reading.")

There are more sophisticatedtheories and techniques for obtainingideal lighting, but this one is certainlythe easiest. Most of the time, it'll dojust fine.

Another common way to avoid thepitfalls of a faul ty light reading iscalled bracketing. When you bracketa shot, you shoot several frames atdifferent exposures. By doing this,you are simply improving the chancesof getting a correctly exposed image.If , for example, your light metercalled for f/8 at 125, you mightbracket by shooting one frame at thatsetting, plus one at f/5.6 and one atf /11 . Or you might shoot five frameswithin that three-stop range, usingthe half-stop settings on your aper-ture ring. You can also bracket by ad-justing the shutter speed. For exam-ple, f/8 at 60, 125 and 250.

OTHER FUNCTIONS OFLIGHT

Light has some additional functionsthat it shares with other composi-tional elements. Like line, light can

Light 123

promote rhythm. Alternating bandsof light and shadow, for example, orisolated spots of light surrounded bydarkness may create very strong andinteresting visual rhythms.

Similarly, light and shadow canreproduce or enhance many of the ef-fects of shape. Even a small objectcan appear quite massive if it pro-duces a large shadow.

In addition, the shadow of an ob-ject often indicates how that objectrelates to its environment. Test thisyourself. Close one eye and lookdown at your foot. (By closing oneeye, you're losing depth perception,and seeing things the way the camerasees them.) Now lift your foot off thefloor. Can you convince yourself thatit is still touching the floor? If youcan't, it's probably because theshadow cast by your foot is providingclear relational information: it isshowing you the relative positions ofyour foot and the floor.

Try this in several lighting situa-tions, viewing your lifted foot fromseveral angles. (You can alter thelighting without moving by using anotebook to shade your whole foot.)Experiment until your foot looks likeit is still touching the floor. Then con-tinue experimenting until no amountof imagination can fool you —unt i lthe relation between your foot andthe floor is unmistakable.

DEPTH OF FIELD

There's one other way that light af-fects relation: depth of field. As wediscussed in Chapter 2, depth of fieldis the range of distance that is in ac-ceptable focus at one time. If youhave small, or "narrow," depth offield, whatever you have focused on(the focal point) may be the onlything in focus. If, instead, you have

The depth of field in this photograph is sufficient to provide a clear visualcontext for the elderly farmer. Notice how the old tin cans in theforeground and the woodstove in the background contribute to thephotograph's effectiveness. (Student photograph by Robert Lewis.)


FOCAL POINT: Depth of Field

To understand how depth of fieldworks, it is important to understandhow focusing works. What deter-mines whether or not a subject isclearly focused?

Let's say you're photographing anapple. Rays of light from the sun areconstantly bouncing off that apple inall directions. When you click theshutter of your camera, you allowsome of those rays to travel throughthe lens to the film inside the camera.The rays of light react with the filmto produce an image of the applecomposed of a series of "points" —or dots of light. Ideally, a point oflight striking the apple would repro-duce as an identical point of light onthe film. In reality, it is more of a cir-cle. If this circle is 1/200 of an inchin diameter, it will appear to be asharply focused point to the humaneye. If most of the circles that makeup the image of an apple are largerthan that, the image will appearfuzzy.

When you focus the lens, you areincreasing and decreasing the size ofthese circles on the film plane. Lightfrom one point of the apple spreadsout to fill the lens and then tapersback to a point (see diagram), mak-ing the shape of a cone. When thesubject is in focus, the tip of thatcone is right at the film plane. Whenthe subject is out of focus, the conecomes to a point in front of or behindthe film plane.

Now, how does depth of field fitin with all this? Since the light spreadsto the edges of the lens opening, thebase of the cone of light is as wide asthe aperture. The width of the baseof the cone determines the angle atwhich the light will travel toward thefilm plane. If the aperture is large, thelight will come to a point more grad-ually than it will if the aperture issmall. The same degree of error infocus will produce a more out-of-focus image with the large aperturebecause the circle produced by each

point of unfocused light will belarger. With the smallest apertures,a considerable range of focal errorwill still convey a crisp image. If youexamine the diagram carefully, you'llsee how narrowing the cone of lightproduces this result.

So, if you have focused accuratelyon the apple and are using a smallaperture, the cone of light will prob-ably be narrow enough for the ba-nana behind the apple and the orangein front of it to also appear to be infocus. If you are using a large aper-ture, both the banana and the orangeare likely to be represented by over-sized circles and, therefore, to appearfuzzy.

That, in essence, is how depth offield works. (Aren't you glad youasked?)

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long, or "wide," depth of field, thenobjects behind and in front of thefocal point will also be in focus.

Depth of field is primarily deter-mined by two factors: the apertureand the focal length of the lens. Sinceaperture concerns light, we'll dealwith its effect on depth of field in thissection. Focal length is discussed inmore detail in Chapter 11.

For now, just bear in mind thatdepth of field decreases as focallength increases. In other words, ifyou set a 50mm and a 100mm lens atthe same aperture and focus them ona subject at the same distance, thedepth of field will be greater with the50mm lens. Objects in the foregroundand background will be in focus forthe 50mm lens that are out of focusfor the 100mm lens.

Aperture, as you'll recall, is the sizeof the opening through which lightenters the camera. A smaller aper-ture, like a shorter lens, increasesdepth of field. For a partial explana-tion of why this is so, consult "FocalPoint: Depth of Field." Fortunately,you don't really need to understandthe reasons for this fact in order tomake use of it.

With a small aperture, therefore,the range of acceptable focus will ex-tend beyond whatever is in precisefocus. Only one exact distance will be100% focused. (This distance iscalled the focal point.) However, ob-jects in the fo reground andbackground will seem to be in focusas well. As the aperture of the lensincreases, this range of acceptablefocus (depth of field) decreases.

The distance between the focalpoint and the camera also affectsdepth of field. The greater thisdistance is, the greater the depth offield will be. For example, a standard50mm lens set at f/8 and focused at

6 feet will have a depth of field from5 to 7 feet. The same lens at the sameaperture, focused at 20 feet, will alsohave a depth of field from 10 to 30feet. In the first case, relatively closeto the camera, the depth of field ex-tends only 2 feet. In the second case,at a greater distance, it extends 20feet. If you focus on something 2 feetaway, the depth of field will only beabout 1 inch.

You may, of course, want lessdepth of field. This brings us tohow depth of field "works" in aphotograph.

Two objects in a photograph thatare both in focus will seem closetogether, because that's the wayyou're used to seeing things. Youreyes provide you with very selectivefocusing, so two objects that aren'tclose together are not both in focusat the same time. Your brain expectsa photograph to work the same way.

Depth of field; therefore, can dotwo useful things in a photograph.First, it can convey the impression ofdepth. As you may recall, a photo-graph is a two-dimensional image ofthree-dimensional objects. It needs allthe help it can get to seem three-dimensional. By reproducing someobjects in focus and some out offocus (imitating normal vision),depth of field helps to create the il-lusion of a three-dimensional image.

Depth of field can also tell the eyewhere to look, and help it tell dif-

ferent objects apart. You've probablyseen photographs in which a treeseems to be growing out of someone'shead. That's one common result oftoo much depth of field.

Used creatively, limited depth offield helps to single out one object orone part of an object. The viewer'seye automatically aims for what is infocus. If that also happens to be theprimary subject of the photograph —the thing the photographer wanted usall to notice — then the photograph islikely to attract interest and attention.

Too much depth of field can haveanother undesirable effect. By bring-ing too many images to the viewer'sattention, the emotional or aestheticimpact of the primary subject may bewatered down or destroyed. Insteadof concentrating on one subject, theeye will get busy checking out all theothers.

Sometimes, of course, that 'sprecisely the response you want. Aphotograph of a bustling city, for ex-ample, may best capture the bustle byhaving many details in focus. With aphotograph of a single rosebud, onthe other hand, you'll probably wantto be more selective.


EXERCISE

BracketingSelect a subject with a wide range ofvalues —from black through variousgrays to white —and shoot it severaltimes, at one shutter speed, but sev-eral apertures.

Before shooting, take a lightreading of some part of the subjectthat is in the mid-range of grays (ormeter off your palm).

Shoot one frame at the settingrecommended by your meter, thenshoot another at each f-stop above it,while keeping the same shutter speed.

Then shoot one frame at each f-stopbelow the one selected by the lightmeter.

For the most interesting range oflighting effects, try to shoot inlighting that is just a bit less thanbroad daylight. Your meter readingshould be around f/8 at a shutterspeed between 250 and 60.

You should produce at least twodifferent exposures of a single subjectto be critiqued. However, you maywant to try the same procedure on

several subjects to find one that pro-duces the most interesting variations.If you use only one subject, try tofind several angles to shoot it from,so you can compare effects. Differentangles will produce the most varietywhen the subject is dramatically lit.This means that your subject needsto receive some direct light, and thatyou'll want to shoot early or late inthe day.

Student photographs by MarcMcCoy.

Light 127

A skillfully handled blurred motion shot can convey a sense of being caught up in the action. (Student photographby Sheri Allen.)


chapter 10 Motion

ust as variations in depth offield can make a photographlook more or less three-

dimensional, motion can be used toassert or disguise the fact that aphotograph captures only a tiny sliceof time. Allowing a moving subjectto blur during an exposure "stretches"time a bit, emphasizing the subject'smovement. "Freezing" the subjectemphasizes the camera's ability to"grab" an instant of time and hold itstill. Each approach can be very ef-fective. Neither is exactly lifelike,however, because your eyes recordmovement as a series of instants (theway a motion picture does).

THE SCIENCE OF BLURS

An object in a photograph willappear blurred if it moves whilethe shutter is open. If the objectmoves across only a very small por-tion of the image area, it will seemonly slightly blurred. If it movesover a large portion, it will blurconsiderably.

How far an object moves throughthe image area depends on threethings: its speed, the speed of theshutter, and the angle of view.

The angle of view can be imaginedas a triangular or funnel-shapedwedge extending from inside thecamera out into space. The edges of

A limited amount of blur can add sparkle to a simple gesture, making aphotograph more lively and expressive. (Student photograph by SonjaGray.)

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A fast shutter speed (or flash) will "freeze" a subject. Some flash set-ups can even freeze a bullet in mid-flight.In this photograph of a dove, the wings are allowed to blur just enough to suggest movement. (Studentphotograph by Darrel Miers.)

this wedge are the boundaries of thecamera's "sight." Whatever is insidethe boundaries will show up on thefilm. Whatever is outside won't.

The longer a lens is, the smaller itsangle of view will be. (This will be ex-plained in more detail in the nextchapter, when we discuss perspectiveand interchangeable lenses.) If a lenshas a narrow angle of view, an ob-ject won't have to move very far tocreate a b lur .

The reason for this is that a lens

with a narrow angle of view —a200mm telephoto, for instance-selects only a small part of the totalimage in front of it. It effectivelycrops in on a small fraction of thetotal scene, just as you might dowhen editing a print. The narrowangle of view enlarges that fractionto fill the image area.

Let's say you're photographing acar driving along a road that crossesyour field of view. A 200mm lensmight cover only a few feet of the


Js this bird photograph less "correct" than the previous one? It all depends on what you want to convey. Allowinga subject to blur almost to the point of becoming unrecognizable can be a very effective way of conveyingmovement. It generally takes several trial-and-error shots to get it just right. (Student photograph by CherylPlumb.)

road. In 1/60 of second, the carmight move 10% of the distancefrom one side of the frame to theother. This would be enough to pro-duce a very obvious blur when thephotograph was enlarged.

If a lens has a large angle of view —such as a 28mm wide angle —muchmore of the road will fit into theimage area. That same car, shot atthe same shutter speed, at the samedistance, moving at the same speed,

would cross only a tiny fraction ofthe field of view, perhaps 1%. It willtherefore produce virtually no blur atall.

The same principles apply to thedistance between the camera and theobject being photographed. If thecamera is very close to the object, anymovement of the object will cover afairly large area of the image area ata moderate shutter speed. A visibleblur will result. I f , instead, the object

is relatively far from the camera, andthe same lens and shutter speed areused, the movement will cover asmaller area and be less visible.

You can also control the amountof image area affected by a movingobject by increasing the shutterspeed. Quite simply, the faster yourshutter speed, the less time an objecthas to move. If the shutter is fastenough, even an object that is mov-ing very quickly will seem to be stand-

Motion 131

Panning will at least slow down a moving subject. Used with a slow shutter speed it will blur the background,producing an effective impression of motion while retaining the subject's clarity. (Student photograph.)

ing still. This is often referred to as"freezing."

There are other ways to avoidblurred movement. You can choosesubjects that aren't moving, ofcourse, or wait for a moving one tostop. You can also make a subjectslow down by moving with it. Themost common way to do this is calledpanning. To pan, you stand in oneplace and swing your camera tofollow the movement of your subjectwhile you click the shutter. If you're

using a fairly fast shutter speed, youmay be able to freeze even a quicklymoving subject by panning.

If you're using a relatively slowshutter speed, however, the subjectmay blur less or not at all, but thebackground may blur considerably.This will result in a fairly crisp im-age of the subject, but it will seem tobe moving very quickly, due to thestreaks of the background.

STOP AND GO

Once again, there is no "right way"to shoot everything. Sometimes you'llwant a subject to be very blurred.Sometimes a slight blur is best.Sometimes you'll want no blur at all.The important thing to recognize isthat this is an aesthetic decision, andthat you have several ways of puttingyour decision into effect.

In most cases, you don't want anyblur when you're photographing im-


mobile objects —buildings, rocks orfurniture, for example. If you try tophotograph a building with a 200mmlens at 1/8 of a second, you'll pro-duce the disturbing impression of amajor earthquake.

You may or may not want someblurring when photographing objectsthat move occasionally or slowly: treeleaves, people walking, or flowingwater. In this case, you'll want tochoose the distance, lens and shutterspeed that best produce the motioneffect you want.

Finally, you're most likely to wantblurring when photographing objectsthat tend to move quickly and often:racing cars, galloping horses, abasketball team in action. In thiscase, a long lens and/or a slow shut-ter speed may be in order.

As you notice moving subjects dur-ing future assignments, take a mo-ment to consider your options. How-many ways of creating blurred mo-tion can you recall? How many canyou recall to prevent blurring? Thesooner all your options come to mindautomatically, the sooner you'll beable to control motion effectively andcreatively.

Blurred motion can even be used effectively with immobile objects, as inthis impressionistic image of St. Patrick's cathedral, created by hand-holding the camera for a long exposure. (Student photograph by MikeBrace o.)

Motion 133

EXERCISE -

BlurredMovementAssignment: Experiment with variousways of illustrating motion by usingslow shutter speeds.

Goal: Use blurred motion with a clearpurpose and with a clear result. Inother words, try to get a shot in whichthe blur really expresses motion.

Tips: Set your camera at f/16 and1 /15 to start .Once you get going, ex-periment with shutter speeds as low-as 1/8. You'll find the assignmenteasiest on a gray, overcast day, sinceyou don't want too much light. Alter-natively, you might use a neutraldensity f i l ter , which cuts down theamount of light entering the camera.

You may shoot in one of threeways:

1 > Aim your camera so your sub-ject is moving into the frame. Beginfollowing your subject's movementand then release the shut ter . Keepmoving with the subject as the shut-ter opens and closes. This will pro-duce a blurred background with yoursubject more or less "frozen."

2> Mount your camera on atripod or find some other way to holdit very steady. Aim so your subjectis moving into the frame and releasethe shutter. This will produce asteady background with your subjectmoving across the frame as a blur.

3> Attach a zoom lens to yourcamera, then mount it on a tripod orfind some other way to hold it steady.Focus on the subject with the zoomat its maximum focal-length (i.e. 200on a 75-200 zoom). Pu l l back on thezoom lens and immediately releasethe shut ter . This produces a pattern

Student photograph by Jeffrey Parker.

of lines radiating out from yoursubject.

Note tha t you'll have to f indsomething to focus on, or guess thedistance, before your subject movesthrough the frame.

Possible subjects include runners;almost any sports ac t iv i ty ; motor-cycles, bicycles and other vehicles; aperson or a group of people jumping,twirling, swinging, dancing, etc.

Your subject should contrast withthe background (light on dark, dark

on light). If it already blends in, theblur will make it blend even more.

(Note: If you are doing your ownprocessing at this stage, you can in-crease contrast by overdevelopingyour fi lm for 2 minutes and/or usinga high-contrast paper —grade 4 or5 — for printing.)


Student photograph by Charles StuartKennedy III.

Student photograph by Marciano Pitargue, Jr.

Motion 135

Converging lines and an appropriate point of view are the two key ingredients of perspective. (Student photographby Kenneth Griggs.)


chapter 11 Perspective

erspective is the one com-positional element that isalmost entirely in your cont-

rol. The word "perspective" means"point of view," both literally andfiguratively. In its literal sense, itmeans where you stand in relation toyour subject and how that influencesthe appearance of your subject. Inthe figurative sense, it means howyou feel about your subject.

The literal aspect of perspective isessentially practical. If from yourpoint of view the sides of your sub-ject are visible as they recede into thebackground, then your perspectivewill enhance the perspective of thesubject. You can tell where it startsand how far back it goes.

If, on the other hand, the sides ofthe subject are invisible from yourpoint of view (as, for example, whenyou photograph a low bui ldingstraight-on from the front), youdiminish its perspective. The buildingwill appear flat as a pancake.

When we talk about perspectivef igurat ively , it means how youperceive a subject, not just spatially,but aesthetically, emotionally, evenmorally. This kind of perspective re-quires that you understand your sub-ject enough to have an opinion oridea about it . . . and that you havethe technical skill and creativity toconvey that opinion or idea to others.

This photograph is an example of what is called "two-point" perspective.The dominant perspective lines run along the vertical axis to the right ofcenter. A second, less evident, perspective runs out of the left side of thephotograph. Try using your cropping L's to determine if the photograph isstronger with both perspective points, or with just one. In addition, noticehow the shadows play off of the other structural elements of thephotograph. (Student photograph by Kimberly DeMarco.)

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For now, let's stick with the literalkind of perspective. No matter whereyou stand and where you look(straight ahead, to one side, up ordown) objects are receding awayfrom you. That's how space works.

Much of the time you aren't par-t icularly aware of this fact .Everything just looks normal. Butwhen you start drawing rectanglesaround things with the frame of aphotograph, all lines become muchmore obvious. The lines and anglesof the frame provide a point ofreference with which to compareother lines within the frame. So, abuilding receding into the sky aboveyou, or into the distance in front ofyou, may seem distorted, strange ordramatic depending on the lensyou're using.

LENSES

First let's take a look at the variouskinds of lenses available, all of whichfit into three basic categories: wide-angle, normal and telephoto.

Wide-angle lenses have a wideangle of view. They allow a largeamount of any scene to be includedwithin the frame of a photograph.They have the shortest focal lengths,ranging from 15mm or less to 45mm.Extreme wide-angle lenses (18mmand below) are called "fish-eyes,"because they produce a very dis-torted, circular image. The mostcommon wide-angle focal lengths are28mm and 35mm.

The next category of lenses is "nor-mal." These are the lenses that mostclosely match the normal vision of thehuman eye. They range from 45mmto 55mm. The most common normallens is 50mm.

The third category is telephotolenses. These produce a telescopic ef-


FOCAL POINT: Lenses

Long & ShortThe primary factor that makes onelens different from another is its focallength. When a photographer speaksof "a 50-millimeter lens," he or shemeans that the focal length of the lensmeasures 50 millimeters (50mm). Onemillimeter is a bit smaller than 1/32of an inch. A 50mm lens, therefore,has a focal length of about 2 inches.The focal length of a 200mm lens isabout 7 7/8 inches.

So, what is "focal length" and whyis it so important? Technically, focallength is the distance from the opticalcenter of a lens to the film plane. Thisdistance is four times as long withina 200mm lens as it is within a 50mm.Until recently, this would have beenfairly obvious, because the 200mmlens would have been just about fourtimes as long. Modern techniques of"bouncing" (or, more precisely, re-flecting) light back and forth withina lens, however, permit one that ac-tually measures less than 100mm (orabout 3 7/8 inches) to have a focallength of 200mm.

A 50mm lens is generally con-sidered to be "normal" for a 35mmcamera. However, any lens with afocal length between 45mm and55mm falls within the normal range.A normal lens comes nearest to thevision of a human eye. Though youcan't see as much through the lens asyou can with your eyes, the size,distance and proportion of what youdo see appears to be the same.

Any lens with a focal length over55mm is in the telephoto range. Anylens with a focal length under 45mmis in the wide-angle range. Telephotolenses, then, are casually referred toas "long" and wide-angles as "short."

Imagine that you are photograph-ing a house from a distance of about50 feet. The focal length of your lensdetermines how much of the housewill be recorded on the film in thecamera. With a wide-angle lens (suchas a 28mm), you would probably beable to fit the whole house into oneframe of film. With a normal lens(50mm) you might be able to fit inonly the front door and two win-dows. With a telephoto (such as a200mm) you might be limited to asingle window or less.

Making the lens longer reduces theangle at which light can enter thelens. In other words, as focal lengthincreases, the angle of view decreases.(The angle of view is measureddiagonally across the image area,from corner to corner.)

Decreasing the angle of view alsodecreases the field of view. The field.of view is what you see in the view-finder (and what you capture onfilm). It is the image area.

With a 28mm lens, the angle ofview is 75°. The borders of the fieldof view create a 75° angle (like a thickslice of pie) that starts at your cameraand stretches out to inf ini ty .Anything that can be seen within thatangle will show up in your photo-graph. The angle of view for a200mm lens is only 12° (like a verythin slice of pie). In simple terms: thelonger your lens, the less you will seethrough it, and the less will appear inyour photograph. Because fewer ob-jects will fit into a single frame, look-ing through a long lens is a little likelooking through a telescope: distantobjects appear closer, small objectsappear larger.


Fast & SlowBesides being available in differentlengths, lenses also differ in terms ofthe apertures they can accommodate.You might hear a lens referred to as,for example, a 50mm f/2.8 ("fiftymillimeter, f two eight"). The firstnumber refers to the focal length ofthe lens and the second number refersto its largest aperture.

As you know, larger apertures letin more light. If an image is correctlyexposed in 1/60 of a second with anaperture of f/4, it will take only1/125 of a second to be correctlyexposed at f/2.8. With a largeraperture, the film is exposed morequickly.

So, a lens with a very large maxi-mum aperture (f/2 or f/1.4, for ex-ample) is called a fast lens. One wi tha relatively small maximum aperture(say, f/4) is called slow. Fast lensesallow you to shoot at faster speeds orin lower light than slow lenses do.Unfortunately, increasing the speedof a lens also increases its price. This

is particularly t rue for telephotolenses.

The aperture number is calculatedby dividing the focal length of thelens by the diameter of the lens open-ing. The actual lens opening of a200mm lens would therefore have tobe four times as wide as that of a50mm lens to achieve the same max-imum aperture:

200mm focal length4- 71.4mm diameter = f/2.8

50mm focal length^ 17.8mm diameter = f/2.8

17.8mm x 4.01 = 71.4mm

As you might guess, increasing theamount of optical-quality glass andother materials also increases the costof producing a lens. However, a tele-photo lens —even a fast one — i s rarelyuseful in low light. To get the bestresults, a telephoto needs a fairly fastshutter speed. It also needs as wide

a depth of field as possible, since itis difficult to hold telephotos steadyand focus them accurately. There-fore, you can get by just fine with afairly small maximum aperture (f/4and f/3.5 are common and afford-able). With normal and wide anglelenses, large apertures become farmore useful and, fortunately, less ex-pensive. It's a good idea (though byno means necessary) to have at leastone short lens with a maximum aper-ture of f/2 or f/1.4.

Perspective 139

feet, making distant objects appearlarger and, therefore, closer. Theyrange from 55mm to 500mm andbeyond. Moderate telephotos (rang-ing from about 70mm to 150mm) areoften referred to as "portrait" lenses,since they are most flattering forfaces. The most common portraitlens length is probably 135mm. Otherpopular telephotos include 150mm,175mm and 200mm. Longer tele-photos are generally used only forsuch specialized work as sportsphotography.

(Note: Many photographers use a"doubler" — o r , more properly, an"extender" —to increase the focallength of a telephoto lens when nec-essary. A doubler is a short tube orlens which, as its name suggests,doubles the focal length of any lens.A 150mm lens with a doubler, for ex-ample, can produce the same resultsas a 300mm lens, at far less expense.)

True telephotos (anything over150mm) present some challenges thatyou should know about at this point.We discussed one of these challengesearlier: decreased depth of field. Ifyou like the effect it produces, somereduction in depth of field can beperfectly all right. You must focusmore carefully with a long lens thanwith a short one, however. If youdon't, you may not have anything infocus at all.

Another consequence of a longlens that we've already discussed isreduced angle of view. Because a longlens has a narrow angle of view, anymotion will be more conspicuouswith a long lens than with a shortone. Once again this can be good orbad, depending upon what you want.If you want some blurred motion, atelephoto lens can achieve it.

One of the great drawbacks of longlenses is that they magnify camera

A wide-angle lens has a wide field of view, producing an apparentdistortion of objects close to it. This can be very effective, if that's theeffect you want. Used to photograph distant objects, however, most wide-angle lenses produce an entirely "normal-looking" image. (Studentphotograph by Daniel Watson.)


A telephoto lens allows you to "get close" to a subject without actuallymoving, which is particularly helpful when the subject is inaccessible. Inaddition, it will tend to "compress" distances, adding emphasis to thepatterns created by layers of lines or shapes. (Student photograph byMichael Grassia.)

shake. Unless your camera is on atripod, it will shake somewhat as youclick the shutter. With a normal orwide-angle lens at a normal shutterspeed (1/60 of a second or faster),this presents no problem. With a longlens, especially one over 200mm, theproblem gets quite serious.

Because the lens is longer andheavier than normal, it is more dif-ficult to hold steady. Because itsangle of view is narrower, even slightmovement is more likely to show upwhen you print an enlargement. Youcan offset some of the camera-shakeproblem by increasing the shutterspeed. If you use a shutter speed thatis roughly double the focal length ofthe lens you should have no camera-shake problem. In other words, youshould be able to hand-hold a 135mmlens at a shutter speed of 250, or a200mm lens at 500. With practice,however, you'll be able to do con-siderably better than that.

Increasing the shutter speed furtherreduces the depth of field, becauseyou'll need a larger aperture to com-pensate for the faster speed. Further-more, most telephotos don't open upto very large apertures. This meansthat in less than ideal light, you mayhave to choose between risking a bluror missing the shot altogether. An ex-ample would be a shot that requiresyou to set the aperture on f/2.8 at 125with a 200mm lens. If your lens onlyopens up to f/3.5, then you'll justhave to shoot at that aperture, witha shuttter speed of 60, and hold yourbreath.

As mentioned earlier, a zoom lensis essentially several lenses in one,since a single zoom will provide awide range of focal lengths. Like anyother lens, however, a zoom also haslimitations. If you're using a wide-to-tele zoom (say, 28mm to 80mm),

Perspective 141

you'll have many focal lengths tochoose from. But you will probablyhave at least one less f-stop than aplain 28mm or 80mm lens would giveyou. That's not a huge sacrifice undermost conditions, but it is somethingto be aware of. (This is the reason wepreviously suggested that you shouldhave at least one fixed-focal-lengthlens. You never know when you'llneed to shoot something at f/2.8.)

Every lens involves a similar trade-off. They are all good for some kindsof shots and not good for others. Awide-angle, for example, would be apoor choice for shooting a footballgame. You might get some nice im-ages of the stadium, but the action ofthe game would be utterly lost.

DIFFERENT WAYS OFSEEING

With a 50mm lens, as we've men-tioned, things appear much as theydo through a human eye. Recedingobjects will generally appear quitenormal.

With a wide angle lens, the lines ofperspective will be exaggerated, so abuilding will seem taller or longer asit recedes from you. The lens does notactually change those lines. It onlyseems to because of the wide angle ofview.

What effect do you get if you shootthe same building, from the sameposition, with both a wide angle anda telephoto lens? The wide angle shotwill seem to distort the image to em-phasize depth, so objects will seemfarther away. The telephoto will seemto distort it in the other direction, soobjects seem flatter and closer thanthey actually are. The importantword here is seem. If you crop out ofthe wide-angle photograph the por-tion of the entire scene that fit into

A zoom lens not only offers the benefits of several lenses in one, it \villalso make some interesting special effects possible. This shot was made byzooming the lens during a long exposure. (Student photograph by CharlesCibbs.)

the telephoto shot, you would havetwo virtually identical photographs.

But what about the way a wide-angle lens bends people's faces at theedges of the frame? This is also justan apparent distortion. The lens is ac-curately recording an image from acertain perspective. The best way totest this is to look at a large wide

angle print with your face as close aspossible to it. The nearer you cometo matching the original viewing posi-tion for the scene, the more normalthe photograph will look. When youstand back from a wide-angle print,you are simply compressing a broadviewing angle into a smaller space, sothings look weird.


The combination of height and distance enhance the perspective of this photograph. Notice how other lines in thephotograph reinforce it. (Student photograph by Lynne Mattielli.)

Perspective 143Perspective 143

Student photograph by Russell Wells.


So, if you actually get the sameimage with each lens, why not juststick to one and move closer to orfurther from your subject? There aretwo reasons. First, you can't alwaysdo that. If your subject happens tobe a pro football lineman in the mid-dle of a game, you're much better offsticking to the sidelines. If your sub-ject is a bird flying over a lake, youreally don't have much choice. You

need to take the shot from where youare.

But there's another reason too.While the subject itself may look thesame, its relation to other objects inthe frame will change. Imagine thatyou want to photograph a personstanding 50 feet in front of a build-ing. With a wide-angle lens, the per-son may seem to be standing 100 feetaway from the building. With a

Student photograph by LaurieMcMillen.

50mm lens, the relation between theperson and the building will seem tobe "normal." With a 200mm lens, theperson may seem to be right next tothe building.

So, different lenses make differentpoints of view available to you. In asense, the only "honest" lens is a50mm. It's the only one that repro-duces your actual point of view.Longer and shorter lenses create theimpression of other points of view,by allowing you to expand or crop in-to an image. As a result, you appearto be closer to or farther from it thanyou actually are.

A POINT OF VIEW

How do you apply perspective?There are two ways, both of whichinvolve establishing a point of view.One point of view (the literal kind)is physical — where you place yourselfin relation to your subject.

The second kind of point of viewis harder to describe. It too dependson where you stand in relation toyour subject . . . but not jus tphysically. It also depends on whereyou stand aesthetically (is the subjectbeautiful, plain, ugly?), emotionally(does it make you happy, amused,worried, sad?) and ethically orspiritually (do you believe the subjectitself is good, indifferent or bad?).

Sooner or later, you'll want to domore with your camera than justmake copies of things. You'll want toexplore them, find out what makesthem "tick." You'll want to reach anunderstanding of them and expressthat to others. That's when you'llbegin to be an artist with a camera.

Perspective 145

EXERCISE

Point of View

Assignment: Photograph a singlesubject from several different angles.At least two final prints should beproduced.

Goal: See how many good composi-tions you can produce by looking atyour subject from all sides: front,back, right side, left side, top, bot-tom, even up close and far away.

Tips: Use lighting as well as positionto add variety and interest to thisassignment. Try shooting early or latein the day to make use of dramaticlight and long shadows. Alterna-tively, you might want to set up somekind of light source (such as aspotlight) to produce ypur ownlighting effects. Most importantly,shoot a lot of film, at least one en-tire roll.

Student photographs for this exercise by Jeff Frye.


Perspective 147

part 3 People, Places & Things:Exercises & Examples

Student photograph by Jim Piazza.

149

Student photograph.

chapter 12 Things

y now, you should have agood grasp of the basic ele-ments of photography.

You may even have the beginnings ofa personal style. The most importantthing at this stage is practice. So, withthe exception of the Appendix, the re-mainder of this book is devoted solelyto exercises.

Each exercise assignment promotesspecific skills and insights. Theassignments can be as challenging (oras easy) as you choose to make them.Almost all of them can be accom-plished with the knowledge you havealready acquired. (If and when youfeel the need for more information,the Bibliography will give some ideasof where to start looking.)

For the first category of exercises,you will be photographing "things" -isolated objects. Things are generallyeasier to photograph than places orpeople (the next two categories).However, it's not necessarily easy todo it well. Before you set out to cap-ture your bicycle (or any other sub-ject) on film, it's a good idea to setsome objectives for yourself, beyondthose required just to complete theassignment. In fact, this a good habitfor photographing anything.

Clearly it is not enough merely toproduce an accurate image of yoursubject. A photocopying machine ac-complishes that objective quite well.

Student photograph.

151

But what is "enough"? While theultimate answer to that question is upto you (and to those who critiqueyour photos), here are a few hints.

A good first objective for anyphoto is to generate visual interest.Obviously, a photograph must pro-voke interest to hold a viewer's atten-tion. Before you can make the rest ofus understand your intentions, youmust make us want to understandthem.

There are many ways of achievingvisual interest. First is composition.A skillful composition can generateinterest all by itself. Light is anotherimportant factor. Others includedepth of field, shutter speed effectsand printing technique.

A second objective is mood.Though it is often hard to define, vir-tually every effective photograph hasa mood of some kind. It needn't bea familiar one like "happy" or "sad."If a photograph emphasizes shapeand texture, the mood may be "sen-suous." If it suggests a scientificexamination, the mood may be "clin-ical" or "detached." If it's not clearwhat the photographer is intending,the mood may be "confused" or"playful." A photograph that is ap-parently concerned only with line, orlight and shadow, may have a moodthat is simply "aesthetic."

A third objective is expression.This one is optional, though recom-mended. A photograph is expressivewhen it "says" something. You canuse almost any subject to expressyour own feelings about the world.Or you can try to stand back and leteach subject (whether it be a bicycleor a person) speak for itself. You caneven do both: combining your ownmoods and perceptions with the in-herent qualities of your subject.Decide for yourself.


FOCAL POINT: Edward Weston

By the 1920s, photography had be-come an accepted part of Americanculture. Photographers were busilyproducing images of people, placesand events that they or their clientsconsidered significant. Presidents,boulevards, buildings, newlywedcouples, battles and factory workerswere all being faithfully recorded andpreserved for posterity. EdwardWeston helped promote a whole newway of seeing. He photographed bothsoaring mountains and a handful ofpebbles, the "great themes" andrelative trivia. He was interested inpure aesthetics, in anything that hadcompelling line, texture, shape orlighting.

Other photographers, as far backas Daguerre and Talbot, had photo-graphed small objects or details oflarge ones. However, Weston wasamong the first to consistently elevatethe ordinary into fine art. He pho-tographed weathered doorways, eggs,fruit, rocks, eyeglasses and cabbages,striving to capture the essence ofeach. Weston's subjects became im-portant because they had been pho-tographed. Absolutely anything wasappropriate, if it could be compell-ingly presented.

Curiously, Weston began hiscareer heavily influenced by the Pic-torialists, one of the most conser-vative of the various "schools" of

photography. The Pictorialists be-lieved that photography should im-itate painting, and they strove toreproduce painterly effects with theircameras. Weston's early photo-graphs, true to Pictorialist style, tend-ed to use soft-focus and dreamylighting.

After encountering the work ofSteiglitz, Paul Strand and otherRealists, Weston changed his mindand his style. He began using largeformat cameras to produce "straight"photographs of exceptional precisionand clarity. Along with AnselAdams, he was a founding memberof "Group f.64," an association ofphotographers who all believed in us-ing small apertures to achieve ex-treme depth of field.

Weston was born in 1886 in High-land Park, Illinois, but spent most ofhis life in California and otherwestern states. He opened his ownphotographic studio at the age of 18,specializing in portraits. Nearly 20years later, in 1923, he suspended hiscommercial work and spent threeyears in Mexico. Upon his return tothe U.S., Weston began concen-trating on the nature studies forwhich he became famous. Fromthe mid-1930s until his death in1958, Weston was widely regardedas one of America's foremostphotographers.

1886-1958

Edward Weston, Pepper, 1930. c Sotheby's Inc. 1987.

Things 153

EXERCISE

BicycleAssignment: Photograph a bicyclefrom various angles.

Goal: Explore the idea that there ismore than one way to look at any ob-ject. Once you start really looking, thepossibilities are endless.

Tips: Get in close and shoot parts ofthe bicycle: pedals, spokes, handle-bars, seat, light, kickstand, gears, etc.Get even closer and shoot details of theparts: a portion of the gears, the hand-grip of the handlebars, the joint of thekickstand.

Then pull back a bit and look forpatterns: the various lines and circlesand curves and angles of the frame,wheels and mechanism of the bicycle.Pull further back and shoot the entirebicycle in an interesting environment.Alternatively, shoot it in a very plainenvironment, so the shapes of the bi-cycle stand out clearly.

Approach the bicycle from thefront, back, top and either side. Getdown under it and shoot upwards. Layit down and shoot it on the ground.Get in close again. Step back. Movearound. Try to find as many ways asyou can to look at this one object.

(Note: You don't have to restrictyourself to one bicycle. Look for varia-tions in different ones. Find or placeseveral bikes together and shoot themas a group. Do, however, get at leasta half-dozen shots of one bicycle, tosee how many variations you can findin a single object.)

Student photograph by Charles Bell.


Student photograph by Charles StuartKennedy III.

Student photograph by Bruce Wiles.

Things 155

EXERCISE

Hubcaps &TaillightsAssignment: Photograph auto-mobile hubcaps and taillights (head-lights are acceptable as well).

Goal: Concentrate on cropping inon your subject. Explore variousways of composing circular and othershapes within the rectangular frameof a photograph.

Tips: Choose you r subjec t scarefully; the more intricate the bet-ter. For example, a very plain hub-cap will generally be less interest-ing than one with spokes or otherdecoration.

Shoot pieces, details. It's a goodidea, for instance, not to get thewhole hubcap into the frame. Cropin on an interesting part of it. Lookfor patterns. In this exercise, patternsare more important than the objectbeing photographed.

Notice how light interacts withchrome and glass. Pay particular at-tention to precise focusing. Experi-ment with different angles for in-teresting effects. Move around.

Student photograph by Stephen Griggs.

Student photograph by Marciano Pitargue, Jr.


Student photograph by DavidKleinfelt.

Student photograph by Han June Bae.

Things 157

EXERCISE

EggsAssignment: Arrange several eggs ona white background and photographthem.

Goal: Explore the possibilities of arepeated simple shape, of light andshadow, of a white subject on a whitebackground, and of a "set-up"shot —all at once. Try to produce aphotograph in which the eggs are ar-ranged in a pleasing compositionwhich is enhanced by their shadows.

Tips: Try using a large (i .e.32" x 40") piece of white matboard, so you can experiment freelywith composition and viewing angle.Shoot in bright sunlight and rely onthe point of departure camera setting(f/16 at 1/125 of a second). This isanother case in which your lightmeter will only be confusing.

Don't settle for the first shot thatcomes to mind —explore! Try variousarrangements and various anglesunti l you get something that'sexciting.

Student photograph by Jun Hwang.


Student photograph by CliffBlaskowsky.


Things 159

EXERCISE

Object &Its ShadowAssignment: Photograph an object(or part of it) along with its shadow.

Goal: Explore how an object'sshadow can add visual interest to aphotograph.

In addition, learn to place both anobject (or part of an object) and itsshadow effectively into a rectangularframe.

Tips: You'll get the best resultsearly or late in the day (from dawnto mid-morning or mid-afternoon tillsunset), when shadows will be niceand long. Be sure your subject is well-placed to cast an interesting shadow.It's best if the shadow is cast on afairly simple surface —a complicatedsurface tends to reduce a shadow'simpact.

Pay particular attention to negativespace. Try to achieve visual tensionbetween the object and the shadow.This can be done by placing the ob-ject over to one side of the frame andletting the shadow stretch to the farside (a corner to corner stretch can beespecially effective).

Student photograph by Charles Stuart Kennedy HI.


Student photograph by LynneMattielli.

Student photograph by Evelyn Wight.

Things 161

Student photograph by Evelyn Wight.

EXERCISE

Bottles &GlassesAssignment: Photograph an ar-rangement of bottles and/or glasseson a white background. (32 x 40"white mat board is recommended).Photograph the arrangement fromvarious angles to explore the com-positional possibilities in it.

Goal: Achieve the best possiblewhite, gray and black tones, using thecorrect aperture and shutter speedcombination (f/16 at 125 in brightsunlight).

Produce an interesting composi-tion that makes good use of thesetones.

Tips: Don't rely on your lightmeter. Stick to the "point of depar-ture" setting and you will get the cor-rect effect. The background shouldbe a true white, but with texture visi-ble. Black lines (where glass is thickor is touching something) should beclear and dark enough to contraststrongly with the white. Gray tonesshould be varied and delicate, notmuddy.

Notice how the shapes of the bot-tles or glasses interact with eachother, and how their shadows interactas well.

Do not let the edge of the white sur-face show in the frame! A telephotoor, better still, a zoom lens is helpfulfor an assignment like this. If youhave one, use it. If you don't, just getin close.

Student photograph by Jeff Frye.

Student photograph by Bill Backus.


Student photograph by LynneMattielli,

,-Student photograph by CliffBlaskowsky.

Things 163

EXERCISE

WaterAssignment: Photograph water-any kind of water, from a puddle toan ocean.

Goal: Capture some of water's dif-ferent qualities: calm and still, rip-pling, splashing, falling, cascading,moody, etc.

Tips: Watch for interesting reflec-tions on calm water; for water in-teracting with other objects (people,animals, rocks); for how water af-fects and is affected by its environ-ment; for water as an environment;for drops of water on leaves, glass,metal, etc. Try looking into the waterfor fish, pebbles, discarded bottles orwhatever else you might find.

Photograph a landscape or a citystreet through a wet window in ahome, apartment or car. Keep an eyeout for floating leaves, sticks orboats, anything half in and half outof the water. Look for things grow-ing in water: lilies, grass, algae.

You may want to photograph anobject and its reflection, or just thereflection. Try shooting a calm reflec-tion first, and then tossing in a peb-ble to see what effect that has.

Finally, you might catch peopleplaying in water —at a fire hydrant,in a swimming pool, along a river orat the ocean.

Student photograph by Greg Garre.

Student photograph by A! Webb.


Student photograph by Greg Garre.

EXERCISE

Old ThingsAssignment: Photograph a varietyof old objects, things that are wornfrom age or use —houses, tools, toys,furni ture, etc.

Goal: Show how the age of an ob-ject influences its character.

Tips: People in our society tend tothink that a thing has to be new andglossy to be good. Few people ap-preciate things that have earned theircharacter through age and lots of use.That's what this exercise is about.

Look for peeled pa in t , rus t ,broken glass, things that have beenabandoned, used up, worn out. Theyhave a statement of their own, aspecial mood. That mood may be sad("This thing is all worn out"), orhappy ("This thing has been usefulfor years").

Try to capture the object'scharacter. Notice how light and tex-ture may help to por t ray thatcharacter.

Possible subjects include oldhouses, cars, tools, bridges, traintracks, machinery, abandoned build-ings, an old can, discarded toys, achipped plate, teacup, fork.

(Note: If you find something in-doors that you want to photographoutdoors, be very careful that itdoesn't look set up. Adjust the ar-rangement until it looks natural.)

Student photograph by Mark Mealey.

Student photograph by Thomas A. Perez.

Things 165

Student photograph by Richard Greenstone.


chapter 13 Places

s you progress from"things" to "places," thenumber of variables you

must control will increase. Now, inaddition to placing your subjectcarefully within the frame and wor-rying about the effect of light andshadow on it, you have to pay atten-tion to all kinds of potential com-plications and distractions. People,animals, cars, trucks and weather canget in your way just as you're aboutto click the shutter. Buildings, treesand telephone poles can make it im-possible for you get the compositionyou want.

In addition, you'll have to be veryconcerned with perspective: shouldyou be close to a building or faraway? How big should a tree looknext to the building? How much skyshould be included? Should you cropin on a small part of the scene or tryto fit it all into the frame? Mean-while, your subject is likely to bechanging all the time. If you thinktoo long, it may no longer be worththe bother. If you get impatient, youmay miss out on a new and unex-pected opportunity.

There are other challenges as well.For example, if your subject has anymoving parts (people, animals,machines, running water, trees in thewind, etc.), long exposures will pro-duce blurs. This means that you will

Student photograph by Debbie Taggart.

either have to stick to fast shutterspeeds or learn to like the blurs.Lighting will become more com-plicated as you enlarge your field ofview from particular objects togeneral scenes. While you will stillneed to pay particular attention tohow the light affects your primarysubject, its affect on the surroundingenvironment will be important aswell.

You will also begin to face thechallenge of dealing with people. Ifyou're photographing a crowd, youmay not be aware of all the individualpeople in it. They, however, may be

very aware of you. Some of themmay prefer not to be in your photo-graph. For the assignments in thissection, you should be able to avoidthis problem either by leaving peopleout of your photographs or by ask-ing permission in advance (e.g. forthe "Construction Site" exercise).However, if you feel that some ad-vice on photographing people is ap-propriate at this stage, you mightwant to read the introduction to the"people" category of exercises.

Overall, controlling composition isthe greatest challenge you'll face asyou begin photographing places. It's

Places 167

you photograph. Try to crop in onthem, cutting out anything that justadds confusion (unless of course con-fusion is what you want to express).Don't forget to move around —fromside to side and up and down. You'veprobably seen other photographerscrawling on the ground, climbing uptrees and generally looking foolish.Here's your chance to do it too. Whenyou're photographing a place, creativesolutions may be required to resolvecompositional problems.

FOCAL POINT: Ansel Adams

Widely admired both for his elo-quent landscapes and his technicalskil l , Ansel Adams was among themost influential photographers inhistory. Through his exhibitions,books and classes, he inspired thou-sands of aspiring photographers toadopt his philosophy and techniques.

Adams specialized in photograph-ing the natural environment of theAmerican West. His photographs aretypically vast panoramas of moun-tains and sky, with highly dramaticcomposition and lighting. Extremeclarity was a key element of his style.To achieve that goal, he used large-format cameras, very small apertures(such as f/64) and long exposures(sometimes over an hour).

His technique is based on the"Zone System," a set of proceduresthat provide very precise control overthe range of values in a photograph.By adjusting both exposure and de-velopment times (with the appropri-ate burning and dodging), a photog-rapher using the Zone System canlighten the shadow areas and/ordarken the highlights to achieve finelybalanced tones. The final image isoften utterly unlike the original scene.

The photographer is then in suitablecontrol of the photographic processaccording to the Zone System's ad-vocates. Critics say that the resultingphotos may seem to be about littlemore than technique itself. In anycase, Adams and his use of theZone System must be given credit forproducing some extraordinaryphotographs.

Adams was born in San Franciscoon February 20, 1902. His early in-terest in music led him to become aprofessional (self-taught) pianist byhis early 20s. Photography, however,would soon demand his full atten-tion. He obtained his first camera at14 and promptly traveled to Yosemiteto experiment with it. For the nextdecade, he photographed there everyyear. In 1927 his first collection ofphotographs was published —andvery favorably received. By 1930,friends and admirers had convincedhim to shift his career from music tophotography. From then until hisdeath in 1984, Adams remained oneof the most respected and widely ex-hibited photographers in the world.

Ansel Adams, Moon and Halfdome,Yosemite Valley, c 1955.


1902-1984

Places 169

EXERCISE

LandscapeAssignment: Photograph a largeexpanse of any "natural" environ-ment. Depending on where you live,"natural" may mean vi rginwilderness, agricultural land, aseashore or an inner city park. Doyour best, however, to avoid build-ings, roads or other indications ofhuman influence.

Goal: Capture something of thecharacter of the landscape you pho-tograph. Is it lush, wild, domesti-cated, barren, pleasant, forbidding,calm, awesome? Take time to findout, and then express your conclu-sions in your photographs.

Tips: Don't just go out and pointyour camera at the view and call it alandscape because it has land andtrees and sky in it. Make the com-position work. Look for visual har-monies: recurring patterns in trees,rocks, the contours of the land,water, clouds.

Shoot in snow, rain, mist, brightsunlight, any weather. Notice how at-mospheric conditions change the en-vironment: How does rain affect anopen field, a pond or river, a forest?How does bright sunlight affectthem? Notice how clouds relate to theshape of the land.

Patience is important. For exam-ple, once you decide what to photo-graph, you may have to wait until theclouds do just the right thing.

Pay particular attention to tech-nique. Landscapes are very demand-ing subjects. For example, you maywant to use a filter to make cloudsmore distinct, to darken the sky orotherwise achieve the effect you want

(see Appendix). If it's raining, or thesky is heavily overcast, you may wantto use a larger aperture (or slowershutter speed) to brighten the photo-graph. If the whole scene seems toobright, you may want to darken it byusing a smaller aperture (or fasterspeed). Be aware of your position inrelation to the sun, and the effect thathas on your results. Experiment, andtake notes on what you're doing, soyou'll know what worked and whatdidn't.

Student photograph by ClarkPeterson.


Student photograph by Patrick Stout.

Student photograph by Al Webb.

Places 171

EXERCISE

Architecture& EnvironmentAssignment: Photograph a building(or buildings), showing how it relatesto its environment.

Goal: Before you start shooting,ask yourself some questions aboutthe relation between the building (orbuildings) and environment. Are theyin harmony with each other? Do theyclash? Does one have a negative ef-fect on the other? Do you like oneand dislike the other? Do you like ordislike them both? Use your camerato help you answer these questions.Decide what you'd like to say aboutwhat you see, and say it with yourphotographs.

Tips: Pay attention to the sur-rounding natural environment, land-scaping, streets, other buildings, etc.Any kind of buildings are acceptable:suburban homes, row houses, apart-ments, high-rise offices, barns andsilos, trailer homes, buildings shapedto fit an odd piece of land, etc.

Don't restrict yourself to an eye-level perspective. Get up high andlook down. Lie flat on the groundand look up. Go off to one side oranother. Step back into an alley orside street. Get in close. Move faraway. If you have more than onelens, use them. Try a wide angle lensup close, a telephoto from a distance.

Student photograph by Jeffrey Richter.

\


Student photograph by Mark Crew.

Places 173

Student photograph by Derek Leath.

EXERCISE

NeighborhoodsAssignment: Photograph a neigh-borhood—any place where peoplelive.

Goal: Try to express a "sense ofplace": What is it about this neigh-borhood that makes it special? Don'tjust shoot a collection of buildings.

Tips: You may or may not want toinclude people in your photographs.Make that decision on the basis ofwhat you want to express about theneighborhood. If it seems like afriendly community, a place wherepeople are important, then you'llprobably want them included. If itseems cold and empty, a bunch ofbuildings where people just happento live, then you may want to expressthat feeling by not showing any peo-ple in your photographs.

Notice how light affects the moodof a neighborhood. Use the light tohelp express your feelings: dark andsolemn, bright and cheerful, pale andsad, etc.

Also notice that neighborhoods,like people, tend to show their age.Is the neighborhood itself young,middle-aged, old? What about thepeople in i t? Are many of themsimilar in age and character to theirneighborhood?

Look for clues about how peoplelive: tree-lined avenues, people water-ing lawns, trash cans in the morning,similarities and differences among thevarious houses or apartments. Whatkind of cars are in the driveways orparking lots? What kind of decora-tions do you see? Do people hang outtheir wash on clotheslines? Do they

spend time outside, or stay indoors?Learn as much as you can by justlooking around. Then see how muchof what you've learned can be ex-pressed in a single photograph.

Most of the rules that apply to ar-chitectural photography also apply tothis assignment. You may want to getdown low and look up, get up aboveand look down for patterns, shootfrom a third story window, throughtrees or gates, or from down an alley.

Student photograph by Bruce Wiles.


Student photograph by Gerald Allen Conway.

Places 175

EXERCISE

Zoo/FarmAssignment: Go to a zoo or a farmand photograph animals.

If you can't get to a zoo or farm,find some pets to photograph.Photograph only animals, not peopleon horseback, for instance, or ananimal with a trainer.

Goal: Try to get more than just aphotograph of an elephant or cow ordog. See if you can capturesomething special about one par-ticular animal.

Tips: Animals, like people, arehighly expressive and mobile. Tophotograph them well, you'll have tocatch them in action or wait till onestops in an interesting pose.

Experiment with perspective. Getin close enough to crop out thebackground completely. Step backand show the animal in its environ-ment. Show the whole animal, just apart of it — a n ear, eye, tail, foot-er several animals together. Look fortexture (such as an elephant's hide)and pattern (a zebra's stripes).

In addition to zoos and farms, youmight find good subjects at a coun-try fair, a cattle auction, a dog show,or in a park. Even in the middle ofa city, you should be able to find dogsand cats; you might find horses; andyou will certainly find pigeons.

If there is a cage between you andyour subject, get as close to the barsor wire as possible (assuming youcan't shoot between them). The cagewill then just be a blur, especially if

you use a large aperture. Try to openup to about f/2.8, but remember thatyou'll need to focus very carefully. Ifyour subject is also fairly far away,the cage may disappear entirely.Alternatively, if you're at a zoo, anoutdoor show may give you an op-portunity to photograph animals out-side of their cages.

Student photograph by Sam Tipton.


The placement of the cat, combinedwith light spilling in through thewindow, makes this photographmore than a portrait of a particularcat. It evokes a mood, conveys asense of place and time, artel si irs ourmemories — even though we havenever experienced this particularscene. (Student photograph by LynnMiller.)

Student photograph by DavidKrumlauf.

Places 111

EXERCISE

Store WindowsAssignment: As you photographstore windows, look for two things:merchandise on display and reflec-tions in the glass.

Be careful to keep yourself out ofthe photograph as much as possible.It is not acceptable for you to beclcarlv visible.

Goal: Try to catch somethingunusual, especially something hu-morous. Don't just show a windowwith things in it. Make sure yourphotographs say something aboutthose things.

Tips: Look for patterns and in-teresting juxtapositions (or combina-tions) of objects. Notice how thereflection interacts with what's insidethe window. Watch for signs (insidethe window or reflected in i t) . Keepan eye out for interesting manne-quins, or displays being rearranged.Consider getting two windows to-gether in one photograph.

Be conscious of your cropping. Asa general rule, only the windowshould in the photograph, not the restof the building. But if the buildingrelates to what's in the window, theninclude both. Pay particular attentionto converging lines caused by per-spective. Make sure they work withthe composition, not against it.

Several tr icks will help keep youout of the photograph. Stand at anangle to the window so it isn't reflect-ing things from your direction. Or getdown low, so the reflection passesover you. Position yourself so thatyou line up with the frame of the win-dow. Or stand so your reflection isin a dark part of the window. Thiscan be achieved by standing so some-

thing dark (a shadow, for example,or a building) is behind you, or bylining yourself up with some dark ob-ject inside the window. Experimentwith these techniques and they'll soonbecome automatic. (Note: It isacceptable, and often unavoidable,for part of you to be visible. Just trynot to produce a photograph thatlooks like a self-portrait in a win-dow.) It is perfectly acceptable forother people to be visible, either in-side the window or reflected in i t .

Student photograph by JohnPretty man.


EXERCISE

ConstructionSitesAssignment: Find any kind ofbuilding under construction (from aglass and steel skyscraper to awooden shed) and photograph i t .

Goal: Look for more than postsand beams-people; bulldozers;machinery; tools; heaps of dirt, stoneand metal, etc. Make sure, however,that you stick to the constructiontheme (no portraits of people whojust happen to be near a building site,for example).

Tips: Don't just stand back andshoot a distant building project. Ifyou do shoot from a distance, makethe foreground and backgroundwork together. Try to find visual har-monies between them. Make surethat something ties them together.For example, locate lines leading tothe point of interest, and emphasizethem.

Try a combination of overview anddetail shots: the silhouette of abuilding's frame against the sky, abulldozer pushing a mound of earth,a hand holding a hammer, a nail orscrew in a piece of wood or metal.How do the construction workers (orcarpenters, etc.) relate to the build-ing? How does the building relate tothem and to its environment?

Student photograph by Lynne Mattielli.

Student photograph.

Places 179

Several distinctive features make this image unusually compelling: juxtaposition of the leaf over the face (which is bothunexpected and slightly disturbing), interplay of the textures of leaf and skin, and the penetrating eye peering at usthrough the shadows. (Student photograph by Mia Lobel.)


chapter 14 People

oving from photographingobjects and places to photo-graphing people is likely to

be a bit unsettling. Not only must youthink about composition and ex-posure, but you must also interact withyour subject. A true portrait is farmore than just a photograph of a per-son staring into a camera — i t shouldreveal something about that person'scharacter, experiences, feelings.

How do you achieve that? Basically,you find ways to make the camera lessobvious, and ways to help the subjectfeel and look as natural as possible.Since you can't actually make yourcamera invisible, it will always havesome effect on the subject. That effectcan, however, be good. Once they arerelaxed, people tend to "show off" forthe camera, becoming more expressiveand energetic. But people who aren'trelaxed just tend to get more and morenervous. So, your first task is to makeyour subject as comfortable aspossible.

There are two ways of doing this.The first, which is especially usefulwhen you're photographing peopleyou don't know, is to set the properexposure and then keep the cameraout of the way until you see the shotyou want. Then you swing the cam-era up, focus it and "grab" the shot.You may even be able to focus before-hand as well.

Student photograph by Robert Bielk.

181

Student photograph by Susan Hodge.

You'll get [he best results in brightlight, when an aperture of f/8 orhigher will give you enough depth offield so you won't have to focus toocarefully. In this case, you can relyon zone focusing, focusing your lensin advance on the general area inwhich your subject is located. Witha wide-angle lens at f/8, for example,everything between 5 and 10 feet (orbetween 10 feet and infinity) will bein focus.

If you use this technique withstrangers, be as sure as you can thatyou won't regret it. The best way todo that is either to ask permission orbe sure you aren't noticed. For exam-ple, it is not a good idea to grab ashot of a motorcycle gang withoutasking permission first. (It may noteven be a good idea to ask permis-sion!) You should always be awareof the other person's right to privacy.A beggar on the street is not likely toconsider himself a good subject fora photograph. If you can't get theshot without disturbing his self-respect, then leave him alone. Pho-tographers have earned a bad nameall around the world by insulting theirsubjects; don't add to it.

Until you develop your own in-stincts for when it is and isn't ap-propriate to grab a shot or to requestpermission, photograph people withwhom you are comfortable, peopleyou know, or who at least recognizeyou. Then you may want to try pho-tographing people you don't know,but who are from the same socialbackground as you. Continue tomove further from your cultural"home base" as your confidence andinstincts improve. A camera is awonderful tool for making contactwith people you wouldn't ordinarilymeet . . . but take it slowly.

Although the grab shot approach


is especially useful on location, it canalso work very well in a portrait ses-sion. The main difference is that thesubject of a portrait session (in whichyou take many photographs of asingle person) knows that you intendto use your camera. Nonetheless, bybringing the camera between youonly when necessary, you can keepthe mood relaxed and casual. Chatawhile, grab a few shots, chat somemore, grab a few more shots, etc.

The second approach, which isespecially useful in a photograph ses-sion setting, is to place the camera ona tripod. Set the exposure and focalrange and then peek out from behindit to talk with your subject. Stay closeto the camera if you want your sub-ject's eyes to be looking straightahead. You may want to use a cablerelease so you won't have to try tofind the shutter while you're talking.

A variation on this technique,which is probably the most com-monly used of all, is to hold thecamera in your hands the whole time.You compose, set aperture and focusand then look through the viewfinderand click your photos (conversing asnormally as possible) until your sub-ject begins to look nervous. Then youpoke your head up, make eye con-tact, tell a few jokes or whatever elseit takes to get your subject to relax.

The main thing to strive for in aportrait session is a comfortable pacefor both you and your subject. If thecamera keeps clicking at regular in-tervals, and conversation proceeds ina steady flow, most subjects willrelax. Your instructions ("Move overthere. Look into the camera. Mow-about a smile?") will gradually fadeinto the background. The other per-son's character will begin to surface.You should expect to "waste" 10 ormore exposures before this occurs.

Don't hold back, waiting for the oneperfect shot, or you'll both becomenervous wrecks. Just start talking andshooting, like it's the most naturalthing in the world.

The most effective pace will varydepending on your subject and themood you want to capture. If youwant a solemn, soulful expression,try to speak slowly, softly and allowfor some long pauses. Rememberthat you may be asking your subjectto be very emotionally revealing . . .and it's only fair that you revealsomething about yourself as well. Agenuine exchange should be expectedfrom both of you.

If , on the other hand, you want acheerful expression, then talk fastand furiously until your subject getsso caught up in your great sense ofhumor (or bumbling mistakes) thathe or she forgets about your camera.(By the way, don't be afraid to makemistakes and admit them. This can bea very effective way to loosen up asubject. You may even want to makea few on purpose. Just be sure youstop making them after the first fewshots, so your subject doesn't beginto think the whole session will be awaste of time.)

One other trick: If you can't getyour subject to relax and just talk, tryasking him or her to recite the alpha-bet. This has two useful results. First,it gets the lips moving and producesa variety of expressions. Second,everyone asked to do this startslaughing sooner or later.

As you practice shooting portraits,you will begin to learn when yoursubject's expressions wil l change.This is necessary if you intend tocatch them on film. Once you've seenthe expression you want, it's too lateto click the shutter. You have to dothat just a fraction of a second before

the "right" expression occurs.Shooting several frames in quick suc-cession can help, but that's no sub-stitute for the true photographer's in-stinct for what Carder-Bressonnamed the "decisive moment." Likefishermen, photographers are con-tinually lamenting the "one that gotaway." With consistent practice anda bit of luck, however, they willbecome few and far between.

Lighting is of critical importancein portraits. For most purposes, thebest light is open shade. This may beobtained outdoors on the shady sideof a tree or building, or inside neara window.

For more dramatic effects, youmay want your subject to be lit moredirectly. If so, pay particular atten-tion to the eyes. Many otherwisegood photographs are ruined becausea subject's eyes were lost in harsh,black shadows. Careful positioningwill usually correct the problem. Ifnot, you may want to use a reflector(any white or metallic surface will dothe trick) to throw some light backinto the shadows.

People 183

FOCAL POINT: Edward Steichen, 1879-1973

Photography was initially usedsimply to record visual facts. Aphotograph of a tree was successfulif the tree was immediately recogniz-able. A landscape was successful if allthe important features were visible.A portrait was successful if it was infocus and the subject's expressionwas reasonably pleasant. Gradually,photographers and the public beganto demand more from this new andstill mysterious medium.

One of the first to demonstratephotography's full potential for ex-pressive portraiture was EdwardSteichen. The key to his achievementwas light. Before Steichen, portraitswere straightforward. Photographersgenerally employed soft, even lightand a plain gray background. Themain goal was produce a clear, well-lit likeness of the subject. Steichenchanged all that . He posed his sub-jects against black walls and useddramatic lighting, often allowing partof the face to be in shadow or other-wise obscured. His portraits were notmere records of a person's appear-ance, they were strong statementsabout who that person was.

In part, Steichen's success in por-traiture was due to his training inpainting. Much of his earlier worksuggests paintings by Rembrandt,

with clearly etched faces surroundedby darkness. However, very little ofSteichen's work displays the nostalgicsentiments of the Pictorialists, whoalso strove for a painterly quality intheir photographs. He was in factamong the first to recognize thatphotography was a new art form,with rules, possibilities and limita-tions all its own.

Steichen's best photographs —suchas his portrait of Greta Garbo —areimages that would be unimaginablein any other medium. He comple-mented the starkness of black andwhite photography with equally starkposes. He encouraged his subjects tointeract directly with the camera.And he watched for just the right mo-ment to capture something of his sub-ject's essential character. His por-traits still seem very "modern." Theyare dramatic, confident, even con-frontational. Each one is distinct andmemorable.

Steichen was born in 1879 in Lux-embourg, one of the smallest coun-tries in Europe. One year later, heemigrated to the United States withhis family, living first in Michiganand later in Wisconsin. In 1900, atthe age of 21, he travelled to Paris

to study photography and modernpainting for two years. Upon hisreturn to the U.S, he set up a photostudio in New York City, earning areputation for his skillful portraits ofthe rich and famous. In 1905, he andAlfred Stieglitz established "Gallery291" in an effort to promote photog-raphy as an art.

With the outbreak of World WarI, Steichen directed the photographicteam of the Army Air Service, coor-dinating an ambitious photographicrecord of the war. In 1923 he re-turned to commercial photography,doing a wide range of work for manyleading magazines. He again appliedhis photographic and managementskills to help record World War II,this time serving with the Navy. From1947 to 1962, Steichen was the direc-tor of photography for the Museumof Modern Art in New York City. Inthat role, he organized "The Familyof Man," a traveling exhibit designedto promote understanding and tol-erance among the many cultures ofthe world. Steichen died in 1973, inConnecticut.

Edward Steichen, Greta Garbo,1928. c Sotheby's Inc., 1987.


People 185

EXERCISE

HandsAssignment: Photograph hands inexpressive postures or engaged in in-teresting activities.

You may photograph one hand byitself, both hands of one person, or thehands of several people together. Donot include a full face with the hands,though part of a face is acceptable.

Goal: Hands have attitudes, moods,habits. Look for hands that say some-thing about a person or what that per-son is doing, thinking or feeling.

Tips: Look for people you knowwho have a particular gesture that istheir "signature." Alternatively, lookfor the various attitudes of hands(resigned, strong, casual, engaged insome task, at rest, tense) or for theirposition in relation to the body(behind the back, part way in apocket, scratching the head, holdingup the chin). Look also for howhands relate to their surroundings:hands reaching for something; in-teracting with someone else's hands;placed on somebody's shoulder;holding a baseball bat, a steeringwheel, a chess piece; opening a cardoor.

In general, unless the context is im-portant, the hands should be largewithin the frame.

Student photograph.

Student photograph by Esther Suarez.


EXERCISE

EldersAssignment: Do a series of portraitsof old people: grandmothers, uncles,aunts, neighbors, etc.

Goal: Notice that faces get very ex-pressive as they grow older. You canoften tell what kind of life a personhas led just by looking at his or herface. Try to capture something ofyour subject's whole life in yourphotographs.

Tips: With the elderly, it is evenmore important than usual to getclear permission. Depending on howold and how healthy your subject is,the idea of being photographed mayseem fine, strange or unpleasant.Help your subject feel comfortableabout being photographed, beforeyou take a single shot. If this doesn'tseem possible, go find another sub-ject. Don't jus t walk up to strangersand start photographing them. It isyour job to make the experience plea-sant and relaxing. Work at it.

Student photograph by Kimberly S. Kosiba.

Student photograph by Neill Bevill.

People 187

EXERCISE -

ChildrenAssignment: Photograph childrendoing things that come naturally tothem: playing, talking, sleeping,perhaps reading or daydreaming.

Any child between infancy andabout 8 years old qualifies.

Goal: Capture particularly childlikequalities, not just a person who hap-pens to be young.

Tips: Be aware of how children res-pond to their surroundings. Wherethey are, what they're doing, whothey're with may be important . . .or may not. You decide.

You'll probably get the best resultswith children you already know, sothey can go about their businesswithout being aware of the camera.Try your younger brothers and sis-ters, cousins, family friends, neigh-bors. If none of them is available orwilling, look for children out on thestreet, at school, in parks, etc.

Never photograph children withoutgetting permission from a parent.This is especially true if you don'tknow the child, but it's a good ideaeven if you do.

The main challenge is to keep thechild interested and interesting. If thechild is playing a game, encouragehim or her to tell you about it. Tryto talk to the child while you'reshooting, even while you're behindcamera. You may want a parent oranother child to keep conversationgoing if it's hard to talk and shoot atsame time.

Student photograph by Charles Stuart Kennedy III.


Student photograph bv Chris Lombardo

People 189

Student photograph.

EXERCISE

Soft-LightPortraitAssignment: Do a series of head-and-shoulders photographs in whichthe light source is behind the subject.

Goal: Produce an expressive por-trait, with soft light and no shadowson the face.

Tips: In bright sunlight, have yoursubject face away from the sun. Theface will thus be in open shadow,with little variation in the lighting.Keep the background out of focus byusing a fairly large aperture. (Tryf/5.6 at 1/125 of a second as a pointof departure for this exercise.)

Be careful of "burn out": whiteareas that are so bright they lose alldetail. Though you'll probably dobest if your subject does not wearwhite, with proper exposure thisshould not be a problem.

Get in close. Frame the subjectcarefully. Stick to the head andshoulders for the most part, thoughan expressive hand is a perfectly ac-ceptable addition.

Student photograph by VinnyRodziewicz.

Student photograph.


EXERCISE

Side-LitPortraitAssignment: Do a series of portraitsin which the subject is strongly litfrom one side.

Goal: Side-lighting tends to bedramatic, and is often harsh, espe-cially in very "contrasty" lighting.However, it can produce a particularmood and can be subtle when eitherthe contrast or the overall light valueis low. Control the lighting and ex-posure to get the effect you want.

Tips: For best results, use earlymorning or late afternoon light. Youmay want to shoot indoors near awindow, so the light comes in a singleshaft. You can then place your sub-ject so the light strikes precisely whereyou want it to. Bracket your ex-posures to get the effect you want.

You may want the sidelit area tobe the highlight of otherwise bal-anced lighting, or to have thesidelighting be the only source. In ad-dition, experiment with placing thesubject so the lighted side faces thecamera, and so the shaded side does.

Be careful of losing texture in high-lighted areas. In the final print, youshould be able to see pores on thebrightest part of the face. Expose forthe highlights.

In rare cases it can be very effec-tive to have the whole face in shadow,;/the background is adequately lit sofeatures are clear.

Student photograph by Don Ho Fuller.

Student photograph by Kristen McCauley.

People 191

EXERCISE

Prop PortraitAssignment: Photograph peoplewith "props" —tools , sports equip-ment, musical ins t ruments or anyother object with which they caninteract .

Goal: Props have two uses for thephotographer. First, they can help asubject relax. Second, they can tellthe viewer something about the sub-ject. Try to select props that areuseful in both of these ways.

Tips: People who are uncomfor-table just standing and looking at acamera, even if you get them talking,tend to relax quite a bit if you givethem something to hold or look at.Similarly, you can often produce avery revealing portrait by placingyour subject in a famil iar environ-ment: in his or her own room, withpersonal possessions around, at adesk or workplace, in the lockerroom or gym, etc.

While it is often helpful if the sub-ject can actual ly be using the prop insome way, be aware of how tha t af-fects the face. If it's obscured, youmay have to get the subject to lookup when you actually click the shut-ter. You may, of course, be able toposition the subject (or yourself) sothis isn't necessary.

Anything familiar to the subject isacceptable: a scarf, telephone, guitar,book or baseball bat. Something assimple as a chair may do the t r ick .Use your imagination, and don'tforget to ask your subject for ideas.

(Note: Try to t h i n k of morecreative props than cameras. One ortwo shots of someone holding acamera are fine, but no more.)

Simple elements, potent image - a fine example of "less is more." What doesthis photograph say to you? What is it about? (Student photograph byChristina Faiella.)

\ 92 The Photographic Eye

Student photograph by Scott Hughes.

Student photograph by Michael Cothran

People 193

EXERCISE

Detail PortraitAssignment: Do a series of "por-traits" in which the subject's face isnot shown. Instead, crop in on ex-pressive details of objects that relatein some way to the subject. (Part ofthe face may be shown, but not allof it.)

Goal: As in the prop portraitassignments, you will be using objectsto help convey a person's character.The only rule is that you must not in-clude the full face.

You'll probably want to photo-graph an object the subject is eitherwearing or holding. This is not re-quired, however.

Tips: Crop in on something thattypifies the person you're photo-graphing: patches on a favorite pairof jeans, a piece of jewelry, glasses,track shoes slung over a shoulder, apurse or handbag, a baseball, a book.

Keep in mind that an empty pairof shoes, for example, or a notebookby itself, or a wallet, or a coffee mugare all perfectly acceptable. The sub-ject does not have to be in thephotograph at all.

Student photograph.


EXERCISE

Mood PortraitAssignment: Produce a series ofportraits that clearly express moods.

Goal: Get more than just a pictureof somebody. Capture a particularfacial expression or posture to con-vey something of what your subjectis feeling. Try to make the viewer feelthe same way.

Tips: There are a lot of moods tochoose from. Here are a few: hap-piness, sadness, curiosity, contempla-tion, boredom, excitement, friendli-ness, hostility, arrogance, delight,fear, sa t i s fac t ion, an t ic ipa t ion ,anger, pat ience, concent ra t ion ,uncertainty, frustrat ion.

Most of us have certain expressionsor gestures that are unique, some par-ticular way of saying who we are. Ifyou think of someone as being jolly,how do you express that? Whatabout solemn? Frazzled? Calm?Excited?

You might try getting several peo-ple to interact together. Or gosomeplace where they're l ikely to dothat on their own, such as a footballgame. People in groups often don'treact the same way at the same time,so you may get several moods in oneshot. Alternatively, you might cropin on one person in the group and letthe viewer imagine the rest of thescene.

Be selective. Surroundings may behelpful or distracting. Often, just asubject 's face wi l l be enough.However, part of the subject's bodymay also be expressing the mood. Ifthat helps make a better photograph,put it in. If it doesn't, leave it out.

Student photograph by John Shearer.

Student photograph.

People 195

Student photograph by Monte Paulsen.


chapter 15 Putting It All Together

P hotographers may be dividedinto two or more sides onany n u m b e r of issues:

manual vs. automatic cameras;35mm vs. large format fi lm; B&W vs.color; darkroom manipulation vs."straight" prints. One of the mostdivisive issues concerns the "ultimatetest" of a photographer's skill. AnselAdams, not surprisingly, believedthat landscapes deserved that title.Others have argued that the ultimatetest is portraiture, photojournalismor advertising. Still others have sug-gested tha t plain old "streetphotography" —any photography ofstrangers in public spaces-tests aphotographer like nothing else.

After all, landscape photographerscan spend days taking a shot. Portraitphotographers are helped along bytheir subjects. Photojournalists cancount on automatic viewer interest.And advertising photographers havecrowds of assistants and a small for-tune in lighting equipment at theirdisposal.

The street photographer mustmake do with an instantaneousresponse to an unpredictable oppor-tunity, must depend on subjects whomay be violently opposed to beingphotographed, cannot assume anyviewer interest, and must work solo,generally with inadequate equipment.

The exercises in this section are

essentially variations on "streetphotography." They will require youto apply aspects of all three previoussets of exercises —things, places andpeople —al l at once. As you attemptto do so, you may be dismayed atyour lack of control. People movingthis way and that, backgrounds thatonly distract from your intended sub-j ec t , self-consciousness aboutphotographing strangers may all in-terfere with your artistic vision. If so,relax. Part of the fun of this kind ofphotography is being out of control.

The trick is to remain alert andwatch for the "magic." Two peopleinteracting. Someone interacting with

Student photograph by SheriMcHenry.

the environment or an object in i t .Some random grouping of peopleand things that is aesthetically pleas-ing, emotionally powerful or intellec-tually interesting. The second trick isto be ready to catch that magic onfilm. There are two essential rules forachieving that objective.

Rule #1: Adjust as many camerasettings in advance as possible. First,decide on a shutter speed that willproduce the effect you want: stop ac-tion or blur. Second, check out thelight with your meter before you

197

begin photographing. If the light isfairly consistent, then set your aper-ture for an average reading. Adjustit for a particular shot only if youhave time. (More often than not,you'll be able to produce an accep-table print, even if the negative isdarker or lighter than it should be.)If your subject is likely to be difficultfor any reason (such as being shy ornervous), then try to focus your lensin advance as well. Simply guess atthe distance and use the distance scaleon the focusing ring or aim atsomething near the subject and focuson that. Using a small aperture willhelp ensure accuracy. Finally be sureto advance your film before you t ryto grab the shot. (You'd be amazedat how often photographers forget todo this.)

Rule #2: Scan the entire frame for"interference." The most commonflaw in "street" photographs is a treegrowing out of someone's head . . .or some variation on that theme. Aface that disappears into a matchingbackground, legs and arms poking infrom the borders of the frame and ex-tra heads in odd places are additionalexamples of common interferenceproblems. These problems can almostalways be avoided with one quickglance around the frame and, ifnecessary, a slight shift in viewingangle before clicking the shutter. Thisprocedure should become just asautomatic as checking the light meteror focusing the lens. In fact, it is theone thing you should be doing all thetime you're looking through theviewfinder. Once you have your shotall lined up, you'll almost always havetime (it only takes a fraction of a se-cond) to check out the edges of yoursubject and the borders of your framejust before you click the shutter.


FOCAL POINT: Henri Cartier-Bresson

Henr i Car t ier -Bresson (pro-nounced kar-tiay brays-son) devotedhimself to the challenge of preserv-ing "life in the act of living" — and hesucceeded. In the process, he virtuallyinvented what has since come to bethe def in ing characterist ic ofphotography: its ability to capture afleeting instant.

From its beginnings, photographywas limited by its technical require-ments. Equipment was large andbulky. Film reacted slowly to light,requiring subjects to remain sta-tionary for exposures of 15 minutesor more. Unless they confined them-selves to panoramic street scenes andwere content with blurs in place ofpeople, early photographers weresimply unable to pursue their craftwithout attracting (or requiring) at-tention. As a result, photographingpeople, from portraiture to newscoverage, tended to be a rathersolemn affair. Subjects would bestrapped into their chairs, bracedupright from behind or asked tostand very still.

The technology of photographygradually began to change. Camerasbecame smaller and films becamefaster. Despite these developments,the approach of photographers totheir craft remained slow and solemn.Portraits still involved sitting upstraight and staring into the un-friendly eye of the camera. Groupphotographs tended to convey theimpression of actors posing patient-ly on stage. Street scenes seemedmore concerned with buildings,weather and vehicles than with peo-ple. A technical requirement hadevolved into a style.

Though not the first to breakthrough this stylistic barrier, Cartier-Bresson unquestionably did so withthe most flair and passion. Recogniz-ing that a small camera permitted himto be unnoticed, he learned to "grab"events as they happened. What helost in image quality and composi-tion, he gained in the startling emo-tional impact of the image. Ratherthan viewing the world as a detachedobserver, Cartier-Bresson seemed tothrow himself into the midst ofthings. And, through his photo-graphs that experience could beshared by anyone.

Cartier-Bresson coined the term"decisive moment" to describe whathe looked for as he explored theworld with his camera. Rather thanprojecting his ideas or interpretationsonto his subjects —as Ansel Adams,Edward Weston and others wouldadvocate —Car t i e r -Bresson andothers in his "school" of photographywatched for that split second when allthe elements of a scene fell into placeon their own and "clicked." It was aradical departure, and one that is stillhotly debated. Without question,however, the "decisive moment" ap-proach has resulted in many remark-able images and profoundly affectedour understanding both of photog-raphy and of the world that itrecords.

Cart ier-Bresson was born inFrance in 1908. He studied in Parisand Cambridge, England. He con-centrated on painting until 1931,when he began working as a freelancephotographer in Europe, Africa andMexico. He later worked with JeanRenoir, making motion pictures.

1908-

During World War II he served in theFrench army, was captured by theGermans, escaped and joined theResistance. In 1946, Carder-Bressontravelled to New York City for an ex-hibit of his photographs at theMuseum of Modern Art. Whilethere, he helped establish Magnum,which has long been one of the mostprestigious photo agencies.

Henri Cartier-Bresson, Brussels, 1937.

Putting It AII Together 199

EXERCISE

FairsAssignment: Photograph a publicgathering that fits the general idea ofa "fair" — any event where people gettogether for festivities, entertain-ment, games and/or food.

Goal: People tend to go to in-teresting extremes at fairs: dressingup as clowns; wearing costumes fromdifferent countries or periods inhistory; dancing, eating, playinggames and generally having a goodtime with exceptional enthusiasm.Try to capture this spirit in yourphotographs.

Tips: You may interpret "fair" toinclude festivals, amusement parks,carnivals, parades, cattle auctions,folk dances, craft shows, circuses,horse shows and any other similarevents.

Try to take your photographs out-doors, rather than indoors. (Shootingan indoor crowd scene with evensophisticated flash equipment is noeasy job.)

Think of ways to get right in themidst of the action. For example, youmight get out on a ride, such as aroller coaster, and photograph peo-ple on it. Try shooting at slow shut-ter speeds, for blurs. Get up in a fer-ris wheel and shoot down.

Student photograph by Bruce Senior.


Student photograph by Amy Walsh.

Putting It All Together 201

EXERCISE

Open MarketsAssignment Photograph any kindof outdoor market, from a large"flea market" to a single vendor wi tha cart .

Goal: Look for photo opportuni-ties among the merchandise itself,and among the people selling it.

Try to catch people in relation tomerchandise, rather than j u s t astraight portrait of someone whohappens to be selling (or buying)something. Look for monev or mer-chandise passing between people.

Tips: Notice the sizes and shapesof various vegetables, fruits or othermerchandise, the way they are ar-ranged, the patterns they create.Watch how the vendors interact withtheir customers. Are they bored?Energetic? Friendly?

This is another broad category, souse your imagination. The cornergrocer is okay, so is a street vendor, ayard or garage sale, a fish market, aflea market, anywhere someone isoffering a service for sale (a shoeshinestall, for example), a sidewalk artshow, a newspaper stand or someoneselling souvenir T-shirts from a cart.

Once again, remember to askpermission.

Student photograph by Dennis Martin.


EXERCISE

RainAssignment: Do a seriesphotographs of a rainy day.

of

Goal: Explore how objects, peopleand the earth interact with rain. Whatmoods does rain provoke? How doesit change the way people and thingslook and act?

Tips: A light drizzle is generally bet-ter than a heavy downpour. Look forhow the light is striking the rain itself.Especially if it's raining and sunny atsame time, the results can be stun-ning. (You might try using a flash tohighlight the rain. Just be sure tokeep it dry!)

You can shoot from under cover:standing under an awning or in adoorway, sitting in your house or ina car and shooting out a window(open or shut, wiped clean orstreaked).

If you do choose to go right intothe rain, be sure to protect yourcamera. You can use a laundry bag,for example, with holes cut for thelens and viewfinder, taped to thecamera. Or, if it's not too windy, youcan just keep your camera under anumbrella. It's a good idea to use alens hood, to keep the lens dry.Moisture on the lens can be a goodeffect, but use it thoughtful ly.

Keep shooting after it stops rain-ing. Look for puddles, objects andpeople dripping droplets clinging toleaves, etc.

Student photograph by Steve Whiteside.

Breaking the Rules 203

EXERCISE

PlaygroundsAssignment: Photograph childrenin action at a playground.

Goal: Try to get children actuallyplaying —hi t t ing a ball, upside downon a jungle-gym, using the swings orslide, etc. Avoid straight portraits ofchildren who just happen to be at aplayground.

Tips: Stay around long enough sothe children get used to you. It isperfectly acceptable to ask a child (orseveral) to pose for you — j u s t t ry tomake sure the photograph doesn'tlook posed. Encourage the child tomove around in the general areayou've selected. Offer suggestions,but let the child come up with someideas too.

Student photograph by Matthew Scerbak.


Student photograph by VinnieRodziewicz.

Putting It A/1 Together 205

EXERCISE

Sports EventsAssignment: Photograph anysports event, outdoors if at all possi-ble (so you won't need to use a flash).

Goal: Pho tog raphs of sportsevents are very common. Unfor-tunately, most of them are prettybad. Your job is to get some goodones.

Tips: Be sure the center of interestis clearly isolated, either by croppingor by using shallow depth-of-field, orboth. You'll generally get the bestresults by moving in close and/orshooting from a low or high point ofview. Be very aware of what's goingon in the background.

In group sports, such as football,try to get a mixture of individual andgroup shots. Alternate among oneplayer, the team, one fan, the sidelinecrowd, etc.

Look at faces. Look at what bodiesare doing: the strain of a weight-lifter's arms, for example. The mostimportant information and expres-sion is not necessarily in the face.

Try to give particular attention toa specific quality of each sport. Withfootball, it might be the impact ofcollision. With running, the solitudeor tension of the final yards. Withtennis, concentration or stretchingfor a difficult return. Try to get a feelfor what is special about the sporteven before you start shooting. Itmay help if you've had experience inthe sport. If you haven't, try talkingto someone who has.

Also look for the endless waitingaround on the bench, the building

Student photograph by Janes Sernovitz.

tension before a player goes in, theelation or disappointment after-wards. Play with stop-action andblurs. This is a good opportunity touse a telephoto or zoom lens, if youhave one. You might also get someinteresting effects with a wide-anglelens. (Just be careful not to get runover!)

Notice atmospheric conditions. Ifthe weather is interesting, you may

want to do a distant shot of the gameand spectators. Remember to turnaround and photograph people.Catch the game in their expressions.Finally, look for objects of thesport lying around (helmets, rackets,shoes, etc.).

(Note: If you do photograph an in-door event, refer to the Appendix forinformation on "pushing" film andusing a flash.)


Student photograph by AnneThorstvedt.

Student photograph by Karen Demuth.

Putting It All Together 207

A wonderful hodgepodge like this is one of the effects that can be produced by photomontage. (Student photographby Kira Deyss.)


chapter 16 Breaking the Rules

hroughout this book, youhave been urged, at everypossible opportuni ty , to

bend and break the "rules." There isa very simple reason for that.Photography, like any art, mustevolve to remain healthy. And allevolut ion requires muta t ions —experiments that break away from"business as usual."

For your own photographic styleand insights to evolve, you must befree to record the world as you see it.If you see some aspect of the worlddifferently than the rest of us, thenour rules won't be of much use toyou. If some aspect of the world haschanged, then the rules of the pastwon't be of much use to any of us.

As each of us breaks the rules tosuit our own inclinations and needs,most of those same rules are likely toremain at the center. They will con-tinue to guide future generations ofphotographers, with slight shifts overlong periods of time. You are nowpart of that process, so it's time foryou to take your turn at breaking afew rules. The exercises in this sectionwill get you started. After that , theonly limit is your imagination.

Naturally there are rules for break-ing rules, too. (You may feel free tobreak these as well, of course.)

Rule #1: Break a rule for a goodreason. While it can feel liberating to

if you make a point of challengingyourself as you go along. Be espe-cially careful to challenge any habitsyou develop. Are they productive?Are they causing you to miss oppor-tunities? Do other people respondwell to them? While you can't alwaysjudge your work by the response ofothers (many great artists were re-jected at f i rs t ) , it can be helpful tocompare notes with them from timeto time. If you can't make any senseof their response, you may have aproblem.

209

break rules just to break them, thethrill isn't l ikely to last very long.Sooner or later, it all begins to seemlike random shots in the dark. Stickto the rules until you have a goodreason not to, and your results willprobably be more interesting. For ex-ample, one common mistake madeby both photographers and other ar-tists is to confuse novelty for insight.

Fortunately, time tends to sortthings out quite nicely. The purenovelties get tossed aside, and thetrue insights become lasting treasures.You can s implify the sorting process

Student photograph by Helario Reyna.

Rule #2: Break as few rules aspossible. For any photograph, try tostick to as many of the establishedrules as you can. If you decide tobreak a compositional rule, try tofollow the rules for correct exposure.If you want to break an exposurerule, use conventional composition.If you can't get the results you want,then — and only then — break anotherrule. If that doesn't work, try break-ing one more. If, instead, you breakall the rules at once, you're likely toend up with chaos that no one elsewill understand, or want to under-stand. Don't forget that photographyis a language. If you want to beunderstood, you can't make up allyour own words and grammar.

Variations: Another way of break-ing the rules is to combine severalphotographs into a single image, ormerge photos and text. You couldmanipulate a photographic image bydistorting it or by adding color withpaints or markers. (See Appendix 3for additional ideas along this line.)

In recent years, traditional no-tions of what constitutes a "correct"photograph have been largely aban-doned. Though there is real value inthe puri ty and integri ty of a"straight" print, photographers (likeall artists) must be free to experimentand expand their horizons. Withoutthis freedom, any art will becomestagnant and lifeless. In the follow-ing exercise, you will be invited toexpand your horizons a bit, to breaka few rules and see what happens. Itis up to you to decide if this processoffers fresh insights and new possi-bilities.

FOCAL POINT: Diane Arbus, 1923-71

Though not the most experimentalof photographers, Diane Arbus wasmost noted, and often criticized, forbreaking the rules of what is andis not an appropriate subject. ForArbus, the camera was a tool for ex-ploring "the forbidden" —especiallypeople who, for various reasons,were not "normal." She sought outtwins, giants, midgets, outcasts andeccentrics, and photographed themjust as they were. Her photographstend to be profoundly disturbing, toraise questions and doubts, perhapseven to provoke fear.

Arbus also broke many rules ofcomposition and technique. Her pho-tographs tend to be very stark, withfew of the comforting distractions ofconventional composition. Her sub-jects often stand right at the centerof an otherwise empty frame andsimply stare at the viewer. Legs andarms are often "cut off by theborders, so they look unnatural orawkward. If the available light waslacking, she would often use a sim-ple camera-mounted flash, makingno effort to disguise the light from it.Though her work may at first seemsloppy, her admirers argue that it isperfectly suited to the unusual sub-jects she chose to photograph.

Because her style and subject mat-ter were such a radical departurefrom established photographic tradi-tions, Arbus was extremely contro-versial. Her critics considered her a

"voyeur" —a peeping-tom using hercamera to pry into other people's sadlives. She, however, believed that"there are things which nobodywould see unless I photographedthem." To her credit, she workedlong and hard to earn the trust andcooperation of her subjects beforeshe aimed her camera at them.

Arbus was born in New York Cityin 1923. After studying painting andfashion illustration, Arbus becameinterested in photography. Beginningin the early 1940s, she and her hus-band ran a fashion photographystudio, which began by doing promo-tional photographs for her father'sfur and women's clothing store. In1957, after years of increasingfrustration with the world of com-mercial photography, she quit. Overthe next decade, she devoted herselfto photographing people on thefringes of American society. After anexhibit at the Museum of Modern Artin 1967, she became something of acelebrity and inspired many im-itators. She continued to photographpeople who didn't "fit" into main-stream society. However, the temper-ament that enabled her to communi-cate so well with them eventuallytook its toll. Arbus committed suicidein 1971, at the age of 48. Her lastproject was a series of portraits ofthe mentally retarded whom she de-scribed as "enveloped in innocence."


Diane Arbus, Identical Twins, 1966. c Sotheby's Inc., 1987.


EXERCISE

NightAssignment: Do a series of photo-graphs outdoors at night.

Goal: By now you should have agood idea of how the camera re-sponds to variations in daylight. Howdoes it respond to the night? Yourtask is to find this out.

Tips: For best results, select a loca-tion with some artificial source oflight. Streetlights, car headlights,lighted windows of a house or otherbuilding will ail work well. The mooncan work, but it requires good tim-ing, luck and patience.

Take some time to find a subjectthat is interesting enough to deservea lot of your time. Unless you're verylucky, you'll need to do a consider-able amount of experimenting to geta single photograph that is "justright." Be patient and creative.

This is one situation in which ahand-held meter can be very helpful.If you don't own one (or can't bor-row one), try shooting at f/5.6 forabout 1 minute to start. (Use a stopwatch to keep track of your time.)Then bracket in both directions: 2minutes, 30 seconds, 15 seconds, etc.

Remember that doubling the time(from 1 minute to 2 minutes) willhave basically the same effect asopening the lens one stop (from f/5.6to f/4). However, at very slow shut-ter speeds, the ratio is not accurate,due to what is called "reciprocityfailure." Basically, this means thatyou'll have to guess a lot. So be sureto experiment with a wide range ofexposures.

You might also try using a small("penlight") flashlight to "draw" yoursubject. Here's how to do it: Set your

camera up on a tripod. Place yoursubject carefully within the frame.Open the shutter, using the "B" set-ting and a fairly small aperture (try178). Stand behind the subject andt u r n on the flashlight. Move theflashlight quickly along the edges ofthe subject, aiming it so the light isvisible to the camera. After a fewseconds (try 15 to start), turn off theflashlight and close the shutter.Repeat the same procedure at dif-ferent shutter speeds.

Student photograph by TrevorBredenkamp.


Student photograph by John Dean.


Student photograph by TrevorBredenkamp.

EXERCISE

MonotoneAssignment: Do a series ofphotographs with a very limitedrange of values: black on black, whiteon white, or gray on gray.

This assignment is similar to the"eggs" assignment, with two impor-tant differences: 1) variations in valuecaused by shadows, highlights, etc.should be avoided as much as possi-ble, and 2) any tone is acceptable (notjust white). In addition, you are notrequired to photograph your subjectagainst a background. You mayprefer to crop in so the subject fillsthe frame. The only rule is that theoverall tone of the photographshould be white, black or one shadeof gray.

Goal: A contrasty print, with a fullvalue range (from black, throughvarious grays, to white) is generallydesirable. However, limiting value toonly one tone (black, gray or white)can sometimes be very effective. Finda subject that lends itself to this treat-ment and make it work.

Tips: Proper exposure is vital,especially if the main tone is black orwhite. Meter off your hand or a graycard. Remember to bracket yourshots, just to be on the safe side.

Possible subjects include a blackcat on a black chair, an arrangementof plain white paper, a white chair ona white porch, a black car on a black-top road, a pear on a wooden tabletop (both of which would show up asgray), a straw hat on a beach, etc.

For white on white, you may wantto overexpose a bit, which will lightenany gray or black areas. For black onblack, you may want to underexpose(to darken gray areas), but be sure

your subject doesn't just disappear.With gray on gray, you may want anormal exposure, or one that isslightly light or dark, depending on


Student photograph by Helario Reyna.

what kind of gray is dominant andwhat else is in the photograph.Experiment.

Student photograph by Jack Backus.

Student photograph by Dave Hornback.


EXERCISE

SilhouettesAssignment: Photograph an object orperson as a silhouette.

Goal: Make sure that the silhouettedfigure makes sense as a silhouette,that it's clear and distinct. In addi-tion, be very aware of negative space,especially if the figure is entirelywithin the frame of your photograph.

Tips: This assignment is difficultbecause you'll be shooting an objectagainst the sky. As a result, your lightmeter will get very confused. The"point of departure" setting is no helpbecause you don't want a normallyexposed image: the figure should beblack against a white sky.

So, take a meter reading off thesky and then open your lens up twostops wider than indicated by themeter. For example, if the meter in-dicates f/16, shoot at f/8 instead.(Remember, the meter will want thesky to be gray, which is not what youwant.) Bracket a few stops in bothdirections to see what effect that has.

Try to clearly isolate your subject,unless other details work well with it.Good subjects include trees, people,playground equipment, machinery,objects with holes in them that allowsome light to show through. Avoidplain rectangular shapes like abuilding or door, since they don'ttend to produce interest ingsilhouettes.

Student photograph by Darrell Converse.


Student photograph by LynneMattielli.

Student photograph by Jay DavidBlumenfeld.


EXERCISE

Grain &DiffusionAssignment: Use ISO 3200 film(for enhanced grain) with some formof diffuser over your lens to producea very "soft" image.

Goal: To experiment with the ef-fects produced by deliberately avoid-ing crisp focus and lighting.

Tips: There are a number of waysto diffuse the light (and with it theimage) coming through your lens.You can use a conventional fog filter,available at modest cost at manycamera stores. Or you can shootthrough textured glass — such as ashower door, an antique window, ora crystal serving dish (ask your momfor permission). If there's a store intown that sells glass, you might havean interesting piece cut to a usablesize. (Tape the edges and handle withcare!) Another option is to stretch apiece of plastic wrap over your lens,possibly smearing it with petroleumjelly or spraying it with water. Tryusing a nylon stocking or a piece oflace in the same way (wi thout thepetroleum jelly). Or you might squirtsome dishwashing liquid on a nor-mal window and shoot through that.

Focus on your subject, measuringthe distance to it if necessary. Bear inmind that larger apertures will in-crease the diffusion effect and aretherefore preferable. Also, be sure nodirect light is striking your diffuser,as that will bring out the screen tex-ture and obscure your subject.

Variations: You might try using avery slow shutter speed (between 15and 4) and either enticing your sub-ject to move or hand-holding thecamera to blur the image a bit andfur ther soften it.


This photograph combines grain and blurred motion to produce a verymoody effect. Student photograph.

As this photograph demonstrates, grain can be a highly effective tool for conveying certain kinds of emotions ormoods. How would you describe the mood in this image? (Student photograph by Amy Shafer.)


EXERCISE

DoubleExposureAssignment: Combine two imagesinto a single photograph either bydouble-exposing a single frame offilm or by using two separate nega-tives to produce one p r in t .

Goal: Strive for a unified effect.The trick to a double-exposed photo-graph is to achieve visual coherence— an image that makes sense to theviewer. This does not mean that theimage needs to be entirely clear, butit should be more than a chaoticjumble of lines, light and shadow(unless, of course, that's the effectyou want).

Tips: If you are creating your im-age in the camera, the simplest wayto proceed is to shoot one frame asusual, making a mental note or, pref-erably, a rough sketch of the image,noting light and dark areas. If yourcamera has a double-exposure fea-ture, use it. Otherwise, hold in thefilm-release button while you cockthe shutter (i.e., wind the film asusual, though it shouldn't actuallymove). Experiment with various ex-posure combinations. If your secondimage is in a very dark area of yourfirst image, you may get a goodresult by using a normal exposure forboth. Otherwise, try under-exposingboth by one stop (or doubling theISO number). As always, bracketingis the safest way to ensure a success-ful result. After completing one dou-ble-exposure, wind the film forwardas usual and try another.

To produce a double exposure inthe darkroom, you may either sand-wich two negatives together in the

The ghostly figure in this photograph is one of the intriguing effects possiblewith double-exposure. (Student photograph by Anne Nowak.)

negative holder or pr in t them sepa-rately. Again, you will have to exper-iment to get the right exposurecombination. With the second ap-proach, you must remember that anywhite areas of the first negative willprint black and nothing from thesecond negative can be printed inthose areas.

Variations: It is also possible to usea piece of black mat to cover half ofthe lens while making your first ex-

posure, and then cover the other halffor your second shot — but skill andpractice are required to blend the twoimages successfully. (This works bet-ter on larger format cameras.)

A "ghost" effect can be producedby setting the camera on a tripod,shooting one shot of a model (orother subject) at half the normal ex-posure, and then removing themodel and shooting a second image(at the same exposure).


EXERCISE

Photo-CopyPhotosAssignment: Select a print youhave already made and "interpret" itwith a photo-copy machine.

Goal: This is an experiment inprint manipulation — breaking downthe clarity of an image to create amore impressionistic effect.

Tips: The basic procedure is verysimple: place the print face-down ina photo-copy machine and run offone copy. Then copy the copy. Thencopy the copy of the copy, and so on,until you get an effect you like. How-ever, not all prints will work well forthis process. Generally, a fairly "con-trasty" original will yield betterresults than one that is either verydark or predominantly gray. Youmay also have to tinker with thedarkness control on the copier toproduce the effect you want. In addi-t ion, higher quality paper will giveyou a cleaner image.

If you have access to a high-techcopier, you can experiment with theexposure settings (try "photo," ifavailable) to see how they affect thefinal result. One other experimentalprocedure, which works on any cop-ier, is to slip your hand in under thecover and move your "original"(which may be a copy of a copy)around on the glass — just slightly!- while it is being copied. (Do notopen the cover for this procedure, asthe bright light is hard on the eyes.)

Breaking The Rules 221

Student photographs.

EXERCISE

PanelPanoramaAssignment Produce a series ofprints, shot sequentially, in a line orcircle from the same spot, andmount them together to form a sin-gle composite image.

Goal: Select a location that will en-sure each frame will be visual ly inter-esting. None should s i m p l y f i l lspace. Each image should contributesome impression or visual informa-tion to the whole sequence.

Tips: Unless otherwise instructedby your teacher, you w i l l have to de-cide how many images to combine inyour panorama (between three andfive are recommended). Before youbegin shooting, check each area ofyour location to be sure that a singleaperture (preferably small, for gooddepth of field) can be used through-out the sequence. The basic proce-dure is to shoot, t u r n slightly, shootagain, and so on — ideally withoutmoving from your starting point .

Line up your shots carefully so theyall connect at the edges. Your finalpr ints should be fairly small (i.e.,3'/2" x 5"), so the final result won'tbe ut ter ly enormous. Take care thatthe density of all your final prints isconsistent.


Variations: Shoot a sequence atdifferent times of day, making a noteof where each image ends, so youcan later begin your next image atthat point. (A street scene offers in-teresting possibilities for this ap-proach.) Break the pattern bymoving forward and back, shiftingyour point of view as you proceedthrough the sequence. Combine ver-tical and horizontal formats. Over-lap the edges of your panels andmount them as a sort of patchwork

qui l t . Follow David Hockncy's ex-ample (see Appendix 2) and shootlots of separate images. Have some-one model for you in a different posein each image. Include a word ineach frame so the whole sequencecontains a phrase or sentence. Standin one place and shoot forward, backand to each side. (The possibilitiesare endless.)

There's a person in this mom, though no one is in sight. Every object, fromthe rumpled bed to the ragged posters, not only tells us whose room this isbut also allows us to feel that person's presence. Is this somebody you know?(Student photograph by Aindrea Brennan.)


EXERCISE

Text& ImageAssignment: Combine one ormore photographs w i t h words — apoem, song, quota t ion , excerpt froma book, h a n d w r i t t e n note, etc.

Goal: Photography and the writtenword have enjoyed a long pa r tne r -ship, especially in magazines and ad-vertising. Photographs may i l lus t ra tea t ex t , or text may be employed toclar i fy or comment on a photo-graphic image. The goal of this exer-cise is to explore the various ways inwhich these two forms of expressioncan be used together to produce ameaningful combined effect.

Tips: Try to avoid an overly literalresult, wi th the photograph and textmerely saying the same th ing in d i f -ferent ways. Ideally, each wil l en-hance and expand the impressionconveyed by the other.

Just as some song writers beginwith a lyric and others f i rs t composea melody, you may choose to select(or write) your text f irst and then cre-ate an image to go w i t h it — or theother way around. Keeping the textshort will usually (but not always)enhance the overall e f f ec t . (Ha iku , astyle of short poems developed in Ja-pan, are an excellent choice.) What-ever form of text you choose, be sureit wil l actually work well w i t h a pho-tographic image. (Your favor i te songwill not necessarily give you much towork w i t h . )

Unless otherwise ins t ruc ted byyour teacher, you wil l have to decideif t he text is to be typed or h a n d w r i t -ten — and whether to place it in theimage area of the photograph, toleave white space for it below the

p r i n t , or to place it on the mat or aseparate sheet of paper.

Variations: You may wish to t ryvar ious forms of collaboration. Forexample, t he ent i re class might selecta topic of shared interest and pro-duce a series of text/image combina-tions to explore together. (This could

make a very effective exh ib i t . ) Oryou might want to work together toillustrate a long poem, a song, ashort-story, or a portion of a bookyou all admire. Alternatively, youmight collaborate individual ly withs tudents in a w r i t i n g course —matching your photographs w i t htheir poetry, for example.


Student photograph by Amy Toensiiig.

In this example, an excerpt from a poem by Rumi (a medieval Sufi) is written directly on the print. Noticehow the two play off each other, suggesting deeper meanings and hidden connections. (Student photo by

Laura Mitchell.) . . .


Student photograph by Marc McCoy.


appendix 1 Processing

SAFETY NOTE: Many chemicals used in photographic processing can cause skin i r r i ta t ion andpossible lung problems. Gloves and longs should be used (o protect the skin from direct contactwith chemicals during mixing and working w i t h photographic chemicals. Proper darkroomvent i l a t ion (from 10-20 room-air changes per hour) is essential to safeguard the lungs againstchemical dusts and vapors.

PROCESSING FILM

Tools• Canister OpenerThe first step in processing film is topry open the canister to remove thefilm. There are special tools designedfor this, but a common can openerwill do just fine.

• Developing TankThe developing tank is a containerthat is light-light (i.e., that no lightcan enter). It is equipped with a reelthat prevents the film from stickingto itself during processing. Develop-ing tanks come in a variety of sizes,materials, and styles. The most com-mon version is the traditional metaltank with a metal reel. With this ver-sion, you must slide the film into thereel prior to processing it. Moremodern versions are made of plasticand offer innovative design features,such as a mechanism for cranking thefilm in, a wider mouth for pouringchemicals in and out, etc. Any tankwill work well, once you learn howto use it properly.

• ChemicalsThere are four stages to processingB&W film: developing, stopping, fix-ing and washing. First, the developeractivates light-sensitive silver crystalsin the emulsion (a gelatin coating).

Second, the stop bath "freezes"' thedeveloping action. Then the fixerchanges the chemical compounds, sothey will no longer be sensitive tolight. Finally, water washes away alltraces of the active chemicals, so theycan no longer react with each other.

Film Developer: There are manydifferent kinds of film developers,though the basic chemistry remainsthe same. Developing agents (withnames like metol, phenidone and hy-droquinone) intensify the reactioncaused by light, producing blackmetallic silver within exposed silvercrystals. The main difference betweentwo developers is usually the qual i ty

of the grain each produces — t h edegree to which the silver compoundscluster together to form black lumps.Other factors, such as developingtime and contrast may also beaffected.

Any crystals that received lightduring an exposure begin turningblack when immersed in the develop-ing solution. This produces a negativeimage of the photographed subject.The longer the crystals are immersed,the blacker they become.

Thus, lengthening the developingtime will increase a negative's con-trast, since the crystals that receiveda lot of light will get very black. The

227

crystals that received no light will notbe affected. Those that received a lit-tle light will become increasingly darkas the developing continues, produc-ing a lighter print. If the developinggoes on too long, the result will be aprint in which the contrast will be ex-tremely high and everything will lookoverexposed.

Shortening the developing time willreduce contrast, since even thecrystals that received the most lightwill only have time to become gray.

Stop Bath: Since virtually alldevelopers only work well in analkaline (non-acidic) solution, thedeveloping process will be halted ifthe solution becomes acidic. That'sprecisely what stop bath does.

Stop bath is simply diluted aceticacid. When the film, with developeron its surface, is immersed in the stopbath, this acid halts the developmentprocess. If you were to rinse off thestop bath and place the film back inthe developer, the development pro-cess would continue.

Indicator stop bath also containsa dye that turns purple when the acidis no longer active enough to be use-ful. If you are using an indicator stopbath, you can safely recycle it untilthe dye begins to change color (to abrownish gray). Most photographers,however, simply discard it after eachuse when processing fi lm. (The in-dicator dye is more helpful whenyou're processing prints.)

Fixer: "Fixing" film does twothings: It dissolves all the silvercrystals that have not been activatedby the developer, and it hardens theemulsion. In essence, -it "locks" theimage.

There are two basic kinds of fixer:the regular variety (sodium thiosul-phate) and "rapid fixer" (aluminumthiosulphate), which simply reacts

more quickly. The key differencesbetween the two is speed and, ofcourse, price.

Wash: Film must be thoroughlywashed. Chemical traces left on thefilm by improper washing will inter-fere with the quality of your printsand may damage the negative as well.The quality of the water you use isalso important. Most water that issafe to drink should be fine forwashing films (as well as for dilutingchemicals and washing prints).

I f , however , you repeatedlydiscover streaks, smears, speckles orother curiosities on the film's surface,try washing a few rolls in bottled ordistilled water. If the curiosities goaway, then your tap water is probablythe problem. It's likely to be fine fordiluting chemicals and may be okayfor washing prints, but keep a bottleof "good" water on hand for washingfilm.

Wetting Agent: A final step thatis highly recommended, but notstrictly essential, is coating the filmwith a wetting agent. The wettingagent covers the film with a slipperysurface, so any impurities in thewater will tend to slide off rather thanstick. If you don't use a wettingagent, there's always a risk thatsomething (mineral deposits, dust inthe air, or even just bubbles in thewater) will leave a permanent markon the emulsion.

• Interval TimerAn interval timer is a device thatmeasures the time between the begin-ning of a process and its end. Anytimer (such as a clock, wristwatch orstopwatch) with a second-hand willdo fine. There are of course a varietyof very nice timers specifically de-signed for darkroom use . . . but youdon't need one.

• Negative ClipsWhen you've finished processingyour film, you'll need to hang it upto dry. Once again, there are specialmetal clips made for this purpose . . .and, once again, you don't needthem. Plain old wooden clothespinswork just as well. Whichever you use,place one clip on each end of the film,using one to hang the top up, and theother to weight the bottom down sothe film doesn't curl.

Processing TipsThe golden rule of processing is BECONSISTENT. Once you haveestablished the chemicals, proceduresand times that work for you, stickwith them. Change nothing withouta good reason. You will then alwaysbe able to identify and correct anyproblems quickly. I f , on the otherhand, you never do the same thing inthe same way twice, you're far morelikely to encounter some unpleasantsurprises . . . and far less likely toknow what caused them or how tocorrect them.

The trickiest part of film process-ing is getting the film loaded into thedeveloping tank. After that , all youneed to worry about is correctly tim-ing each step.

Before you risk ruining a roll of ac-tual photographs, practice loadingthe tank with a blank roll until you'resure you have it down pat. There'snothing quite like the panic caused bydiscovering that a roll of preciousfilm is not loading correctly. Withpractice, you can avoid that ex-


perience. Start by loading your prac-tice roll in normal light, so you cansee how it works. Then practice inthe dark.

Always be sure that your hands,opener, scissors, and developing tankare clean and dry — before you begin.Hands and tools that are wet or havetraces of chemicals on them are acommon cause of ruined film. A lit-tle planning can help you avoid a lotof regret.

F ina l ly , da rkroom chemicalsdeteriorate over time. Some becomeuseless quite rapidly (once they'vebeen mixed with water) if they are ex-posed to air. Therefore, they shouldall be stored in airtight containers,and the containers should be reason-ably full. If you have only a smallamount of a chemical left, pour it in-to into a smaller container. Flexibleplastic containers are available withan accordion grid design whichallows all excess air to be squeezedout. These are a useful option if youtend to store irregular amounts ofchemicals for fairly long periods oftime (a month is a long time for somechemicals).

Procedures• Preparation/. Have all your chemicals mixed

and ready to use before youbegin.The developer is frequentlydiluted with water to produce aworking solution appropriate toa specific film or effect. The stopbath is generally prepared by mix-ing a very concentrated liquidwith water. The fixer may beprepared in the same way. In allthese cases, be sure you have theright mixtures set aside and readyto use. It is even a good idea tohave the exact amount of devel-

oper you'll need already pouredinto a measuring cup. You canmeasure the other chemicals dur-ing processing.

Always be sure your chemicalsare at the correct temperaturebefore you begin processing.There are two ways to accomplishthis.

If a chemical is to be dilutedwith water, check the temperaturebefore you add the water. Youcan then adjust the temperatureby using warmer or colder waterto produce the working solution.This approach is most useful ifyour chemicals are still warmfrom mixing (some powderedchemicals require hot water todissolve properly) or if they'recold from sitting in a storageroom. In other words, this ap-proach can be used to quicklyproduce a major change intemperature.

The second and more commonway to adjust the temperature isto prepare a "temperature bath."Fill a sink or basin with warm orcool water. Place the containersof chemicals in the bath and letthem soak until they are at thecorrect temperature. Add warmeror cooler water to the bath asneeded.

Bear in mind that the tempera-ture will change more quickly fora small amount of a solution thanfor a large one. Therefore, youmay want to put only theamounts you actually need intothe temperature bath.

2. In total darkness, open thefilm canister and slide the film outof it.Pry the cap off of the flat end ofthe canister. Gently slide the film

out, making sure the film is rolledfairly lightly, so it won't catch onthe edges of the canister. Discardthe canister and cap.

Keep the film rolled up after ithas been removed. Never set thefilm down between removing itfrom the canister and loading itinto the tank. (If you do, youmay forget where it is or acciden-tally contaminate it by setting itdown in some moist chemicalresidue.)

It's perfectly all right to touchthe first 6 inches or so of the film(including the leader), since therearen't any photographs on it.Once you start loading the film,however, you will have to bemore careful.

3. Trim the leader off the film.Always use scissors for this; don'ttear the film. (If you try tearingthe film, you're likely to bend orstretch it, which will interferewith loading.)

Cut straight across the film,not at an angle. Try to cut be-tween sprocket holes, so the endof the film is completely straight(which will make loading easier).With practice, you should be ableto do this in the dark: With yourfingertips, feel for the sprocketholes on one side, and hold on toone. Begin cutting just beyondyour fingertips. As you cut, feelfor the corresponding sprockethole on the other side and aim thescissors just past it.

4. Insert the end of the film into thedeveloping reel.The exact procedure for loadingfilm varies according to the typeof reel and tank you're using. Formost plastic reels you 'II need on-

Processing 229

ly to feel along the outer edge ofthe reel for the opening and in-sert the film into it. For a metalspiral reel, feel on the inside forthe center clip or spike. Holdingthe film loosely in one hand andthe reel in the other, engage thefilm end into the clip.

5. Load the film into the reel.Once the film is inserted, you willcontinue to slide it in, or you'llcrank the reel or loader, whichwill slide the film in for you.

As you load the film, loosenthe film on the spool so it movessmoothly. Hold the film by itsedges— try not to touch the imagearea. The emulsion is on the innersurface of the film, so it is lessrisky to touch the outer sur-face . . . but it's still not a goodidea.

As you load the film, contin-ually check to be certain that it isnot bending or catching. Youmay need to touch the outer sur-face to do this. If so, do it aslightly and briefly as possible.

With a metal reels, you'll needto squeeze the edges of the filmslightly so they slide into thegrooves of the reel. Try todevelop a smooth and gentlemovement with your hand, wrist

and arm as you slide the film in-to the reel, draw back to unwindit from the spool, and slide it inagain.

With the crank-equipped reels,you'll have to experiment to findthe technique that works best foryou. You can unwind and loadthe film in sections, or you mightprefer to let the whole roll dropand hang free from between yourthumb and index finger as youcrank it up into the reel.

6. Place the reel into the tank andsecurely attach the top.Once the film is in the tank andsecurely covered, the hard part isover. You may now turn on thelights. Processing should beginimmediately (to reduce thechances of the film being harmedby left-over chemicals).

• Processing/. Pour the developer (already

diluted to the proper strength, ifnecessary) into the mouth of thedeveloping tank and cap it.

2. Immediately after pouring,shake the tank to ensure that thefilm is evenly covered. Thenbang the tank down a fewtimes—hard!—to dislodge any

air bubbles clinging to the film.

3. Agitate the tank for specifiedperiods of time, at specifiedintervals.Read the instructions packagedwith the developer and/or filmand follow them exactly. Bothtoo much and too little agitationcan ruin your photographs. Usea stopwatch or a clock with asecond-hand to ensure precisetiming.

Generally, you will be in-structed to agitate the tank for 5seconds at 30-second intervals. Ifso, then do exactly that. Do not,for example, agitate it for 10seconds at 20-second intervals, orfor 3 seconds whenever you feellike it. The most common causeof ruined film is incorrect orcareless processing. Follow theinstructions.

Once you have established amethod of agitation that seems towork, stick with it. Unless specif-ically instructed to do otherwise(i.e. for a special kind of film orprocessing) use the exact samemethod every time you processfilm. If you alter your methodsignificantly, you may causeproblems in the processing thatwill seem to be caused by other


influences, such as incorrect ex-posure or exhausted chemicals.

Try this method, countingslowly from 1 to 5: On 1, twistthe tank clockwise. On 2, twist itcounter-clockwise. On 3, turn itupside down. On 4, turn it rightside up. On 5, bang it down ona hard surface.

4. Begin pouring the developer outof the tank 15 seconds before theend of the processing time.Unless instructed to do otherwise,pour the developer down thedrain. You generally will notwant to use it again.

5. Immediately after pouring all thedeveloper out, fill the tank withthe pre-mixed stop bath, cap thetank and agitate it once.

6. Leave the film in the stop bathfor about 30 seconds, with someagitation. Then pour it down thedrain.

7. Fill the tank with fixer andfollow the timing and agitationinstructions.The same rules apply to fixing asto developing: Follow the instruc-tions exactly. Though precise tim-ing is less important with thefixer, you should not a/low your-self to get careless. Poorly fixedfilm will be just as ruined aspoorly developed film.

Generally, you will fix the filmfor about 5 minutes, agitating for10 seconds at I-minute intervals.

You may open the film canisterin dim light during fixing. How-ever, try to resist the urge to"peek." If you've messed up theprocessing, there's nothing youcan do about it now.

8. Pour out the fixer.You may want to re-use your

fixer. Do not, however, mix usedand fresh fixer unless specificallyinstructed to do so. (It's a/I rightto do this if all the fixer will beused and disposed of within a rel-atively short period of time. It'snot all right if it will be stored fora while.)

9. Wash the film for the specifiedtime.The simplest way to do this is toremove the lop and place the tankunder running water, draining itat regular intervals to ensure acomplete wash.

10. Soak the film in the wettingagent.Do not remove the film from thereel yet. Just pour the wettingagent into the developing tankafter pouring out the water.Plunge the reel up and down afew times to ensure that the filmis evenly coated. Lift the reel outof the tank and shake it gently.Pour the wetting agent back intoits container if you plan to use itagain soon; otherwise discard it.

11. Remove the film from the reeland hang it up to dry in a dust-free space.Hang the film so the last frameis at the top (which will make iteasier to file once it's dry). Let thefilm dry overnight, and do nottouch it again until it is dry.

The "dust wars" begin as soonas you hang your film up to dry.If the drying area is kept abso-lutely clean, you'll have a goodhead start. If, on the other hand,it's even slightly dusty, you'llprobably never win. If your film

has dust on it after drying, try tothink of ways to correct the prob-lem, or locate a better dryingspace.

12. Cut the film into strips and in-sert them into a negative file.You have not finished processingyour film until this vital step iscomplete. Never leave processedfilm hanging or rolled up or lyingaround any longer than abso-lutely necessary. (The dust warsrequire constant vigilance.)

Using the Negative FileNegative files generally hold either 5or 6 frames per row and have 7 rowsper sheet. The 5-frame-per-rowvariety with holes to fit a standard3-ring binder is very handy. Unfor-tunately, it holds only 35 exposures,so you'll probably want to limityourself to 35 shots per roll of film,so you don't have one too manyframes for the file. The easiest wayto do this is to advance the film untilthe frame-counter reads "2" beforeyou take your first shot. You canthen trim off the excess leader afterprocessing, and you won't have toremember to stop at your 35th shot.

To use the file, fill in the label areawith the date, assignment and filenumber, using a ball-point pen.

While the film is still hanging, cutoff the leader (which should be at thebottom). Then count the number offrames that your file holds per row(5 or 6) and cut them off. Take careto cut precisely along the narrowband between frames, so you don'ttrim off part of the image area.

With the label of the file facingyou, slip the film into the first rowwith the "hump" up (i.e., with theemulsion side down). Repeat until thewhole roll has been placed in the file.

Processing 231

To avoid confusion, do not addpieces of other rolls to the file evenif you have plenty of extra spacein it. Don't mark the file to indi-cate which frames to print or how tocrop them. That's what the contactsheet is for.

PRINTING

Tools• Photographic PaperPhotographic paper is functionallythe same as film, except it has opaquepaper instead of clear film for itsbacking. Like film, it is coated withsilver crystals which turn black whenthey are exposed to light and pro-cessed. However, the coating onphoto paper reacts far more slowlythan that on film.

Photo paper is graded according toits contrast. Contrast grades aregenerally numbered from 0 to 5 —thehigher the number, the higher thecontrast. In some cases, descriptivewords, such as soft (low contrast) andhard (high contrast) may be used toindicate contrast grades. Or you canuse a variable contrast paper withfilters to yield a range of contrasts.

In addition, the surface texture,image tone, base tints and weightmay be indicated either with a codeor a few descriptive words. Surfacetexture descriptions include glossy(smooth and shiny), matte (texturedand dull) and lustre (in betweenglossy and matte). Image tonedepends on the chemistry of theemulsion, and ranges from "cold"blue-black to "warm" brown. Basetints, produced by dyes that affect thecolor of the paper, are describedas white, warm-white, cream, etc.Finally, the weight of a paper in-dicates its thickness. For photopaper, this is generally expressed as

"single-weight" (S) or "double-weight" (D). (Resin coated paper,described later, comes only in"medium weight.")

Most of this information may becompressed into a single code, suchas F3 (in the Kodak code). In thiscase, the "F" stands for glossy andthe "3" stands for moderate contrast.

Whatever brand of paper you use,familiarize yourself with its code. Astime and money permit, experimentwith a variety of contrast grades and

surfaces. To begin with, however, aglossy and moderate-to-high contrast(#3 or #4) paper should suit your pur-poses well. (#2 is considered "normal"contrast.)

• EnlargerThe enlarger is essentially a camerain reverse. It projects light backthrough the negative and focuses itonto a sheet of light-sensitive paperwhich, when processed, produces apositive image.


The enlarge: can be raised orlowered to alter the size of the printedimage. It may have one or two focus-ing controls. If there are two, one willbe for coarse focus (getting in theright general range) and the other willbe for f ine-tuning. The lens is cal-ibrated like the lens on a camera, inf-stops. Under the lens there shouldbe a red filter which, when it coversthe lens, blocks any light that mightexpose the paper (most photo paperis not sensitive to red light). In addi-tion, a set of filters may be attachedto the enlarger for controlling con-trast, when using variable contrastpaper. (Variable contrast paper usedwith no filter will print as #2 grade.)

• SafelightBecause photo paper is coated witha light-sensitive emulsion, just likefilm, it will turn black if fully exposedto light and processed. Unlike f i lm,however, photo paper has limitedsensitivity. It will generally react onlyto the blue end of the spectrum.Therefore, most photo papers cansafely be exposed to a quite bright redor orange light. This is the reasonthat a safelight is safe. Nevertheless,it's a good idea not to leave un-covered photo paper near a safelightfor extended periods of time, as somesafelights will eventually cause thepaper to fog ( turn gray) whenprocessed.

(Most films can also be exposed tovery dim light in certain ranges of thespectrum — Plus-X, for example cantolerate some green light —but it isgenerally not worth the bother andrisk.)

• Film Cleaners, Etc.The simplest dust-fighting tool is ablower-brush. The blower is simplya rubber bulb that you squeeze to

force air down the tube of the brush.The brush itself should have very softbristles, so it can be used to "sweep"dust off film without scratching.

A more sophisticated variety ofbrush is the anti-static brush (such asthe Staticmaster™). It contains at iny amount of radioactive materialthat neutralizes the electrical chargeof static, which helps to actually getrid of dust , rather than just move itaround. An anti-static brush is a veryeffective and useful tool. It is slightlyradioactive, however, so use itcautiously.

A somewhat tamer tool forfighting static is an anti-static cloth,such as I l ford 's Ant i s ta t i cum I M .Provided that the cloth is sufficientlysoft, smooth and lint-free, you canuse it to very gently wipe dust offof film.

You can also use canned com-pressed air (such as Dus t -Of f I M ) toclean film. However, some of thegases used in the compression processcan do more harm than good. Hold-ing the can perfectly upright wil lminimize the escape of these gases.Test the product (and your technique)on film you don't care about first. Ifyou see smudges or other signs ofdamage, use something else instead.

Another option is Edwal's Anti-Static Film, Glass and ChromeCleaner™. Though not especiallyrecommended for everyday use, thisis a useful tool for cleaning up filmthat has gotten out of control. Use itvery carefully to avoid scratching thefilm.

Finally, if you do scratch somefilm (and, sooner or later, you will),Edwal also makes a product calledNo-ScratchIM. It covers the fi lmwith a coating that fills in scratches,making them less evident (and eveninvisible) in the print . While No-

Scratch is a great help when youreally need it, use it only as a lastresort. It is very messy to work withand hard to clean off the film.

• TimerYou will need a fairly sophisticatedtimer to obtain the best possibleresults with an enlarger. Becauseyou'll be measuring time in seconds(and maybe even fractions of a sec-ond), rather than minutes, it is notpractical to turn the enlarger on andoff by hand.

With a proper timer, you simplyset the amount of t ime you want thelight to be on and click a switch. Thetimer turns the light on, keeps it onfor precisely the amount of time youselected, then turns it o f f .

• Developing TraysSince photo paper can be safely ex-posed to some light, it is processed intrays instead of tanks. The trays,made of plastic, come in a variety ofsizes, designs and colors. White isrecommended, since it clearly showschemical discoloration (which couldbe a sign of trouble). However, youmay prefer to use different colors foreach chemical, so you can easily tellthem apart. Be sure your trays arelarge enough to easily accommodateyour paper. A tray that is too largeis better than one that is too small.On the other hand, a tray that ismuch too large will only wastechemicals.

• TongsTongs, made of plastic or bamboowith rubber tips, are used to move thepaper from one tray to the next. Theyalso come in a variety of colors. Useone color for each chemical (blue fordeveloper, red for stop bath, etc.).This will help you avoid accidentally

Processing 233

contaminating your chemicals. Al-ways use your tongs . . -. do not useyour fingers.

• ChemicalsThe chemicals used for processingprints are essentially the same asthose used for processing film. Someof them, in fact, can be used foreither purpose. In both cases, youdevelop the image, "stop" it, fix itand, finally, wash and dry it.

Contact Prints• Additional Tools

Glass: To make a contact print,the negative must be pressed flatagainst — o r in contact with — t h ephoto paper. The simplest way toachieve this is to place a piece of glasson top of the negative. (Thoughspecial contact printing frames aresold for this purpose, they are notnecessary.) The glass should be heavyenough to hold the negatives flat andslightly larger than the photo paper(generally 8x10").

It is essential that the glass be cleanand unscratched, since any flaws inthe glass will show up on your con-tacts. You should have a dry and pro-tected place in which to store theglass, and always put it away im-mediately after using it. Wipe theglass clean with a dry, lint-free cloth(using a glass-cleaning spray ifnecessary) prior to each use.

Lupe: The primary function ofa contact sheet is to enable you to in-spect your photographs before youenlarge them. To avoid disappointingresults, you need to know more thanjust what's in each photograph. Is itin focus? Is the lighting exactly right?Are the subject's eyes open? Is thefacial expression good? These aresome of the questions you can onlyanswer with a lupe or magnifying lens.

To use a lupe, place it directly onthe contact sheet over the frame youwant to inspect. Bring your eye downto the lupe (don't lift the lupe) andlook through i t . It's important thatyour head does not block the light.Do not place the contact on a lightbox or hold it up to the window, asthis wil l only make all thephotographs look over-exposed andout of focus.

Grease Pencil: As you inspecteach contact sheet, you'll want tomake notes regarding which photo-graphs to enlarge and how to enlargethem. The best tool for this is a whitegrease pencil. A grease pencil writeseasily on photo paper, and can alsobe erased with a fingertip or tissue.A while grease pencil will show upfairly well even under a safelight . . .so your notes will be legible in thedarkroom, where you need themmost.

What sort of notes should you puton your contacts? First, mark eachframe that you want to enlarge. Theusual way of doing this is simply todraw a box around it. You may alsowant to cross out any frames that areout of focus. If you see a good wayto crop a photograph, mark that aswell. Finally, you may want to jotdown suggestions on how to print aphotograph, so you'll remember yourintentions when the time comes.

• Procedures1. Turn the enlarger on and open

the lens to its largest aperture.

2. Adjust the enlarger's height asneeded until the light is coveringan area slightly larger than thenegative file.It's a good idea to focus theenlarger when you do this, soyou'll always be setting it atroughly the same height. The rea-son for this is that the amount oflight reaching the paper decreasesas the distance to the light source(the enlarger bulb) increases. Youcan focus the enlarger withoutputting a negative in it: simplyadjust the focusing knob until theedges of the lighted area are crispand clear.

3. Set the enlarger lens two stopsdown.

4. Cover the lens with the safelightfilter.At this point, check to be surethat all lights except safelightsare turned off, and that thereare no light leaks around doors,window, etc. Leave the enlargerlight on.

5. Center a sheet of photo paper inthe lighted area.Remove one sheet of photo paperfrom its container. Always closethe container immediately. Donot leave photo paper uncovered,no matter how light-tight youthink your darkroom is. There'salways the chance that you orsomeone else will turn the lightson before you've put the paperaway. Learn good habits fromthe outset and stick with them.


6. Place the negative file over thephoto paper.Be sure that all the negatives andthe label area are within thepaper's borders.

7. Place the glass over the negativefile.Hold the glass by the edges toavoid finger-printing the imagearea. Gently press the glass downagainst the paper to ensure fullcontact. You may want to use acloth for this, to keep yourfingers off the glass.

8. Turn off the enlarger.

9. Swing the safelight filter out ofthe way of the enlarger lens.

10. Expose the contact sheet.For your first contact, follow theprocedures for making test strips(see below). Later, once youknow the exposure that works foryou, you probably won't need atest strip except for film shot intricky lighting situations.

Test Strip/. With the enlarger light on and

covered by the safelight filter,place a piece of photo paper inthe image area.When you make your very firsttest strip (of a contact), you may

want to use an entire sheet ofphoto paper. Later, you'll be ableto save paper (and money) by us-ing a smaller piece (such as 1/3of a sheet). Always be sure thatthe test strip area covers a rep-resentative sampling of the pho-tograph's contrast. In addition,be sure that the most importantelements of the photograph arerepresented (for example, the facein a portrait). Generally, this canbe accomplished by placing thetest strip diagonally across thecenter of the image area.

2. Cover all but one narrow bandof the test strip with an opaquecard.

3. Make a 2-second exposure.

4. Move the card to uncoveranother narrow band of the teststrip.

5. Make another 2-secondexposure.

6. Repeat until you have made atotal of at least 8 exposures andthe entire test strip has beenexposed.

Processing 235

Enlargements• Additional Tools

Easel: The easel is simply an ad-justable tool for holding photo paperin place and keeping it flat. Mosteasels have two blades which slidealong a slot marked in inches. Tomove the blades, you press a leverwhich unlocks them. When you haveset the blades at the correctmeasurements, you release the lever,locking the blades in place. Othereasel designs provide standardizedopenings (4x5", 5x7", 8x 10") orhave 4 adjustable (often magnetic)blades. Here again, which tools youuse is of far less importance than howyou use them.

Grain Focuser: An enlargementis correctly focused only when thegrain (the pattern of silver dots thatcompose the image) is in focus. Withmost films, you need a grain focuscrto see the grain well enough toachieve this degree of precision. Itenlarges a very small portion of theimage area and reflects it up througha lens so you can see the grain clearlyenough to focus it .

Before using a grain focuser, ad-just the enlarger until the photographis fairly well focused. Then place thefocuser on your easel within theimage area. Look through the lens,making sure your head jsn't blockingthe light from the enlarger. .Move thefocuser around within the image areauntil you can see clusters of blackdots. That's grain. You'll be able tosee more grain, and therefore to

focus more accurately, in the darkerareas of the image. Looking throughthe focuser, adjust the focusing con-trols of your enlarger until the grainis nice and crisp.

(Note: If your grain focuser isequipped with a "target" like the sightof a gun, the grain will appear tomove up and down, rather than in

and out of focus. To use this type offocuser, keep your eye on the targetand then adjust the enlarger until thegrain lines up with it.)

• Procedures/. Insert the negative into the

negative holder, emulsion-sidedown.


The easiest way to identify theemulsion side of a negative is toset it on a flat surface, with itsedges touching the surface. Thefilm should look like a tunnel.The underside (or ceiling) of thetunnel is the emulsion.

The reason this works is thatthe emulsion tends to contract (orshrink) as it dries. This is becauseit absorbs (and later evaporates)more liquid than the plasticbacking.

You can also tell the emulsionside of film by looking at it infairly bright light. The emulsionside is the dull side (the plasticbacking is shiny). In addition, ifyou carefully examine it, youshould be able to see layers in theemulsion side (the backing issmooth).

2. Be sure the negative is free ofdust.This is the hard part, but it isessential. For best results, use ananti-static brush before and afterplacing the negative in the holder.Hold the negative up against alight and check for any remain-ing dust spots. Use the brush orcompressed air until the negativeis perfectly dust-free. Bear in

mind that the darkroom safelightis not bright enough to revealdust. Turn the enlarger or roomlight on for this purpose.

3. Place the negative holder into theenlarger and turn the enlargerlight on.Generally, you will turn a lever tolift the lighting unit out of theway, slide the holder into placeand lower the lighting unit backinto place.

Be careful not to dislodge moredust when you do this. In otherwords, be gentle. If you suspectthat dust is hiding in your en-larger, then clean it.

4. Place the easel under the lens.

5. Adjust the height of the enlargerand the position of the easel un-til the image is cropped the wayyou want it to be.

6. Turn off all room lights at thispoint, leaving only one or twosafelights on.

7. Open the enlarger lens to itslargest aperture and focus it.A/ways focus at the largest aper-ture. This will ensure that you

have enough light to focus ac-curately. Remember to open thelens and re-focus every time youraise or lower the enlarger head.For best results, use a grainfocuser.

8. Close the lens down two stops.This is a point-oj'-departure set-ting. Once you have acquiredsome darkroom experience, you'lllearn to use other f-stops toachieve the effects you want.

9. Cover the lens with the safelightfilter.

10. Place a piece of photo paper onthe easel.

11. Expose the paper for the correctamount of time.Follow the instructions for mak-ing a test strip if you don't knowwhat the "correct" time is.

12. Slide the paper into the devel-oper, face-up.

13. Immediately turn the paper face-down and let it sit for 30 seconds.

Processing 237

14. While continuously agitating thetray, turn the paper over at30-second intervals until it hasbeen in the developer for thespecified amount of time.Two minutes of developing, forexample, would be face-down for30 seconds, face-up for 30 sec-onds, face-down for 30 secondsand face-up for 30 seconds. Thisprocedure will ensure that theprint is evenly developed and mayhelp to reduce curling.

Follow the timing instructionspackaged with the developer orpaper. Do not attempt to correcta poor exposure by changing thedeveloping time!

15. Lift the paper out of thedeveloper with tongs and gentlyshake excess liquid from it.

16. Place the paper in the stop bathfor IS to 30 seconds with occa-sional agitation.

17. Lift the paper from the stop bathwith tongs and gently shake ex-cess liquid from it.

18. Place the paper in the fixer forthe specified time, with occa-sional agitation.Once again, read the instructionspackaged with your fixer or filmto determine the fixing time.

19. Place the paper in the washingtank and wash for the specifiedtime.

20. Dry the paper.RC (or resin coated) papers havea layer of plastic between theemulsion and the paper, and asecond coat on the back of thepaper, to prevent the paper fromabsorbing water during process-ing. As a result, they dry veryquickly. Special drying racks areavailable to ensure that they dryflat, but you can achieve the sameresult by laying your prints face-up on towels until they dry andthen pressing them under someheavy books.

More traditional fiber-basepapers absorb much more water.They should be dried in a glazer(a specially designed heater thateffectively "irons"photographs).Fiber-base papers may also bedried with blotters (rolls or sheets)or electric dryers.

Dodging and BurningOccasionally, you will discover thatthere is no "correct" exposure for theentire image area of a single photo-graph. If you expose for the darkareas, the light areas will look washedout. If you expose for the light areas,the dark areas will look dense and"lumpy." Fortunately, you can alterthe exposure of selected areas bydodging and burning.

Dodging (or dodging out) a photo-graph involves covering up part ofthe image so it will receive less lightduring an exposure. Burning (orburning in) involves using an opaquecard with a hole in it to expose partof the image to more light.

• DodgingDodgers: These are simply small

pieces of opaque material on sticks.You can make your own quite easily(with cardboard, wire and tape) orpurchase a set at any camera store.The edges of a dodger are generallyirregular to help the dodged areablend with the rest of the print .

Raise or lower the dodger to makeits shadow the right size for the areayou want to dodge (generally a bitsmaller).

It is very important to wiggle thedodger during the exposure so theedges of the area being dodged willfade into their surroundings.

If one part of the image is too darkwhen the rest is correctly exposed,then you'll want to dodge it. Thereare two approaches to this. The firstis to dodge out the dark area (orareas) while making a normal ex-posure for the print. The second ap-proach, which will produce moreaccurate results, is to make a seriesof short exposures rather than onelong one.

For example, let's say the normalexposure is 20 seconds and the darkarea should receive only about halfas much light as the rest of the photo-graph. Set the timer for 10 secondsand expose the entire image once for


that amount of time. Then cover thelens with the safelight filter and turnon the enlarger so you can get yourdodger in position. With your freehand, turn the enlarger off and swingthe filter away. Begin wiggling thedodger and activate the timer. Con-tinue wiggling throughout the second10-second exposure.

If, instead, you needed to dodgetwo areas for 5 seconds each, thenyou might make three separate ex-posures: 10 seconds for the entireprint, 5 seconds to dodge one area,and 5 seconds to dodge the otherarea. Most of the print would stillreceive a total of 20 seconds ofexposure.

• BurningBurner: The burner is simply a

piece of cardboard or other materialthat is thick and dark enough to pre-vent light from going through it. Ahole (ideally with irregular or roughedges) cut in the center allows a nar-row beam of light to reach the print,so only that area is exposed while theburner is in use.

A face in deep shadow can often be"rescued" with careful dodging. Stu-dent photograph by Mike Wiley.

If one area (or several) of a photo-graph is too light when the rest iscorrectly exposed, then burning is theanswer. As with dodging, you mayeither slide the burner into place andwiggle it over the area while makinga single exposure, or you may makea series of exposures for greatercontrol.

Though you may want to keep afew commercially available burnerson hand, you'll probably discoverthat it's often useful to make yourown, with the hole just the right size

and in just the right place for yourspecific needs. The black cardboardof photo paper boxes works per-fectly, and its a good idea to savethem for this purpose.

As with dodging, raise or lower theburner to get the size right, and besure to wiggle it so the edges blend.

Processing 239

FOCAL POINT: Common Disasters

Your camera, as we've noted, is amachine. Like any machine, it won'talways produce the results youexpect.

Blank FilmOne of the most upsetting unexpectedresults is an entire roll of film thatcomes out blank. Unless somethingwent very wrong during processing(such as using the wrong chemicals),this means that the film did not ad-vance correctly. (The old problem ofleaving the lens cap on while shootinghas been eliminated with through-the-lens cameras.) Film does not ad-vance for one of two reasons: eitherit was incorrectly threaded into thetake-up reel, or the sprocket holeswere torn.

Both problems are fairly easy todiscover and avoid. Each time youadvance the film, the rewind knobshould turn slightly. If it doesn't,crank it counter-clockwise until thefilm in the canister is t ightly wound.Release the shutter and advance thefilm again. If the rewind knob stilldoesn't tu rn , you have a problem.Take the camera into a darkroom oruse a light-tight changing bag toremove the film in total darkness. ( I fyou don't, you'll probably lose anyphotographs you've taken so far.)

If the film is partially advanced(and therefore has been exposed), cutthe exposed part away from the can-ister. Store it in a light-tight con-tainer, such as the black plastic con-tainers that come with Kodak film.Develop it as usual when you can.

If no more than the first "lip" ofthe fi lm (called the "leader) is ex-tended, check the sprocket holes. Ifthey are not damaged, reload the film

carefully. If the sprocket holes aretorn, cut off the damaged part of thefilm. Trim the new end of the film tocreate a new leader, and reload.

So much for finding and correctingthe problem. How do you avoid it?The key is being careful to load filmproperly. Always advance the film atleast one frame with the camera backopen, so you can check to be sure itis "catching" correctly on the take-upreel. Then close the back and ad-vance it two more frames, checkingto be sure the rewind knob is turn-ing as well.

To avoid tearing the sprocketholes, be certain as you load the filmthat they fit the sprocket reel prop-erly. In addition, avoid advancing thefilm with abrupt, jerky movements.Instead, move the film advance leverin one gentle, steady sweep.

Double ExposuresIf some frames of a roll of film aredouble exposed (and you don't knowwhy), torn sprocket holes may againbe the problem —especially if the twoexposures don't line up exactly. Oftenthe problem will correct itself afterruining a few frames, but only if youstop jerking the film forward and ex-tending the tear. If the problem hap-pens again and again even thoughyou are being careful, take thecamera to a camera shop for possi-ble repairs.

BlursIf your photos display blurs or poorfocus, always in the same area of theframe, your lens may be flawed. Themost common "flaw" that producesthis result is a dirty lens. You may notnotice f ingerprints, water (especially

if it has chlorine or salt in it), dust,and other environmental hazards un-til you try to make enlargements. Ifyou make a habit of inspecting yourlens before you shoot, you'll avoid alot of frustration. Always carry lenstissue or a soft, lint-free cloth(or wear a thoroughly "broken-in"cotton shirt) to wipe the lens asnecessary.

It is a good idea to use a UV orskylight filter at all times. The mainreason for this is that it is far lesspainful to replace a scratched filterthan a scratched lens. In addition,a filter can be removed for morethorough inspection than is possiblewith a lens. You'll be surprised by theamount of dir t that can hide on afilter and be invisible unti l you holdit up to the light.

If your photographs are con-sistently blurred, especially aroundthe edges, the lens itself may be caus-ing the problem. Some inexpensivezoom lenses, for example, producedistortion at large apertures or at cer-tain focal lengths. The only solutionsare to avoid using the lens under con-ditions that cause the undesirableresults . . . or to replace it with a bet-ter (and probably more expensive)model. Before you do that, however,take the lens back to where youbought it. It's possible that the lenswas improperly assembled by themanufacturer and can be repaired.(For this reason, you should alwaystest any new camera equipment ex-haustively while it is still underwarranty.)

ScratchesIf your film shows long horizontalscratches, you either have dust in the


camera or are being careless duringprocessing. It's a good idea to blowand brush the camera's interior fromtime to time. Be especially careful notto load or unload film in a strongdusty wind.

IN PROCESSING

If you're at all prone to anxiety, thenprocessing film is likely to be anightmare for you. All those preciousimages sit soaking inside a little metalor plastic tank. You can't see what'sgoing on and any mistake may resultin utter disaster. Rest assured that,sooner or later, you will ruin a roll.Try to accept it as a learning ex-perience, as your photographic dues.It happens to all of us.

StreaksThe most common cause of streak-ing in a negative is incorrect agita-tion. If you agitate the film too littleduring processing, you're likely to getvertical streaks (running across eachframe) that line up with the sprocketholes. If you agitate too much, you'relikely to get horizontal streaks (run-ning along the edge of the filmlengthwise). Both are caused by in-consistencies in the rate at whichbromide in the developer is refreshed.The solution is simple: once youestablish an agitation pattern thatworks for you, stick to it .

If you are quite certain that you areagitating the film correctly, you havebeen using old or contaminatedchemicals. Replace them.

Polka DotsIf your film comes out of processinglooking like it has a bad case of

chicken pox, you probably are hav-ing trouble with air bubbles. When anair bubble attaches itself to the film,it blocks out the developer. As aresult, the film under the bubbledoesn't develop. To avoid this,remember to bang the developingtank good and hard after eachagitation.

FoggingIf large patches of your negative, in-cluding the narrow band betweenframes, are cloudy (i.e. dark grayeven in the lightest areas), you almostcertainly have a light leak. Check outyour darkroom by closing the doorand turning off all the lights. Afterthree minutes, stretch your hand out.You should not be able to see it. Ifyou can see it, try to find out wherethe light is coming from. Look alongthe edges of any doors and windows.Check to see if any darkroom equip-ment is glowing too brightly (in-dicator lights on your enlarger timer?a glowing radio dial?). Also examineyour processing tank to be sure ithasn't developed any light leaks.Have any portions of the light trapinside the tank broken off? Is thecover not sealing properly?

White BlotchesIf your negative comes out lookinglike irrefutable proof of UFOs, youprobably failed to load the film prop-erly onto the developing reel. If thefilm is stuck together during loading,it can produce an airtight seal which,like air bubbles, prevents develop-ment. Little crescent moons arecaused by bending the film. The onlysolution is to be as careful as possi-ble when loading, and to practice

with blank rolls until you can loadcorrectly every time.

ScratchesYou have many opportunities toscratch your film. The first is whenyou remove it from the canister. Besure the film is wound tightly enoughto slide out all together. The outsideof the roll (the leader) is not beingdeveloped, so be sure it is protectingthe rest of the roll. Your secondscratch opportunity is when youtransfer the roll onto the developingspool. Good ways to scratch the filmat this stage include bumping orsliding it against a table or other sur-face, letting one part of the film edgescrape along another portion of theemulsion, or running your fingersalong the emulsion (inner) surface.Once the film is in the developingtank, it is relatively impossible toscratch. Your next big chance comeswhen you hang it up to dry. Squee-gees are the best tool for scratching.Just squeeze good and hard andyou're certain to destroy the entireroll. Finally, any time the film is outof its negative file it stands an ex-cellent chance of being scratched.Particularly effective techniques in-clude dropping it on the floor (step-ping on it just about guarantees com-plete destruction), sliding it througha closed negative holder, leaving itunprotected while you go out for asnack, and trying to rub dust off witha cloth that could pass for sandpaper.

Processing 241

Ernst Haas, City Lights. Courtesy Magnum Photos, Inc., New York.


appendix 2 Color

t's a good idea to spend atleast a year concentratingon black-and-white pho-

tography, before adding any othercomplications. As you become fluentin black and white, however, you willprobably want to explore colorphotography as well. It is an equal,though not necessarily greater, sourceof discovery and expression. It is nomore difficult and no easier; no moreor less important, "artistic," or ex-pressive than black-and-white. It'ssimply different.

Certainly every photographershould learn to work in both black-and-white and color. You maychoose to use one more than theother, but you should get to knowboth.

This chapter is intended solely asan introduction. Full coverage of allthe various aspects of color photog-raphy would require a book in itself.Color imposes a new layer of possi-bilities and decisions. The skills andinsights you've already developed inblack-and-white, however, will giveyou a head start.

FROM B&W TO COLOR

What changes when you move intocolor? What stays the same? Let'sdeal with the second question—andshorter answer —first .

David Hockney, Studio, L.A., Sept. 1982. Photographic collage, ©David Hockney. If Hackney's intention here is to simulate human sight,in what ways would you say he has succeeded?

243

One key to effective colorphotography is including an ap-propriate number of colors in anysingle photograph. Though lots ofsplashy colors may be perfect forsome subjects, others—such as thiswinter detail— achieve greater impactwith a limitedpallette. Notice how thegreen leaves stand out clearly from themore neutral brown and white back-ground. Student photograph by MarkHarrington.

The basic photographic processstays the same. Light enters thecamera and exposes silver crystals onfilm. The main difference is that thefilm has four layers, each of whichcaptures one color of light. Whenthese layers are dyed the right colors,they produce overlapping dots whichproduce a wide range of tints andshades. The result is a color image.

The equipment also stays the same,for the most part. You use the samecamera and same lenses. If you doyour own processing, temperaturecontrol becomes more important dueto more sensitive chemicals. Theenlarger must be equipped with filtersfor color printing. Outside of that,and a number of additional steps, theprocedures remain similar.

What changes? The most obvious

change is that colors will be recordedas colors, instead of black, white orgray. As a result, you'll need to beaware of whether those colors com-plement each other or clash. You'llhave to pay attention to the ability ofsome colors to "steal" attention awayfrom what you've chosen as the sub-ject. You'll also have to learn to con-trol the range of colors in a photo-graph: how many colors are in it, andhow bright or dark they are.

Finally, you'll have to choose be-tween negative (print) or reversal(slide) film. Each has its benefits anddrawbacks and is suited to a specifickind of work. You'll also have tospend more money.

The following sections will providea brief discussion of each of theseissues.


Complicated ImageryThe first thing you're likely to noticewhen you first start working in coloris that there's suddenly a lot more tothink about. Color tends to make in-dividual objects more noticeable.What was pattern in a black andwhite may be a chaotic mess of sep-arate things in color, each one tryingto be the dominant subject. If thebackground colors are too strong,they'll overpower your subject. Ifthey're too weak, they'll decrease itsimpact.

The best way to begin with color,therefore, is probably to stick to astrict "diet." At first, try to have onecolor theme t h r o u g h o u t eachphotograph.

Look for images in which a singlecolor, or a group of similar colors,appears in various places. A blue carin front of a blue house, for exam-ple, or someone in a purple coat witha pink umbrella, standing next to astop sign. This is equivalent to apainter's selection of a palette, a setof related colors to use throughout apicture. You might also look forlighting situations that give a colorcast to an entire scene, such as theorange light of late afternoon, or thepale blues of a morning mist.

Once you get a feel for colorthemes like these, try introducing one"discordant note," a color that con-trasts or even conflicts with theprevailing color theme. For example,you might photograph someone in abright red shirt sitting in the blue carin front of the blue house.

A second way to keep color undercontrol is to use the relative sizes ofobjects to structure a photo. For ex-ample, if that blue car is the subjectof your photo, but the house behindit is brown and the person sitting init is wearing a light green shirt, you

All of the basic compositional elements of black and white photography alsoapply to color. Notice how the repeating shapes of the bowls and peppers pro-duce interesting visual harmonies in this photograph. The bright colors addimpact, but do not alter the essential composition. Would this photograph workequally well in black and white? Why or why not? Student photograph by JoshNoble.

Color 245

Joel Meyerowitz, Red Interior,Provincetown, 1977. Crisp focusand intensity of color give thisscene a surreal air. Does thereseem to be an unfinished storyhere?

can't get a color theme. You can,however, move in close on that car,possibly shooting it from the frontrather than the side, so it fills theframe as much as possible. The carshould almost certainly cover thefour key points of the compositiongrid. By doing this, you will ensurethat the blue car is clearly dominant,and that the less important features(the person and the house) are lessconspicuous.

What can you do to emphasize theperson in the car? How would youcompose the photo to emphasize thehouse?

Similarly, if you want to single outone subject from among a clutter ofshapes and patterns, move in close toit. Make it as large as your com-position will allow, and position itover one or more of the key pointsof the grid.

Another good way to single out asubject is to "spotlight" it. If the lightis brighter on your subject than on itssurroundings, then the subject willnaturally "pop." It will stand outclearly. If the natural light doesn'tprovide an opportunity for this ef-fect, you can "fake" it by using areflector (such as a mirror or a piece


of white mat board) or flash fill (seeAppendix) to throw some additionallight onto your subject.

How do you achieve this? One wayis to be patient and hope that eitheryour subject moves or the light does.Another way is to make sure that thesun is behind you, so it is likely to beshining on your subject. If you dothat and get up close, your subjectwill generally appear brighter thanthe background.

Sometimes you'll want to do justthe opposite of "spotlighting." Ashadowed or silhouetted subject canoccasionally stand out beautifullyfrom a brightly colored background.

The main thing you need to keepin mind is that a color photograph isalmost always "about" color beforeit is about anything else. The colormakes its impact first, and otherelements emerge more gradually. Ifyou don't control the color by de-ciding how much of it gets into thephoto, then it will probably competewith your subject, rather than en-hancing it.

Pow! or Subtle?As you begin playing with colorthemes and different palettes, you'llalso want to begin making decisionsabout value. Value, as you mayrecall, is the darkness or lightness ofcolor tones. In black-and-whitephotography, value concerns therange of grays. In color photography,it essentially concerns the density ofcolor. If you underexpose a colorphoto, you will intensify and darkenthe values in it. You will increase theirdensity. If you overexpose it, you willlighten and possibly weaken them,reducing their density.

Most color photographers settle ona value level that expresses the waythey see things, and then tend to stick

Eliot Porter. Frostbitten Apples, Tesuque, New Mexico, November 21,1966. Dye-transfer photograph. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NewYork (Gift of Eliot Porter in honor of David H. McAlpin, 1979).

Color 241

One way to produce a color photo-graph is to add the color yourself,using paints, markers or other mediaon a black-and-white print. This cre-ates a somewhat surreal image,which can be very effective. (Studentphotograph by Eric Babbitt.)

close to this level in most of theirwork. Before you decide on a con-sistent value level, however, be sureto experiment. The best way to dothat is to bracket your shots. Makeit a habit to shoot one normal ex-posure first, and then to try severaldarker and lighter variations.

After a while, you'll probably findthat you generally want to set yourcamera a half or full stop above orbelow what your light meter indi-cates. If so, you might want to ad-just the ISO accordingly. For exam-ple, let's say you want to underexposeKodachrome 64 by about half a stop.To do that, set the ISO at 80. If youwant to go even darker most of thetime, set it at 100. Bear in mind,however, that you will be darkeningeverything. This means that you'llhave to be especially careful to avoid

shadows on people's faces and otherpotential lighting problems.

If you want to get a lighter effect,you can try lowering the ISO to 50.Most color films are rated fairly lowalready, so it's unlikely that you'llwant to set them lower, but don't beafraid to try it. Sometimes even avery pale, washed-out look is justright.

The main point here is that youshould be aware of the effect that ex-posure has on color. Some photog-raphers prefer a dark, or colorsaturated, style. Others prefer a verylight, delicate one. Most probablyprefer to stay right in the middle,with "normal" exposures most of thetime. Take some time to sort out yourown preferences.


TECHNICALCONSIDERATIONS

In addition to all the various aestheticdecisions that color photography re-quires, there are some technical onesas well. As is usually the case, thesetechnical decisions have aestheticimplications.

Prints or Slides?The first decision you'll need to makeis whether to use film that producescolor prints or transparencies (slides).Both kinds can produce prints ofroughly equal quality, but you can-not easily produce good transparen-cies from negative film.

Transparency film (technicallycalled color reversal, since thenegative is chemically "reversed" toproduce a transparent positive image)

offers one distinct advantage: Afterit is developed, you can look at whatyou've got before making prints.With color negatives, you pretty wellhave to have prints made of an en-tire roll before you can choose theones you like. Transparencies are alsovirtually required if you hope to haveyour color photographs published.

On the other hand, if you knowthat you will always want just prints,then print film is what you shoulduse. This is especially true if you planto do your own developing and print-ing. To get a pr int from a trans-parency, you'll probably need tomake an interneg (by copying it ontoanother film) to use in the enlarger.If you have no use for the originaltransparency, then this merely addsan unnecessary step.

Finally, transparencies impose one

Don't forget to look for photographsin unlikely places. This reflection ofa neon sign is almost certainly moreinteresting than a straight shot of thesign would have been. Also noticehow the deep "saturated" colors addimpact. With color slide film, this ef-fect is achieved by slightly underex-posing. With print film, color satura-tion can be controlled during exposureor printing. Student photograph byJeff Frye.

Color 249

High-speed films (some rated as high as ISO 3200), can be used in very lowlight. Though they are grainer than slower films, most produce quite goodresults. Many photographers even find the grain of high-speed films to be anasset, since it conveys a soft, moody quality. Photograph by Michael F. O'Brien.


more important consideration: crop-ping. Unless you plan to make yourown prints from your transparencies,or are willing to pay for custom print-ing at a lab, you must do all yourcropping when you take a photo-graph. Is your eye good enough soyou never need to make correctionsafter, a shot is taken? Shootingtransparencies is a good way to findout. It's also a good way to worktoward that goal.

FilmsDeciding between negative and rever-sal f i lm narrows your choicesdown . . . but not by much. Bothkinds of film offer a wide range ofchoices in speed and other factors.The following examples of trans-parency films will give you an idea ofyour choices.

Kodachrome has been the reigningprofessional standard for severaldecades. It has a good grain struc-ture, which means that the dots thatproduce the colored image are smalland densely packed. It also has goodcontrast, so objects look razor sharp.These two factors are especially im-portant if you hope to have yourphotographs published.

Kodachrome reacts particularlystrongly to red, so anything red islikely to seem dominant. It's impor-tant to be aware of this, especially ifyour primary subject is not red. Allcolor films have a similar bias or cast.Kodachrome is not especially good atrendering bright greens, so if you'rephotographing springtime in thepark, for example, you might do bet-ter with some other film.

The grain structure of Ektachromeis not as good as Kodachrome's, giv-ing it a "soft" quali ty. It also hasrelatively low contrast and a greenbias. All these factors make it a goodchoice for nature photography. It isless good for some skin tones.

Fujichrome is a very bright filmwith a yellow bias. The brightness isthe result of an unusually thin emul-sion. Its grain structure is comparableto Kodachrome's, though it hassomewhat less contrast. Fujichrometends to make things look rathercheerful because of its brightness andyellow bias.

You also need to choose a filmspeed that is appropriate to specificsubjects and lighting conditions. Inmost cases, you want the slowest filmthat will work in the light you haveat the shutter speed you need. For ex-ample, on a bright, sunny day onwhich you plan to photograph peo-ple walking in a park, you mightchoose a fairly slow film, such as ISO50 or 64. For darker lighting or fastersubjects, you'll probably want afaster f i lm, such as ISO 200 orhigher.

You can get higher ISO ratings bypushing the film, achieving fasterspeed by altering the developmenttime. The f i lm that works best forthis is Ektachrome 400. Many labswill push it to ISO 1600 or 3200. Besure to point out that you want itpushed, and how high, when youdrop off the film.

MoneyOne last technical issue is money.Color film costs more than blackand white. It also costs more to de-velop and print. While shootingmany photographs of a single sub-ject is just as good an idea in color asin black and white, it is expensive.So, experiment to your heart's con-tent at the start. Later, once your ex-perience grows (and your walletshrinks), you'll probably want to bemore conservative. Try to make everyshot count. Don't stop bracketing,but be careful not to waste color filmon subjects that are only moderatelyinteresting. Hold out for the reallygood stuff .

Color 251

Student photograph by John Strange, Jr.


appendix 3 Manipulation &Presentation

PRESENTATION

Mounting PrintsAny photograph that is to bedisplayed, even just for a class crit,should be mounted. This will preventthe photograph from curling and helpto protect it from accidental damage.

There are several ways to mount aphonograph. The most common is touse Jr; mount (issue in a heatedmounting press. This procedure isexplained below. Another, moresophisticated technique is to use avacuum press, in which a specialspray is used instead of the dry mounttissue. The simplest technique is touse spray mount, a rubber cementspray that produces an even gluingsurface. This is an acceptable (and in-expensive) alternative if you don'thave access to a press.

When you are ready to hang ashow (and probably not before then),you will want to put your prints insome kind of frame. This is calledmatting. We'll get to that after wediscuss mounting.

• Dry-Mounting: ToolsMounting Board: You can

mount a photograph on virtually anystiff fiber-board. One of the bestmaterials is Bainbridge Board IM , athin mat board with a smooth sur-face. Any other non-corrugated, stiff

cardboard, however, will workalmost as well.

Dry Mount Tissue: This is a kindof tissue paper that contains a specialglue. The glue is activated by heatand tends to be very permanent. Youwill place a sheet of dry mount tissuebetween a print and a mountingboard, like a sandwich, then heat itand press it to stick the whole thingtogether.

Paper Cutter: The first step inmounting a print is to trim off thewhite borders around the edges. Youwill probably also need to tr im yourmounting board, so a fairly heavy-duty paper cutter is recommended.

Always be mindful that a papercutter is a very dangerous tool. Useit carelessly and you could lose afinger. Never leave the blade up afteruse. Always look before you cut, tobe sure no part of you, your clothingor anything else you don't want to cutis in the path of the blade.

Tacking Iron: Before going intothe press, a photograph must be an-chored in place with a tacking iron.This is exactly like the sort of ironused to press your clothes, except it'ssmaller and has a long handle.

Mounting Press: A mountingpress provides two things: heat andweight. The heat activates the drymount tissue's glue. The weightpresses everything flat. The press is

equipped with a thermostat and alight to indicate when it is at the cor-rect temperature for mounting.

• Dry Mounting: Procedures/. Place the photograph face-down

on a clean surface.

2. Place a sheet of dry mount tissueon top of the photograph.Be sure the tissue is large enoughto cover the entire image area.

3. With the tacking iron, attach thetissue to the photograph, at thecenter.Lightly "iron" the tissue so itsticks to the center of the photo-graph. Confine the tacking ironto the smallest area possible, justenough to hold the tissue in place.

4. Trim all borders off the photo-graph (and, of course, off thetissue as well).

253

5. Place the photograph face-up ona piece of mounting board.

6. Lift one corner of the photo-graph (keeping the tissue flatagainst the mounting board) andtack the tissue to the board.

7. Cover the print with a cleancover sheet (ordinary tracingpaper will do fine) and slide it,with the attached mountingboard, into the press.

8. Close the press and let it "cook"for 5-10 seconds.

9. Check to be sure the print isfirmly mounted.The best way to do this is togently curve the mounting board.A well mounted print will curvewith it. A poorly mounted onewill begin to peel away. If thishappens, press it again.

10. Trim the edges of the mountingboard flush with edges of thephotograph.The easiest way to do this is totrim a fraction of an inch (say1/8") off all 4 sides of the print.Use a mat knife if you have oneand know how to use it safely, orjust chop the sides off with thepaper cutter.

• Spray Mounting: ToolsSpray MountMounting BoardPaper Cutter and/or Mat KnifeNewspaper

• Spray Mounting: Procedures/. Select a work area that has

plenty of ventilation.

2. Spread an ample supply of news-papers on the floor (or otherworking surface) to protect itfrom the spray mount glue.

3. Trim all borders off thephotograph.

4. Place piece of scrap paperslightly larger than the photo-graph in the center of thenewspaper.

5. Place the photograph face-downon top of the scrap paper.

6. Hold the spray mount can about12" away from the print andspray an even coat of glue.

7. Let the glue "set" for at least 1minute.

8. Dispose of the scrap paper.The purpose of the scrap paperis to protect one print while youspray it. Don't re-use it. Don'tleave it lying around. You'll soondiscover that spray mount tendsto get all over everything if youaren't careful. If you do get spraymount on your print, hands orclothing, wipe it off with cottonor soft cloth dipped in rubbercement solvent or thinner.

9. Carefully set the photograph inplace on the mounting board.

10. Cover the photograph with trac-ing paper (or any clean paper orcloth).

11. Gently but firmly rub (or burn-ish) the photograph to ensurethat it is firmly stuck to themounting board.

12. Trim the mounting board andphotograph with a mat knife orpaper cutter.

Matting• Procedures/. Select or prepare a mat with an

opening slightly smaller than theprint. There should be at least 2inches of border on all sides.

Again, cutting mats is riskywork. Do it carefully and, ifnecessary, with assistance.

2. Mount the print in the exactcenter of a mounting board thathas been cut to the same size as(or slightly smaller than) the mat.Do not trim the mounting board.Follow the steps listed above tomount the print. If you're usingspray mount, center the print onthe mounting board before spray-ing it, and mark the correct posi-tion for each corner. This willenable you to position it correctlywithout smearing spray mount allover the mounting board.

3. Place the mounted print face-upon a clean surface.

4. Set the mat face-down along thetop of the mounting board. Theedges should be touching.


5. Use an 8" strip of masking tapeto attach the mat to the moun-ting board.This step is not strictly necessary.If you are placing your prints inframes, there's really no need totape the mat to the mountingboard. It's up to you.

6. Fold the mat over the top of themounting board.Don't worry if the tape shows abit, it will be covered by theframe.

7. Sign your name on the mat justunder the lower right-hand cor-ner of the print.

8. Write the title of the photograph(if it has one) on the mat to theleft of your signature (slightly tothe right of the print's center).

9. If you are producing a numberedseries (such as limited edition),write the print number on themat under the lower left cornerof the print.

10. Insert the matted print in a frame(generally under glass) and showit off.

Hanging a ShowThere are basically three approachesto selecting and arranging prints fora show. The first is to group theprints by theme (subject matter, style,tone, mood, etc.). The second is togroup them by photographer (assum-ing there's more than one). The thirdapproach is not to group the printsat all; just put them up in the orderthey come. Each approach can bequite effective. Base your decision onwhat feels right for all or most of theparticipants.

However you choose to arrangethem, it is a good idea to mix verticalsand horizontals as evenly as possible.You will probably want to separateblack-and-white and color prints, butnot necessarily.

Before you make your selection,decide where the show will be hungand calculate how many prints will fitwell in the space available. Theyshould be at least a foot apart,preferably further. Generally, it's agood idea to hang the photographs ina single row at average eye level. Ifyou do hang all the prints at onelevel, be sure it is exactly the samelevel. This may require considerableadjustment, so leave yourself plentyof time for it.

Be sure you have a good methodof hanging the prints . . . and onethat won't destroy the walls. Onemethod that is often successful is tosuspend the prints from wiresattached to the moulding along theedges of the ceiling.

Each photograph should be ac-companied by a small placard withthe name of the photographer, thetitle of the photograph, the date itwas taken (month and year are suf-ficient) and where it was taken.

In addition, there should be somekind of sign at the entrance, to attractattention and suggest the show'stheme. The theme may be nothingmore than "recent work by thephotography class." It may be asvague and suggestive as "light andshadow." Or it may be as specific as"views of main street." Be certain,however, that the theme is represen-tative of the show as a whole.

In general, a show is an excellentopportunity to work as a team. Bycooperating and working together,you can produce something that is"greater than the sum of its parts."

Slide PresentationsOnce you've begun to experimentwith color photography, you maywant to produce a slide presentation.This can be done as a solo project oras a group venture.

To be effective, a slide show vir-tually has to have an identifiable se-quence. That sequence may be chron-ological (the "how I spent my sum-mer vacation" sort of thing); it maybe thematic (shifting moods, lighting,a linked series of subjects, etc.);or it may follow some narrativestructure.

You might want to make your ownequivalent of a rock video by illus-trating a favorite song. This is espe-cially effective if the song is aboutsome issue you care about (love songscan be tricky). You might illustratea piece of jazz, folk, classical or con-temporary instrumental music. Youmight combine music and narration,perhaps using poetry to suggest thethemes of your photographs. Youmight even team up with a musician

Manipulation and Presentation 255

friend and compose something en-tirely original.

With any of these approaches,don't feel tied to a literal expression.Instead, try to combine sounds andimages that evoke the same mood.You might select a piece of music thatsuggests a certain environment to you(a forest, mountains, a river, citystreets, etc.) and shoot a series ofphotographs of that environment.

However you structure your slideshow, a few basic rules will apply.First, remember that your primarypurpose must be to entertain . . . orat least to hold your viewers' interest.Even if you're sure everyone wouldlove to watch your show till dooms-day, don't let it run for more than 20minutes. Five minutes is a perfectlygood length. Three minutes is notnecessarily too short.

Avoid abrupt shifts of light valuefrom one image to the next. Don't gofrom a very dark slide to a brightwhite one if you can possibly avoidit. Certainly don't do this often. Thestrain on viewers' eyes will seriouslyreduce your show's impact.

Look for color harmonies in yourslides and try to arrange them so theharmonies are evident. For example,you might have one slide of someoneholding a red flower. The next slidecould have someone in a red shirtstanding in the same general area ofthe frame as the flower. If that per-son is also wearing black pants, yournext slide might show a blacktop roadin the same general area as the pants.Establishing these kinds of patternscan help provide a sense of flow.

Finally, be a critical editor. Thereare few things as dull as a slide showfull of photographs that "gotaway" —overexposed, underexposed,poorly focused, poorly composedshots. If a slide isn't technically good,

it is not worth showing. Test yourshow on some trusted friends beforeyou inflict it on an unsuspectingpublic. Do whatever you must tomake it interesting, even if thatmeans cutting out all your prizedslides of your parakeet.

MANIPULATION

Sometimes you can increase a photo-graph's impact and effectiveness byproducing a non-standard print of it.There are many ways of altering aprint's appearance, some of which areexplained in this section. One wordof warning: It is very easy to get car-ried away with these special effectsprocesses. If you're not careful, youmay fool yourself into believing thatyou're producing great art whenyou're only playing visual games. Tryto discipline yourself to not indulgein a special effect without a goodreason.

Kaleidoscope Composite PrintBy combining 4 2x3" prints of asingle photograph into one compositeprint you can produce startling andintriguing images with a kaleidoscopeeffect. It's important to be as preciseand neat as possible in assembling thecomposite print, so it will appear tobe a single image, rather than 4 piecesglued together.

You'll generally get better resultswith a photograph that has diagonallines, rather then just vertical andhorizontal lines. Curves, especially ifthey run out of the frame, also workwell. The subject mater is virtually ir-relevant. Any subject can produce aninteresting effect . . . if the composi-tion makes an interesting pattern.

• Procedures/. Place the photograph you have

selected in the enlarger andturn the enlarger light on.

2. Set your easel up for a2x3 "print and posit ion it so thephotograph is cropped the wayyou want it.

3. Place a sheet of tracing paper inthe easel.

4. Draw an outline of objects in thephotograph, carefully markingthe exact location of keyelements. Outline the frame ofthe photograph as well by run-ning your pencil around theedges of the easel's blades.

5. After you have determined theproper exposure, expose 22x3"sheets of photo paper in theusual way.

6. Reverse the negative.This is where the outline drawingcomes in handy. Place it back inthe easel (upside down) and lineup the projected image with it.Bear in mind that you may needto re-adjust your focus. If so, dothis before you line up the imagewith the drawing.

For best results, simply turnthe negative holder upside down,without removing the negative.With some enlargers, however,this is not possible. In this case,you'll have to remove thenegative, turn it upside down,and re-position it in the negativeholder. Some adjustment may berequired to get everything linedup just right.


7. Expose 2 more 2x3" sheets.

8. Develop all 4 prints at one time,to ensure that they all come outexactly the same.It's a good idea to hold on to theblack plastic bags in which photopaper is usually packaged. Keepthem on hand for temporary stor-age of exposed photo paper any-time you want to do this sort ofbatch processing.

As you expose each sheet ofphoto paper, simply slide it intothe bag. When your whole batchis ready for processing, you canthen load it into the developer asa group. You will, of course,place each sheet of paper into thedeveloping tray separately, butyou should be able to immersethe whole batch within a fewseconds.

9. When your prints are processedand dried, experiment to seewhich arrangement of them ismost effective.Notice that you have 4 possiblearrangements. Try them all anddecide which produces the mostinteresting composition.

If you happen to notice thatyour prints don't match in ex-posure or cropping, then do themover until you get them exactlyright.

10. Mount the prints together ontoa mat board.This is the tricky part. There aretwo ways of doing it. The first isto arrange all 4 prints on onelarge sheet of dry mount tissueand anchor them in place with thetacking iron. Then tack the com-posite print onto a piece ofmounting board and press it.

The second approach, whichwill probably be easier andneater, is to cut the dry mounttissue to fit each print. Then tackeach print to its own piece of drymount, tack them onto themounting board, and press them.

Whichever approach you fol-low, neatness counts. Be sure thatall lines at the edges of the printsthat are supposed to connect, doconnect.

Strip CompositionAnother technique for producing sur-prising images is to combine 2 printsof a single photograph into a singlestrip print by cutt ing the prints intonarrow strips and re-assembling themas a single image.

Select a photograph that will gainimpact or expressiveness from the"choppy" look of a str ip print. Anyaction photograph is likely to be agood choice. Faces tend to producehumorous results. Experiment.

It is important to use a photograph

with relatively high contrast. At thevery least, be sure that the subjectstands out clearly from the back-ground, or the final strip print willjust look like mush.

• Procedure/. Make 2 prints using exactly the

same exposure and developmenttime.

2. Attach dry mount tissue to theback of each photograph withthe tacking iron.

3. Trim 1/16" off of one end of oneof the prints.Whether your photograph is ver-tical or horizontal, you'll gen-erally get the best results by cut-ting it the long way (i.e. cut a ver-tical print vertically, and a hor-izontal print horizontally). So,for vertical prints, trim 1/16" offthe bottom or top of one ofthem. This is to ensure that the2 prints are not quite identical,



which improves the effect.Leave the rest of the trim edge

intact for now. Do not cut it off.You'll need some space to num-ber the strips, and it's handy tohave some blank area to workwith when you assemble thecomposite.

4. Cut each print into narrowstrips.All the strips (for both prints)should be the same width, about3/8". Narrower strips work welltoo (down to about 1/4"). Widerstrips are generally less effective.

It is very important to keeptrack of the sequence of the stripsas you cut them. You can eithernumber them in the borders asyou go, or measure where yourcuts will be and number the stripsbefore you cut them.

It is also important to keep thestrips from each print separate.You may want to use differentcolored pens; or use "A "for oneprint and "B" for the other (i.e.Al, A2, A3, etc. and Bl, B2, B3,etc.); or use numbers for one andletters for the other; or numberone along the top and the otheralong the bottom . . . whateverworks for you.

5. Re-assemble the strips on a matboard, alternating one strip fromone print with one from theother.The easiest way to do this is to usethe tacking iron on the borders ofthe strips to stick them to themounting board. Get a bunch ofstrips (about 1/4 of the total)tacked in place, press them, tackanother bunch, press them, andso on until the whole compositeprint is assembled and pressed.

(Note: Do not place uncovereddry mounting tissue in the press.)

High ContrastA high contrast print (often referredto as a line print) is simply a photo-graph that is all black or white, withno gray tones at all. A photograph ofthis kind has a very dramatic, graphicquality. Special "lith" film anddeveloper are used that are not at allresponsive to gray.

For best results, select a negativethat will still make sense when all thegrays turn either white or black.(Light grays will turn white, darkones will tu rn black.) It should befairly contrasty to begin with, so thelith film won't get "confused."Generally, a simple image (one sub-ject against a plain background)works better than a complicated one.Elaborate patterns can, however,make very effective high contrastprints.

(Note: You can save a few steps ifyou have a suitable color slide towork from. In this case, your first lithfilm will be a negative. If the contrastlooks right, you can then go directlyto your final print.)

• ToolsLith Film: Normally used to

prepare photographs for printing, lithfilm has a very narrow contrast range(essentially black-and-white, with nogray tones) and fine grain structure.

Lith Developer: Though a highcontrast print can be produced with-out using any special chemicals, lithdeveloper is specially formulated toaccentuate the high-contrast tenden-cies of lith film. It will convert a nor-mal negative to a high contrast pos-itive in one step or "generation." Withordinary film developer, you willhave to make several "generations"(positive and negative copies) of aphotograph to achieve the sameeffect.

Most lith developers come in twoparts (A and B). Once they are mixedtogether, the resulting solution tendsto deteriorate quickly. So, be surethat you have set aside enough time(and negatives) to make good use ofthe entire batch before you mix it up.

Opaquing Compound: Once youmake copies of the original negativeon lith film, you can paint outundesirable effects. The "paint" you'lluse is opaquing compound (generally


(Note: Do not place uncovereddry mounting tissue in the press.)

So what's this about? ft hardly mat-ters. The point is that it makes youwonder, which gets your brain go-ing. The high contrast helps by strip-ping the image down to pureessentials. Would this image work aswell with a full range of gray tones?(Student photograph by DavidRiotteJ

just called opaque), a sticky red goothat effectively blocks all light anddries quite rapidly.

Brushes: You'll of course needsome brushes to paint on the opaque.Any ordinary watercolor brushes willwork, but a relatively fine tip isdesirable.

• Procedures/. Place the negative in the enlarger

and prepare to make an enlarge-ment measuring 2 '/>" X P/," (thesize of a 120 roll-film negative).

Be sure that your enlarger can ac-commodate a negative of thissize. If not, then use whatever sizeyou can. If 35mm is your onlyoption, then simply contact printthe negative onto the lith film.You may then contact print onelith film onto another . . . pro-ducing a final negative that is still35mm.

If, on the other hand, your en-larger can accommodate a neg-ative larger than the 120 size, thenuse the largest size you can. Using

the entire 4x5" of standard lithfilm is ideal, since that will giveyou more room to work in andproduce a more detailed print.

2. Stop the enlarger lens down tof/16.

3. Instead of photo paper, place apiece of lith film on the easel.To save on film, which is quiteexpensive, cut each sheet intoabout three pieces. Use these foryour test strips.


4. Make a test strip of at least 10,1-second exposures.

5. Develop the test strip in lithdeveloper and ordinary stop bathand fixer.

6. Select the shortest exposure thatproduces a deep black in thedarkest shadow areas.

7. Expose and process a full sheetof lith film.

8. Use the opaquing compound toblock out areas that you want toappear as solid blacks on thefinal print.

9. Remove the negative from theenlarger.

10. Raise the enlarger and make acontact test strip of at least 8,2-second exposures onto a thirdpiece of lith film (with the aper-ture still set at f/16).

11. Make a full contact print at theshortest exposure that producesa deep black.

12. Use the opaquing compound toblock out any areas that youwant to appear as clear white inthe final print.

13. Cut the the final negative out ofthe lith film, place it in theenlarger, and focus it as usual.

14. Make a test strip on apiece of or-dinary photo paper (#4 or US forbest results).

15. Make your final print at theshortest exposure that producesa deep black.

SolarizationA solarized print is produced by mak-ing a normal print on film or paperand fogging it (exposing it to light)during development. The effect thisproduces is a result of the chemistryof the photographic process.

As you know, the developer causesa chemical reaction converting silvercrystals to silver metal. The wastematerial (bromide) of this reactioncollects around the edges of theimage, forming a wall. In addition,once the normally exposed image hasbeen developing for awhile, thechemical reactions in its area will beslowing down. Therefore, fogging theimage causes a greater reaction in theunexposcd areas. This part turnsblack very quickly. Only the wall ofbromide remains white. That is whatcauses solarization, or (as it is of-ficially known) the Sabbatier effect.

• Solarizing a Print: ProceduresThis is a very simple process. In fact,if you happen to dig through yourdarkroom trash, you'll probably findthat some prints have solarizedthemselves without any help fromyou. Any print that is exposed to lightbefore being fixed will solarize . . .including any that you throw awaywithout fixing. You can achieve moreaesthetically pleasing results, how-ever, by playing a more active role.

Solarization is a very fluid process:one that produces highly variedresults with slight variations in tim-ing. So, once again, experiment bychanging the timing of each step-but change them one at a time, soyou'll know what caused the resultingeffect.

/. Start as you normally would tomake a normal 8x10" print:Place the negative in theenlarger, crop, focus, determinetiming and expose.

2. Place the print in the developerand agitate normally for 1minute.

3. Let the print sit with no agitationfor 1 minute.

4. Expose the print to light until itbegins to produce an interestingresult.The print will begin turning grayand black at a rapid rate. Let itgo for a few seconds, then turnoff the light. Watch how the printdevelops and move it into thestop bath as soon as you likewhat you've got.

5. Fix, wash and dry the printnormally.

• Solarizing a Negative:ProcedureThis process is a bit more compli-cated. However, it produces supe-r i o r — a n d more control lable-results. Since it employs lith film,you'll need the same tools as for highcontrast printing.

1. Set up the enlarger to make a2 }/4 " x I 'A" negative.

2. Make a test strip on a piece oflith film.

3. Select the shortest exposure thatproduces a deep black and ex-pose the image onto a full sheetof lith film.


Student photograph by Ray Shaw.

4. Process the resulting positive im-age normally.Ideally, you should let the filmdry overnight. If you're in ahurry, however, you can use ablow dryer to speed things up.

5. Raise the enlarger as you wouldto make an 8x10" print andremove the negative from it.

6. Make a contact test strip on apiece of lith film, again selectingthe shortest exposure that pro-duces deep black.

7. Contact print the image onto afull sheet of lith film.

8. Place the lith film in lithdeveloper and agitate normallyfor 40 seconds.

9. Place the developer tray (with thefilm in it) under the enlarger.

10. Stop agitating immediately.

11. Let the film settle for about 15seconds (for a total of I minuteof development).

12. Turn the enlarger on and exposethe film for the same amount oftime as you used for your initialprint (at the same f-stop).The film will turn black. Don'!panic. This is what it's supposedto do.

13. Agitate the film normally to theend of the development time.

14. Stop and fix the film normally.After a minute affixing, you mayturn on the room light and ex-amine the film. It should be


predominantly black, with awhite outline of the image. If thenegative has a lot of gray in it,double the second exposure.

15. Cut out the image area and placeit in the enlarger.

16. Set the lens to its largest apertureand make a test strip with at least10 30-second exposures.Depending on how fully solarizedyour negative is, you may need avery long exposure to make yourfinal print.

17. Make your final print at the ex-posure that produces crisp andsolid black lines (not gray fromunder-exposure or blurred fromover-exposure).

Note: You can make a negativeimage (white lines on a black ground)by making a third lith film copy. Thisversion will be far easier to print,since most of the negative will beclear. If you have trouble getting agood positive print , you're almostcertain to succeed with a negativeone.

Toning and TintingB&W photographs don't necessarilyhave to remain black and white. Youmay want to give the whole image acolor tone, such as the warm, brown,"old-fashioned" look of sepia. Alter-natively, you may want to add realor imagined colors to a pr int bypainting it with photographic t ints .

• Toning: Tools and ProceduresChemicals: Toning is a two-step

process. First you bleach the print.Then you re-develop it in a toningsolution. The easiest method of ob-taining the right kind of bleach and

toner is to buy a kit that containsthem both. If you can't find the rightkind of k i t , buy the toner and readits label to find out what k ind ofbleach to use. Toners are available insepia, blue, red and other colors.

/. Expose and process a print asnormal.The print should be fully fixedand washed, but need not bedried. If, however, you want totone an already dry print, that'sfine too.

Once your original print isready, you may work entirely innormal room light.

2. Soak the print in the bleach solu-tion for the specified period oftime or until the blacks are re-duced to pale browns (usually 2to 3 minutes).

3. Place the print in the tonersolution.The image should become clearagain within a few seconds.

4. Soak the print in the toner, withsome agitation, for the specifiedperiod of time or until the imagereturns to full strength (about 5minutes).

5. Wash and dry the printnormally.

• Tinting: Tools and ProcedurePhotographic Dyes: Several

manufacturers produce dyes speciallyformulated for tinting photographs.Ask at your local camera store.

Cotton Balls: These will be usedto dampen and paint large areas ofthe print .

Brushes: Any good watercolorbrushes will do fine. Try to have a

variety of sizes on hand, including atleast one small brush for details.

/. For best results, begin with asepia-toned and mounted print.A normally exposed black-and-white print is likely to be too darkin the shadow areas to be suitablefor tinting. If you aren't able touse a sepia-toned print, make alighter-than-normal black-and-white print and use that.

Do mount the print before youbegin, as the dyes may be sen-sitive to heat.

2. Wipe the print with a damp cot-ton ball or lint-free cloth orsponge.This will enable the surface of theprint to absorb the tints moreevenly.

3. Dip a cotton ball into water andthen add some dye to it. Use thisto fill in any large areas, such asthe sky, a building, foliage, etc.

4. Dip a brush into water and adddye to it. Paint in the smallerareas.

5. Use several layers of thin dye,rather than a single heavy layer,to achieve dark colors.

6. When the print is colored to yoursatisfaction, simply set it aside todry for awhile.


RetouchingEven if you are extraordinarilycareful, sooner or later you're likelyto need to hide a few blemishes on aprint. That bit of dust that justwouldn't go away, a developmentflaw or scratch on the negative, ahighlight that won't quite burn in . . .these are example of situations thatrequire retouching.

• Tools and ProceduresThe simplest, least expensive and (inmost cases) least effective retouchingtool is a set of paints (usually black,white and sepia) sold at most photostores. While these can be very usefulfor fixing minor, small flaws, theirutility is very limited. To use thepaints (generally known as spottingcolors), simply rub the tip of amoistened brush in the color youneed, adding water until you have theappropriate shade or tint. Then paintthe color on the print as needed.

A more sophisticated alternative isspotting dyes. These actually changethe pigment of the photographicimage, rather then merely covering itup. Use a very finely tipped paint-brush to apply the dye in dots. Neverpaint in lines or strokes, just tap outa series of small dots until you haveachieved the result you want.

Always practice on a print youdon't care about, to warm up andselect just the right tone of dye. Someprints will need a warm gray; somewill need a cold gray. Once you feelready, start working on the actualprint, beginning with the lightestgrays and proceeding to any darkertones you need. Dilute the dye with

water so it is a bit lighter than thearea on which you plan to use i t .Then blot it almost dry on a lint-freecloth before starting to work on theprint. Let it build up slowly to theshade you need.

Some dyes (such as Spotone™)actually get darker as they soak intothe print surface. Be especially sureto start out light with these, as youcan't remove the dye once it has set-

tled in.With all dyes, you may need to

dampen the surface of the print so itwill absorb the color well. This isespecially true for RC prints.

Major corrective surgery for abadly damaged negative or print canbe done with airbrushing. If you needthis kind of retouching, get help fromsomeone who already knows how todo it.


Photograph by Ron Schloerb. Courtesy The Cape Cod Times.


appendix 4 Advanced Techniques

TOOLS

TripodAny time you need to hold yourcamera very still, either during or be-tween exposures, you need a tripod.For example, you can probably hand-hold your camera (with a 50mm lens)at 1730 of a second without blurringthe shot. With a tr ipod, the shuttercan stay open for as long as neededwithout blurring. You can also use atripod to support a long telephotolens (if the lens needs support, itshould come with a tripod mount onthe barrel), to pan for action shots,to make accurate multiple-exposuresor to make a series of exposures ofexactly the same area.

There's no such thing as a goodcheap tripod. There's also no suchthing as a good small tripod. If atripod is cheap enough to be boughtwithout a second thought, it's almostcertainly too flimsy to be useful. Ifit's small enough to be carriedwithout a second thought, then it'scertainly too flimsy.

Plan to spend close to $100 for agood tripod. Also plan to complaina lot about how heavy your tripod is.Don't carry it around unless you ex-pect to need i t .

A good tripod is, above all, sturdy.When extended to its full height, itshould not wobble, wiggle or shake

265

in the wind. Its full height, for mostpurposes, should bring the camera atleast up to your eye level, preferablyhigher. The tripod's head (theplatform on which the camera ismounted) should move through allconceivable angles (up, down,around, and side to side). It .iliouldlock tight and loosen quickly andeasily.

As for options, one hotly debatedchoice concerns the leg releases,which either clip or screw opsn andshut to unlock and lock the leg exten-sions. Clip releases tend to be fasterto operate and are less likely to"freeze up."

One option that is unquestionablydesirable is a removable or releasablecamera mount. On the simplest tri-pods, the camera screws directly on-to the tripod head. Unfortunately itcan often be exceedingly difficult tounscrew i t . The solution is to have amount that can be removed orreleased by flipping a lever.

Additional options that come inhandy but are not necessary includemetal prongs that screw out of therubber tips on the ends of the legs (toanchor the tripod in soil); a level (tohelp in aligning the tripod on unevenground); and a circular scale (formeasuring off camera positions fora panoramic series of shots).

When you use a tripod, first adjustthe legs so the head is just below theheight you need. Be sure the legs arespread out ful ly. Plant the feet firmlyin the ground if you're outside. Checkto be sure that the tripod is sturdy.If it isn't, adjust it. Attach the camerabody (or lens) and crank the head upto the desired position. Aim thecamera at your subject. Adjust thehead (or the legs if necessary) untilthe camera is level —line it up with thehorizon if possible. Shoot away.

For very long exposures (i.e., over1 /8 of a second), use a cable releaseto avoid camera shake. Unfortu-nately, some shutters will still pro-duce a considerable amount of cam-era shake, especially if the camera isfairly light and the tripod is unsteady.If your tripod does wobble despiteyour best efforts to make it standstill, you may do better by pressingdown hard on top of the camera andpressing the camera's own shutterrelease. Just be sure you don't wig-gle during the exposure. (This onlyworks for exposures down to about2 seconds.)

A short, inexpensive tripod can bevery useful in emergencies. It willcover your needs for steadiness undermost conditions . . . so long as youcan set the tripod on a table or canget the shot you want from a very lowangle. Do not extend the legs if theyare at all wobbly.

For sports photography requiringlong telephoto lenses and other situa-tions in which a moderate degree ofsteadiness will suffice, you might tryusing a monopod, which has one leginstead of three. Since you have toprovide the other two legs to hold thething up, it won't be much help forvery long exposures.

FiltersThere are essentially three kinds offilters: atmospheric, colored andspecial effects. Each kind has veryspecific uses.

The basic atmospheric filters areUV, skylight and polarizing. The firsttwo have very mild effects on thequality of the sunlight. Their greatestutility is in protecting the lenses fromaccidental damage.

The polarizing filter is more in-teresting. Under certain lighting con-ditions, it can reduce or eliminate

glare on glass, water or other partiallyreflective surfaces. It can darken col-ors dramatically. And it can makeclouds far more vivid in contrast tothe sky. Though most useful for colorphotography, a polarizer can help forblack-and-white as well. To use one,focus on the subject and then turn theouter rim of the filter. This shifts thepolarization, often substantiallyaltering the image quality.

Color filters have very different ef-fects in black-and-white and in color.When used with black-and-whitefilm, they can compensate for thefilm's limited responsiveness to cer-tain ranges of the spectrum. A colorfilter lightens the black-and-whiterendition of its own color anddarkens its complementary color.Red, for example, lightens red anddarkens blue.

When used with color film, coloredfilters can produce subtle or dramaticshifts in a subject's appearance. Asubtle shift might be produced byusing a light orange filter to enhancea sunset, for example, or by using alight magenta filter to "warm up" thebluish tones of twilight. A dramaticshift might be to use a green filter tomake your friends look like Mar-tians. Used carefully and for specificpurposes, color filters can be veryuseful expressive tools.

Finally, special effects filters do allsorts of things. Some play tricks withlight, some play tricks with color,some play tricks with your vision. Adefraction filter may make everypoint of light into a starburst or amini-rainbow or a repeating pattern.A multi-color or split-field filter com-bines two or more colors, such aspurple and yellow, to produce a sur-real lighting effect. A multiple imageor prism filter scatters a series of"ghosts" of a subject all around the


image area. Special effects filters (likeprint manipulation) should be usedvery sparingly and only for goodreasons. Used too frequently, theyquickly become boring cliches.

Motor DriveIf you need to make several exposuresfairly quickly-as in sports photog-raphy—then a motor drive or autowinder may be a good investment.

An auto winder, the less expensivechoice, automatically advances thefilm after each exposure. This is allthe winding assistance that most pho-tographers actually need.

A motor drive does the same thing,but does more as well. Generally, amotor drive will trigger 5 exposures,for example, every time you releasethe shutter . . . or 2, or 10, orwhatever number you select. It mayalso have a delay and/or intervaltimer, which will release the shutterafter a specified time or at specifiedintervals. Unless you have a clearneed for these features, a motor driveis primarily an excellent way to wastefilm. Stick with the auto winderunless you have a good reason not to.

FlashA modern electronic flash emits avery short (often 1/500 of a secondor less) burst of light that is essen-tially the same color as midday sun-light. To work properly, the shuttermust be in sync with the flash, whichmeans that it must be wide open atthe exact instant that the flash fires.If it isn't, only part of the frame willbe correctly exposed. The traditionalstandard setting for electronic flashsync is 1/60 of a second. Recently,however, there's been a trend towardfaster flash sync speeds (from 1/125of a second all the way to 1/1000),which can more effectively freeze

Advanced Techniques 267

motion.The flash sync speed should be in-

dicated on your shutter speed dial. Itmay appear in a different color thanthe other shutter-speed numbers, orit may be marked with a lightningbolt. Any shutter speed lower thanthe sync speed will work fine with theflash. You may get a flash-and-blureffect at a slower speed, with theflash producing a crisp, bright imageand the rest of exposure producing adarker blur. This can be very effec-tive or disastrous, depending on yourintentions.

Most camera-mounted flashes (i.e.non-studio models) offer one or a fewf-stop options. If you have a choice,you select the f-stop that will workbest for the range you need to cover(the approximate distance betweenthe flash and the subject). The flashthen sends out an appropriateamount of light.

More recently designed flashesallow you to shoot at any aperture(with some distance limitations) andwill pass your instructions along tothe camera for you (automaticallysetting the aperture and even theshutter speed). Though these modelscost over $100, they are very usefulif you need a flash often.

A camera-mounted flash is trig-gered through a hot shoe, the littleclamp above the viewfinder. Thissends an electrical impulse to theflash when the shutter opens, so theflash knows when to fire. Someflashes can also be connected to thecamera by a cord attached to the X-sync outlet on the camera body. Thispermits you to place the flashsomewhere other than on top of thecamera, which often produces a morenatural lighting effect.

Flash fill can be used to add light to undesirable shadows.

• Using a FlashThe basic rule for using a flash is this:A flash has been used well when itdoesn't appear to have been used atall. There should be no black ghostsaround your subject, no bleached outfaces, no red dots in the eyes. Unfor-tunately, this is a lot easier said thandone.

There are two basic applicationsfor a flash. One is flash fill, in whichthe flash simply adds to the existinglight. The other application is con-trolled lighting, in which the flash isthe dominant, or only, light source.

Flash Fill: Often, even whenyou're shooting outside in brightsunlight, you won't have the rightamount of light in some critical areaof your composition. A subject's facemay be in shadow, for example, orthe background may be too bright.Situations like these call for flash fill.

In the first case (a subject's face inshadow) you can use the flash tobalance the lighting. Let's say theoverall light of your image area callsfor an exposure of f/8 at 60 (remem-ber to use the flash sync speed!). If

you set your flash for f/5.6 (assum-ing you can) and expose the film atf/8, the subject's face will still beslightly darker than the surroundingarea, but all the features should beclearly visible. With luck and prac-tice, no one will know that you useda flash.

If you set the flash for f/8, the sub-ject's face would be just as well lit asanything else in the photograph. Thistends to produce "flat" effect and isgenerally not desirable.

What happens if you continue toraise the flash's power? It begins to"take over" and control the lighting.Let's say you set both the flash andthe camera lens at f/16. The back-ground will still be receiving only anf/8 amount of light (assuming theflash doesn't reach far enough to lighteverything up). So, the subject willnow be brighter than the surroundingarea. The effect will be a bit odd, butmay be very dramatic and interestingas well.

Depending on the flexibility ofyour flash, and how well you learnto use it, you can gain a tremendous


amount of control over everydaylighting situations.

Controlled Lighting: But whatabout the non-everyday situations?Perhaps you need to shoot indoors orat night. You will then have to relyon your flash as the primary or solelight source. This is a good deal moredifficult than flash fill.

While you can get good fill resultswith virtually any flash, controlledlighting pretty well requires a flashwith an adjustable head. At the veryleast, it should swivel sideways.Ideally it will swivel up and down aswell. In addition, a flash equippedwith its own light meter (which tellsit when to stop firing) will producefar more consistent results with farless hassle than one that you mustcontrol manually. But, here again,make do with what you have.

The first rule for controlledlighting with a flash is never point theflash directly at your subject. Thereare, of course, exceptions to thisrule . . . but not many. Direct flashtends to produce stark and un-pleasantly artificial lighting. Instead,try to bounce the flash's light offsomething, which will soften it andspread it around more naturally.

Indoors, the ceiling often worksperfectly for this purpose, if it isfairly low and light in color. Angleyour flash head (assuming it is ad-justable) so its light will shoot up tothe ceiling and bounce down right onthe primary subject of your photo-graph. If your angle is too low, thelight will end up behind the subject.If it's too high, it will light a little poolat your subject's feet.

If you don't have access to a nicewhite ceiling (or even if you do), youcan steal a trick f rom photo-journalists: the white card. Any cardwill do; a standard 3 x 5 note card is

Attaching a white card enhances the effectiveness of "bouncing" the flash offa ceiling indoors.

very commonly used.Wrap a rubber band around the

flash head and slip the card in underit, with most of the card sticking outbeyond the head. Angle the flash soit is aimed above the subject (bounc-ing off the ceiling if possible). Asmost of the light from the flashshoots upwards, part of it will bereflected from the white card directlyinto the subject. The light that hitsthe ceiling will help to illuminate thesurrounding space. With luck andskill, you can produce very adequateand natural lighting with this tech-nique, indoors or out. (Look closelyat the next press conference you seeon TV and you're certain to spot afew photographers using this trick.)

You can often find or concoctother reflecting surfaces as well: awhite wall, a window (which canreflect light from the inside as well aslet it in from the outside), a largesheet of white paper or mat board,etc. Keep your eyes open and you'llgenerally find what you need.

Shooting for PublicationIf you hope to have some of yourphotographs published (don't weall?), you'll have a head start if you'refamiliar with some basic guidelines.

First of all, it is a very good ideato obtain releases from everyone youphotograph. It is required for vir-tually all journalistic photography. Arelease is a signed contract giving youpermission to use a person's photo-graph in certain ways. If you have aphotograph published without arelease, there's always a chance you'llbe sued for invasion of privacy,misusing a person's image or causingthem some kind of damage (finan-cial, emotional, etc.). Here's a sam-ple release:


Use only the release portion (the firstpart) for anyone over 18 years of age.Have a parent or adult sign the con-sent form for anyone younger.

Don't panic every time youphotograph someone without gettinga release. First of all, as an artist youhave considerable protection. It isonly when you begin pursuing pho-tography as a business that releasesreally become necessary. The lawsvary from state to state, so it wouldbe a good idea to check things outwith a knowledgeable editor orlawyer if you plan to sell your photo-graphs for publication.

On a more technical note, it's im-portant to know how publication willaffect the quality of your photo-graphs. An offset printing press can'tgenerally print gray. Instead, itreduces the gray tones in a photo-graph to varying densities of blackdots. The dots are close together inthe dark areas and far apart in thelight areas. This creates the impres-sion of a continuous tone photograph(which is what your original is called).

A photograph prepared for publi-cation is called a halftone. It has beenscreened —copied onto high-contrast(lith) film through a screen, which

produces the dots. This process hastwo effects.

First, it increases the photograph'smid-range contrast. All the subtlegrays get separated out into a fewbasic values. The lightest graysbecome white (or almost white) andthe darkest ones become black (oralmost black). Second, the screeningprocess decreases the photograph'soverall latitude —the total range oftones from black, through gray, towhite. This is because a halftone nor-mally cannot produce either pureblack or pure white. There are alwayssome white spaces in the black areas


and some black dots in the whiteareas.

Both these effects are most extremewhen the photograph is printed onnewsprint, which requires very largedots. Good quality magazine paperis more responsive, but still a far cryfrom photo paper. Some art bookscome quite close to matching thequality of the original print . . . butyou're probably a few years fromthat yet.

In essence, this means that in mostcases your photograph won't looknearly as good in a magazine as itdoes on your wall. A contrastyprint —with clear blacks and whites —will look fairly similar, though thecontrast will increase. A low-contrastprint may turn into a smudge, espe-cially when printed on newsprint.

You can minimize the damage byshooting with publishing's constraintsin mind. Always try to have your cen-tral subject fill the frame (so it getsas many dots as possible). Try tophotograph your subject against acontrasting background. A white wallwill set off someone's face and hairbetter than a gray or black one.

The standard format for black-and-white is an 8x 10" glossy print(5x7" for newspapers). The printshould have a label taped or glued tothe back with your name, copyright(i.e. © 1988), when and where thephotograph was taken, the name(s)of any identifiable person(s) in it anda note indicating that you have arelease if you do (i.e., Release onFile).

With color, the rules change a bit.The photograph is still reduced todots, but this time the dots are in the4 primary colors (yellow, magenta,blue and black) and they overlap ina sort of daisy-shaped pattern. Colorphotographs actually tend to repro-

Photographs that are reproduced by standard publishing techniques, such asall of the photographs in this book, are first "screened." This reduces all tones-white, gray and black—to dots of varying sizes. This is an enlargement of aphotograph used elsewhere in this book.

duce much more accurately in a pub-lication than black-and-white. Ingeneral, bright and saturated (strong)colors will work best. Good contrastwill help make the focus seem niceand crisp. The problem area generallyis shadows, which tend to becomemurky and blotchy. For this reason,it is especially important that facesand other key features be well lit.

For color work, most publishersprefer to receive 35mm transparen-cies. The films that produce the bestresults are Kodachrome (ISO 25 or64) and Fujichrome (especially ISO50), both of which have very finegrain and good contrast. Ektachromeis weak on both counts (grain andcontrast) and is not recommended forgeneral publication work.

On the slide mount you shouldwrite your name, copyright, whenand where the photograph was taken,the name(s) of any identifiable per-son^) and a note about a release ifyou have one.

Finally, before you abandon yourmost prized transparency into thehands of a stranger (or a friend, forthat matter) it's a very good idea toget a signed contract stating whatrights you have if the original is dam-aged. Generally, you should expect toreceive some extra payment if thetransparency cannot be printedagain. Anything from $50 to $200 isa reasonable starting point. A pub-lisher who values your photographenough to use it should be preparedto guarantee its safekeeping.


Cropping L's. Trace these templates onto paper, then mount on card-board to make your own cropping "tools." (See page 65.)

Mat frame. Trace this frame, cut it out, mount it on cardboard, and useit to select strong photographic compositions. (See page 64.)

273

Bibliography

Books

Books on photography move in andout of bookstores at a rapid rate.Many of this year's books will bereplaced by new ones next year, if notsooner. Any list of specific titles,therefore, is likely to be only brieflyvalid and unlikely to be very helpful.Fortunately, several excellent writersand important topics find their wayinto print year after year. As pointsof reference, they're likely to be moreuseful than specific titles.

The following list, then, is intendedas a general guide. Though sometitles are mentioned, the authors andtopics are more important. Checkyour local bookstore or library fornew or old books by these authors orabout these topics:

Davis, Phil Author of several ex-cellent instruction manuals. Hiscollege-level textbook, Photography(published by Wm. C. Brown Pub-lishers), is a detailed introduction tophotographic theory and practice. Itis highly recommended for anyonewith an interest in the technical sideof photography.

Eastman Kodak The "editorialteam" of this renowned film andcamera manufac tu re r producesbooks on a wide range of photo-

graphic topics. Some (notably TheJoy of Photography, published byAddison-Wesley, and The CompleteKodak Book of Photography,published by Crown) are essentially"idea" books, containing a mix of in-formation and photographs. Theywon't answer all your questions, butthey will make you want to get outand try new things. Others (such asthe DATAGUIDE series and avariety of how-to manuals) providemore detailed information thanyou're ever likely to need. Kodakbooks are sold in many camerastores, as well as in bookstores.

Equipment Manuals These arepublished by the manufacturers ofcameras and accessories, as well as byindependent publishers. They includespecialized guides to the use of brand-name cameras (such as Canon SLRCameras and Nikon SLR Cameras,both published by HP Books) andmore general summaries of importantaccessories (such as FlashPhotography, also by HP Books).For publications of this kind, checkin camera stores as well as bookstoresand libraries.

Hedgecoe, John One of the mostprolific and competent authors of all-purpose "how-to" guides. At least oneof Hedgecoe's books (including The

Photographer's Handbook, The Bookof Photography, The Art of ColorPhotography and John Hedgecoe'sPocket Guide to Practical Photog-raphy) should be included in everyphotographic library. All of themprovide brief and precise answers toa host of "How do I . . . ?"questions.

ICP The International Center ofPhotography, based in New York,produces one of the most impressivephotographic reference books, theEncyclopedia of Photography (pub-lished by Pound Press). Everythingfrom biographies of majorphotographers to explanations ofphotographic theory and practice iscovered in this enormous (and expen-sive) book. In addition, ICP isresponsible for numerous collectionsof photographs published in conjunc-tion with museum exhibits.

Inspiration The list of books thatcontain collections of photographs isvirtually endless. Every photographershould regularly spend time admir-ing, critiquing and learning frombooks like these. Fortunately, almostany bookstore or library will provideample opportunity to do so. Somenoteworthy publishers of photo-graphic collections include The NewYork Graphic Society, Aperture, and

275

The Museum of Modern Art (of NewYork).

Processing If you spend much timeworking in the darkroom, especiallyif you want to explore advanced tech-niques, you'll probably want moreguidance than we've offered in theAppendix. There are essentially threekinds of books for this purpose:general manuals, special techniquemanuals and standard referencebooks.

A good general manual will helpyou select and use equipment, explainboth basic and advanced proceduresand offer helpful tips. Examples in-clude The Basic Darkroom Book byTom Grimm (Plum Books), BasicGuide to B& W Darkroom Techniques(part of the "Learn PhotographySeries" published by HP Books) andBeginner's Guide to Color DarkroomTechniques by Ralph Hattersley(Doubleday/Dolphin). A specialtechnique manual may cover any-thing from high-contrast processingto the production of museum-qualityprints. Examples include DarkroomMagic by Otto Litzel (Amphoto) and,for advanced Zone System work,Ansel Adams' The Negative and ThePrint (New York Graphic Society).Darkroom reference books providevery detailed information on films,papers, chemicals and procedures.Examples include The PhotographicLab Handbook by John Carrol(published by Amphoto) and suchKodak publications as How to Pro-cess Ektachrome Slides Using ProcessE-6 and Kodak Black-and-WhitePhotographic Papers.

Special Techniques If you're in-terested in some particular aspect ofphotography, odds are that someonehas written a book about it. Few of

the more specific titles, however, willever show up in your local bookstore,or even in the library. If you wantmore information than you can findin the usual general interest books,try looking in Books in Print, a stan-dard reference available for use inboth bookstores and libraries. Mostbookstores will be happy to place anorder for you, and may even be ableto convince a library to do so as well.Examples of the kinds of books youmight find include John Shaw'sCloseups in Nature (Amphoto) andFrame It: A Complete Do-It- YourselfGuide to Picture Framing by ListaDuren (Houghton Mifflin).

Time-Life Another editorial team.The Time-Life Library of Photog-raphy is an extensive (and expensive)series of books whose titles includeColor, Photojournalism and TheGreat Themes. They are all goodreference books, though you'll prob-ably want to check them out of yourlocal library, rather than buy them.

Vestal, David The author ofnumerous instruction books stressingblack-and-white photography andprocessing. His books (especially TheCraft of Photography) are excellentresources for anyone wishing toachieve a high level of technical skill.

Zone System The exposure controltechnique of Ansel Adams and hisdisciples. If you're interested in pro-ducing exquisite prints of subjectsthat will sit still for a long time (likebuildings and rocks), then the ZoneSystem is an essential tool. It hasbeen explained in numerous books bynumerous authors, including Adamshimself. Probably the best knownbook on this subject is The New Zone

System Manual, by Minor White,Richard Zakia and Peter Lorenz(published by Morgan and Morgan).

Magazines

There are many magazines and otherperiodicals devoted to photography,from glossy, mass-market monthliesto simple camera club newsletters.The following list covers those thatare most commonly available. Thebest way to make your selection is tofind a bookstore or drugstore with anextensive magazine rack and browse.

American Photographer If youconsider advertising photography tobe as important as traditional land-scapes (as many contemporary pho-tographers do) then you'll probablylike American Photographer. If youenjoy a slick and occasionally flip-pant style, then you'll probably loveit. At the very least, AmericanPhotographer is more enthusiasticthan most photography magazines.In terms of content, it is primarilydevoted to discussing photographersand showing their work, rather thanto explaining how their results wereachieved or what tools they used.

Aperture This is the classicphotography magazine: a very seriouspublication, almost solely devoted topresenting the work of art photog-raphers. It is elegantly designed andbeautifully printed. Every photog-rapher should own at least one issue.

Darkroom Photography Foranyone wishing to master the dark-room, Darkroom Photography is animportant resource. It contains agood mix of detailed "how-to"guides, equipment reviews and collec-tions of inspirational photographs.


Modern Photography Both Mod-ern Photography and its near-twin,Popular Photography, are utterlypractical. Both are primarily aboutphotographic tools. Most articleseither evaluate a new product(camera, film, lens, etc.) or compareseveral that are similar. Collectionsof photographs illustrating a specifictechnique are another common fea-ture. At least half of the reason toread either magazine is the ads, boththe manufacturers' own and the mail-order listings in the back.

Peterson's Photographic This one issomething of an oddball. Despite astyle of writing and photography thatare notably outdated, Peterson'sPhotographic is one of the mostuseful photography magazines avail-able. It is filled with very practicalstep-by-step instructions on every-thing from studio lighting to buildinga homemade synchronizing flash trig-ger. The photographs are rarelybetter than mediocre, but the infor-mation is great.

Popular Photography See ModernPhotography.

Zoom Rather aggressively off-beat,Zoom is the main forum for whatmight be described as new-wave pho-tography. Stylistically, it favors bold,gritty imagery with a strong urbanflavor. It is primarily devoted to col-lections of work by contemporaryphotographers. (Parental discretion isadvised.)

Manufacturers' Magazines Severalleading camera manufacturers pub-lish magazines to show off thephotographs produced with theircameras. These magazines are equallyuseful for inspiration and critiquing,even if you happen to own a com-petitors' camera. Minolta's is par-ticularly good.

Bibliography 277

Glossary

Aperture Ring The ring on the lensof a manual camera which controlsthe size of the aperture.

Aperture The size of the lens open-ing. Apertures are measured bydividing the focal length of the lensby the diameter of the opening. Forexample a lens with a focal length of50mm opened to a diameter of 6mmwould produce an aperture (or f-stop)of f/8, or 1/8 the focal length.

ASA/ISO Standard numbers indi-cating film speed.

Cable Release A flexible cablewhich takes the place of a camera'sshutter release button, allowing aphotographer to "click" the shutterwithout shaking the camera. Usedprimarily for photography in lowlight, when long exposures arerequired.

Composition The arrangement ofobjects within the frame of aphotograph.

Contact Print A photograph pro-duced by placing the negative in con-tact with the photo paper under alight. For 35mm film, a contact printis almost exclusively used to test thenegative's quality and provide arecord of the photographs on i t .

Contrast The range of values in aphotograph or subject. Low contrast

compresses all colors into a narrowrange of grays. High contrastseparates the colors so the darkesttones are very black and the lightesttones are very white, often with littleor no gray in between. Normal con-trast provides black blacks, whitewhites and a wide range of grays aswell.

Critique The process, usually con-ducted in groups, of evaluating thestrengths and weaknesses of one ormore photographs.

Cropping Trimming the borders ofa photograph, generally to improvecomposition. Though the termusually refers to trimming done on afinished print, cropping may be doneby moving the camera before takinga photo, or by raising the enlarger sothat less than the full photograph ap-pears in the print. It is generallypreferable to crop before the print iscompleted.

Dynamic Balance A composition inwhich the visual elements arearranged to produce a sense of har-mony and to suggest motion of somekind.

F-Stop Number indicat ing aspecific aperture (or lens opening),such as f/16. Higher numbers in-dicate smaller apertures (f/16 issmaller then f/11). See Aperture.

Film Speed The rate at which filmreacts to light. A fast film reacts morequickly than a slow one. Film speedis measured as ISO and/or ASAnumbers. ISO 400 is twice as fast asISO 200.

Fixed Focal-Length Lens Any lensfor which the angle-of-view is not ad-justable (since extending the length ofthe lens narrows the angle at whichlight can enter it). For example, a50mm fixed focal-length lens willalways have a 55-degree angle-of-view. Any lens that does not have afixed focal-length is a zoom. (Seefocal length and zoom.)

Fixed Lens A lens that is per-manently attached to a camera body.

Focal Length In a general sense,focal length refers to the distance thatlight travels between entering the lensand arriving at the film. Longer focallengths produce a telescope effect,shorter focal lengths produce a wide-angle effect.

Focal Point The point at which allthe rays of light from a single objectconverge, causing the object to be infocus. By extension, the focal pointof a photograph is the object onwhich the lens is focused. Other ob-jects may of course be in focus aswell.

279

Focusing Ring The ring on a lenswhich moves the lens forward andback, causing objects to go in and outof focus at the film plane.

Ground-Glass Focusing Screen Apiece of glass with a matte finish on-to which the camera projects thesame image as it is projecting at thefilm plane, permitting the photog-rapher to compose and focus.

Highl ights B r i g h t areas of aphotograph or subject.

Interchangeable Lens Any lens thatmay be removed from the camerabody and, therefore, exchanged foranother.

Mass The apparent weight of an ob-ject in a photograph, as indicated byits size, tone (dark objects generallyappear more massive), position andshadow.

Negative Space The space betweenone object and the frame of a pho-tograph, or between two or more ob-jects within the frame.

Objective (adjective) Factual; notinfluenced by a person's feelings oropinions.

Point of Interest The object in aphotograph that attracts the most at-tention. Ideally the point of interestis also the primary subject (what thephotograph is "about"), but this isnot always the case.

Positioning Placing an objectwithin the frame of a photograph.Generally this is done by moving thecamera rather than by moving theobject.

Positive Space The space filled byan object.

Proportion The relative sizes of twoor more objects within the frame ofa photograph. (Proportion may alsorefer to the contours of a single sub-ject which, if distorted, may appearto be "out of proportion.")

Relation Anything that l inks two ormore objects together, such as asimilarity, contrast or contact bet-ween them.

Shutter A mechanical device whichuncovers a single frame of film fora specified period of time so lighttraveling through a lens can producean image.

Shutter Release A mechanical orelectrical but ton which causes theshutter to open.

Shutter Speed The time that a shut-ter remains open, expressed in frac-tions of a second (i.e. 1/125 of a sec-ond, commonly referred to simply as125).

Split-Image Focusing Screen Apiece of glass (generally a small cir-cle in the viewfinder) onto which twofragments of an image are projectedby the camera's lens (or lenses). Whenthe two fragments are aligned, theimage is in focus.

Static Balance A composition inwhich the visual elements arearranged to produce a sense of har-mony with no suggestion of motion.

Subjective (adjective) Dependenton a person's values, tastes oropinions.

Telephoto Lens Any lens thatreproduces a smaller than normalportion of a given scene, so objectsseem closer and larger than they ac-tually are.

Value The range of dark and lighttones in a photograph.

Viewfinder The camera's "win-dow," which shows the photographerthe image that will appear on thefilm. Many viewfinders also indicatethe amount of light entering the lens,the shutter speed and other technicaldata.

Visual Elements All the basic com-ponents of an image. An element isa fundamental unit, such as line,which cannot be broken down intosmaller parts.

Visual Harmony Any repeatingvisual element, such as a line or cir-cle or a larger pattern of shapes andvalues. Visual harmonies are used toadd in t e r e s t and s t r u c t u r e tophotographs.

Weighting Positioning key subjectstoward one side or the top or bottomof a photograph.

Zoom Lens Any lens of variablefocal length, i.e. with an adjustableangle-of-view. A 35-150mm zoomlens, for example, provides the samefocal-lengths as a 35mm, a 50mm anda 150mm lens, plus all the focallengths in between.


Index

Adams, Ansel , 23, 152, 168, 197

advanced techniques, tools, 265-269

aesthetics, 75

agitat ion, during processing, 230-231,

238, 241, 261

angle of view. 129- 131, 138

an t i - s t a t i c brush, 233, 237

aperture, 44, 113-115, 125, 126, 139,

198, 212

and clarity, 73

and portraits, 182

standard, 83-84

tes t ing , 48

aperture r ing, 46-47, 113, 115, 139

Arbus, Diane, 23, 210

Archer, Frederick Scott, 13architecture and environment

(exercise), 172

art , photography as, 16, 18-19,21,

23, 184, 209

ASA/ISO, 42. See also ISO

Atget, Eugene, 21

atmospheric filters, 266

au tomat ic cameras, 36-37

autowindcr, 267

average gray, 119, 121

balance, 74, 76

and composi t ion, 60-63

dynamic, 63, 74

of information and mood, 118

of l i g h t , 268

sta t ic , 63

base t in ts , 232

battery, 43-44

bicycle (exercise), 154

black-and-white f i lm:

chemicals for, 227-228

and f i l ters , 266

p r i n t i n g , 232-239

processing, 227-232

values and, 247

black-and-whi te photos, 119, 270-271

black-and-white p r i n t s , ton ing and

t i n t i n g , 262

Blacks, and photography. See Van

Dcr Zee, James

bleach, 262

blower-brush, 233

blurs , 71, 73-74, 129-134, 167, 206,

240

avo id ing ,132

exercise on, 134

unwan ted , 240

bottles (exercise), 162

bounce (Hash's l ight) , 269

Bourke-White, Margaret, 22, 28-29

bracketing, 123, 127, 191,214,248

and color, 248

exercise on, 127

por t ra i t s , 191

Brady, Mat hew, 14-16

brassai, 21

Bravo, Manuel Alvare, 24

brushes, 23, 259, 262

burners , 238-239

b u r n i n g ( in ) , 238-239

cable release, 43, 183,266

calotype, 13

camera back release, 44-45

camera obscnra, 11

cameras:

accessories for, 44

body of, inside, 45-47

choosing, 35-36

early, 17, 22

types of, 12, 17, 22-23, 36-37

camera shake, 73, 140-141

Cameron, Ju l i a Margaret, 13

cartes-de-visite, 13

Cartier-Bresson, Henri , 21, 24,

198-199

center of interest, 206

center-weighted averaging meters, 122

changing bag, 240

chemicals:

for b l ack-and-whi t e f i l m , 227-229,

234

for toning, 262

children:

exercise, 190

as subjects, 204

circles, 107, 109

exercise, 110

Civil War, photography of, 14

c lar i ty , 70-71, 73-74, 168

collodian process, 13

color cast, 245

color f i l m , 17, 243-244

bracketing, 248

complexity of, 245-247

contrast in , 257

cropping, 251

expense and, 251

technical considerations, 249 251

value and,247-248

Index 281

color harmonies, 256

color photos, 22, 23and publication, 271

color reversal film, 249

color saturated style, 248color theme, 245-247composition, 158

aspects of, 74-75and balance, 60-62

controlling, 167-168, 170

and dynamics, 62-63elements of, 51

and portraits, 181and structure, 53-56, 59-60

tips on, 58-59

and visual interest, 152compressed air, 233

computers:camera and, 25in cameras, 35

consent (permission), 270construction sites (exercise), 179contact print, 40

procedures, 234-235

tools for, 234-235contact printing frames, 234contact sheet, 235containers, airtight, 229context, 71

continuous tone, 270contours, 105, 109

contract, 271

contrast, 68-71, 98, 100, 134, 214251,271

in color film, 257

controlled lighting, 268-269

critique, sample (exercise), 76critique sessions, 67-68, 76

cropping, 65, 74, 75, 156, 176, 178,

256and color film, 251

exercise, 65and portraits, 194

Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande,

12-13daguerreotype, 12-13

Davison, George, 16


dead space, 61"decisive moment," 198

detraction filter, 266depth, line and, 90depth of f ield, 44, 73, 115, 124-126,

140, 206decreased, 140

depth of field preview button, 44depth of field scale, 47

density (of color), 247

detail portrait (exercise), 194developer, 227,229-231developer tray, 261

developing reel, 229-230developing tank, 227-231developing trays, 233, 261direction, and line, 87-89

disasters, with film, processing,240-241

distance, and blurring, 131, 133

dodgers, 238-239dodging (out), 239-239

double exposures, 240"doubler," 140

dry mounting:

procedures, 253-254tools, 253

dry mount tissue, 253-254, 257dust, 240

and f i lm, 231-233on negative, 237

dynamic balance, 63, 74dynamics, 62-64, 76

easel, 237,256, 259Eastman, George, 17

Edgerton, Harold, 22edges, of photo, 58, 60

eggs (exercise), 158

eighteen percent gray, 119, 121Eisenstat, Alfred, 22ektachrome (color fi lm), 251

elders (exercise), 187electronic flash, 267

Emerson, Peter Henry, 16

emulsion, 12,227-228,230on color film, 251

on negative, 236-237on paper, 233

enlargements:

procedures, 236-238

tools for, 236

enlarger, 232-237, 256, 259, 261-262

environment, 59, 154, 164, 179

architecture and (exercise), 172

familiar 192natural, 168, 170, 172

evaluation, of prints, 67-75

Evans, Walker, 22, 24

expenses, photography, 36, 39, 235,

244,251,265exposures, 113-115, 119

double, 240and portraits, 181

expression, as objective, 152

"extender," 140

faces, 187, 190, 206, See also Portraitsfairs (exercise), 200

farm (exercise), 176fiber-based paper, 238field of view, 138

50 mm lens, 38-39

film:black-and-white. See black-and-

white filmcolor. See color f i lm

disasters with, 240-241early, 17

grain of, 37-38loading, 49

pr in t ing , 232-239processing, 227-232

sensi t ivi ty of to l ight , 119speed of, 22, 42, 251

fi lm advance lever, 43

film-advance sprocket, 46fi lm canister, 228-229film carton, 42

film cleaners, 233

film developer, 227, 229-231film latitude, 119film plane, 138

film spool, 45

fil ters, 240, 266-267

fixed-focal length lens, 39, 142

fixed lens, 36

fixer, 228-229, 231,238

f lash , 22, 203,267-269using, 268-269

flash-and-blur effect, 268flash f i l l , 247, 268

f lashl ight , as light source, 212

focal length, of lens, 126, 138, 140increasing, 140

focal point, 124, 126

focus, 23,70, 73

focusing, 125-126, 176in advance, 198and portraits, 181

focusing ring, 46-47, 73fog:

on negative, 241on paper, 283

foreground, elongated (exercise), 224frame, mat, 64

freezing, 129, 132f/stop, 44, 47. See also aperturefujichrome (color fi lm), 251, 271

glasses, bottles and (exercise), 162glazer, 238grab shots, 181-182, 198gray card ,122grain (of f i lm) , 37-38, 227, 236, 271grain focuser, 236-237grain structure (color fi lm), 251

grease pencil, 40, 234great depression, photographic survey

of, 22group f.64, 152

Haas, Ernst, 23half-stop, 115

halftone, 270hand-held light meter, 121, 220hands (exercise), 186

harmony, visual, 107head (of tripod), 266high contrast print:

procedures, 259-260

tools, 258-259Hine, Lewis, 13-14,28

Hockney, David, 25

hot shoe, 43

hubcaps (exercise), 156

imagery, and color f i l m , 245-247image tone, 232

implied lines, 62-63incident light, 120-121

indicator stop b a t h , 228interchangeable lens, 36interneg, 249

interval timer, 228ISO, 83-84

and color, 248

journalistic photography, 269. See also

photojournalism

kaleidoscope composite pr in t ,procedures, 256-257

Karsh, Yousef, 23Kertesz, Andre, 21kodachrome (color f i lm) , 251, 271kodak camera, 17

Land, Edwin, 22landscape, 197

exercise, 170Lange, Dorothea, 22lat i tude (of photo), 270-271

leader, f i lm, 229leaves (exercise), 100

leg releases (tripod), 266leica camera, 17lens, lenses (camera), 46, 73

and angle of view, 130 131

choosing, 38-39fast, 139fixed focal length, 36, 142focal length of, 126funct ion of, 46interchangeable, 36

normal, 138and perspective, 138-140and point of view, 145-146

portrai t , 140

ranges of, 39slow, 139telcphoto, 138-142zoom, 23, 39, 141-142

lens (enlarger), 262

lens release and mount , 47Life magazine, 22, 28l igh t , 113-127, 165, 167-168,203

ar t i f ic ia l , 212controlled, 268-269and f i l m , 119and informat ion, 117low, 139metering, 120-121modi fy ing , 118-119and mood,d 118, 174and portrai ts , 182 184, 190, 191range of, 68, 127reflected, 120-121texture and, 96, 100value and, 68and visual interest, 152

l ight meter, 119. 120-123, 197-198hand-held, 212internal , 42not relying on, 83using, 121-123

l i g h t - t i g h t , 227line, 56, 62-63, 74-75, 97, 108

as subject in photogrphic theory,87-91

curved ,91horizontal , 59implied, 62-63stra ight , 90-91

vertical, 59line p r i n t , 258-260l i t h developer, 258, 260-261lith f i lm, 258-261lupe, 234lustre, 232

manipulat ion, procedures, 256-257manual cameras, 36-37. 39manual-override, 37mass, 103mat board, 257-258mat frame (exercise), 64matte texture, 232

matting, procedures, 253-255Meyerowitz, Joel, 244monopod, 266

Index 283

monotone (exercise), 214mood, 117-118, 165

light and, 174

l ine and, 90-91as objective, 152

and portraits, 183, 186, 191, 195mood portrait (exercise), 195

mot ion , 129-133blurred (exercise), 134visible, 115

motor drive, 43-44, 267

mounting board, 253-255, 257mounting press, 253movement, line and, 87-89multi-color filter, 266

multiple-exposure control, 44mul t i p l e image filter, 266-267Muybridge, Eadweard, 14, 16

natura l is ts , 16

negative, 228, 238reversing, 256solarizing, 260-261

negative clips, 228

negative file, 231-232,235negative image, 262

negative space, 58, 60, 74, 76, 160,216

using, 105-109

neighborhoods (exercise), 174Newman, Arnold, 27Niepce, Isadore, 12Niepce, Joseph Nicephore, 11-12night (exercise), 212

nine-zone grid, 54, 59, 75normal lens, 39, 138. See also 50 mm

lens

object and shadow (exercise), 160

old things (exercise), 160opaquing compound, 258-259

open markets (exercise), 202

optical center, 138ovals (exercise), 110

overdeveloping, for contrast, 134

palette, 245,247

palm reading (of l igh t ) , 122-123,222

panning, 132paper, photographic, 40, 69-70, 232,

235, 238

surface texture of, 232

weight of, 232paper cutter, 263patterns, 95-96, 154, 156, 174, 178,

202, 256

exercise, 92and line, 87-89recurring, 170

people, photographing, 181-195. See

also portraits

permission (for subjects), 182, 187188,202,269-271

perspective, 56, 137-145, 167, 172,176, 178

lenses and, 138-140

photographers, famous, 11-16, 18-24,28, 152, 168, 184, 197-199,214

photographic dyes, 262photography:

as ar t , 16, 18-19,21,23, 184,209careers in, 26-28

and computer, 25defined, 51-52, 84

freelance, 26-28, 31

history of, 11-31, 152, 168, 184,210issues in, 197

for pub l ica t ion , 269-271as seeing, 84staff, 27

photography show, hanging, 255

photojournalism, 22-23, 27, 28, 197"photo secession," 18, 20pictorialists, 16, 152, 184

places, photographing, 167-179plastic sheets (for storage), 40

playgrounds (exercise), 204point of departure setting, 83-84, 87,

113-115, 158, 162

point of interest, 74point of view, 145

exercise, 146

polarizing filter, 266

polka dots, on film, 241

Porter, Eliot, 23, 245portrait lens, 140

portraits, 26-28,63, 181-195, 197

exercises, 188-195portrait session, 183

positive session, 183

positive space, 60

presentation, 74, 253-256

primary subject, 62printing, tools of, 232-235

prints:color, 244, 249

evaluation of, 67-75mounting, 256-257non-standard, 256-262

screened, 270-271sepia-toned, 262

solarizing, 260strip, 237

prism filter, 266-267privacy, and portraits, 182

procedures:contact prints, 234-235dry mounting,m 253-254

enlargements, 236-238

high contrast print, 259-260

kaleidoscope composite pr int ,256-257

manipulat ion, 256-257

matting, 254-255

processing film, 229-231retouching, 263solarizing, 260-262

si r ip composition, 257-258tinting, 262toning, 262

processing, f i lm, 227-241

disasters in, 240-241

history, 17

negative file, using, 231-232

printing, 232-239

procedures, 229-231tips for, 228-229

tools of, 227-228proportion, 103, 108

prop portrait (exercise), 192props, 192

publication, shooting for, 269-271pushing (the fi lm), 251


rain (exercise), 203

range of l ight , 68"rapid fixer," 228

realists, 152reflected light, 120-121Rejlander, Oscar, 16

relation, 103-105, 124

release (permission), 269-270retouching, 31

tools and procedures, 263rewinder, 43

rewind release, 43r h y t h m :

and light, 123-124line and, 91

Robinson, Henry Peach, 16

rules:

for achieving objectives, 197-198breaking, 209-214

sabbatier effect, 260safelight, 233-235, 237saturated colors, 271Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 11Schloerb, Ron, 262Schulze, Johann Heinrich, 11-12scratches, 240-241screened print , 270-271secondary subject, 62self-timer, camera, 44sepia-toned print , 161

shadow, 158object and (exercise), 160

shape, 97, 103-110, 117and composition, 60

exercise, 110and light, 124repeated, 158

shutter, 45and flasK7267-268testing, 48

shutter speed, 113-115, 197, 198,212

and clarity, 70-71, 73

and motion, 131, 133, 134standard, 83-84

shutter-speed control, 42-43side-lit portrait (exercise), 191

silhouette, 117, 179exercise, 216

slide presentation, 255-256slides, color, 244, 249

SLR (single lens reflex), 22

snapshots, vs. photographs, 51soft focus, 70

soft-light portrai t , (exercise), 190solarization:

of negative, 260-262of p r i n t , 260

spatial relation, 103-105, 110special effects, and prints, 256-262split-field filter, 266sports, photographing, 206, 266-267

exercise, 206spotlight, on subject, 246-247spot meter, 120-121spotting colors, 263spotting dyes, 263spray mount, 253spray mounting, 254

stabil i ty, 107standards, 67-75static balance, 63, 74Steichen, Edward, 18, 23, 184stereoscopic camera, 13Stieglitz, Alfred, 18-19,21-22, 184stop-action, 206stop bath, 228-229, 231,238stop watch, 220, 230

store windows (exercise), 178Strand, Paul, 23streaks, 241street photography, 197

rules for, 197-198strip composition, procedure, 257-258

st r ip pr int , 257st ructure :

and composition, 53-56, 59-60

and line, 87-89style, 67,74-75

subject:and color f i l m , 246and contrast, 134

exploring, 84interacting w i t h , 181-183, 196

posit ioning, 54, 58

primary, 62secondary, 62

lacking iron, 253, 257, 258ta i l l ights (exercise), 156take-up reel, 46Talbot, William Henry Fox, 12telephoto lens, 39, 138-142, 162, 206temperature bath, 229temperature control, and color f i lm,

244tension, 206

visual, 107test strip, 235,259-261texture, 95-98, 108, 117, 165, 232things, photographing, 151-165

objectives of, 151-15235 mm lens, 38-39timer, 253l iming:

of processing, 230, 237-238of solarization, 261

tinting, tools and procedures, 262tones, 162tongs, 233-234, 238toning, tools and procedures, 262toning solution, 262tools:

for advanced techniques, 165-169of contact prints, 234-235dry-mounting, 253high contrast print , 258-259history, 17of manipulat ion, 256-263photography, 35-40of printing, 232-235for processing fi lm, 227-228retouching, 263spray mounting, 254tint ing, 262toning, 262

transparency f i lm, 249

tripod, 43, 73, 212, 265-266for portraits, 183

vacuum press, 253value, 68-70, 232, 247

and black-and-white f i lm, 247

Index 285

and color film, 247improving, 69-70

Van Der Zee, James, 20 21

variable focal-length lens, 39variables, 167

vertical lines, 59

viewfinder, 41-42viewing angle, 165-168visual harmony, 107, 170, 179

visual interest, 160

as objective, 152visual tension, 107, 160

wash, 231,238water (exercise), 164weddings, photographing, 26-27

weighting, 55-56, 74

Weston, Edward, 23, 152wetting agent, 229, 231White, Minor, 23, 24, 25

wide-angle lens, 39, 138, 206and distortion, 142

winder. See film advance lever

zone focusing, and portraits, 182zones, 53-54zone system, 168

zoo (exercise), 176zoom lens, 23,39, 141-142, 162,206

zoopraxiscope, 14


Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Scholas-tic, Inc., especially Eudora Groh andMimi Sanchez, for generous assist-ance in providing student photo-graphs. We also wish to thank theindividual teachers and students atSeoul American High School whoresponded to our request for samplesof their work, especially Jeff Frye,Trevor Bredenkamp and other stu-dents who undertook special assign-ments for us. Exercises on pages218-219 and 222-223 provided by Jo-lecn Mahoney Roe (Bethlehem Cen-tral High School, Dehnar, New-York). We are grateful, too, toTommy Clark (Lamar High School,Houston, Texas), Will iam Jerdon(Cleveland Heights High School,Cleveland Heights, Ohio) and Shir-ley Rosicke (John Jay High School,Hopewell Junction, New York) forcarefully reviewing the manuscriptbefore publication.

Scholastic Inc. provided photographsthat appear on the following pages:4, 9, 36-38, 50, 53, 57, 60, 63, 68,71-73, 75, 76, 80, 84, 85, 88, 91, 99,109, 112-114, 118, 119, 122-124,129-131, 133, 134, 140, 145, 164-167,170-173, 177, 181, 182, 187, 189,190, 192, 195-198, 202, 209, 210,219, 220, 221-223.

Sotheby's Inc. provided photographsthat appear on pages 14, 16-19, 21,22, 25, 27, 29, 153, 169, 185, 201,213.

The following high schools also pro-vided student photographs (pagenumbers in parentheses): DowlingH.S., West Des Moines, Iowa (56,149, 175, 193, 203); James W. RileyH.S., South Bend, Indiana (195);Wagner American H.S., Phillipines(70); Largo H.S., Florida (137); ColoCommunity H.S., Iowa (164, 171,209); Central Visual and PerformingArts H.S., St. Louis, Missouri (165);East H.S., Waterloo, Iowa (192);Bethlehem Central H.S., Delmar,New York (97, 177, 180, 192, 208,219,222-223,248).

Acknowledgments 287

R E V I S E D E D I T I O N


A G U I D E FOR T E A C H E R S

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTSThe following is a listing of the Essential Elements for Art Education prescribed by the Texas Education Agency.

1. Awareness and sensitivity to natural and human-made environments.A. examining a variety of objectsB. exploring art elements (line, value, texture, color, form and space)C. applying art principles (unity, emphasis, balance, variety, movement and proportion)

2. Inventive and imaginative expression through art materials and tools.A. designing, developing and creating original artworksB. working in art areas (ceramics, design, drawing, painting, photography, printmaking and sculpture)

3. Understanding and appreciation of self and others through art, culture and heritage.A. appreciating art (contemporary and past artworks)B. exploring art and artists through visuals and visitations

4. Aesthetic growth through visual discrimination and judgment.A. evaluating artwork (students and major artists)B. applying aesthetic judgments

TEXAS ASSESSMENT OF ACADEMIC SKILLSDOMAIN: READING COMPREHENSION Instructional Targets, English Language Arts (Exit Level)

R1 Objective 1: The student willdetermine the meaning of words in avariety of written texts.

• Use of context clues to choose theappropriate meaning of multiple-meaning words

• Use knowledge of the meanings ofprefixes and suffixes to determineword meanings

• Use context clues (e.g., synonym,antonym, definition and explanation,description or example) to determinethe meaning of an unfamiliar work

• Use context clues to determine themeanings of specialized/technicalterms

R2 Objective 2: The student willidentify supporting ideas in a varietyof written texts.

• Recognize supporting facts and details

• Arrange events in sequential order

• Follow complex written directions

R3 Objectives: The student willsummarize a variety of written texts.

• Identify the stated main ideaof a selection

• Identify the implied main ideaof a selection

• Identify the best summaryof a selection

R4 Objective 4: The student willperceive relationships and recognizeoutcomes in a variety of written texts.

• Perceive cause and effect relationships

• Predict probable future actions andoutcomes

R5 Objective 5: The student willanalyze information in a variety ofwritten texts in order to makeinferences and generalizations.

• Interpret graphs, charts, diagramsand tables

• Make inferences and draw conclusions

• Make generalizations

• Evaluate and make judgments

• Describe plot, setting and moodin literary selections

R6 Objectives: The student willrecognize points of view, propagandaand/or statements of fact and nonfactin a variety of written texts.

• Recognize the author's point of view

and purpose

• Recognize forms of propaganda

• Distinguish between fact and nonfact

Note: The wording of the instructionaltargets was taken for the most partdirectly from the Essential Elements asdelineated in the State Board of EducationRules for Curriculum. Each target isdefined in behavioral terms appropriatefor pencil-and-paper testing in the sectionentitled Description of Test Questions.

Continued on Inside Back Cover

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYEA Guide for Teachers

Michael F. O'Brien and Norman Sibley

Davis Publications, Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts

Copyright 1445Da\ is Publ icat ions . Inc.Worcesicr. Massachusetts. U.S.A.

Coordinating Editor:Claire Moubray Guiding

Production Editor: Nancy Wood Bedau

Design: Jan i s Owens

Production Artist: Tricia Def'orge

Manufacturing Coordinator:Steven Vogelsang

No part of this work may be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, i nc lud ingphotocopying and recording, or by anyin fo rma t ion storage or retrieval sy stemw i t h o u t the prior wr i t t en permission of thecopyright owner, unless such copying isexpressly permitted by federal copyrightlaw. Davis is not aulhori/ed to grantpermission for lu r ther uses of copyrightedselections or images repr in ted in t h i s textw i t h o u t the permission of their owners.Permission must be obtained from theind iv idua l copyright owners as ident i f iedherein. Address requests for permissionto make copies of Davis mater ial toPermissions, Davis Publications Inc . .50 Portland Street. Worcester. MA 01608.

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: S7192-2S4-3

1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

Contents

Introduction 5

Technique vs. Creative Expression 5

Part 1 Teaching with The Photographic Eye 7

Editorial Philosophy and StructureSpecial FeaturesApplicationCommunity Resources 9

Preparing the Classroom 15Basic Set-Up 15The Darkroom 18Defraying Expenses 22

Part 2 Planning the Course 24

Student Role 24Critiquing 24Teacher Evaluation 26Student Portfolio 27Class Variations 28Research Projects 28Exercise Variations 34Reteaching Options and Productive Play 35

Part 3 Useful Information 39

Health and Safety Guidelines 39Tools and Equipment 39Chemicals 40

18-Week Curriculum 4336-Week Curriculum 45Additional Sources 50Evaluation and Study Aids 53

Critique Form (for use by students) 55Photograph Evaluation Form 56Reading Worksheet for Chapter 1 57Quiz for Chapter 2 63Quiz on Film Developing (Appendix 1) 67

Final Examination Study Sheet 69Correlations to Essential Elements and TAAS 70

3

Introduction

TECHNIQUE vs. CREATIVE EXPRESSION

Like any form of art or craft, photography employs technical skills to facil-itate creative expression. Because it requires the use of a sophisticatedmachine (rather than brushes and paint or other simple tools), the technicalaspect of photography is especially important. However, once the basicmechanics have been mastered, photographers are exceptionally free toexplore the creative potential of their craft, because the camera does muchof the work that painters, for example, must continually strive to refine.

Ultimately, these two concerns — technique and creative expression —are complementary. Each enhances the other. In practice, however, anyonewho teaches photography must make some choices about which approachwill be given primary attention, take precedence as a criterion for gradingpurposes and promote the most productive learning experience.

Successful development of technical skills will enable students to pro-duce photographs that are well composed, exposed and printed. For studentswho already possess a clear sense of visual acuity, this approach may alsoresult in creative discovery and the depth of expression which genuine artrequires. In addition, acquiring precise and systematic work habits are poten-tially beneficial in other kinds of endeavors. On the other hand, techniquecan readily become too dominant, producing results that are precise but ster-ile, "correct" but uninspired and flawlessly dull.

An emphasis on creative expression may result in photographs thatare technically less than perfect, but it has one distinct advantage: acapacity to foster deep and lasting enthusiasm for the joy of looking, seeingand creating.

The Photographic Eye is devoted, first and foremost, to the goal of teach-

ing photography as a medium for creative expression. The technical aspects

are of course covered in considerable detail, but they are not the primary

theme. Instead, seeing — specifically "learning to see with a camera" — is

the core concern. In our experience, students who first learn to do this will

quickly move on to the next step — effectively expressing what they see —

and this, in turn, will give them the incentive to improve on technique. Webelieve that proceeding in the opposite direction, from technique to creativ-

ity, is both more difficult and less likely to be of lasting benefit.The lessons learned through the "creative" approach extend to every facet

of life, regardless of whether or not a student continues to apply them in the

field of photography. Those who pursue other visual arts will do so withenhanced perception and acuity. Even if the visual arts are abandoned, stu-

dents who have learned to look and see (and express what they have seen)will be enriched throughout life, trained to experience the world as a con-stant source of stimulating and instructive images and insights.

In addition, many of the skills and experiences gained through a courseof this kind are of direct practical benefit in virtually any pursuit. Specific

examples include the ability to notice and utilize detail, pattern and relation;the conceptual skills required to compose a photograph; experience inproblem-solving; and exposure to the creative application of complextechnology.

Photography — like any art — is both technically and creatively bound-less. No one, not even a teacher, can be expected to master it all. We believethe text contains all the basic information required to get students off to a

good start in photography, even if the teacher is just starting in it as well. Ifyou already have some experience in photography, so much the better, butlittle or none is strictly necessary. We've attempted to make the learningprocess as painless — for everyone — as possible. And we urge teachers to

learn with their students. The key to doing so is to provide clear, consistentstructure, leaving ample room for individual tangents and discoveries.

port 1 Teaching with The Photographic Eye

EDITORIAL PHILOSOPHY AND STRUCTURE

The Photographic Eye is essentially intended to serve as a catalyst. Solemnpronouncements about "right" and "wrong" ways of doing things have beenstudiously avoided, in the hope of stimulating discussion, exploration anddiscovery. Both the content and style of the text are designed to support theteacher's and students' insights and experience, so each class can define itsown orientation, priorities, preferences and goals.

In keeping with this approach, the bulk of the technical data (including achapter on color photography) has been placed in the appendices — notbecause it is unimportant, but so each teacher may decide when to introducespecific skills. A historical survey and the basic workings of the camera areat the front, to provide a foundation. Both are deliberately brief, so studentsmay begin producing photographs as quickly as possible.

This is very much a hands-on course, for the simple reason that infor-mation is far more likely to "stick" when learned through practical applica-tion, rather than through abstract theorizing. Depending on class structureand available resources, teachers may wish to augment the assignments pro-vided in the text with research projects and other activities which do notrequire the use of a camera or darkroom. However, we believe the knowl-edge gained in these ways will be more meaningful (and therefore be moreeffectively retained) if integrated with a regular routine in which studentsare challenged to fulfil l specific photographic tasks.

Special Features

Application

As a glance through the table of contents will indicate, one key compo-nent of The Photographic Eye is the sequence of exercises, each of which

is designed to achieve three essential goals:

1. reinforce concepts discussed in the text;2. provide a gradual progression into more advanced use of the camera;3. introduce students to the perspectives of other photographers (generally

other students undertaking the same exercise).

Another essential ingredient is the series of focal points — special sec-tions providing in-depth coverage of a concept or photographer mentionedin (or relevant to) the main text. Focal points offer an opportunity for enrich-ment or advanced study of some very specific topics, such as depth of fieldor light meters. They may also contain biographies of outstanding photog-raphers: Alfred Steiglitz, Margaret Bourke-White and many others. Oftenthese featured photographers are especially illustrative of the concept(s) dis-cussed in the chapter with which they appear. For example, Margaret Bourke-White is profiled next to the text discussing photojournalism. Diane Arbusappears in the chapter entitled ''Breaking the Rules."

It is important to note — and point out to students — that the vast major-ity of photographs in this book were taken by high school students. Whilemany are of exceptional quality, they are largely the work of peers — notdaunting masterpieces by famous artists. Some masterpieces have beenincluded, to establish standards and provide a challenge, but the overall mes-sage of the photographic illustrations is "you too can do this."

Though it is highly recommended to proceed through chapters sequentiallyin "Part 2 — The Elements of Photography," teachers are encouraged to varythe sequence of exercises in "Part 3 — People, Places and Things" to capi-talize on local and seasonal opportunities and on the students' developinginterests and needs. For example, a town fair in October should not be missedsimply because it is "ahead of schedule" (see the exercise on "Fairs," pages200 and 201). Conversely, if a number of students are having difficulty grasp-ing a particular concept, you may wish to devote more time to it than indi-cated by the text (or return to it later).

Any number of variations on the exercises may, of course, be added aswell. The basic framework — succinct assignment description, explanation,examples and tips — is infinitely expandable. (Some ideas along this lineare included in Part II of this manual.)

Similarly, a teacher who has darkroom or other technical experience may

well wish to expand coverage of these topics, possibly adding exercisesspecifically tailored to this purpose. Also, a number of excellent books andperiodicals are available which explore topics that are beyond the scope ofthis textbook (see the Sources section on page 50 of this manual) .

Finally, The Photographic E\e (as a catalyst) will ideally be integratedwith whatever community resources may be locally available, in addition toa growing "library" of student work from previous years, other sources ofphotographs, field trips, research projects and additional activities.

Community Resources One distinct advantage of photography as a course of study is that it hasmany applications in the daily life of virtually any community. As a result,there are certain to be a number of local resources that can significantlyenhance your students' educational experience.

Local NewspapersAny local newspaper (or other periodical publication) is a potential goldmine of opportunities for photography students. To begin with, you mightarrange for a tour of a newspaper's production facilities, enabling studentsto observe firsthand how photographs are converted to the printed page. Atour might also include an introduction to the wire-service computer, show-ing how photographs from around the world are received and edited for localuse. In addition, a photo-editor or staff photographer might be invited toexplain the process of illustrating local stories and discuss how newspapersapproach l ight ing, contrast, composition, etc. One extension of this ideawould be for students to accompany a staff photographer to the scene of anactual news event. (Even something as tame as a town council meeting couldbe highly educational and quite exciting.)

It may also be possible to interact with a local paper on a continuing basis,providing students with an opportunity to get their photographs publishedand obtain invaluable on-the-job training. For example, the feature editormight be wi l l ing to assign a story to your class, explaining what kind of pho-tographs would be appropriate, selecting the best entries and using them toillustrate the story. If successful, this kind of collaboration could evolve intoa mutually beneficial, ongoing relationship, with student work illustratingperhaps one story each month. In th i s case, you might wish to divide the

class into teams, with several students working together on a single story.One alternative would be for the newspaper to reserve a full page (again,

perhaps once a month) for student photographs of the local community orto run a single student photograph as an occasional highlight.

9

Studio PhotographersVirtually any town (and all cities) have professional studio photographerswhose services may include portraiture, advertising, print restoration or cor-porate promotions. The first step to taking advantage of this resource wouldbe to arrange a presentation or field trip, inviting one or more photographersto visit the class and discuss their work or to host the class in the studio or

on location.Additional variations might include arranging for small groups of stu-

dents to spend an extended period of time observing a professional pho-tographer at work. It may also be possible to set up workshops in whichstudents can refine their darkroom skills, learn about studio lightingor receive specialized instruction in some other aspect of professional

photography.Local photographers may also be wi l l ing to serve as judges for photo-

graphic competitions or as a panel to critique student work on a regular basis.Depending on the size of your class and the number of professional pho-tographers in your area, you may be able to organize "mentor sessions," inwhich several students meet with a local photographer for specialized instruc-tion, critiques and advice. One advantage of this kind of activity is that itwould expose students to a variety of perspectives, promoting a broad aware-ness of photographic opinion and stimulating discussion.

Finally, don't forget the wedding photographers, nature photographers,technical photographers, print retouchers, lab technicians, camera repairshops, antique dealers and others who may have specialized skills or infor-mation to offer your class. A close inspection of the Yellow Pages may bethe best place to start a busy year of informative presentations and field trips.

Galleries and ExhibitsThough the number of art galleries and exhibits featuring photography willvary according to your region and the size of your community, there is anexcellent chance that you will have access to some resources along this line.If not, you may be able to create them.

One emerging trend is for restaurants to use the work of local artists andphotographers to decorate their walls. If this is common in your community,it is yet another way of locating photographers who might be willing to assistyou in some of the ways outlined above. A nature photographer, for exam-ple, would be another good choice for a class presentation and may also be

open to escorting your class on a field trip to a local scenic area.If none of the restaurants in your community currently include pho-

tographs in their decor, perhaps you can persuade them to start — using the

10

work of your students in a rotating display. One recommendation that appliesto any proposal of this kind is that you should first prepare an impressiveportfolio of your students' best work, so you are clearly offering a serviceand not merely asking a favor. In addition, be sure that the work you presentis appropriate: landscapes or appealing portraits (possibly in color) are likelyto be of greater interest to a restaurant than shots of the latest football game,

though again this will vary according to local taste.Any gallery or other exhibit that includes a substantial number of pho-

tographs is a fabulous opportunity for students to be exposed to the work ofother photographers. Plan a field trip and follow it up with a critique ses-sion, encouraging students to voice their responses to the work they haveseen. Better still, you might be able to arrange for a private viewing (at atime when the gallery or exhibit is officially closed or expecting low atten-dance) and do the critique right then and there. (This is of course preferableto having to remember what the photographs looked like.) Perhaps thephotographer!s) featured in the exhibit would be willing to meet with yourstudents and explain the work on display, both in terms of artistic intent andtechnical considerations.

When visiting a gallery or exhibit with your class, don't forget to raisepractical questions as well as exploring aesthetics. For example, how arethe photographs mounted and arranged? How might certain effects have beenproduced? What ideas, techniques or locations might students try to emu-late?

Advertising AgenciesAny local advertising agency is yet another potential resource, regardless ofits size or prestige. A large, "flashy" agency (the sort that produces full-coloradvertising spreads or sales literature for major corporations) should be will-ing and able to provide an exciting and highly instructive classroom pre-sentation or tour. A smaller and more modest operation can demonstrate howphotography is employed in newspaper ads or simple brochures.

There is a better chance that smaller-scale agencies will be open to moresubstantial (and ultimately more rewarding) collaboration as well. For exam-ple, you might be able to arrange for your class (again, possibly in teams)to assist with the photography for some advertising projects. (It may also be

possible to arrange this directly with your local newspaper.) Alternatively,perhaps your class could attend some of the planning and design sessions inwhich agency staff decide how to approach an ad and which photographs toinclude in it.

If there are no advertising agencies in your community, you have an excel-

lent opportunity to make an offer to local merchants. Ask them if they'd like

11

to assign an ad to your class, either for publication in the local paper or asa hypothetical experiment. This is one area in which you may wish to work

together with a writ ing and/or art class as well — arranging for one class to

produce the copy (or text) and another to handle the design and layout to

accompany photographs produced by your students.

Camera StoresAny place where cameras are sold or f i lm is processed is a resource youshould not neglect. The educational opportunities range from demonstra-tions of equipment to in-depth training in specialized skills.

For example, one great way to augment the "Tools" chapter of the text

(page 35) is to plan a field trip to a local camera store and ask the proprietorto explain the workings of a selection of the cameras and other equipmentsold there. If the store also has a darkroom (or a computerized processor)then this would be an excellent destination for a second field trip when your

course progresses to that point. The camera store staff is also likely to includesome accomplished photographers and to be a great source of tips regard-ing other photographers in your area (they are likely to know who is really

good and most l ikely to give you a cordial reception).

Local Clubs and OrganizationsThere are two categories to be considered here: clubs and organizations

specifically concerned with photography and others that may employ pho-tography as an adjunct to their main activities or interests.

The first category is fairly straightforward. Many towns and cities havecamera clubs whose members would be more than wil l ing to offer advice,

tutoring, slide presentations, photographs for critiques or display, or to hostfield trips, serve as judges or provide other valuable services. At the veryleast, they should be an excellent source of back issues of photography mag-azines. If you're unable to locate a local camera club, contact the Photo-graphic Society of America, 3000 United Founders Boulevard, Suite 103.Oklahoma City, OK 73112, tel: 405-843-1437.

One word of caution: some camera clubs are highly conservative in theirphotographic tastes and quite dogmatic in their views regarding composi-tion. They may stil l be very useful resources, but — as always — we rec-

ommend that you encourage your students to question and challenge anyaesthetic opinions that may be presented as absolute "rules."

The second category of clubs and organizations — those for which pho-

tography is not a primary concern — invites more creativity and imagina-

tion. If your community is blessed with a local historical society, it may have

1212

a wealth of old photographs of interest to your students — which they mighthelp restore by doing copy-photography and making new prints. (Once again,an exhibit is certainly possible for this, and the local newspaper might wantto run some of them.) There may be a performing arts school that would begrateful for the assistance of student photographers. A bird-watchers' clubmight be a good source of ideas and information on nature photography. Agardening club could ensure that your students have some splendid subjectsfor sti l l-l ifes. (By the way, vegetable gardens are excellent locations forexploring light, line, shape and texture.)

If you're looking for a good place for students to practice candids, con-sider the local Bingo hall, the annual Shriners' parade, the Elk's weeklybarbecue or whatever local events draw a diverse mix of people. (Be awareof the possible need for flashes in these settings.) Pay attention to local eventscalendars, bulletin boards and other sources of news on upcoming eventsand be sure everyone knows of your interest. With any luck, people will soonbe seeking you out with ideas on new projects and events that may benefityour class and enable them to become active participants in your commu-nity's life. That is one way in which a course in photography can be expandedinto a rich and multidimensional educational experience.

13

EtceterasNo list of this kind can cover all the educational opportunities that may be

available in your own community. Some novel ideas wil l certainly present

themselves once you begin exploring.For example, if a college, technical school or university is within reach,

you might be able to establish an ongoing relationship with its photographydepartment, making arrangements for your students to sit in on classes, joinin critique sessions and tour (or use) the darkroom facilities. Some recre-ational facilities are equipped with darkrooms and may be willing to makespecial arrangements for students to take advantage of them. There may bea local crafts cooperative or other similarly equipped organization that wouldrent darkroom space to your class at a modest rate.

If you're located near the offices of camera, film or accessory manufac-turers — or custom labs, publishing companies and related businesses —then additional field trips and classroom presentations should not be diffi-cult to arrange. Perhaps a printing company would provide a tour of its color-separation facilities (if it's big enough to have one), showing students howa photograph is prepared for printing. A television studio might offer a sim-ilar tour, showing how images are broadcast on TV.

If no such resources are close at hand, you might write to some manu-facturers and request stock slide presentations or promotional literature.Tiffcn, for example, offers an excellent presentation — free of charge — ontheir line of filters. The presentation (which runs about 30 minutes) comeswith a loaned dissolve unit and tape player and even a filter "door prize."All you would need to provide is a Kodak or compatible slide projector anda screen. Call 800-645-2522 or write to Tiffen, 90 Oser Ave., Hauppauge,NY 11788 to make arrangements.

Kodak also offers an extensive range of promotional literature on theirfilms, cameras, CD and computer imaging systems, etc. Use a touch-tonephone to call Kodak's product information line, 800-242-2424 and hit theappropriate buttons to find what you need.

You may also be able to join forces with other classes or groups in yourown school. One obvious example is for your class to be actively engagedin producing the school yearbook. Another is to help produce promotionalmaterials for a school play by photographing the actors in appropriate posesfor a poster or hallway display. Don't forget the local newspaper as an out-let for this kind of work!

Some of the exercises in The Photographic Eye may suggest additionalavenues for this kind of collaboration. (One specific example is the "Text &

Image" exercise on pages 224 and 225 of the text . ) A writing or Englishclass might work with your photography students to develop an exhibit or

14

slide show on some topic of shared concern or interest. You might produce

a similar presentation about your town with a history class, photographingbuildings that are historically significant or doing copy photography ofantique prints. A social studies class might be a good partner for a presen-tation on your community as it is today, possibly illustrating the various gov-ernment offices and civic groups that are active in its daily affairs.

In short, once you start looking and asking, odds are you'll find morepotential resources than you can possibly use.

PREPARING THE CLASSROOM

The ideal classroom for teaching photography is one that is reasonably spa-cious, well-lit and abundantly stocked with photographs. With a modestinvestment of time, money and imagination, virtually any room can be con-verted into a space that will facilitate the learning process and promote effi-cient working habits.

Basic Set-Up Arranging the FurnitureA well-designed photography classroom will of course contain the usualdesks and chairs, though you may wish to cluster them together (especiallyif their tops are flat and of uniform height) to create additional surfaces forspreading out photographs or supplies and to encourage students to interactin smaller groups. Off to one side, it is a good idea to clear a space for cut-ting mats and mounting prints. This area will ideally include a good papercutter, a mat cutter and dry-mount press (if available), plus a large table towork on. Some surrounding floor-space will also come in handy, since manytasks can be done on that level.

The next major concern is preparing a suitable arrangement for critiquesessions. The goal here is to devise an effective way of displaying pho-tographs in full view of the entire class. This is often done by simply tack-ing photographs directly into the wall (assuming its surface is receptive andno one minds having it poked full of holes). Another method is to attach nar-row strips of wood along one wall, on which mounted prints can be placed.An advantage to this approach is that the photographs can be easilyrearranged. This permits exploration of the ways various individual imagesrelate to others and produces interesting and instructive combined effects.

Whatever system you employ, it is very important that the crit area befree of additional clutter— an otherwise blank wall will help focus students'

attention on the photographs and promote visual clarity. You will also want

15

Ample space, effective light traps andfastidious cleanliness are essentialingredients of any shared darkroomspace. (Photograph hy Doric I'ar.miix.)

to arrange the classroom furn i tu re so there is a clear passage along the wholelength of the crit area, so everyone can get up close and observe details. Onefinal consideration: the crit area should be set up out of reach of direct sun-

light, as this wi l l hamper visibility.

LightLighting is a matter of critical importance in any classroom devoted to thevisual arts, especially for work done in color. If at all possible, avoid stan-dard fluorescent lights (or low-wattage incandescent bulbs) as these willimpede clear vision and impose an unfortunate "color-cast." (Fluorescentlight produces a flickering greenish-blue effect that is especially hard on theeyes. Incandescent light tends to be orange, which is not much better.) Excel-lent full-spectrum bulbs are available for either kind of lighting. They arefairly expensive and may be difficult to locate, but are certainly worth thetrouble. (Check at your nearest health food store if all else fails.) No othersingle expenditure is likely to have as much impact on the educational qual-ity of your classroom as obtaining good lighting. It is very hard to learn tosee well when one must struggle to see at all.

DecorWith the sole exception of the crit area, it is entirely appropriate to cover allavailable walls with photographs. One key to developing critical judgmentin photography is to look at a large number of examples of other photogra-phers' work.

Constant exposure to photographic excellence provides students with astandard for which they might strive. It heightens their expectations. Evenless-than-excellent photographs are useful aids in developing visual acuity,though it is not productive to be surrounded by outright mediocrity. Chang-ing the collection of photographs on your walls at regular intervals is onesimple way of ensuring that your classroom is a dynamic environment, onethat promotes interest, creativity and high aspirations.

Whatever other resources may be lacking, a collection of photographs isone resource that is absolutely vital and well within anyone's reach. Sincebudget limitations usually prohibit the purchase of exhibition prints, the pri-mary source w i l l be magazines and books. While it is highly recommendedthat teachers subscribe to one or more of the better photography magazinesfor class use, that is just the beginning. National Geographic, Sports lllux-imied, Islands. People, Time and Newsweek, fashion magazines and a host

of other periodicals contain numerous photographs that are well worth cri-tiquing. Similar ly, coffee table books on foreign countries, cooking, archi-

16

lecture and many other subjects are packed with striking photographs, as aretravel brochures, annual reports, calendars (less expensive after January 1),posters and catalogs.

One good early assignment is to ask each student to scour the basementor attic at home tor magazines and books with photographs that can be cutout and displayed. This exercise in itself is certain to prove highly educa-tional and may provide a basis for fruitful discussion of the various branchesof photography (scientific, sports, cultural, fashion, product, portraiture, pho-tojournalism) and of photography's role in our culture.

In the unlikely event that this assignment fails to produce an adequatestock file, local civic groups, libraries, doctors' offices and other sources inthe community might also be approached for their discarded books and mag-azines. This same approach could be a good way to obtain additional, ifsomewhat outdated, camera equipment. Virtually every photographer has anold lens, light meter or tripods gathering dust somewhere.

If some budget is available, inexpensive books may be found in theremainders bins at bookstores and even at yard sales. Barnes & Noble andother discount book distribution companies have mail-order catalogs offer-ing suitable books at discount prices.

A well-equipped (and carefully designed)darkroom will enable a sizeable numberof students to work together, withoutgenerating chaos or tedium. (Photographby Doric. Famous.)

17

The Darkroom

Light Baffles, top view

Every photographer dreams of the perfect darkroom, and most of us man-age to make do with a merely adequate substitute. The main reason for th isis that a first-rate darkroom is very expensive to build, equip and maintain.

Ultimately, however, there's only one thing that really matters: dust. Ifyou can't keep dust under control, it will consistently sabotage your abi l i tyto teach good darkroom skills and undermine your students' efforts to pro-duce high-quality prints. Nothing is more frustrating (and more damagingto a student's desire to learn) than spending hours in the darkroom laboringwith painstaking care over a single print, only to discover a motley collec-tion of white specks all over it once it's brought into the fu l l light of day.

Knowing the importance of effective dust-control is one thing; achievingit is another. Here again (unless you are very lucky or endowed with a lux-urious budget) you will probably have to accept some compromises. But youwi l l have a distinct advantage if you recognize dust as your sworn enemy

and vigilantly pursue i t .Begin by l imit ing the surfaces and nooks and crannies where dust can

collect. Install no more shelving than you actually need (or remove what-ever excess may already be in place). A good basic darkroom requires onlya single counter top to support the enlarger(s), a large sink and enough spacefor processing trays (in the sink if it's big enough). Reduce clutter to a strictminimum. Store papers and all non-essential equipment (extra enlargerlenses, etc.) in file cabinets or any other available containers. Keep nothingin the actual darkroom space that doesn't absolutely belong there; cram theoverflow into a closet somewhere else. It is perilously easy to let odds andends begin to collect in a darkroom, so a periodic "spring cleaning" is highlyrecommended.

All surfaces should be non-porous, to ensure that chemicals — and dust— can be wiped away. (Uncovered concrete and wood are especially unde-

sirable.) All cracks should be carefully caulked. This will also assist in con-troll ing culprit number two: light leaks.

Light and dust traps should be installed along the edges of all doors (insu-lation kits available in any hardware store work fine). Any windows shouldof course be thoroughly blacked out and sealed shut. Linoleum is probablythe best surface for the floor (again, avoid exposed concrete). Ideally, wallswill be painted white (enamel or other easily cleaned paint is best), as thisw i l l make any residue more visible.

BLACKVINYL-COATED If the size and layout of your darkroom space permit, it is a good idea to

construct a light baffle, so students can come and go without letting light

slip in (disastrous for prints in progress and opened boxes of photo-paper).

One reasonably simple procedure is to hang three or more floor-to-ceilingstrips of black, opaque fabric (coated with plastic if possible) in overlapping

18

Film drying closet

rows, creating a passageway through which people can pass without bring-ing in light. If you must resort to a generic doorway, hang at least one light-trap strip about three feet into the darkroom, parallel to the door, attachedto the wall on the side where the door opens (opposite the hinge). This willat least ensure that no blasts of full daylight spill in unannounced.

One common misconception is that a darkroom must be. . .well, dark.While it is true that prolonged exposure to even red or yellow "safe" lightscan fog papers (and will certainly ruin film), a well-designed darkroom willhave enough of these (carefully placed to provide illumination where it'sactually needed) to ensure that it is not difficult to see once the eyes adjust.The desired effect is suggestive of twilight. There's no need to fumble aboutin true darkness, increasing the risk of mistakes and accidents.

At a minimum, each enlarger should be equipped with its own safe-light,and there should be two or three at intervals above the developing trays andsink, plus a general source of illumination for the rest of the room if it's largeenough to need it. Be sure all switches are readily accessible, so lights canbe turned on and off as appropriate.

You will also need to devise an entirely "light-tight" space for handlingfilm. A closet can work fine for this. Just be sure the door, when shut, is fullysealed against light-leaks and you're in business. As an alternative, you canuse part of your main darkroom when it is not otherwise in use.

An enclosure for drying film is another virtual necessity — and it mustbe both ventilated and impregnable to dust. Once dust lodges into the emul-sion of wet film, it is maddeningly difficult to get rid of it. Prevention is theonly real cure. One simple technique for constructing an effective film-dryeris to build a "box" out of plywood into which an array of holes has beendrilled. It should be tall enough to accommodate the full length of a 36-exposure roll of film and sufficiently spacious to hold a day's output for theentire class without crowding. (Rolls of wet film will stick to each other ifthey touch, often with tragic results.)

The front can be a simple latched door. Cover the inside with some kindof fine-mesh cloth to keep dust from entering.

One option is to drill a larger hole (also mesh-covered) near the bottominto which the nozzle of a standard hairdryer can be inserted to speed thingsup. Finally, install a few rows of wire or string near the top onto which filmclips (or clothes pins) can be clamped to attach the film.

19

Efficient use of affordable technology(such as this print-drying rack) canmake the critical difference betweenfrustration and enthusiasm.(Photograph by Done Parsons.)

One other piece of standard equipment (which may not be immediatelyapparent in a school environment) is a radio. There's certainly nothing wrongwith providing some entertainment to promote the idea of the darkroom asa fun place to work, but there is an additional benefit to musical accompa-niment. Much of the time spent in a darkroom is devoted to waiting (for thechemicals to do their stuff, for a turn at the enlarger, for instruction or assis-tance, etc.) and boredom is always a factor that must be considered. The timepasses very slowly in dead silence and this can lead to hasty work, which inturn produces sloppy results. If you prefer not to promote rock-and-roll, tunein to a good classical station and introduce your students to some seriousculture. Or perhaps you have an all-news station in your area which can keepyour students abreast of world events. (This is one small way in which pho-tography can be linked to other areas of education.)

As for equipment, a reasonable wish-list will include the following:

1. As many serviceable enlargers as you can afford or otherwise obtain,within reason. Two or three should be adequate for most class sizes. Morethan that may simply invite pandemonium. One may be enough if youstructure your class accordingly, but this will reduce opportunities forconvivial co-learning. (However, with a bi t of patience, two studentsshould be able to share a single enlarger without undue difficulty.) Planto allow about four square feet of surface space for each enlarger, which

leaves room for contact sheets, negatives and other paraphernalia.

20

2. One full array of developing trays for every two enlargers. Anything lessis likely to result in bottle-necks and/or confusion. Bear in mind that

exposed prints can be stored (save the black plastic liners from photo-paper packaging for this purpose) and batch-processed to assist in con-

trolling the flow of darkroom activities.3. Two timers for each enlarger — one for exposure and one for keeping

track of processing times. Inexpensive stop-watches are perfectly accept-able for the latter.

Additional equipment and supplies are outlined in Appendix 1 ("Pro-cessing") in the text. These include developing tanks for film processing,tongs, film cleaners, tools for dodging and burning (which can be handmade),spotting inks and an ample stock of chemicals and paper. In addition, be sureto have extra enlarger bulbs on hand to replace any that burn out.

If you're on a tight budget, keep your eyes open for bargains in newspa-per classifieds, bulletin boards and yard sales. Enlargers, especially, tend tolast a long time and there's an excellent chance that you'll find a trusty oldmodel just waiting for a new home. (One note: avoid glass negative carriers— they're very hard to keep clean and tend to scratch film if not used prop-

erly.) You might want to run an ad yourself or post billboard notices to alertlocal photographers to your needs. And, as always, check out any stores deal-ing in second-hand photography equipment — let the proprietors know whatyou're looking for so they can help you find it.

You might also be able to work out a favorable deal with a photo lab forslightly out-dated paper. With luck, it will still be fully usable and could savea substantial sum of scarce money.

VentilationProfessional photographers recommend general ventilation with ten airchanges per hour for the darkroom. In other word, to dilute the contamina-tion from chemicals normally in use, fresh air must be brought into the roomto replace the old air ten times during every hour. Some ventilation expertsfeel this "rule of thumb" is inappropriate in many uses and is a difficult con-cept for a teacher to use. Three steps should be taken to determine what con-stitutes effective ventilation. First, gather all possible information about thechemicals used in the darkroom, including the amount to be used at any onetime. Second, collect information on appropriate ventilation systems and

recommended standards. Third, take that information to the school's per-sonnel responsible for maintaining school ventilation systems. Get that per-

son to apply the information to your specific room. This is not a job for theteacher alone.

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Defraying Expenses No matter how one approaches it, photography is a relatively expensive artmedium. If students can all afford or otherwise obtain cameras, one major

hurdle will be cleared. If not, it may be necessary to provide one or more"class cameras." The same might apply to a tripod and a few other acces-sories. In addition, there are the costs of darkroom equipment, film, paperand chemicals. Depending on circumstances, the school may underwrite allof these expenses, the students may be expected to cover the full amount

themselves or something in between.Fortunately, if funds are limited, photography offers a number of fund-

raising possibilities.

• A local camera club or civic group might be approached for contributions

of money or equipment.• Exhibits might be held — perhaps in a private gallery, civic center, town

hall, store, museum, church, Y or library — with a modest fee.• Prints, especially those in an exhibit, can be offered for sale. A standard

minimum for pricing prints is to triple the total cost of supplies.• The class might produce an annual calendar to sell in the community, per-

haps featuring local highlights. (The Chamber of Commerce might bepersuaded to buy copies in bulk.)

• Greeting or note cards, postcards or posters might be produced and sold,perhaps with the assistance of a local printer willing to print them at cost.(This is especially feasible if the printer uses excess paper from otherprinting jobs.) Perhaps the school has a print shop that can handle the job,or an art class that can produce silk screen prints.

• Perhaps a black-and-white book of student work can be published andmarketed in conjunction with an art class.

• A camera might be raffled at some community function.• A portrait booth might be set up at a school carnival or town fair or on

the street at any time. (Lights could be set up if needed, portraits pho-tographed, prints delivered later.)

• Advanced students might even hire out on behalf of the class to coverweddings or parties for a fee. (Legalities and local sentiment should bechecked first.)

22

Defraying Expenses

part 2 Planning the Course

Naturally, how you structure your course will vary according to resources,class schedule and other factors. The course on which this text is based meetsonce a week. Each class begins with an explanation and discussion of thenext assignment, followed by a critique session. Students are expected tocomplete the assignment, including darkroom work, on their own.

Early in the fall, give each student a list of all assignments for the year.This offers students a sense of the structure of the course and enables themto keep an eye out for future assignment subjects. Naturally, some flexibil-ity is maintained to accommodate unforeseen opportunities or obstacles,such as an exceptionally photogenic snowfall or a long stretch of rainyweather that forces students to work indoors.

Prior to each class session, relevant samples are displayed to stimulateideas. (As mentioned earlier, a simple rack consisting of wooden stripsattached to the walls would facilitate this and the critique sessions.) Oncethe class is in session, the teacher summarizes the exercise, covers any logis-tical details (field trip schedule, for example, if one is planned for the assign-ment), discusses the displayed samples, and notes any "idiosyncrasies"(lighting considerations, possible locations, potential problem areas, specialequipment, etc.).

23

STUDENT ROLE

Students are required to shoot one roll of 36 exposures — entirely devotedto the assignment — per week. A general rule for assignments is: the morespecific, the better. Most students wi l l want very clear guidelines, at least atfirst. The more creative students won't need that — they'll be creative any-way. The primary goal of the assignments is to focus students' attention on

subjects they might otherwise overlook. This trains their photographic visionand gets the process of "learning to see with a camera" going much morequickly than with a more laissezfaire approach. In addition, having studentswork on the same assignment at the same time makes critique, or "crit," ses-sions easier and more beneficial. It's very important, therefore, that studentsdo shoot what is assigned. (You might point out that if an assignment werefrom a client, they'd have to get the right shot or lose the job.)

Once the next assignment has been clearly presented, the students turn intheir finished prints from the previous assignment. All prints are required toconform to a standard format. First and foremost, they must be a full 8" x10" (20.3 cmx 25.4cm), no elongated shapes, which imposes a healthy com-positional discipline. They must be mounted on some appropriate cardboardstock, so they won't curl or fall over during crits, and trimmed flush with theedges of the print (no borders). You may settle on a different standard, suchas white, 1-inch (2.5 cm) borders on all sides, but it is important that a clearstandard be established. This is both good training and an important meansof equalizing factors that might influence judging (such as the presence orabsence of borders).

CRITIQUING

The prints are arranged — anonymously — at random along the wall, in fullview of the entire class. Students are then called on to discuss value, focus,presentation and other technical issues (one photo for each student).

Once each has been discussed, students take turns arranging the pho-tographs from most successful to least successful, as follows:

• The first student called on selects what he or she considers the most suc-cessful print and places it at the head of the line.

• The second student selects the second-most successful print and places

it next in line. Each student may overrule any previous selection as well.• This continues until all the prints have been ranked.

24

Crit sessions offer an opportunity forstudents to express their perceptionsof each others' work — promotingclarity, objectivity and camaraderie.(Photograph by Doric Parsons.)

An alternate approach is to approach both ends of the line at once, withthe first student selecting the most successful, the second student selectingthe least successful and so on. Either way, discussion is encouraged at alltimes, so the final sequence reflects the class consensus.

One good rule is that each opinion must be substantiated (citing compo-sition, presentation and so forth, not merely "1 like it"). It is very importantthat students understand early that l iking or disliking the subject matter isnot an acceptable basis for a critique — each photograph must be judged onits photographic merits. It is equally important, though more difficult, thatstudents understand that the purpose of the crit is to learn — the criticism isnot a personal attack. All students should be learning from total crit: gettingideas on what to do and not do in the future, rather than merely waiting forjudgment on their own efforts.

Anonymity is essential. At first, students generally have a hard time crit-icizing their own work or that of their friends. Most will find it much easierto do this if they don't know whose work they are discussing.

Once the students have determined a sequence, the teacher goes throughthe same procedure. (The same rules should apply: substantiate on photo-graphic grounds.) This may result in a very similar arrangement or in a sub-stantial re-ordering. The grades are then determined and written on the backof each. Though grades are not generally announced, students will have someidea of how they've fared by their position in the final sequence.

25

TEACHER EVALUATION

The authors feel that grading is very important. Done wisely, it promotes ahealthy degree of competitiveness and competition fuels effort. In order forgrading to be fair and productive, it is vi tal that the teacher be clear about

what the criteria will be for each assignment, as well as what criteria applyto all assignments. Grading should, we feel, be reasonably strict. Be direct

and honest.Photography, like any art, easily degenerates into self-indulgence, if

allowed to do so. If high standards are not set, they won't be achieved. Nostudent benefits from the false comfort of being graded higher than his orwork deserves. This is especially true for any student who hopes to pursuephotography professionally. The people who pay for photography are notnoted for their gentleness.

Though some intuit ion will of course come into play in making your finaljudgment, each grade should be largely based on objective criteria: quali tyof the print, accuracy of focus and exposure, care in composition, inclusionof important elements and exclusion of distractions, appropriateness toassignment and so on. Teachers are urged to be on guard against the inher-ent dangers of imposing one's own tastes on the class. It's a difficult trap toavoid. One key is to remain mindful of the distinction between style (whatone likes) and standards (what is well executed). Standards are the properdomain of teaching and judging, a personal style cannot be taught and oughtnot be penalized.

26

Our recommended guidelines for grading are as follows: any photograph

that meets all the basic requirements should rate a "B'.' A few shortcomingsmight drop it to a "C"' A disaster, especially a sloppy print, might deservea "D" A photograph showing no serious effort should be stuck with an "F."A grade of "A" should be reserved for that extra margin of inventiveness,insight or impact. An "A+" should be reserved for a really special achieve-ment. In practice, not every crit will yield an "A'.' Sometimes there will betwo or three. Use them sparingly so they mean something.

Students who do poorly on a given assignment are entitled to redo itat any time during the term, to improve the grade. This provides valuableincentive and helps to correct for the risk of teacher misjudgment. Periodic"make-up" crit sessions are scheduled, in which all the redone assignmentsare critiqued together. When transferred from the photos to the grade record,grades are recorded in pencil to they can easily be changed. In addition, stu-dents are encouraged, though not required, to submit more than one printfor each assignment. Only the highest grade received for that assignment isrecorded.

Prior to each crit session, the teacher reviews each student's contactsheet(s) to help select frames to enlarge. When a print is turned for a crit, itmust be accompanied by contacts and test strips, so the teacher can talk aboutwhat has been done well, what might have been done differently and gothrough all possibilities of what went wrong (assuming something did).

At the end of the term, the teacher selects a set of, say, six photographsby each student for the class "library." This builds stock files for future use.

STUDENT PORTFOLIO

At the end of the year, each student is required to produce a portfolio of hisor her best work as a final project, which may or may not be graded. Thus,each student retains a permanent record of his or her photographic accom-plishments, which in some cases will lead to the start of professional work.(An impressive portfolio is an absolute requirement for anyone wishing tolaunch a photographic career.)

As the class progresses, students may be given a looser rein on assign-ments. We recommend against settling into a "do what you want" mode,however. One essential for competent photography is the ability to go outand find what one is looking for. Without some structure, it is all too easy

to fall back on one's lazier predilections, doing what comes easily, rather

27

than continually striving to break new ground. One alternative to assign-

ments from the teacher is to let each student commit in advance to a topicor theme and then go out to photograph it. This leaves considerable room

for individual interests, while preserving a coherent structure and clear

expectations.

CLASS VARIATIONS

There are a number of ways to adjust this core class structure according toyour particular circumstances. If your class meets five days a week, youmight "double up" with two assignments and two crits per week — thoughthis may be too demanding. Alternatively, you might schedule, say, crit ses-sions for Monday, an assignment shooting session (many can be conductedin or around the school building) for Tuesday, research projects for Wednes-day, darkroom work for Thursday and critiques of other photographers' workfor Friday.

If your darkroom facilities are limited, you might organize the class intoseveral groups, having one group use the darkroom while another is doingresearch or crits. If so, we recommend re-organizing the groups at intervals,so more advanced students can help others. If you also teach other art classes,you might arrange for groups of two or three students to use the darkroom,during other periods. If you don't have access to a darkroom at all, you canmake do without one, thought this will add to the expense and diminish thelearning experience. Perhaps raising money to purchase darkroom equip-ment — through exhibits and sales of class photographs — could become acollective project.

Other possible variations include:

• using class time to mount prints, making extensive use of the "croppingexercise" (in Chapter 3 , page 65), either privately or in front of the class.

• arranging for a drama class to provide models (perhaps in stage dress).• concentrating on playground activities if the photography class coincides

with an elementary recess.

• having photography students take an active role in producing the year-book (as already noted), perhaps doing senior portraits as well as candidsand sports photography.

• mounting periodic exhibits, possibly on an exchange basis with otherschools.

• taking field trips on foot in the school vicinity during class periods.

28

You may want to make extensive use of exercises which can be under-taken in the classroom without requiring additional photography, such as"Photo-Copy Photos" (page 221 of the text) or "Text & Image" (pages 224and 225). You can develop your own exercises for print manipulation, usingmarkers, photo-tints or other media to embellish existing photos. Or, tryphoto-collage, mounting fragments of several prints together to produce acomposite image.

RESEARCH PROJECTS

The amount of information students learn independently and from each othercan be vastly increased through creative use of research projects. Rather thanmerely assigning topics for papers that serve no function other than to effecta student's grade, use this work to benefit the entire class.

For example, students might be asked to research various topics (perhapsselected from a list of options) and then to take turns sharing what they'velearned by presenting their findings to the class as a whole. They might thenmove on to another topic, report on it, and so on throughout the year.

Here is a brief list of possible topics:

• profiles of important past and present photographers or periods in pho-tographic history (refer to chapter 1 for ideas)

• styles: the "decisive moment!' pictorialism, landscape, photo-montage.• specialties: photojournalism, portraiture, sports, advertising, fine arts, sci-

ence (again, refer to chapter 1).• technology: stages in the evolution of cameras; film and other tools; film

processing; the future of photography; the mechanics of the camera orlens; flash; how light reacts with film; reciprocity failure; auto-focus.

• technique: the Zone System; studio lighting; flash fill; action photogra-phy; night photography; infra-red: special effects.

• interviews with local photographers

• product research on different brands of cameras, lenses, flashes, filters,tripods.

• reviews of books and magazine articles on photographic techniques, com-pilations of work by individual photographers or thematic collectionssuch as the A Day in the Life of. . . (Hawaii, Spain, Canada, Japan, etc.)series by David Cohen and Rick Smolan, published by Collins SF.

29

• ''rainy-day" activities, such as constructing a pin-hole camera, produc-

ing photograms or manipulating Polaroid prints (which produce inter-esting effects if scored with a stylus during the development process).

• the specific chemical processes that produce an image on photographic(i lm and paper. What is the developer actually doing? The stop-bath? The

fixer? What happens, on a molecular level, when light strikes the f i lm?What are the components of color film and how do they work? This canalso lead to such basic questions as how our eyes enable us to see andhow our brains translate a two-dimensional image into a perception of athree-dimensional scene. (There are actually some cultures in which aphotograph is incomprehensible, because their brains have not beentrained to process images in this way.)

Some topics will lend themselves to a traditional essay or book reportformat, which may be read aloud or photocopied to serve as the basis fordiscussion. Others, such as specialized or advanced photographic techniques,will open opportunities for more interactive demonstrations.

For example, one or more students might be given an assignment toresearch infrared photography, compiling basic information on films and fil-ters, locating some samples and, ideally, producing some examples of theirown. They might then provide basic instruction to the rest of the class inpreparation for an infrared exercise in which everyone participates.

Something similar might be undertaken for studio lighting. Arrange fora group of students to spend some time in the studios of local photographers,learning the basics. They might then present a demonstration that could leaddirectly into a new exercise (again with full class participation), possiblyusing equipment borrowed from (and supervised by) their sources.

An exciting further development of this concept is for one or more stu-dents to prepare a "briefing" on a controversial topic, which would then bediscussed by the entire class.

Suggested topics for this purpose include the following:

• environmental concerns regarding the production and disposal of photo-graphic chemicals

• social issues such as the invasion of the privacy of celebrities (i.e., thenotorious paparazzi)

• the use of photography in generating public awareness or shaping per-ceptions of wars and other world events

• the evolution of presidential "photo-ops" and their effect on the qualityof news reporting

30

• the moral and ethical implications of using photography to investigateindigenous cultures (some of whom have objected strenuously, regard-

ing the camera as a "soul stealer")• other moral and ethical dilemmas that photographers may confront, such

us: "You are a photojournalist covering a war (or a presidential campaign,a celebrity wedding or a crime scene); is there any situation in which youwould not do your job, even if it meant missing a major scoop? How farwould you go (in terms of invading privacy, for example) to get the shotyou want?"

• the conflicting aesthetic views and methods of, say, Ansel Adams andDiane Arbus or any other pair of photographic "schools of thought." (Pho-tographers are a wonderfully opinionated lot!) You might even assigneach student to research the views of a single noteworthy photographerand then have them assume this persona (like characters in a play) for adebate or panel discussion. ("Mr. Adams, how would you evaluate thework of Cartier-Bresson?" "Ms. Arbus, would you care to comment onlast week's cover of Time magazine?")

A similar approach (minus the specific characters) could be applied tothe "moral and ethical dilemma" questions as well.

• What is the "right" kind of camera? automatic vs. manual?• Is there a future for photography? If so, what will it be like?• Is photography an art?• Is a photograph a true record of a scene or event? Can photographs lie?

Can they distort the truth?• Is it true (as the singer Paul Simon once observed) that "everything looks

worse in black-and-white," and (if so) why? Does everything look betterin color? Again, what might cause this impression? Does this have aneffect on the truthfulness of photographs? Does it matter?

Once you begin exploring these dimensions of photography, you will nodoubt discover that the list of possible topics meriting discussion is virtu-ally endless. By challenging students to actively consider the implicationsof photography (and its potential for misuse) you may vastly expand thehorizons of their awareness — transforming a course in photography into awide-ranging exploration of the nature of life and the hard choices we allencounter. More practically, you can also use photography as a framework

for a host of related activities bearing on subjects as diverse as writing, pub-lic speaking, science, social studies, history and even drama.

31

EXERCISE VARIATIONS

As already noted, vir tual ly all of the exercises in The Photographic Eye canbe expanded and revised with any number of variations. This may serveat least three useful functions. First, it wi l l enable you to pace the courseaccording to your own design and your students' aptitudes and interests. Ifone area of activity proves to be especially engaging or troublesome, youcan increase the amount of time devoted to it by employing some of thesepotential variations. Second, you may wish to broaden the scope of any par-ticular exercise by offering variations as additional options. This will allowmore experienced or gifted students to forge ahead to new levels of chal-lenge and fulfillment, while allowing novices (or those to whom photogra-phy poses special difficulties) time to catch up. Finally, in some instancesvariations can be employed to narrow the focus of an exercise, either to pro-vide more detailed instructions or to demonstrate the range of possibilitiescontained within any single theme.

It is vitally important in any course of this nature to provide plateaus atwhich students can experience a sense of competence and savor the rewardsof mastering a set of skills before proceeding into the dark waters of reneweduncertainty. A constant barrage of daunting assignments will only result inemotional fatigue and discouragement — and too long a respite may induceboredom. Naturally, students will experience these two extremes at differ-ent times. Incorporating a degree of flexibility within your course structurewill help them establish a productive rhythm of challenge and accomplish-ment, ensuring that each student's individual "learning curve" is neither tooabrupt to be manageable nor too gradual to be consistently engaging.

The chart on the following pages suggests a number of possible varia-tions on exercises contained in The Photographic Eye. You will no doubtdiscover others that are specific to your situation, skills, experience andpriorities.

These examples convey the general idea of the "variations" concept. Someexercises in the textbook also include additional variations or present a num-ber of options. You may wish to adjust these when you discuss actual assign-ments with your class, adding or subtracting as appropriate.

TEXT PAGE

p. 100, 101

p.l 10, 111

p. 127

p. 134, 135

p. 146, 147

p. 154, 155

p. 156. 157

p. 158, 159

p. 160, 161

p. 162, 163

p. 164

p. 165

EXERCISE

Leaves

Circles & Ovals

Bracketing

Blurred Motion

Point of View

Bicycle

Hubcaps &Taillights

Eggs

Object &Shadow

Bottles &Glasses

Water

Old Things

THEME

texture

shape

lighting

shutter speed

perspective

multiple viewsof a singleobject

details

light and form

compositionaluse of shadows

translucence

moods innature

characterin objects

VARIATIONS

rocks, building materials,tree trunks, vegetables

rectangles, tools,branches, fences, windows

deliberate over- or under-exposure (shoot a roll offilm at half or double therecommended ISO and see ifany desirable effectsare produced as a result.)

"slow-speed/low-light"*:shoot at 1/15 of a secondor slower in low-lightsituations with a hand-held camera, deliberatelyusing "camera-shake" asan asset.

"random shots": shoot aroll without lookingthrough the viewfinder

chair, house, tree, TV,door, cardboard box,fire hydrant

architectural close-ups,houseplant (w/macro lens),sidewalk, train tracks

a handful of pebbles,marbles, apples and oranges,chessboard

shadows only

glass of water, prism

clouds, sunlight, weather,wind, fog, dawn

high-tech, toys,"favorite things"

"Topics in "quotes" indicate either specific techniques or exercise lilies lha t are intended to provoke interpretation.

33

TEXT PAGE

p. 170, 171

p. 172, 173

p. 174, 175

p. 176, 177

p. 178

p. 179

p. 186

p. 187

p. 190p. 191

p. 192

p. 194

p. 195

EXERCISE

Landscape

Architecture &Environment

Neighborhoods

Zoo/Farm

Store Windows

ConstructionSites

Hands

Elders

Soft-Light andSide-LitPortrait

Prop Portrait

Detai l Portrait

Mood Portrait

THEME

naturalenvirons

public-spaces

sense of place

non-humansubjects

insights intocommon sights

random sourcesof line andpattern

"body parts"

qualitiesof specificgroups ofpeople

effect oflighting inportraiture

use of objectsto evokepersonality

portraitswithout faces

varieties ofexpression

VARIATIONS

mountains, stream,"wasteland," "oasis"

"ruins," miracle mile,"commons" (as in parks andtown greens)

backyard, main street,"room with a view,"home, bus depot

birds (w/zoom lens),"comparative dogs and cats"

cars, stairs, doors

"curves," "square andcircle," etc. — all inpublic spaces

feet, noses, lips, eyes

farmers, pedestrians,families, parents,brothers and sisters

low-light portrait,over-exposure portrait,light and shadow portrait

"object portrait": useobjects only (no person)to convey subject, shoes,hats, car and driver

(see "Hands" above),legs in motion,gestures, backs

"1 subject. 1 roll":shoot an entire rollof 1 person in a singlesession, curiosity, joy,waiting, "oops"

*Topics in "quotes" indicate either specific techniques or exercise t i t les that are intended to provoke interpretation.

34

RETEACHING OPTIONS AND PRODUCTIVE PLAY

For those students who encounter difficulties with any aspect of photogra-phy, you may find it helpful to consider alternate approaches to teaching therequisite skills. One way to start is to look beneath the surface and strive tolocate any underlying causes which may not be immediately apparent.

For example, one potential problem area that all photographers must con-front to some degree is a high level of interaction with others (often totalstrangers) which can be extremely uncomfortable and — unt i l identified —may be the source of an otherwise inexplicable inabil i ty to capture effective"people pictures." Creating a safe environment, such as encouraging the useof friends and family members for "set-up" shots, may be all that is neces-sary to solve this dilemma. Extensive use of self-portraiture may be anotheruseful approach to try, especially for highly introspective students who maylack effective social skills.

Others may have a hard time grasping the core concepts of composition.In this case, you might try some special exercises in which you work withthe student (or class if this is a generalized obstacle), experimenting with acollection of visually interesting objects (an assortment of fruit, blocks ofwood or odds and ends gathered in the classroom). Using a combination ofaddition, subtraction and rearrangement, discuss the way each change affectsthe "image" (which may be viewed through the mat frame explained in chap-ter 3), as you seek to draw out the student's responses. With creativity andpatience, this process can often stimulate an exciting "click" of recognition,when a student suddenly sees how composition works. If the use of three-dimensional objects proves unproductive, try the same approach using cut-out shapes of black paper (with a bit of Spray Mount™ on the back of each)to produce various compositional effects on a white mat board. (For bestresults, enclose the image area in some kind of frame.)

For a more dynamic approach, consider creating a "virtual camera," con-sisting of a cardboard box set on its side on a table, with the top and bottomremoved to produce a limited field of vision (approximating the frame of aviewfinder or print). One or more students may be asked to arrange objectswithin this frame, then step behind it and observe the results. Alternatively,students could take turns being the "photographer" with the "camera" aimedat three or more other students who act as models by moving, standing andsitting as instructed. Or you might begin with a random grouping and thenask a student to change the position of only one of the subjects. The nextstudent in turn might then be called upon to make one more change, and soon unt i l an effective composition has been achieved. Yet another alternative

35

is to have students take turns shifting the position of the camera. In all cases,

the effect of every change should be explained and discussed.The goal of this sort of creative play is to promote an appreciation of the

inherent fun of looking at the world through a camera, while freeing stu-

dents of the burden of producing an actual photograph.If you feel that some students consistently "freeze" when confronted with

this daunting prospect, you may be able to loosen them up with a numberof exercises designed to prevent "over-thinking" their photographs. Theseare similar in purpose to the timed sketching drills (or gesture drawings)

often used in conventional art classes.For example, have each student load a roll of film into a camera, assign

each of them a subject (either another student or an object that is large enoughto allow for a wide-range of angles). Then tell them they must shoot theentire roll in, say, two minutes — and begin counting. In their haste to meetthis imposed deadline they are likely to forget their inhibitions and they mayvery well produce their first exceptional photographs as a result. At the veryleast, they will have a roll of film to process and will probably be curious tosee the results, which is an excellent first step.

A variation on this theme (included in the "variations" chart) is to havestudents shoot randomly, without looking through the viewfinder. A timelimit may again be useful. Or you can play a version of "Red Light, GreenLight," instructing students to run around some visually interesting location(the classroom, if there is sufficient light or a nearby park or some area oftown where there is no risk of encountering traffic). At your command, theymust stop and take a photograph before you count to three.

A more elaborate extension of this theme is for you to set up a sort ofphotographic obstacle course: a series of casually arranged objects at somedistance from each other, which students must race against the clock to pho-tograph (possibly being required to rearrange each set of objects prior toshooting). The student who completes the circuit in the shortest time wins.

With any of these drills, by distracting attention away from the formalconcerns of composing an impressive photograph, you wil l facilitate anuncontrived immediate response that can break up the mental logjams thatinhibit free expression. In addition, this kind of kinesthetic activity involvesa student's whole body in the photographic experience and introduces a vitalspirit of play, both of which may help to overcome inhibitions and perfor-mance anxieties.

An altogether different and complementary approach is to slow the

process down and simplify it so extremely that the tendency to see only theobvious cannot be sustained, which can also serve to open the doors of cre-

ativity. For example, select an open space outdoors and place your students

36

far enough away from each other to avoid distractions. Tell them they muststay where they are for 36 minutes, shooting one entire roll of film during

that time at one-minute intervals (which you signal for them). They maystand, sit and turn around, but must not otherwise move. They may not pho-tograph the same view twice. The goal is to produce as many different kindsof photographs as possible and they will be graded only on this basis: threepoints for each frame on a contact sheet (there's no need to make prints ofthem a l l ) which does not repeat any other frame on the roll. The sameapproach can be applied to a single object, in which case students may moveabout freely but must shoot every frame of that one object from a differentperspective.

Yet another playful option is a variation on "treasure hunts." Draw up alist of common objects or sketch various shapes and instruct students tolocate and photograph each one within a specified time. This may be refinedin any number of ways specific to any stage of the course. For example, youmight simply instruct students to photograph as many different shapes (ortextures or lines) as possible within a specified time on a single roll of film.Or you might assign a list of photographic categories: black-on-white, gray-on-gray, motion, detail, shadow, texture, etc. This last exercise is an espe-cially efficient means of conducting a capsule review, which can serve as auseful reminder of photographic elements which students may have begunto neglect.

By using any of these methods to "circle back" to previously coveredground, you can accomplish the goals of reteaching students in need of spe-cial assistance without separating them from the rest of the class, as all stu-dents should find these exercises entertaining (at least) and possibly highlyinstructive. Returning to basics in this manner can provide a reassuring senseof progress, provide the sort of plateau experience mentioned above and pro-mote awareness of the ways in which the various elements of photographyare integrated and interwoven. At the same time, students who have laggedbehind in certain areas can painlessly reprise them and may, in the process,come to understand concepts or develop skills that were previously missed.

37

parts Useful Information

HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDELINES

Tools and Equipment

Always be mindful that a papercutter is a very dangerous tool.Use it carelessly and you couldlose a finger. Never leave theblade up after use. Always lookbefore you cut, to be sure no partof you, your clothing or anythingelse you don't want to cut is inthe path of the blade.

Fortunately, photographic hardware is generally quite benign, posing few

safety hazards. The only truly dangerous piece of equipment likely to be

used with some frequency is the paper cutter. The note at left, which appears

in the textbook in regard to paper-cutter use, should be strongly emphasized.

Outside of that, the most likely risk to health and safety is carelessness

while photographing. Any photographer with one eye glued to the viewfinder

and the other shut tight is at best half-blind. It is not uncommon for one to

be so intent on getting the composition just right that a ditch or step or cliff

or passing truck is blithely ignored until too late. (Those jokes about "one

more step, one more step, splash!" have a serious side.) Students should be

encouraged to learn good habits in this as in other aspects of photography.

An advisable basic rule is: look around with both eyes before you peek

through the shutter. This is as helpful for good composition as it is for avoid-

ing bruised and broken limbs: scanning the environment without the cam-

era gives a photographer a sense of bearings that will produce better

photographs as well as prevent accidents. Under no circumstances should

one walk in any direction without first checking to ensure that the coast is

clear.

39

Chemicals

A student examines a newly processedroll of film, f Photograph byDoric Parsons.)

The necessary use of chemicals in photographic processing does present

some potential health and safety concerns. However, by taking proper pre-

cautions and promoting careful work habits, these concerns can be effec-

tively minimized.The fumes of many photographic chemicals may irritate the eyes, nose

or lungs, cause headaches and other symptoms, and ultimately pose serioushealth risks. The most important preventative step is to ensure that the dark-

room space is adequately ventilated (see "Ventilation" on page 21). In addi-tion, all spilled chemicals should be cleaned up immediately and studentsshould be prohibited from spending more than one hour in the darkroomwithout a "fresh-air-break." Splashing chemicals into the eyes is the mostcommon potentially hazardous darkroom accident. Encouraging students tomove slowly and deliberately when processing will aid in prevention. Shouldsuch an accident occur, the eyes should be immediately and thoroughlyflushed with clean water and/or a sterile eye wash solution. It's a good idea

to have a well-stocked first aid kit, just in case.Prolonged contact with some chemicals (especially those used in sepia

toning and other advanced procedures) may irritate the skin and/or result in

rashes or discoloration. Though the most circumspect solution to this poten-tial problem would be to insist that students wear gloves at all times in thedarkroom, many teachers deem this unnecessarily cautious. At the very least,students should be strictly required to wash their hands thoroughly (withindustrial-strength soap) after every darkroom session—and to use tongs(not fingers!) to transfer prints in and out of developing trays. (You should,however, have at least one back-up pair of gloves for students with allergiesor sensitive skin.)

Other general precautions that should be strictly adhered to include thefollowing:

1. Do not heat chemicals. Re-mix with hot water (or place container in ahot-water bath) if you need to raise the temperature.

2. Store chemicals in tightly sealed containers. In addition to reducing therisk of accidental spills and unnecessary fumes, this will significantly pro-long the life of your chemicals. The use of specially designed, flexibleplastic containers that can be compressed to expel excess air is highly

recommended. Glass jars are not recommended: They can become veryslippery in the darkroom, increasing the ever-present risk of breakage.

3. Do not use old chemicals. Unlike other supplies, such as paper and film,

chemicals should not be used beyond their listed expiration dates. Doingso merely invites increased health and safety risks.

40

4. Carefully read and follow all safety guidelines provided by a chemical's

manufacturer. Some photographic chemicals pose particular health risks

that will be fully explained on the packaging. Make a habit of reading all

the fine print before using any new chemical—and discuss all relevant

information with your class.

Toxic Chemicals to beAvoided in the SchoolPhoto Program12

Chemical

Developers

Hazard

Catechincatecholpyrocatecholo-dihydroxybenzene

Pyrogallic acidpyrogallol

Diaminophenol hydrochloride

Intensifiers

Mercuric chloride

Mercuric iodide

Potassium cyanide

Uranium nitrate

Diff icul ty in breathing:cyanosis, liver-kidneydamage; ingestion may be fatal

Cyanosis, anemia, liver-kidneydamage; ingestion can be fatal

Severe skin irritation,bronchial asthma, gastritis,convulsions, coma.

Chronic mercury poisoning.

Chronic mercury poisoning.

Rashes, chemical asphyxia;ingestion can be fatal.

Skin corrosion, liver-kidneydamage, radioactive.

Toner

Thiourea

Miscellaneous

Causes cancer in rats;suspected carcinogen.

Formaldehyde

Freons(fluorocarbons)

Scnsiti/.er causing respiratoryand skin allergies;suspected carcinogen.

Respiratory irritations;heating may produce poison gases.

1 Secger, A Photographer's Guide to the Safe Use of Materials, pp. 29-40.: McCann, Artist Beware, pp. 310-324.

41

Photo Processes to beAvoided in the Schools12

Teachers must individuallymake decisions concerning theseprocesses, but their use is notrecommended because the poten-tial hazards are so serious thatcontrolling them is expensive. If ateacher has a special interest in oneof the processes, it is suggestedthat after becoming fully aware ofthe potential hazards, the use of theprocess be kept the teacher's ownpersonal creative work and notattempted with students.

Material Safety Data Sheets

Some manufacturers provideMaterial Safety Data Sheets(MSDS) for some or all of theirproducts. The MSDS providesimportant safety information, suchas a listing of all standardizedingredients and warnings regardingpotential fire, chemical andpersonal injury hazards.

You should request a MSDS forany art material whose uses orcharacteristics are unfamiliar toyou, any unlabeled material whoselabel does not provide warninginformation.

Process

Color processing

Cibachrome

Gum printing

Cyanotype

Daguerreotype

Rationale for Avoidance

Many of the chemicals used incolor processing are highly toxicand require local exhaust and verycareful control methods. It is acomplex, difficult process andshould only be undertaken in themost advanced classes under thedirection of extremely wellqual i f ied instructors.

Highly toxic chemicals used in thisprocess are suspected especially ofaffecting the female reproductivesystem, possibly resulting in birthdefects and miscarriages.

Requires local ventilation; dustmasks must be worn when usingpowders. Results probably do notwarrant the precautions necessary.

Exposure by carbon arc light onpotassium ferricyanide can releasehydrogen cyanide gas. Eyes andskin are especially sensitive to UVradiation. Can be done safely ifexposure is by sunlight and wateris used for developing.

Exposure to highly toxic mercuryvapor is possible; educationalresults do not seem to warrantthe risk.

1 Sceger, A Photographer 'v Guide lo ihe Safe Use of Maierittls.'• McCann, Artist Beware.

42

IB-WEEK CURRICULUM

Note: Items in parentheses are options that may be added to (or substituted

for) basic objectives and schedule, or covered incrementally throughout the

course (i.e., chapter 1 might be assigned for reading over a week or two pos-

sibly followed by independent research by each student on a selected topic).

WEEK1

Topic: Introduction

Goal: Orientation

Objective(s): Outline scheduleand procedures

Review basic camera functions

(Survey history and applicationsof photography)

Chapter(s): ( I ) . 2

Class: Camera Demonstration

WEEK 4

Topic: Line

Goal: Explore use of line inphotography

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of "line" subjects

Chapter(s): 6

Class: Crit, shooting session,lab work

WEEK 2

Topic: Composilion

Goal: Establish fundamentals ofgood composition

Objective(s): Introduce standardsand vocabulary of composition

Practice crit procedures

Chapter(s): 3, 4

Class: Mat & CroppingExercises, Sample Crit

Topic: Shooting & Processing

WEEKS

Topic: Texture

Goal: Explore use of texture

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of "texture" subjects

Chapter(s): 7


WEEK 3

Goal: Begin taking andprocessing photos

Objective(s): Apply "point ofdeparture" settings

Expose and process a roll of H i m

Chapter(s): 5, Appendix 1:Processing Film & Prints (B&W)

Class: Demonstration ofprocessing (Field trip to shoot1st roll)

WEEK 6

Topic: Shape

Goal: Explore use of shape

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of "shape" subjects

Chapter(s): 8

Class: Crit. shooting session,lab work

43

WEEK? WEEKS WEEK 9

Topic: Light

Goal: Explore use of light

Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "light" subjects

Chapter(s): 9


WEEK 10

Topic: Things

Goal: Practice photographingobjects

Objective(s): Shoot 1 roll ofstill life subjects

Chapter(s): 12


WEEK 13

Topic: Put t ing It All Together

Goal: Practice photographingevents

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of events

Chapter(s): 15


Topic: Motion

Goal: Explore use of motion

Object!ve(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "motion" subjects

Chapter(s): 10


WEEK 11

Topic: Places

Goal: Practice photographingplaces

Objective(s): Shoot 1 rol l oflocation subjects

Chaptcr(s): 13


WEEK 14

Topic: Breaking the Rules

Goal: Explore non-standardsubjects and composition

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of experimental subjects

Chapter(s): 16

Class: crit, shooting session,lab work

Topic: Perspective

Goal: Explore use of perspective

Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "perspective" subjects

Chapter(s): 1 I


WEEK 12

Topic: People

Goal: Practice photographingpeople

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of portraits

Chapter(s): 14


WEEK 15

Topic: Color

Goal: Explore color photography

Objcctive(s): Experiment wi th"color themes"

Chapter(s): Appendix 2

Class: crit, shooting session,lab work

44

WEEK 16 WEEK 17 WEEK 18

Topic: Presentation

Goal: Develop matting and/orexhibition skills

Objective(s): Mat sample printsfor portfolio

Produce an exhibit


Class: Lab work

(Exhibit/portfolio preparation)

Topic: Final Project Presentation

The final project might be areport on independent research, afinished portfolio by each student,a class exhibit or other groupproject, etc.

Goal: Consolidate progress

Objective(s): Submit final project

Class: Final project presentations

(Exhibit/portfolio preparation)

Topic: Final Project Presentation

& Portfolio Review

Goal: Evaluate progress

Objective(s): Assess eachstudent's progress

Class: Final projectpresentations, portfolio review

36-WEEK CURRICULUM

Note: Items in parentheses are options that may be added to (or substituted

for) basic objectives and schedule or covered incrementally throughout the

course (i.e., chapter 1 might be assigned for reading over a week or two pos-

sibly followed by independent research by each student on a selected topic).

WEEK1

Topic: Introduction

Goal: Orientation

Objective(s): Outline scheduleand procedures

Review basic camera functions

Survey history and applications ofphotography

Chapter(s): ( I ) . 2

Class: Camera Demonstration

WEEK 2

Topic: Composition

Goal: Establish fundamentals ofgood composition

Objective(s): Introduce standardsand vocabulary of composition

Practice crit procedures

Chapter(s): 3, 4

Class: Mat & CroppingExercises, Sample Cril

Topic: Shooting & Processing

45

WEEK 3

Goal: Begin taking andprocessing photos

Objective(s): Apply "point ofdeparture" settings

Expose and process a roll of f i lm

Chapter(s): 5, Appendix 1:Processing Film & Prints (B&W)

Class: Demonstration ofprocessing (Field trip to shoot1st r o l l )

WEEK 6

Topic: Shape

Goal: Explore use of shape

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of "shape" subjects

Chapter(s): 8


WEEK 9

Topic: Perspective

Goal: Explore use of perspective

Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "perspective" subjects

Chapter(s): I 1


WEEK 4

Topic: Line

Goal: Explore use of l ine inphotography

Objective(s): Shoot/process1 roll of "line" subjects

Chapter(s): 6


WEEK?

Topic: Light

Goal: Explore use of light

Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "light" subjects

Chapter(s): 9


WEEK 10

Topic: Things


Objectivc(s): Shoot I roll of stilllife subjects

Chapter(s): 12


WEEKS

Topic: Texture

Goal: Explore use of texture

Objcctive(s): Shoot/proeessI roll of "texture" subjects

Chapter(s): 7


WEEKS

Topic: Motion

Goal: Explore use of motion

Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of "motion" subjects

Chapter(s): 10


WEEK 11

Topic: Things


Objective(s): Shoot 1 roll of stlife subjects

Chapter(s): 12


46

WEEK 12

Topic: Things


Objective(s): Shoot 1 roll of stilllife subjects

Chapter(s): 12


WEEK 15

Topic: Places


Objective(s): Shoot 1 roll oflocation subjects

Chapter(s): 13


WEEK 18

Topic: People


Objective(s): Shoot 1 roll oflocation portraits

Chapter(s): 14


WEEK 13

Topic: Places



Chapter(s): 13


WEEK 16

Topic: People



Chapter(s): 14

Class: Crit, shooting session.lab work

WEEK 19

Topic: People


Ob.jective(s): Shoot I roll oflocation portraits

Chapter (s): 14

Class: Crit. shooting session.lab work

WEEK 14

Topic: Places



Chapter(s): 13


WEEK 17

Topic: People



Chapter(s): 14

Class: Crit, shooting session.lab work

WEEK 20

Topic: Putting It All Together



Chapter(s): 15


47

WEEK 21 WEEK 22 WEEK 23




Chapter(s): 15

Class: Crit. shooting session,lah work

WEEK 24



Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll ot experimental subjects

Chapter(s): 16


WEEK 27

Topic: Color


Objective(s): Experiment withcolor density




Objcctive(s): Shoot/process1 roll of events

Chapter(s): 15


WEEK 25



Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of experimental subjects

Chapter(s): 16


WEEK 28

Topic: Color


Objective(s): Select any exerciseand apply to color

Class: Cril, shooting session,lab work



Objective(s): Shoot/process 1roll of experimental subjects

Chapter(s): 16


WEEK 26

Topic: Color


Objective(s): Experiment with"color themes"


Class: Crit, shooting session,lah work

WEEK 29

Topic: Color


Objcctive(s): Select any exerciseand apply to color

Experiment with differentfilms — high speed; variousbrands; prints & transparencies


48

In the remaining weeks, one possibility is to generate an independent orclass project. Tin's might be collective work on the yearbook, an exhibit,a publication; independent or group research on various topics; or eachstudent developing an individual portfolio (either employing exercises inthe textbook or committing to a specific topic/technique). Alternativeh',the four weeks set aside for "projects " could cover special effects printing(Appendix 3: "Manipulation "), flash photography, etc. Goals andobjectives will vary according to how projects are defined, but theunderlying purpose of this portion of the curriculum is to encouragestudents to refine their own special interests and aptitudes, eitherindependently or as a group, and to consolidate the progress thev havemade in the course.

WEEK 31

Topic: Independent/Class Project

Class: Lab work, projects

WEEK 32

Topic: IndependentyClass Project


WEEK 34

Topic: Completion/Presentationof Projects

Class: Mounting an exhibit

Reporting on research

Reviewing portfolios

WEEK 35

Topic: Review & Revision

Class: Reporting on Research

Exercises on weak points

Addition to portfolios

WEEK 30



WEEK 33



WEEK 36

Topic: Review & Revision

Class: Reporting on Research

Exercises on weak points

Addition to portfolios

49

ADDITIONAL SOURCES

Films Write to the following sources for catalogs of films on area artists. For a

complete l is t ing of available films, see Films on An, compiled by the Amer-ican Federation of Arts, published by Watson-Guptill Publications, New

York, 1977. Look for revised and updated editions.Not all of the companies listed here produce materials specifically on

photography. In some cases, films, filmstrips, etc. would be used for enrich-ment/motivation ideas. Check with the suppliers as to specific listings or to

obtain catalogs.

American Institute of Architects1735 New York Ave, NWWashington, DC 20006

Association Films, Inc.866 Third Ave.New York, NY 10022

BBC-TV EnterprisesManulife Center55BloorSt. W., Suite 510Toronto. Ontario M4W1A5

BFA Educational Media2211 Michigan Ave.Santa Monica. CA 90404

Carousel Films, Inc.1501 Broadway. Suite 1503New York, NY 10036

Castelli-Sonnabend Tapesand Films

420 W. BroadwayNew York, NY 10012

Canadian Film Institute303 Richmond Rd.Ottawa, Ontario K1Z6X3

Embassy of Japan2520 Massachusetts Ave, NWWashington, DC 20008

FACSEA972 Fifth Ave.New York, NY 10021

Film Images1034 Lake St.Oak Park, IL 60301

Films Incorporated1144 Wilmette Ave.Wilmette, IL 60091

Indiana UniversityAudiovisual Center

Bloomington, IN 47401

International Film Bureau332 S. Michigan Ave.Chicago, IL 60640

Learning Corp of America1350 Ave. of the AmericasNew York, NY 10019

Leland Auslander Films6036 Comey Ave.Los Angeles. CA 90034

Macmillan Films, Inc.34 MacQueston Pkwy S.Mount Vernon, NY 10550

Modern Talking Picture Service2323 Hyde Park Rd.New Hyde Park, NY 11040

50

Museum at Large157 West 54th St.New York, NY 10019

Museum of Modern Art11 West 53rd St.New York, NY 10019

National Gallery of ArtExtension ServiceWashington, DC 20565

New York UniversityFilm Library

26 Washington PI.New York, NY 10003

Ohio State UniversityDept. of Photography

and Cinema156 West 19th Ave.Columbus, OH 43210

Phoenix/BFA Films and Video468 Park Ave. S.New York, NY 10016

Pyramid FilmsP.O.Box 1048Santa Monica, CA 90406

RJM Productions7012 LaPresa Dr.Hollywood, CA 90028

Time-Life Films100 Eisenhower Dr.Paramus, NJ 07652

University of CaliforniaExtension Media CenterBerkeley, CA 94720

Slides, Filmstrips,Videotapes

Many of the companies listed below produce films. Their catalogs will be ofhelp to you in many areas.

Centre Productions1800 30th St., Suite 207Boulder, CO 80301

Crystal ProductionsBox 12317Aspen, CO 81612

Educational Audiovisual Inc.17 Marie Ave.Pleasantville, NY 10570

Educational Dimensions GroupP.O.Box 126Stamford, CT 06904

Helvey ProductionsP.O.Box 1691

Columbia, MO 65205

International Film Bureau332 S. Michigan Ave.Chicago, 1L 60640

Son-A-Vision110 Washington Ave.Pleasantville. NY 10570

Video-Ed Productions4301 East-West Hwy.Hyattsville, MD 20782

Warner Educational ProductionsBox 8791

Fountain Valley, CA 97208

51

Books Davis, Phil. Photography. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown Co., 1986. Acollege-level text with detailed technical information on photographictheory and practice. Highly recommended for anyone interested in this

aspect of photography.Eastman Kodak. Complete Kodak Book of Photography. Rochester, N.Y.

Distributed by Crown Publishers, New York. 1982.Joy of Photography, The. Rochester, N.Y. Distributed by

Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, MA 1983. Both these booksare "idea" sources. Excellent photographs, limited information. May

inspire students to "try" new things.Hedgecoe, John. Pocket Guide to Practical Photography. New York, Simon

& Schuster, 1979. A "must" for all photographic libraries. Contains briefand precise answers to "How do I. . . ?" questions.

Vestal. David. The Craft of Photography. New York: Harper & Row. 1978.Recommended for those who wish to achieve a high level of technicalskill. Emphasizes black-and-white photography and processing.

There are numerous titles on specialized photographic subjects. For thosewishing to pursue this topic, one should consult a library with an extensivephotography section. Several titles one might explore are:

The Negative and the Print by Ansel Adams (Amphoto).

The New Zone System Manual by Minor White et al. (Morgan & Morgan)Close-ups in Nature by John Shaw (Amphoto).

The Photographic Lab Handbook by John Carrol (Amphoto).

52

EVALUATION AND STUDY AIDS

A simple "till-in-the-blanks" quiz canbe a useful study aid, challengingstudents to read assigned textbookpassages with care and precison.(Photograph b\ Doric Parsons.)

The following pages contain a selection of sample evaluation forms that youmay apply as models or templates, altering them as you wish to suit yourown needs and preferences.

The Critique Form is designed to serve as a written alternative or addi-tion to verbal crit sessions. Before proceeding to the verbal crit, studentsmight be instructed to fill out a form like this one for each photograph underreview. In addition to providing substantial documentation of responses toa given photograph (which may be easier to absorb and assimilate than abarrage of spoken opinions), this procedure will also help train students toorganize their perceptions and articulate them clearly and carefully.

The Photograph Evaluation Form is intended for use by the teacher,providing a clear and consistent framework for noting key aspects of pho-tographic quality and assignment ful f i l lment . Once again, students are farmore likely to "process" information and criticisms which are presented inthis kind of formalized structure, as opposed to casual conversation or hand-written notes. Over time, students will also be able to track their progressby looking back at the evaluations they have received.

The Reading Worksheet for chapter 1 is an example of a type of studyaid which may significantly enhance students' comprehension of textbookreading assignments. Students fill in the missing words as they read — eitheron the first "run-through" or as a review exercise (which may be done in theclassroom). By turning the reading exercise into a kind of game (find themissing word), a worksheet like this provides motivation and momentumwhich may otherwise be lacking, especially for students who have not devel-oped good reading skills.

The procedure for producing "fill-in-the-blank" quizzes of this kind isrelatively straightforward: Simply select sentences at regular intervals fromthe text and type them out, replacing one key word in each sentence with ablank space (large enough to be filled in by hand!). In the provided sample,the missing word is generally (though not always) the "key" word of the sen-tence. Emphasizing new vocabulary terms specific to photography (such as"Daguerreotype") will make the quiz more challenging and help studentsbecome familiar with these terms by prompting them to notice the correctspelling and definition.

The Quiz for Chapter 2 is an example of a more "conceptual" exercise,which requires students to demonstrate comprehension of core ideas in the

text. Again, students may be encouraged to refer to the text for answers (orthe quiz may be used as a test of acquired knowledge, without reference to

the text). The provided answers are (in most cases) intended as general guide-

53

lines. A reasonable amount of leeway is necessary in a quiz of this kind, as

the exact wording of most answers is likely to vary considerably.Additional quizzes like this one may be derived from the text by noting

bold-faced terms or selecting key concepts and devising questions pertain-ing to them. Note that some questions (such as 13: "Define 'depth of field'")

are not easily answered in a few words. Though these have the benefitof being especially challenging — provoking substantial thought — it isimportant to ensure that the majority of the answers to a quiz of this kind be

reasonably simple (lists, single-word answers, etc.), so students do not feeloverwhelmed. If students will be permitted to refer to the text, you may wishto provide page number citations (included in parentheses in this sample) to

assist with this.The Quiz on Film Developing suggests a useful format for focusing

attention on specific procedures. The answers to any of the sample questionsmay vary, depending the film, chemicals, etc., used in your class. You mayalso wish to alter the questions (and add others) depending on your own pref-erences and procedures. (For example, if you include a hypo clearing agentin film processing, then one or more questions pertaining to that should beadded.)

Toward the end of the course, you may wish to provide the class with aFinal Examination Study Sheet, indicating topics with which they should

be familiar. The sample provided summarizes key points raised in the text(with parenthetical page references to assist in locating each topic). Onceagain, you are encouraged to add, subtract and revise to suit your own pref-erences and needs.

We wish to thank Dorie Parsons (Kubasaki High School; Okinawa) andJoleen Roe (Bethlehem Central High School; Delmar, New York) for con-tributing evaluation forms on which these samples are based.

54

Critique Form

What technical aspects of this photograph (such as lighting, focus, print quality, etc.) do you feel are good or excellent?

What technical aspects do you feel detract from the qual i ty or effectiveness of the photograph?

What artistic qualities (such as composition, impact, mood, etc.) do you see in this photograph?

In what ways do you feel this photograph is artistically flawed?

What might the photographer have done to make this photograph better?

Photograph Evaluation

Name

Assignment

Period

Assignment Requirements

Print Size

correctincorrect

Choice of Subject

meets assignmentdoes not meet assignment

Printing Technique

Contrastgood

I highlights/whites not light enough1 J highlights/whites too light. i shadows/blacks not dark enough

shadows/blacks too dark

Print ExposureD goodD over-exposed (too dark)LJ under-exposed (too light)D needs dodging:LJ needs burning:

Print Qualitygood, clean print

D dust on negativeG scratches on negativeD air bubbles in processing. i water spots on negative[ . dented emulsionD negative reversedD paper is fogged

chemical stains

C fingerprintsD tong marksD uneven developingD incomplete fixingD etc:

Reprint and submit again

Composition

Center of Interest

D adequatestrongmissing

Depth of Field

effectivei~l acceptableD too shallow:

Focus

i ] sharp' almost sharp[ poorly focused

CroppingLJ effectiveLJ reposition to correct tilted

horizon l i n eiZ crop tighter::I cropped too tight:L3 change to vertical formatD change to horizontal format

D too deep:

Grade D

. should be in focus

should not be in focus

D effective use of selective or soft focusD camera shake

, moving subjectIH effective use of blurred motion

Originality

Choice of Subjectcompelling

D interestingL~J adequate:'.". dllll

Point of View Comments:LJ commonD unusual Work on:

Please mount this print Extra Credit

Early Photography — Reading Worksheet for Chapter 1

Period

Please read pages 10-15 in The Photographic Eye: Learning to See with a Camera. Fill in this worksheet as you read.You are responsible for the material to be read. Be sure to spend some time looking at the pictures.

1. Photography began as a curiosity and has grown into a . influence on our society.

2. We encounter hundreds of photographs every day, some with tremendous impact, some with

3. How long has photography been around? Any guess over

4. There isn't any one answer.

5. No one person can be credited with

years would be reasonably correct.

. photography.

6. The first printed photographs were made between 1816 and

7. The first recorded discovery that a certain chemical turned black when exposed to light was made in

8. The basic design of the camera has been in use since the .

9. The. figured it out even longer ago than that—as early as the fourth century.

10. Photography is between .

1 1. The first stage of photography's .

and 150 years old.

in Europe was the camera obscura.

12. Camera is Latin for chamber; obscura means.

13. The camera obscura was a room with one t iny hole fitted with a .

14. The image was upside down and not very _ . but it could be traced.

15. Portable versions of the camera obscura were developed by the .

16. In 1725 Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered a m i x t u r e that turned . . in sunlight .

17. Silver salt was causing the reaction to .


Name Period

18. Schulze never thought that his discovery might have any . application.

19. In 1777 Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that ammonia would dissolve the silver chloride and

leave the imaae

20. The basic chemistry of photography (exposing silver chloride to produce an image and.

it with ammonia) was established.

21. In France, Joseph Niepce developed an emulsion or

22. Instead of t u rn ina black, this material is

-sensitive varnish.

. by light.

23. To produce an image, emulsion on glass or pewter was exposed to light and then

with solvents.

24. The solvents dissolved the unexposed emulsion, producing the world's first.

camera image.

25. It was only some blurs of light and dark and the exposure took. hours.

26. In Paris. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre discovered that if a silver plate were iodized, exposed first to light and

then to mercury vapor, and f inal ly fixed with a salt solution, then a , permanent image

would result.

27. This was the first photographic process to be used outside of a laboratory: the .

28. In England, Will iam Henry Fox Talbot succeeded in producing photographs. The first exposure produced a negative

image on .

29. The exposed paper was placed over a second sheet of treated paper and exposed to a bright light, producina aimage.

30. Talbot's process—called a calotype—enabled photographers to make

of a single image.. copies

31. Because the calotype's image was transferred through a paper negative it was not as

as the daguerreotype.


Name Period

32. In 1851, Frederick Scott Archer introduced the collodian wet-plate process which produced a high

_ image and multiple copies.

33. The collodian process was .to use.

34. A clean glass plate had to be coated with collodian and while still damp, the plate had to be dipped into silver nitrate,

inserted into the camera and exposed, then developed .

35. Photography, dominated by the collodian and daguerreotype processes, began to.

36. Cameras were used to photograph portraits, landscapes and

37. collected inexpensive prints of local attractions.

off.

38. The stereoscopic camera that produced a. . image was introduced in 1849.

39. As early as 1850 . of photographs were published showing the harsh conditions

of life in England and the U.S.

40. Lewis Hine produced powerful photographs that helped to bring about new .

children's rights.

.to protect

41. At the start of the Civil War, Mathew .

onto the battlefields.

. asked for permission to carry his cameras

42. In the 1880s. Eadweard Muybridge invented the zoopraxiscope that produced a series of images of a

subject.

43. Though early photographers often achieved a high degree of aesthetic quality, their primary purposes were

44. They were to promote social reform, record events and aid . . investigations.

Early Photography — Reading Worksheet for Chapter 1 — Answers

Name Period

Please read pages 10-15 in The Photographic Eye: Learning to See with a Camera. Fill in this worksheet as you read.You are responsible for the material to be read. Be sure to spend some time looking at the pictures.

1. Photography began as a curiosity and has grown into a major influence on our society.

2. We encounter hundreds of photographs every day, some with tremendous impact, some with

none .

3. How long has photography been around? Any guess over 150 years would be reasonably correct.

4. There isn't any one correct answer.

5. No one person can be credited with inventing photography.

6. The first printed photographs were made between 1816 and 1840

7. The first recorded discovery that a certain chemical turned black when exposed to light was made in 1725

8. The basic design of the camera has been in use since the 1500s

9. The Chinese figured it out even longer ago than that—as early as the fourth century.

10. Photography is between 1.500 and 150 years old.

1 1 . The first stage of photography's evolution in Europe was the camera obscura.

12. Camera is Latin for chamber; obscura mean dark .

13. The camera obscura was a room with one tiny hole fitted with a lens

14. The image was upside down and not very clear but it could be traced.

15. Portable versions of the camera obscura were developed by the 1660s .

16. In 1725 Johann Heinrich Schulze discovered a mixture that turned purple in sunlight.

17. Silver salt was causing the reaction to l ight

Early Photography — Reading Worksheet for Chapter 1 — Answers

Name Period

18. Schulze never thought that his discovery might have any practical application.

19. In 1777 Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that ammonia would dissolve the silver chloride and

leave the image intact

20. The basic chemistry of photography (exposing silver chloride to produce an image and f ixing

it with ammonia) was established.

21 . In France, Joseph Niepce developed an emulsion or l ight -sensitive varnish.

22. Instead of turning black, this material is hardened by light.

23. To produce an image, emulsion on glass or pewter was exposed to l ight and then washed

with solvents.

24. The solvents dissolved the unexposed emulsion, producing the world's first permanent

camera image.

25. It was only some blurs of light and dark and the exposure took 8 hours.

26. In Paris, Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre discovered that if a silver plate were iodized, exposed first to light and

then to mercury vapor, and finally fixed with a salt solution, then a visible permanent image would result.

27. This was the first photographic process to be used outside of a laboratory: the daguerreotype

28. In England, William Henry Fox Talbot succeeded in producing photographs. The first exposure produced a negative

image on paper .

29. The exposed paper was placed over a second sheet of treated paper and exposed to a bright light, producing a

positive image.

30. Talbot's process—called a calotype—enabled photographers to make multiple copies

of a single image.

31. Because the calotype's image was transferred through a paper negative it was not as clear

as the daguerreotype.

Early Photography — Photography Reading Worksheet for Chapter 1 — Answers

Name Period

32. In 1851, Frederick Scott Archer introduced the collodian wet-plate process which produced a high-

quali ty image and multiple copies.

33. The collodian process was di f f icul t to use.

34. A clean glass plate had to be coated with collodian and while still damp, the plate had to be dipped into silver nitrate,

inserted into the camera and exposed, then developed immediately

35. Photography, dominated by the collodian and daguerreotype processes, began to take— oil.

36. Cameras were used to photograph portraits, landscapes and battles .

37. Tourists collected inexpensive prints of local attractions.*

38. The stereoscopic camera that produced a three-dimensional image was introduced in 1849.

39. As early as 1850 books of photographs were published showing the harsh conditions

of life in England and the U.S.

40. Lewis Hine produced powerful photographs that helped to bring about new laws to protect

children's rights.

41. At the start of the Civil War, Mathew Brady asked for permission to carry his cameras

onto the battlefields.

42. In the 1880s, Eadweard Muybridge invented the zoopraxiscope that produced a series of images of a

moving subject.

43. Though early photographers often achieved a high degree of aesthetic quality, their primary purposes werepractical .

44. They were to promote social reform, record events and aid scientific invpsf iont in n g

Quiz for Chapter 2 — Tools

1. List two important choices you should consider before buying a new camera.

2. What is an interchangeable lens?

3. What is a fixed lens?

4. What is a "fixed focal-length" lens?

5. What is a "zoom" lens?

6. What does "manual override" allow you to do?

7. What does "grain" mean in photography?

8. What is the most important benefit of using a "UV" or "skylight" filter?

Quiz for Chapter 2 — Tools

9. What is a contact sheet'.'

10. Describe a si tuat ion in which you micht choose ISO 400 film instead of ISO 64 f i l m ?

1 1. What does "aperture" mean?

12. Which aperture is larger: ['4.5 or I'S?

13. Define "depth of field."

14. What aperture might you choose for shallow (or narrow) depth of field and what effect might you achieve with it?

15. List three conditions in which a fast shutter speed is usefu l .

16. Which lens most closely matches human vision:

_200mm 75mm 50mm 28mm

17. What happens if you change lenses while there is film in your camera?

Quiz for Chapter 2 — Tools — Answers

1. List two important choices you should consider before buying a new camera, (page 36)

A. fixed or interchangeable lens(es)B. manual or automatic exposure

2. What is an interchangeable lens? (page 36)

One that can be removed from the camera body

3. What is a fixed lens? (page 36)

One that cannot be removed

4. What is a "fixed focal-length" lens? (page 39)

One in which the angle of view or "length" (the distance between the optical center and thefilm plane) cannot be adjusted.

5. What is a "zoom" lens? (page 39)

One in which the length can be adjusted

6. What does "manual override" allow you to do? (page 37)

Select a different exposure than recommended by the light meter

7. What does "grain" mean in photography? (page 37)

The size of the "dots" which create a photographic image

8. What is the most important benefit of using a "UV" or "skylight" filter? (page 39)

It protects the lens from being scratched

Quiz for Chapter 2 — Tools — Answers

9. What is a contact sheet? (page 40)

A same-size print of all the frames on a single roll of f i l m , used for evaluating the imagesand decidine which to enlarge

10. Describe a situation in which you might choose ISO 400 film instead of ISO 64 film?

Any si tuat ion in which the light is low, the subject or photographer is in motion, or a "soft" or grainy effect is desired

11. What does "aperture" mean? (page 47)

The size of the lens opening

12. Which aperture is larger: f'4.5 or f8? (page 47)

(4.5

13. Define "depth of field." (page 47)

The range of distances from the camera which will be in sharp focus at any one time

14. What aperture might you choose for shallow (or narrow) depth of field and what effect might you achieve with it?(page 47)

Example: t'4.5 — To achieve the effect of a subject in focus with a blurred background.

15. List three conditions in which a fast shutter speed is useful, (page 36)

A. subject is in motionB. shooting in low lightC. using a long lens

16. Which lens most closely matches human vision: (page 39)200mm 75mm 50mm 28mm

50mm

17. What happens if you change lenses while there is film in your camera? (page .

You must figure out this one on your own — it depends on your camera.

Film Developing — Photography

Choose the most correct answer.

1. The type of developer we use isA. DektolB. Microdol-XC.Microdol-X(l:3)D. Photo-flo

2. The best temperature for the developer isA. 55"B. 68"C. 75"D. 100"

3. At this temperature, film should remain in the developer forA. 1 minute.B. 5 minutes.C. 15 minutesD. 30 minutes.

4. After pouring developer into the processing tank, you shouldA. agitate the tank continuously for the entire developing time.B. set the tank on a flat surface without shaking it and leave it there for the entire developing time.C. agitate the tank for 5 seconds at 30-second intervals.D. agitate the tank occasionally for what feels like the "right" amount of time.

5. At the end of the developing time, you shouldA. open the developing tank and check to be sure the film has been developed correctly.B. pour the developer back into its container.C. leave the developer in the tank and pour in a small amount of stop bath.D. pour the developer down the drain.

6. Film should remain in the stop bath forA. 5 minutes.B. 30 seconds.C. I minute.D. between 1 and 5 minutes, depending on the type of film.

7. After completing the stop bath, film should beA. washed for 30 minutes, then fixed.B. fixed for 30 minutes, then washed.C. fixed for 5 minutes, then washed.D. washed for 5 minutes (fixing is optional, but not necessary).

Film Developing — Photography

8. To focus the negative in an enlarger, you shouldA. use the largest aperture.B. use the smallest aperature.C. use whatever aperture looks best.

9. The correct exposure for printing a negative isA. 5 seconds at f8.B. 10 seconds at f4.5.C. determined by making a test strip.D. determined by trail and error.

10. To develop the print normally, you shouldA. allow the paper to sit in the tray with no agitation for the entire developing time.B. agitate the paper occasionally while it is developing.C. turn the paper over at 30-second intervals while continually agitating the tray.D. agitate continually and remove the print as soon as it looks right.E. agitate continually and remove the print when it looks slightly underexposed.

11. The best way to increase the contrast of a print is toA. use a large aperture and then remove the print from the developer as soon as it looks right.B. use a small aperture and develop the print for at least 15 minutes.C. use higher-contrast paper.D. agitate the paper continually while it is developing.E. rub the paper with your hands while it is developing.

12. After the print has been properly developed, you should:A. place it in the stop bath for 15-30 seconds.B. place it in the stop bath for 5 minutes.C. rinse it off in the stop bath and place it in the fixer.D. rinse it with running water.

13. The print should remain in the fixer forA. I minute with continual agitation.B. 5 minutes with agitation for 5 seconds at 1 -minute intervals.C. 10 minutes with agitation for 5 seconds at 30-second intervals.D. 10 minutes with no agitation.

14. After fixing, the print should beA. washed for 1 minuteB. washed for 10 minutesC. washed for 20 minutesD. returned to the stop bath for 1 minute, then washed for 5 minutes.

Answers:1, 2, 3, 13, 14: Answers to these questions will depend on your own procedures.4:C, 5:D. 6: B. 7: C, 8: B, 9: C, 10: C, 11:C, 12: A

Final Exam Study Sheet

As part of your preparation for the photography final exam, you may want to review the topicsincluded in this list. You should be familiar with all of them — understanding not merely what thewords mean, but how they apply to photography in practice. The numbers (in parentheses) indicatepages of The Photographic Eye where you will find information on each topic.

Cameras

camera obscura ( 1 1 )

daguerreotype (12)

interchangeable lens (36, 280)

manual override (37)

ASA/ISO (42, 279)

shutter speed (42-43, 48, 280)

aperture (47, 48, 279)

single-lens reflex (48)

fast and slow lenses (139)

focal length (39, 138,279)

depth-of-field(124-126)

angle-of-view (129-131, 138)

Composition & Technique

line (56-59)

shape (60)

balance (60-61)

dynamics (61-63)

weighting (55, 280)

cropping (65, 74)

value (68-70)

negative space (60, 280)

bracketting(123, 127)

panning (132)

flash fill (268)

zone focusing (182)

Darkroom

working solution (229)

grain focuser (236)

contrast grades (232)

surface texture (232)

emulsion (12, 227)

test strip (235)

dodging and burning (238-

239)

fogging (233, 241)

The Photographic EyeCorrelations to Essential

Elements and TAAS

Contents

Chapter 1:

From Blurs toBig Business

Chapter 2:

Elements ofComposition

Chapter 3:

What isComposition?

Chapter 4:

Developing a

Critical Eye

Chapters:

Point of Departure

(f/16@1/25)

Page

11-31

21-23,29

9-31

9-27,29,30

3111-14,16,21-23,

26, 27, 31

Focal Point: 1Q-21. 24. 2B, 29

35-49

33, 36, 38, 3937,38

40, 48, 4934-38

41-47

Exercise: 48, 49

50-65

50-63

54-63

50-60, 62-65

Exercise: 64, 65

67-8168-70, 74

66, 68-81Exercise: 76-81

82-85

84,85

82, 84, 85

82-84

Essential

Elements

1A.2B

1B

3A.3B

4A, 4B

2A

3A.3B

1A.2B

1B

1C

2A

3A, 4A, 4B

2A

1A.2B

1B.1C

2A

4A, 4B

2A

1A, 2B, 4A, 4B

1B

3A.3B

1B, 1C,4A,4B

1A.2A

1B, 1C

3B, 4A, 4B

TAAS

R1.R2.R3.HB

mmmmm•HHHHHH

B4, R5

R1,R3,R5,R6

R2, B4, B5

R2, R4, R5

R1.R3

R2, R4, R5

R2, R4, R5

R1.R2, R3, R4.R5, R6

R2, R3, R5, W5, W6, W7

R3, R4, R5, R6

••• ••iR1.R2

70

Contents

ChapterG:

Line

Chapter 7.

Texture

ChapterS:

Shape

Chapter 9:

Light

Chapter 10:

Motion

Chapter 11:

Perspective

Page

86-93

87,89

90,91

86,88-91

Exercise: 92, 93

94-101

95, 96, 98

Exercise: 100-1 01

102-111

103,108

102,104-111

105-108

Exercise. 110-111

112-127

116, 117, 124

116,117

112-119,122-124,

126,127

Focal Point: 120-1 21, 125

Exercise: 1 27

128-135

129-133

133Exercise: 134-1 35

136-147

140,142

136,137,140-147

136-146

137-142,145,146

Focal Point: 138-1 39

Fxerc/se: 146-1 47

Essential

Elements

1A,1B,3B,4A,4B

1C

TAAS

R1.R3.

R2

R5.R6

W5, W6, W7

2A

1A, 1B.2B.3B,

4A, 4B

MMH HH2A

1A, 1B.2B

1C3B, 4A, 4B

2B

1A.2B

1B1C4A, 4B

2A

1A, 1C, 2B.3B,

4A, 4B

2A

1A.1B.2B

1C3B, 4A, 4B

1C2B

R2, R4

R1.R5,

R4R2, R4

R1.R3,

R5R2, R4

R1.R3,

R2, R4,

R2, R4,

R1.R5.

R3, R4

R6

R6

R6

R5R5

R6

W5, W6, W7

R2

R3, R6

R1

R2

R1.R2, R4, R5

71

Contents

Chapter 12:Things

Chapter 13:Places

Chapter 14:People

Chapter 15:Putting it allTogether

Chapter 16:Breaking the Rules

Page

150-165150,152-165150,151,154-165

Focal Point: 152, 153Exercise: 154-1 65

166-179Focal Point: ~\BS, 169

Exercise: 170-1 79

180-195181-183Focal Point: 184, 185Everc/se: 186-1 95Exercise: m. 190, 191,194

197,198,200,202-204,206Focal Point: 198, 199Exercise: 202-207

208-225209210Focal Point: 21 0-211Exercise: 2W. 222, 224, 225Exercise: 21 8-225

EssentialElements

1A.2B

1B.1C

3B, 4A, 4B

3A, 3B, 4A, 4B

2A

1A.2B1B, 1C, 3A, 3B,

4A, 4B

1B, 1C, 3B, 4A.4B

1A,2B,3B,4A,4B

1B, 1C.3A2A, 4A, 4B

1B, 1C

1A, 1B, 1C.2B1A, 3A2A, 3B, 4A, 4B

1A.2B.4B4B

18, 1C1B, 1C, 3A, 3B

1B, 1C, 2A, 4B

TAAS

R1.R3

R2, R4, R5, R6

R1.R3.R6R1.R3

R1R2, R4, R5

R3, R6R1.R2 , R4, R5

R2, R1.R4, R5

R1.R3, R4, R5, R6

R2

R1.R3

R1.R3W5, W6, W7R2, R4, R5, R6

72

TEXAS ASSESSMENT OF ACADEMIC SKILLSDOMAIN: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION Instructional Targets, English Language Arts (Exit Level)

W1 Objective 1: The student willrespond appropriately in a writtencomposition to the purpose/audiencespecified in a given topic.

• Vary word and sentence choice for

purpose and audience

• Write compositions incorporatinginformation from sources other thanpersonal experience

• Write informative discourse of avariety of types

• Write persuasive discourse of avariety of types

• Use various composition modelsas aids in developing writing skills

• Use formal and informal languageappropriately

• Use aural and visual stimuli for writing

• Evaluate content

W2 Objective 2: The studentwill organize ideas in a writtencomposition on a given topic.

• Use the composing process to planand generate writing

• Evaluate organization of writing

• Write descriptive, narrative andexpository paragraphs

W3 Objectives: The student willdemonstrate control of the Englishlanguage in a written composition ona given topic.

• Evaluate appropriate transition,clarity of language and appropriateword and sentence choice

• Use the forms and conventions ofwritten language appropriately

• Use parts of speech effectivelyin sentences

• Use the fundamentals of grammar

W4 Objective 4: The student willgenerate a written composition thatdevelops/supports/elaborates thecentral idea stated in a given topic.

• Demonstrate clear and logical thinkingin support and development of acentral idea

• Evaluate topic development

W5 Objectives: The student willrecognize appropriate sentenceconstruction within the contextof a written passage.

• Recognize complete sentences andavoid fragments and run-ons

• Combine sentence parts and sentencesto produce a variety of sentencestructures including simple,compound and complex

W6 Objective 6: The student willrecognize appropriate English usagewithin the context of a writtenpassage.

• Use common affixes to change wordsfrom one part of speech to another

• Use correct subject-verb agreementwith nouns, personal pronouns,indefinite pronouns and compoundsubjects, and use correct pronoun-antecedent agreement

• Recognize correct verb tense andavoid faulty shifts intense

• Use the appropriate forms of adjectivesand adverbs and the correct case ofpronouns, and avoid the use of doublenegatives.

W7 Objective?: The student willrecognize appropriate spelling,capitalization and punctuation withinthe context of a written passage.

• Use the fundamentals of spelling

• Use appropriate capitalization

• Use the fundamentals of punctuation

Note: The wording of the instructionaltargets was taken for the most partdirectly from the Essential Elements asdelineated in the State Board of EducationRules for Curriculum. Each target isdefined in behavioral terms appropriatefor pencil-and-paper testing in the sectionentitled Description of Test Questions.

Documents

The Photographic Eye