The past, present, and future of university-level instruction by satellite

The Past, Present, and Future of University.Level Instruction by Satellite

By Michael J. Albright

I n its widely-circulated 1972 report on instructional technology, the Carnegie Com- mission on Higher Education predicted that by the year

2000 at least 80 percent of off-campus instruction conducted by Amer- ica's colleges and universities would be delivered by emerging in- formational technologies. Further- more, the Commission noted that the capabilities of new delivery systems would make off-campus instruction of adults "the most rapidly expanding and the most rapidly changing segment of postsecondary education."

A little over half the period between 1972 and the year 2000 has now elapsed, and available evi- dence indicates that the Commis- sion's predictions may be realized, The use of telecommunications technologies for the delivery of postsecondary instruction is boom- ing. Continuing educators see enor- mous potential in delivery systems such as broadcast and cable television, instructional television fixed service (ITFS), videotext, micro- computer networks, and satellite technology for both credit and non- credit instruction.

The past few years have seen in- creased interest in the use of communications satellites in distance education. Teleconferencing consortia such as the National Univer- sity Teleconferencing Network (NUTN), the national distribution of college-level courses by The Learning Channel and the Public

Michael J. Albright is the Coordi- nator for Instructional Develop- ment at Iowa State University, and can be reached in the Media Re- sources Center, Exhibit Hall South, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011.

Broadcasting System's new Adult Learning Satellite Service (ALSS), and the transmission of entire degree programs by the National Technological University (NTU) and the California State University, Chico, all are based on satellite delivery systems.

The 1987 Satellite Directory identified at least 39 video-capable "uplinks," or transmitters aimed at satellites, owned and operated by postsecondary institutions, up from 23 identifiable university-owned uplinks in the 1986 directory. These are deceptively low figures, since many uplinks owned by the Public Broadcasting System (PBS) are located on university campuses and could be used for delivering instruction.

Many colleges and universities employ satellite technology for functions such as teleconferencing, non-credit continuing education programs, and Extension activities. However, the purpose of this article will be to describe past, present, and future applications of the technology in the distribution of postsecondary courses for academic credit.

The history of satellite use may be divided into three distinct eras: (1) the Experimental Period, 1971- 77, during which time the feasibility of the technology for delivering instruction was explored through projects largely funded in the Unit- ed States by the Federal govern- ment; (2) the Transition Period, 1977-84, in which little activity was conducted; and (3) the Proliferation Period, beginning in 1984 and continuing today, characterized by a steady growth in the use of satellites for credit course delivery by both consortia and individual institutions.

Experimental Period, 1971-77

Instruction by satellite is not a recent phenomenon in higher education. The use of communications satellites for credit course delivery dates back almost two decades. The 1970's was a period of experi- mentation with the technology.

PEACESAT. The Pan Pacific Education and Communication Ex- periments by Satellite (PEACE- SAT) was conceived as a research project by John Bystrom, a communications professor at the Universi- ty of Hawaii, in 1969. Although PEACESAT involved other studies not related to education, it was the first project in the world in which the delivery of instruction by satellite was attempted. It also produced the world's first college credit course delivered by satellite, the first international satellite network, and the first satellite library network.

The initial experiment, conducted in 1971, involved the interconnec- tion of speech classes at the university's two campuses in Honolulu and Hilo via NASA's Applications Technology Satellite 1 (ATS-1), which had audio capability only. The results indicated that students were able to get acquainted and communicate among themselves successfully, to solve problems in a group setting with group members connected only by radio, and to achieve statistically significant cog- nitive gains.

The University of the South Pa- cific, with its main campus in Fiji, and the University of Hawaii col- laborated via PEACESAT to offer a course in comparative Pacific education in 1973. Several other institutions in the South Pacific area ultimately joined the network, includ-

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ing Wellington Polytechnic Institute and Victoria University in New Zealand, the Papua and New Guin- ea Institute of Technology, and Ha- waii Community College.

PEACESAT is still active, inter- connecting about 20 nations in the Pacific Basin and Rim with two- way audio. Although the primary purpose of the network remains teleconferencing and other forms of communication, occasional credit courses are offered.

National Education Association (NEA) Experiment. During the 1973-74 and 1974-75 school years, the NEA conducted four experiments with ATS-1 in an attempt to improve professional communications among teachers. One of these was a series entitled "Satellite Seminar," offered as a graduate course by the University of Alaska and directed toward teachers in remote Alaskan villages with few op- portunities for professional development. Numerous problems were encountered, including a short planning time, inadequate coordination among the sponsoring organizations, lack of involvement on the part of the target audience in planning and implementation, and an in- experienced faculty member. As a result, the course was considered modestly successful at best.

Health/Education Telecommunica- tions (HET) Experiments. The original plans for NASA's powerful Ap- plications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6), which had full-color video capability, focused on technical and engineering experiments such as spacecraft positioning, weather forecasting, thermal control, and television and radio frequency in- terference tests. However, three years before launch, the U.S. De- partment of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) realized that the satellite had potential for providing services in the social sciences. Con- sequently, a large number of health and education projects, identified collectively as the Health/Educa- tion Telecommunications (HET) experiments, were funded.

Three HET projects were established specifically to test educational applications: the Satellite Tech- nology Demonstration, the Alaska Health/Education Telecommunica- tions Experiment, and the Appala- chian Education Satellite Project. These projects became known as the Educational Satellite Communi-

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cations Demonstration (ESCD). All three included components in which university-level instruction was delivered by satellite during the 1974-75 academic year. A fourth HET project not part of the ESCD, the WAMI Experiment in Regional- ized Medical Education, also included a university instruction component.

Satellite Technology Demonstra- tion (STD). The STD tested the feasibility of delivering instructional materials via satellite to 68 partici- pating school sites scattered throughout an eight-state region in the Rocky Mountain area. The project included a series of career education programs for junior high school students, an evening series directed toward an adult audience, a film and videotape distribution service, and a teacher in-service series on career education.

This course, entitled "Careers in the Classroom," was intended to interest school personnel in career education and to encourage them to incorporate its prinicples into the curriculum. The need for continuing education to meet recertification requirements motivated many teachers to participate in the project. Ultimately, 554 teachers received college credit and 322 received recertification credit from state departments of education.

Alaska Health/Education Telecom- munications Experiment. The Alas- ka project was designed to over- come distance and communication barriers in this large, sparsely popu- lated state. Seventeen sites were selected for participation. The project included a language stimulation program directed toward the 4-7 year-old group, a series providing health education information for mid-primary age children, two evening public affairs programs for adult audiences, and in-service education for teachers, administrators, and paraprofessionals in remote schools.

The in-service component, known as Teacher In-service Train- ing (TIST), began as a 32-part series on reading instruction. Howev- er, due to changes in the funding picture and a reassessment of target audience needs, TIST was convert- ed to a series of programs planned on an individual basis, with topics based on teacher requests and availability of resource personnel of interest to the audience.

Appalachian Education Satellite Project (AESP). The AESP was the only ESCD experiment that focused exclusively on the delivery of university-level instruction for credit. A needs assessment conducted by the Appalachian Regional Com- mission (ARC) in the early 1970's indicated that teachers in rural areas of the 13-state Appalachian region were in need of additional coursework in reading education and career education. Moreover, many teachers were unable to com- mute to universities where those courses were available because of the distances involved. The AESP was established to provide graduate-level instruction in each of these content areas.

Four courses, two in each area, were produced at the University of Kentucky and delivered by satellite to 15 receiving sites. Approximate- ly 1,200 teachers and administrators enrolled in at least one of the courses and received academic credit from 14 universities scattered throughout the region.

WAMI Experiment in Regional- ized Medical Education. The Uni- versity of Washington (UW) main- tained the only medical school in the states of Washington, Alaska, Montana, and Idaho (WAMI). In 1970, UW initiated a pilot project in which early courses in its medical school program were offered by home state universities, after which students transferred to UW's Seat- tle campus for the remainder of their studies. The program included frequent travel on the part of UW faculty members to lecture and su- pervise coursework.

The availability of the ATS-6 en- abled the university to experiment with providing some of the WAMI components by satellite. In a project conducted in cooperation with the University of Alaska (UA), the medical school transmitted lectures in basic sciences and specialized seminars to first-quarter students in Alaska, while UA provided instruction on the special needs of Alaska natives to advanced medical students in Seattle. The WAMI project was unique in that it was the only HET experiment utilizing two-way, full-color video.

Stanford-Carleton Curriculum Ex- change. A lengthy series of educational experiments was conducted via the Communications Technolo- gy Satellite (CTS), a joint venture

of NASA and the Canadian Depart- ment of Communications (DOC), in 1976-79. One of these was an ex- change of courses for university- level credit between Carleton Uni- versity in Ottawa and Stanford Uni- versity in California.

Five courses in engineering and computer science were selected for sharing during the Fall 1976 term, three originating at Stanford and two at Carleton. Monumental problems were encountered, including a solar eclipse that damaged the satellite and shut it down for six weeks shortly after the term began, a geographical separation of three time zones, and differences in academic calendars and grading stan- dards. However, many students who completed the courses found them beneficial and said they would participate in satellite instruction again.

Another component of the project involved the linking together of Stanford, Carleton, and Ames Re- search Center personnel in three- way videoconferences. This is be- lieved to have been the first demonstration of the economic feasibility of videoconferencing as an alterna- tive to participant travel.

Transition Period, 1977-84

The period between 1977 and 1984 saw relatively little use of satellites for the delivery of postsecondary instruction in the United States. Individual universities ap- peared to be minimally involved. However, courses were available to postsecondary institutions by satellite from two sources. Both are still active.

The Learning Channel (TLC). Upon completion of the ESCD, the Appalachian Education Satellite Project (AESP) initiated a second phase with support from both pri- vate and public sectors. By 1980, the endeavor was so successful in providing continuing education to teachers in rural areas that it changed its name to The Learning Channel, went nationwide, and greatly expanded its programming in an attempt to reach potential students in the public service, health, and business fields, as well as educators.

Although individuals can receive TLC through home satellite anten- nas, most students view its programming on local cable channels.

By early 1988, the service was car- ried by over 900 cable systems in all 50 states, reaching nearly 12 mil- lion homes. Over 100 colleges and universities offered its 20 college telecourses for academic credit in 1987-88 through arrangements negotiated with course originators.

International University Consor- tium (IUC). The IUC was established in 1980 as the result of a Car- negie Corporation grant to study the feasibility of a nationwide distance education university in the United States, similar to the British Open University (BOU). The organization began as the National Uni- versity Consortium, with seven in- stitutional members, and assumed its current name in 1983 to encourage participation of English-speak- ing postsecondary institutions and cultural organizations around the world. The IUC now counts among its membership 20 colleges and universities in the United States and Canada and has several affiliated broadcast and cable systems. The consortium is headquartered at the University of Maryland University College.

Originally, the IUC made available entire degree programs produced by the BOU, the video components of which were distributed by satellite. IUC members then ar- ranged with local cable system op- erators to receive the transmissions and carry them on cable charmels. With the dramatic increase in the number of college and university- owned satellite receiving systems, the IUC now bypasses cable systems for the most part. The video course components are transmitted by satellite directly to members, which make their own arrangements for local distribution.

The consortium no longer pro- vides complete degree programs. However, the IUC has added a large inventory of individual courses produced in cooperation with its member institutions or ac- quired from other sources. Ten new courses, carrying either three or six credit hours each, were made available for the 1988-89 academic year. In addition to course delivery by satellite, IUC offers several print- based courses, and it has just begun allowing its members to rent course videotapes to students for home viewing. IUC is also exploring interactive computing as a vehicle for course delivery.

Proliferation Period, 1984- Present

A new era in the use of satellites for postsecondary instruction began in 1984-85, when additional consortia and individual universities began exploring the technology in earnest. According to a study recently completed by the author, three universities offered a total of 28 satellite courses in 1984-85 and 1985-86 combined. Five universities offered 40 courses in 1986-87, and seven provided 74 satellite-based courses in 1987-88. At least 87 satellite courses have been scheduled for 1988-89. All of these were in addition to the extensive list of courses offered by satellite by the National Technological University (NTU).

The summary that follows is not intended to be an all-inclusive list of current applications of satellite technology for course delivery by colleges and universities. However, it does illustrate the exciting potential of satellites for this purpose.

National Technological University (NTU). NTU was founded in 1984 by the Association for Media-Based Continuing Education for Engineers (AMCEE), a consortium of most of the top engineering universities in the United Sates, for the purpose of providing advanced degree opportu- nities to engineers at their work sites throughout the country. Head- quartered at Colorado State Uni- versity but without a campus of its own, NTU was the first university in the world established to provide entire graduate degree programs by telecommunications media. NTU has been fully accredited by the North Central Association.

Complete masters degree programs are provided in five disciplines---computer engineering, computer science, electrical engineering, engineering management, and manufacturing systems engineering--and a sixth curriculum, in management of technology, will be available beginning in January 1989. The 198%88 NTU bulletin listed 455 courses, all transmitted directly to corporate sites by satellite, and originating at the 24 universities comprising the NTU consortium. The courses are taught by some of the nation's top faculty members in each discipline.

Enrollment was 1,362 in the Fall 1987 term and 1,206 in Spring 1988. More than I00 receiving sites par-


ticipated. Both enrollment and the number of receiving locations are expected to increase dramatically, and some experts believe that NTU will be the largest producer of masters degrees in the United States by the mid-1990's. Cooperating em- ployers include a virtual Who's Who of the Fortune 500: AT&T, RCA, Hewlett-Packard, General Electric, GTE, Honeywell, Motor- ola, Tektronix, Rockwell Interna- tional, and a number of others.

Virginia Cooperative Graduate Engineering Program. This program is a cooperative effort among the University of Virginia, Virginia Tech, the three urban universities in Virginia, and about 25 industrial sites throughout Virginia and in neighboring states. It was begun in 1983 as an outgrowth of an off-campus graduate program established by Virginia Tech in 1970. Original- ly, all courses were delivered by terrestrial means, but satellite capability was added in 1986. Through the program, courses are available in nine different majors leading to masters degrees in engineering, with Virginia Tech and the Univer- sity of Virginia each uplinking about 16 courses per year. Old Do- minion University, located in Nor- folk, planned to uplink its first engineering satellite courses in 1988-89.

PBS Adult Learning Satellite Ser- vice (ALSS). The Public Broadcast- ing System (PBS) initiated its Adult Learning Service (ALS) in 1981 to assist colleges and universities in offering academic credit for the program series in its broadcast schedule that were developed as telecourses. By 1988, nearly 1,300 postsecondary institutions had offered ALS courses to well over 150,000 students nationwide. A lim- itation of the ALS system was that colleges only had access to those courses that were broadcast by local PBS affiliates.

In response to growing demand by colleges and universities for broader access to its inventory, PBS introduced its Adult Learning Satellite Service (ALSS) in early 1988. The ALSS will provide ap- proximately 12 telecourses per semester, beginning in Fall 1988, by satellite directly to postsecondary institutions for local distribution via broadcast, cable, ITFS, or videotape, according to negotiated li- censing agreements.

The courses will be selected from

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the most successful and highly re- spected in the ALS catalog. About a dozen "special events," including teleconferences, workshops and seminars, classroom enrichment programs, lectures, and other forms of programming of interest to higher education institutions, will also be offered each semester.

Individual Universities. The Pro- liferation Period also marked the ar- rival of courses developed and transmitted directly to students via satellite by individual universities, totally independent of any consortium or national distribution agency.

California State University, Chico. The California State University, Chico, located about 100 miles north of Sacramento, has main- tained an extensive ITFS network since the mid-1970's for delivering engineering and computer science courses to students throughout northern California. The success of the program led university officials to explore the possibility of trans- mitting the same courses via satellite to larger audiences.

In 1984, Chico entered into an agreement with Hewlett-Packard (H-P) to provide an entire masters degree program in computer science to H-P's corporate locations in five western states. Bently-Nevada, Texas Instruments, General Dynamics, Alcoa, Pacific Bell, MCI, the Grass Valley Group, and the Naval Weapons Center at China Lake have since joined the program. Chico now offers a rolling schedule of 20 courses leading to the M.S. degree in computer science, all delivered by satellite. Five courses are transmitted each semester, and students can enroll at the beginning of any term. About 100 students were registered for 1987-88, located at more than 20 sites in l l states, including Colora- do, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

California State Polytechnic Uni- versity, Pomona. In early 1984, Cal Poly at Pomona inaugurated a program it called PolyNet, designed to provide university credit courses to high school juniors and seniors in the Los Angeles area using an ITFS system. Introductory courses were offered in such disciplines as engineering, art, German, psychology, calculus, physics, and biology. PolyNet became so successful that two courses, in engineering and the

visual arts, were transmitted via satellite during the Spring 1988 quarter so they could reach a potential statewide audience. Sixty- five students enrolled in the visual arts course at 16 receiving sites. Cal Poly planned to continue the program by uplinking courses in psychology, philosophy, and anthropology during 1988-89, one each quarter.

Eastern Washington University (EWU). Eastern Washington joined with Educational Service District (ESD) 101 of Spokane to present a full range of staff development programming and high school level courses by satellite during the 1987-88 academic year. Two of the courses offered in conjunction with ESD 101, advanced senior English and pre-calculus, were available for academic credit from EWU. The university offers portions of a Bach- elor of Arts degree program in general studies by satellite, directed toward fire science personnel in remote areas of the state. Courses in history, psychology, and speech communication have been uplinked.

University of New Mexico (UNM). New Mexico is another large state with its population centers widely distributed. In an attempt to reach registered nurses who might other- wise not be able to complete the requirements for a Bachelor of Sci- ence degree in Nursing (BSN), UNM initiated a sequence of 13 nursing courses to be transmitted by satellite between 1988 and 1990. The first course, Pathophysiology I, was presented during the Spring 1988 semester.

Others. Several other universities have upiinked credit courses during the past two years. Texas Tech University and the University of Houston at Clear Lake each offered graduate courses in education by satellite during the Fall 1986 semester, co-sponsored by the Coordinat- ing Board of the Texas College and University System and the TI-IN Network, a service providing sec- ondary courses and teacher in-service training on a national basis.

Iowa State University (ISU) recently received authorization from its Board of Regents to offer its own masters degree program in computer science by satellite and has upfinked two courses in that curriculum. ISU has also uplinked two seminars in an off-campus Bachelor of Agriculture program.

Pennsylvania State University offered satellite courses in human development, engineering, adult education, and communication during 1987-88, directed primarily toward students at its branch campuses throughout the state. Virginia Tech and the University of Virginia both have offered satellite courses in fields other than engineering.

Future Applications

A number of other universities have satellite courses either in preparation or on the drawing board. Oklahoma State University, headquarters for the National Uni- versity Teleconference Network (NUTN) and originator of high school courses through its Arts and Sciences Teleconferencing Service (ASTS), planned to uplink its first university-level course in Fall 1988. In addition to its contributions to the Virginia Cooperative Graduate Engineering Program, Old Domin- ion hoped to "go national" with its satellite course coverage beginning in Fall 1988, with offerings in education, nursing, and possibly other disciplines. West Virginia Universi- ty was planning satellite courses in English and mathematics for Sum- mer 1988.

Texas Tech's Health Sciences Center hoped to have a satellite television network operational by Fall 1988, connecting its four campuses in E1 Paso, Amarillo, Odessa, and Lubbock with two-way video capability. Among other uses, the center expects to offer nursing courses through the system and will likely allocate network time to other academic units for course delivery. Virginia Tech is planning an MBA program by satellite, scheduled to begin in 1989. Iowa State plans to offer additional upper divi- sion undergraduate and graduate level agriculture courses by satellite. ISU has conducted needs as- sessments for and is considering satellite courses in business admin- istration, education, and foreign languages.

While this article has addressed applications in the United States, it must be noted that our colleagues in Canada have been using satellite technology for credit course delivery virtually since the CTS experiments of the mid-1970' s. The technology also has significant potential for instruction on an international

scale. An organization calling itself the University of the World recently proposed "an international elec- tronic university employing state- of-the-art computer, telecommunications, and television technology, which would disseminate courseware, research data, scien- tific documents, and other materials, connecting educational and research institutions globally."

Resources Colleges and universities interest-

ed in offering courses by satellite may be frustrated by the near ab- sence of literature specifically de- scribing effective satellite course design. However, much helpful guidance may be found in the literature of instructional telecommunications, distance education, and adult education. In addition, a wealth of useful information may be obtained from the project reports and evaluations of experiments conducted during the 1970's, many of which were entered into the ERIC system. Following is a list of references that may be of consider- able value to readers. A more com- prehensive list is available from the author.

Helpful References in the Design, Development and Delivery of Satellite-Based Instruction

Albright, M. J. (1988). A conceptu- al framework for the design and delivery of a university-level credit course by communications satellite. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Iowa State Universi- ty.

Bates, A. W. (1980). Towards a better theoretical framework for studying learning from instructional television. Instructional Science, 9, 393-415.

Bates, A. W. (1984). The role o f technology in distance education. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Bonner, J. (1982). Systematic les- son design for adult learners. Journal o f Instructional Develop- ment, 6(1), 34-42.

Carl, D. R. (1976). Instructional development in instructional television. Educational Technology, 16(5) 10-24.

Cavert, C. E. (1974). An approach to the design o f mediated instruction. Washington, DC: Associa- tion for Educational Communica-

tions and Technology. Coldeway, D. O. (1982). What does

educational psychology tell us about the adult learner at a distance? In J. S, Daniel, M. A. Stroud, & J. R. Thompson (Eds.), Learning at a distance: A world perspective. Edmonton, Alberta: Athabasca University.

Cowlan, B., & Foote, D. (1975). A case study of the ATS-6 health, education, and telecommunications projects. Paper prepared for the Agency for International De- velopment, U.S. Department of State. (ERIC Document Repro- duction Service No. ED 118 149)

Daniel, J. S., Cote, M. L., & Rich- mond, M. (1977). Educational experiments with the Communica- tions Technology Satellite: A memo from evaluators to plan- ners. Paper presented at the NATO Conference on Evaluation and Research on Interactive Telecommunications Systems, Bergamo, Italy. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 163 9662)

Feasley, C. E. (1983). Serving learners at a distance: A guide to program practices. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Research Re- port No. 5. Washington, DC: As- sociation for the Study of Higher Education.

Federation of Rocky Mountain States. (1975). Satellite Technolo- gy Demonstration. Final Report. Denver, CO: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 115 261)

Filep, R. T., & Johansen, P. A. (1977). A synthesis of the final reports and evaluations of the ATS-6 satellite experiments in health, education, and telecommunications. Paper prepared for the Agency for International De- velopment, U.S. Department of State. (ERIC Document Repro- duction Service No. ED 140 783)

Fitzpatrick, J. (1979). The use of satellite technology in education: An evaluation perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Re- search Association, San Francis- co. (ERIC Document Reproduc- tion Service No. ED 175 444)

Foreman, D. C., & Richardson, P. (1977). Open learning and guidelines for the design of instructional materials. T.H.E. Journal-- Technological Horizons in Edu- cation, 4(1), 9-12, 18.


Governor's Office of Telecommuni- cation, State of Alaska. (1975). Alaska ATS-6 health~education telecommunications experiment. Alaska educational experiment. Final report. Vol. 1. Juneau, AK: Author. (ERIC Document Repro- duction Service No. ED 114 068)

Hudspeth, D. R., & Brey, R. G. (1986). Instructional telecommunications: Principles and applications. New York: Praeger Special Studies.

Hutchinson, C. E. (Ed.). (1982). Towards improved candid classroom ITV: Program evaluation and development guidelines. At- lanta, GA: Association for Me- dia-Based Continuing Education for Engineers.

Kaye, A., & Rumble, G. (1981). Distance teaching for higher and adult education. London: Croom Helm.

Keegan, D. (1986). The foundations of distance education. London: Croom Helm.

Moore, M. B. (1988). Telecommu- nications, internationalism, and distance education. American

Journal of Distance Education, 2(I), 1-7.

Morgan, R. P. (1976). Applications of communication satellites in higher education. Paper prepared for the National Institute of Edu- cation. (ERIC Document Repro- duction Service No. ED 134 235)

Morse, H. E. (1975). The Appala- chian Education Satellite Project final report. Lexington, KY: Ap- palachian Education Satellite Project. (ERIC Document Repro- duction Service No. ED 125 595)

Mugridge, I., & Kaufman, D. (Eds.). (1986). Distance education in Canada. London: Croom Helm.

National Education Association. (1975). Using satellite technology to increase professional communications among teachers. A report of experiments conducted by the National Education Associa- tion. Washington, DC: Author. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 118 140)

Purdy, L. N. (Ed.). (1983). Reach- ing new students through new technologies. Dubuque, IA: Ken-

dall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Richmond, J. M., & Daniel, J. S. (1979). Evaluation of the educational experiments on the Her- mes satellite. Final report. Ed- monton, Alberta: Athabasca Uni- versity. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 172 740)

Sachs, S. G. (1983). Supporting faculty who use telecourses. Media Management Journal, 2, 60-62.

Wiesner, P. (1983). Some observa- tions on telecourse research and practice. Adult Education Quar- terly, 33, 215-221.

Winn, B. (1985). Minimizing problems in distance education. Edu- cational Media International, No. 1, 2-5.

Zigarell, J. (1984). Distance education: An information age approach to adult education. Co- lumbus, OH: ERIC Clearing- house on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 246 311) �9

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The past, present, and future of university-level instruction by satellite