THE PARTICIPATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSassets.cambridge.org/97805211/92002/frontmatter/9780521192002... · THE PARTICIPATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

THE PART IC I PAT ION OFSTATE S IN INTERNAT IONAL

ORGAN I SAT IONS

The admission of a state to membership is an important decision for aninternational organisation. In making this determination, organisationsare increasingly promoting the observance of human rights and demo-cratic governance as relevant principles. They have also applied the samecriteria in resolving the question of whether existing members should beexcluded from an organisation’s processes. Through a systematic exami-nation of the records, proceedings and practice of international organ-isations, Alison Duxbury explores the role and legitimacy of humanrights and democracy as membership criteria. A diverse range of exam-ples is discussed, including the membership policies and practice of theLeague of Nations and the United Nations; the admission of the Centraland Eastern European states to the European Union; developments inregional organisations in Africa, Asia and the Americas; and the exclu-sion of members from the UN specialised agencies.

alison duxbury is an associate professor at the Melbourne Law School,University ofMelbourne, where she teaches International Law, InternationalHumanitarian Law and International Institutions.

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cambridge studies in internationaland comparative law

Established in 1946, this series produces high quality scholarship in thefields of public and private international law and comparative law.Although these are distinct legal sub-disciplines, developments since1946 confirm their interrelation.

Comparative law is increasingly used as a tool in the making of law atnational, regional and international levels. Private international law isnow often affected by international conventions, and the issues faced byclassical conflicts rules are frequently dealt with by substantiveharmonisation of law under international auspices. Mixed internationalarbitrations, especially those involving state economic activity, raisemixed questions of public and private international law, while in manyfields (such as the protection of human rights and democratic standards,investment guarantees and international criminal law) international andnational systems interact. National constitutional arrangements relatingto ‘foreign affairs’, and to the implementation of international norms, area focus of attention.

The Board welcomes works of a theoretical or interdisciplinarycharacter, and those focusing on the new approaches to international orcomparative law or conflicts of law. Studies of particular institutions orproblems are equally welcome, as are translations of the best workpublished in other languages.

General Editors

James Crawford SC FBAWhewell Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, and Director, Lauterpacht

Research Centre for International Law, University of Cambridge

John S. Bell FBAProfessor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge

Editorial Board

Professor Hilary CharlesworthAustralian National University

Professor Lori DamroschColumbia University Law School

Professor John DugardUniversiteit Leiden

Professor Mary-Ann GlendonHarvard Law School

Professor Christopher GreenwoodLondon School of Economics






Professor David JohnstonUniversity of Edinburgh

Professor Hein KötzMax-Planck-Institut, Hamburg

Professor Donald McRaeUniversity of Ottawa

Professor Onuma YasuakiUniversity of Tokyo

Professor Reinhard ZimmermannUniversität Regensburg

Advisory Committee

Professor D.W. Bowett QC

Judge Rosalyn Higgins QC

Professor J. A. Jolowicz QC

Professor Sir Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QC

Judge Stephen Schwebel

A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume.






THE PARTICIPATION OF

STATES IN INTERNATIONAL

ORGANISATIONS

The Role of Human Rights and Democracy

ALISON DUXBURY






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Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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© Alison Duxbury 2011

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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataDuxbury, Alison, 1970– The participation of states in international organisations :

the role of human rights and democracy / Alison Duxbury.p. cm. –

(Cambridge studies in international and comparative law ; 71)Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-521-19200-2 1. International agencies – Membership. 2. Humanrights. 3. Democracy. I. Title.

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CONTENTS

Foreword page xiiiAcknowledgements xvTable of cases xviiTable of treaties xixList of abbreviations xxiii

Introduction 1

1 The move to institutions in the age of rights 13

I Introduction 13

II The move to institutions: internationalinstitutional law 14A The development of international institutional law 14

B The role of membership criteria 16

1 Admission to an international organisation 18

2 Membership and representation 20

3 Termination of membership 20

4 Political or legal criteria? 23

III International organisations and the concept oflegitimacy 27A Approaches to legitimacy in international law 28

B The application of legitimacy to membership criteria 32

1 Legality and the interpretation of constituent instruments 33

2 Membership and functions 40

3 The clarity and coherence of the criteria employed 43

IV The age of rights: international law, human rights anddemocracy 45A International human rights law 47

vii






1 Categorising and prioritising rights 48

(a) Debates concerning the ‘generations’ of rights anduniversalism and cultural relativism 48

(b) Potential consequences of debates for membershipcriteria 51

2 Indeterminacy and inflexibility in rights discourse 52

B The right to democracy in international law 53

1 Definitions of democracy in international law 53

2 Democracy as a membership condition 57

2 The challenge of universality – the League of Nations and theUnited Nations 60

I Peace, democracy and universality 60

II Admission to the League of Nations 63A Wartime proposals for a League of Nations: Great Powers and

small states 63

B Governmental proposals: democracy and rightsintroduced 66

C Discussions at the Commission: peace through justice and peacethrough democracy 68

1 The character requirement 68

2 Conclusion of the Commission’s discussions: Article 1 of theCovenant 71

D Subsequent admission practice: the move to a universal peaceorganisation 72

1 The meaning of ‘self-governing’ 73

2 The relevance of human rights standards 77

3 The admission of Germany and the USSR 79

E Peace through universality 82

III Admission to the UN 83A The establishment of the UN 84

1 From Moscow to Dumbarton Oaks 84

2 The San Francisco Conference 86

B The role of the Security Council and the purposes and principlesof the UN 89

C The interpretation and application of Article 4 of theCharter 92

1 The East–West divide and admission in the early years 92

2 Self-determination and the process of decolonisation 96

viii contents






3 The admission of states from the Soviet Union and the formerYugoslavia 101

IV Exclusion from membership and the two principles ofuniversality 104A The exclusion clauses in the Covenant and Charter 106

B Expulsion from the League 107

C Exclusion from the UN 109

1 Expulsion and suspension 109

2 Forced exclusion 112

3 The alternative: representation and the credentialsprocess 114

(a) Two rival representatives and the dispute over China’sseat 115

(b) The exclusion of South Africa through the rejection ofcredentials 116

(c) Problems with the use of the credentials process toimplement democracy 117

V Conclusion 121

3 Rights, regionalism and participation in Europe 124

I Introduction 124

II Human rights, democracy and participation inEurope 126A Human rights and democracy in Europe 126

B The documentary criteria for participation in Europe 128

1 Treaty provisions 130

2 Other documentary sources 134

III Admission and exclusion in the Europeanorganisations 137A Pre-1990s: human rights and democracy assumed 138

B Early 1990s: human rights and democracy acknowledged 142

C Late 1990s–2004: human rights and democracy applied 145

1 Increased procedural requirements 146

2 Substantive rights 148

(a) New members 148

(b) Attempts to exclude members 151

contents ix






IV Creating a united Europe? 154A Inconsistencies in the application of membership criteria 155

1 Inconsistency within the organisations 155

2 Inconsistency across the organisations 157

B The appropriateness of using rights to integrate Europe 159

V Functions and the role of rights 162

4 Restricting the ranks – excluding states from closedorganisations 165

I Sovereignty, democracy and exclusion 165

II Regional integration: the desire to unite and the pressure toexclude 168A Admission to regional organisations 170

B Excluding states from regional organisations 172

1 Judging democracy in the Americas 172

(a) The exclusion of Cuba from the OAS 173

(b) The Protocol of Washington and democracy clausesin the Americas 177

(c) Enforcing democracy through OAS procedures 180

2 Dealing with anti-democratic behaviour in Africa 184

(a) Development of the legal regime 184

(b) Unconstitutional changes of government inAfrica 187

3 ASEAN and democracy – on the rise or in retreat? 191

(a) Two steps forward: the rise of democracy in SoutheastAsia 192

(b) Two steps back: the admission of Burma 194

(c) Two steps to the side: the (delayed) admission ofCambodia 196

4 Reinventing the Pacific Way in the Pacific IslandsForum 199

III Balancing cooperation and confrontation in informalorganisations 201A Condemning coups in the Commonwealth 204

B Dealing with persistent breaches of democracy and humanrights 209

C The exclusion of Yugoslavia from the CSCE 211

x contents






IV Problems with suspension as a sanction for breaches ofdemocracy and human rights 214A Defining democracy through exclusion criteria 215

B The suitability of suspension as a sanction 217

C The efficacy of exclusion as a remedy 218

5 The relationship between powers, purposes and participationin specialised organisations 222

I Introduction 222

II The specialised agencies of the UN 224A The establishment of the specialised agencies and the politicisation

of their work 224

B Excluding the enemy: Spain in the UPU and ICAO 228

C Excluding apartheid South Africa from the specialisedagencies 232

D The campaign to condemn Israel 238

E Purposes, powers and politicisation in the specialisedagencies 244

III International trade organisations 246A The relationship between economic growth and the promotion of

human rights in the constitutions of trade organisations 246

B The WTO: the potential link between trade policy, labour rights,good governance and membership 249

1 The role of human rights in the accession process 250

2 The requirements of good governance in trade policy 253

C Regional Economic Communities – connecting free trade anddemocracy through exclusion 255

1 Constitutional provisions of RECs 255

2 The membership practice of RECs 257

D Extending the functions of international economic organisationsthrough membership 261

IV Conclusion 263

6 Legitimacy, democracy and membership 265

I Introduction 265

II The roles of human rights and democracy in determiningparticipation 266

contents xi






III The legitimacy of the practice 270A The question of legality and the constituent instrument 271

B The relationship between membership and functions 275

C The clarity and coherence of the criteria 277

1 Clarity 277

2 Coherence 280

IV Democracy and the membership process of internationalorganisations 283A Democracy within international organisations 284

B Democracy in the decision-making process for determiningmembership 288

1 Representation 288

(a) Admission decisions 288

(b) Exclusion decisions 290

2 Transparency in the membership procedures 292

3 Participation of the affected state 294

4 Increasing accountability in the membership procedure:judicial review? 295

V Membership and the protection of democracy and humanrights 298A International organisations as democratic actors 299

1 Curing the democratic deficit within internationalorganisations 300

2 Democracy as a membership condition: democratisation fromabove? 302

B The protection of human rights 306

Conclusion 311

Select bibliography 318Index 335

xii contents






FOREWORD

It is a pleasant task to be asked to write a foreword to this work, which is acomprehensive yet critical appraisal of the role of human rights, legiti-macy and democracy in the practice of international organisations. Itis the product of a doctoral research, departing from the 1995 suspen-sion of Nigeria’s Commonwealth membership after a coup d’etat putin question respect for human rights and democratic government in thecountry and ending with the 2009 suspension of Fiji’s rights as a mem-ber. A feature of the work is that it puts the legally significant events intoa broader political and historical perspective, thus establishing linksbetween international law and international relations, the two interac-ting in the day-to-day operation of intergovernmental organisations. Itis also a remarkably thorough account of membership practice.

The study is structured in six chapters. Chapter 1 sets out the institu-tional framework in light of the human rights movement and the conceptof legitimacy. Chapter 2 addresses the developing principle of universa-lity in the League of Nations and the United Nations, and the tensionbetween universality and other goals, including the promotion of democ-racy and human rights. Chapters 3 and 4 cover a broad range of regionalorganisations, addressing the respective differences in their member-ship criteria and practice in Europe (Chapter 3) and in ‘closed’ organ-isations such as ASEAN, the Commonwealth and the CSCE (Chapter 4).Professor Duxbury concludes that suspension or exclusion from mem-bership in cases such as Zimbabwe and Fiji have had little effect ‘at leastin the short term’; the proviso is important. Chapter 5 tackles thecomplex interaction between the human rights aspirations of specialisedorganisations (the WTO, regional economic communities and the UNspecialised agencies) and the functional limitations of their mandatesas set out in the constituent instruments. Finally, Chapter 6 drawssome conclusions on the practical implications of upholding democracyand human rights as membership criteria both for concerned states andfor the international organisations in question.

xiii






Discussion of the role of global values and of that vague notion of‘legitimacy’ in the operation of international institutions is important,given the continued expansion of the roles intergovernmental organisa-tions play, from managing sanctions programmes to governing territory.Among many other things, international organisations have become aplatform for coordinated responses to undemocratic and oppressivegovernments. However, as Duxbury rightly observes, whether applying‘democratisation from above’ through membership criteria or exclusionmechanisms could help solve the democratic deficit within internationalorganisations themselves is at best an open question.

Last but not least, it is a particular pleasure to note the author’s commentthat ‘much of the work was undertaken while resident at Cambridge’, in theLauterpacht Centre for International Law. For twenty-five years the Centrehas been a forum for discussion of responses to the various challenges atthe international level, and to the role of law in meeting those challenges.I am sure the present work will foster further exchanges on the institutionalaspects of the promotion of democracy and respect for human rights.

James CrawfordWhewell Professor of International Law

Director, Lauterpacht Centre for International LawUniversity of Cambridge

16 May 2010

xiv foreword






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In 1995 the Commonwealth suspended Nigeria from membership fol-lowing the installation of military rule in that country and, consequently,the violation of one of the organisation’s constitutional documents, theHarare Declaration. The decision to suspend Nigeria provided the basisfor my interest in the role of human rights and democracy in determiningthe participation of states in international organisations and led me toinvestigate the practice of other institutions. Given the starting point forthis research, it is appropriate that one of the most recent examplesdiscussed in this book is the Commonwealth’s decision to suspend Fijion 1 September 2009.

Many people have assisted me with my interest in this topic overthe years. This book is based on my doctoral thesis, submitted to theUniversity of Melbourne in 2008. Importantly, I would like to thank mytwo supervisors, Professors Tim McCormack and Gerry Simpson. Theirinvaluable advice and constructive criticism enabled me to retain myenthusiasm for this research throughout the life of the original thesis.The two examiners, Professors Nigel White and Robert McCorquodale,made a number of very useful suggestions for converting the thesis into abook. My colleagues at the University of Melbourne, John Tobin, BruceOswald and David Brennan, generously agreed to read parts of themanuscript at various stages in its formation. Professor Brad Roth alsoprovided helpful comments on a number of chapters.

I benefited enormously from two periods of research and writing at theLauterpacht Centre for International Law at the University of Cambridgein 2004 and 2006. The Lauterpacht Centre provides a unique environ-ment for international law research and much of this work was under-taken while resident in Cambridge.

My thanks are extended to Finola O’Sullivan, Nienke van Schaverbekeand Richard Woodham at Cambridge University Press for their assis-tance with publication. I would also like to thank Rebecca Hughes and

xv






Sara Dehm for their work on formatting the manuscript and compilingthe bibliography. Librarians in a number of international organisationsand research institutions provided access to the necessary documents.

Aspects of this book have previously been published as ‘Bigger or Better?The Role of Human Rights and Democracy in Determining Membershipof the European Institutions’ (2004) 73 Nordic Journal of InternationalLaw 421. I have examined the Commonwealth’s membership practicein ‘Rejuvenating the Commonwealth: The Human Rights Remedy’ (1997)46 Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 344; and ‘Reviewing the Commonwealth’s RightsRecord: From Recognition to Realisation’ (2003) 19 South African Journalon Human Rights 636 (published by Juta and Co Ltd). Material on Austriaand the European Union appears in ‘Austria and the European Union –The Report of the “Three Wise Men”’ (2000) 1 Melbourne Journal ofInternational Law 169. The Pacific Islands Forum has previously beendiscussed in ‘Moving Towards or Turning Away from Institutions? TheFuture of International Organizations in Asia and the Pacific’ (2007) 11Sing. Y.B. Int’l L. 177. I am grateful to the editors and publishers of thesejournals for allowing me to reproduce parts of these articles.

This book is dedicated to my parents.

xvi acknowledgements






TABLE OF CASES

Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (Preliminary Objections) [1952] ICJ Rep. 93. 34Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case ConcerningApplication of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime ofGenocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) (Preliminary Objections)(Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina) [2003] ICJ Rep. 7 (‘Application for Revisionof the Judgment of 11 July 1996’). 26, 114

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime ofGenocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro))(Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993) [1993] ICJ Rep. 3. 26

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime ofGenocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (Merits), 26 February2007 (2007) 46 ILM 188 at 244 (‘Genocide Merits Decision’). 113

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime ofGenocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) (Preliminary Objections) [1996]ICJ Rep. 595. 113

Austro-German Union Customs Case (Advisory Opinion) [1931] PCIJ (ser. A/B) No. 41. 166

Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2 of the Charter)(Advisory Opinion) [1962] ICJ Rep. 151 (‘Expenses Case’). 34–6, 110

Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations[1950] ICJ Rep. 4 (‘Second Admissions Case’). 25, 34–5

Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations (AdvisoryOpinion) [1948] ICJ Rep. 57 (‘First Admissions Case’). 6, 24–5, 33, 89, 90, 95, 134,137, 262, 272, 298

Constitution of the Maritime Safety Committee of the Inter-Governmental MaritimeConsultative Organization (Advisory Opinion) [1960] ICJ Rep. 150 (‘Constitution ofMaritime Safety Committee Case’). 34

Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal(Advisory Opinion) [1954] ICJ Rep. 47. 39

European Commission of the Danube 1927 PCIJ (ser. B) No. 14. 41–2

Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization (Advisory Opinion) [1930]PCIJ (ser. B) No. 18. 71

xvii






Handyside Case (1976) 24 Eur. Crt H.R. (ser. A), No. 23. 57

Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary (AdvisoryOpinion) [1950] ICJ Rep. 65. 92

Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador v.Honduras) (Application forPermission to Intervene) [1990] ICJ Rep. 3. 38

Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia(South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970)(Advisory Opinion) [1971] ICJ Rep. 16 (‘Namibia Advisory Opinion’). 34–5, 39,90, 97

Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Netherlands) (PreliminaryObjections) [2004] ICJ Rep. 1011 (‘Legality of Use of Force Case’). 24, 26–7, 112–13

Legality of Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Advisory Opinion)[1996] 1 ICJ Rep. 66 (‘WHO Advisory Opinion’). 36–9, 244–5

Lothar Mattheus v. Doego Fruchtimport and Tiefkühlkost eG [1978]ECR 2203. 134, 139

Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions (Qatar v. Bahrain) (Jurisdiction andAdmissibility) [1995] ICJ Rep. 6. 34

Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72 (2 October 1995) (Decision on theDefence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction). 90

Reference re Secession of Quebec [1998] 2 SCR 217. 97Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion)[1949] ICJ Rep. 178 (‘Reparations Case’). 35, 38–9, 42, 236, 244, 273–4

Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. Chad) [1994] ICJ Rep. 6. 34

Western Sahara (Advisory Opinion) [1975] ICJ Rep. 12. 97

xviii table of cases






TABLE OF TREATIES

African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, opened for signature 27 June1981 (1982) 21 ILM 58 (entered into force 12 October 1986). 51

African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, open for signature11 July 1990, OAU Doc. No. CAB/LEG/24.9/49 (1990) (entered into force29 November 1999). 185

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 1867 UNTS299, annex IC to the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World TradeOrganization, opened for signature 15 April 1994, 1867 UNTS 3 (entered intoforce 1 January 1995) (‘TRIPS’). 250, 253–4

Andean Community Commitment to Democracy, opened for signature 27 October1998 (entered into force 10 June 2000). 247, 255–6, 291

Andean Subregional Integration Agreement, opened for signature 26 May 1969 (1969)8 ILM 910 (‘Cartagena Agreement’). 223, 247

Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, opened for signature 20November 2007 (entered into force 15 December 2008) (‘ASEAN Charter’). 170,172, 192, 193, 198, 215, 280, 311, 317

Charter of the Islamic Conference, opened for signature 4 March 1972, 914 UNTS 110(entered into force 28 February 1973). 167

Charter of the Organization of African Unity, opened for signature 25 May 1963, 479UNTS 69 (entered into force 13 September 1963). 169, 171, 184, 186

Charter of the Organization of American States, opened for signature 30 April 1948,119 UNTS 47 (entered into force 13 December 1951) (‘Charter of the OAS’). 168,169, 171–9, 181–2, 184, 220, 271, 291, 297

Charter of the United Nations. 22, 24, 26, 37, 39, 88–98, 103–4, 106–7, 109–11, 114,116, 121–3, 225, 232, 238–9, 241–2, 272, 274, 279, 290–1, 297–8, 313

Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union [2008] OJ C 115/13 (‘TEU’).25, 55, 127, 129, 131–2, 135–6, 145, 147, 152–3, 156–7, 285–6, 289

Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union,opened for signature 22 December 1992, 1825 UNTS 330 (entered into force1 July 1994). 223, 226, 241, 289

Constitution of the International Labour Organization, opened for signature 28 June1919, Part XIII of Treaty of Versailles (1919) (‘Constitution of the ILO’). 226, 233–4,289, 297

xix






Constitution of the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization,opened for signature 16 November 1945, 4 UNTS 275 (entered into force 4November 1946). 226, 289

Constitution of the World Health Organization, opened for signature 22 July 1946,14 UNTS 185 (entered into force 7 April 1948). 36, 37, 225

Constitution of the Universal Postal Union, opened for signature 10 July 1964, 611 UNTS62 (entered into force 1 January 1966) (‘Constitution of the UPU’). 223, 236, 289

Convention on International Civil Aviation, opened for signature 7 December 1944,15 UNTS 295 (entered into force 4 April 1947) (‘Chicago Convention’). 223, 229–30

Convention of the World Meteorological Organization, opened for signature 11 October1947, 77 UNTS 143 (entered into force 23 March 1950) (‘WMO Convention’). 22,234–6, 273

Constitutive Act of the African Union, opened for signature 11 July 2000, OAU DocCAB/LEG/23.15 (entered into force 26 May 2001) (‘Constitutive Act of the AU’). 55,168–9, 171, 186, 188, 190

Covenant of the League of Nations, Part I of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). 8, 60, 67–72,75, 77, 81, 106–8, 121, 225, 279, 289, 291

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and FundamentalFreedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, 213 UNTS 222 (entered intoforce 3 September 1953) (‘ECHR’). 48, 50, 127, 131, 135, 140, 144, 141, 150, 159, 303

European Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers, opened for signature24 November 1997, ETS No. 93 (entered into force 1 May 1983). 127

European Social Charter, opened for signature 18 October 1961, 529 UNTS 89,(entered into force 26 February 1965). 127, 135, 140, 149, 282

European Social Charter (revised), opened for signature 3 May 1996, ETS No. 163(entered into force 1 July 1999). 127

Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities, opened for signature1 February 1995, ETS No. 157 (entered into force 1 February 1998). 127, 150, 153

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, opened for signature 30 October 1947,55 UNTS 187 (entered into force 29 July 1948). 251–3

General Agreement on Trade in Services, 1869 UNTS 183, annex IB to the MarrakeshAgreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened for signature 15April 1994, 1867 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 January 1995). 253

Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, opened for signature 2 September1947, 21 UNTS 92 (entered into force 3 December 1948) (‘Rio Treaty’). 173, 175,176

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, opened for signature10 November 1948, 161 UNTS 73 (entered into force 10 November 1948). 18–19

xx table of treaties






International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entry into force 23 March 1976) (‘ICCPR’). 48,54, 97

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976). 97

Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened forsignature 15 April 1994, 1867 UNTS 3 (entered into force 1 January 1995). 247,249–50, 255, 262, 273, 277, 281, 289, 297

Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, signed 26 December 1933,135 LNTS 19 (entered into force 26 December 1934). 102

North Atlantic Treaty, opened for signature 4 April 1949, 34 UNTS 243 (entered intoforce 24 August 1949). 21, 55, 124, 127–9, 133, 136, 146

Pact of the League of Arab States, opened for signature 22 March 1945, 70 UNTS 237(entered into force 11 May 1945). 167

Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment ofan African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, opened for signature 9 June 1998,OAU Doc. No. OAU/LEG/EXP/AFCHPR/PROT (III) (entered into force 25January 2004). 50, 185

Protocol of Amendment to the Charter of the Organization of American States, openedfor signature 14 December 1992, OAE Doc. No. OAE/Ser.A/2.Add.3 (entered intoforce 25 September 1997) (‘Protocol of Washington’). 177

Protocol No 11 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 11 May 1994, ETS No. 155 (enteredinto force 1 November 1998). 48

Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas Establishing the Caribbean Community including theCARICOM Single Market and Economy, opened for signature 5 July 2001, 2259UNTS 295 (entered into force 4 February 2002). 223

Statute of the Council of Europe, opened for signature 5 May 1949, 87 UNTS 103(entered into force 3 August 1949). 2, 55, 127, 129–30, 132, 140, 144–5, 157, 163,271, 289, 291, 308

Statute of the International Court of Justice. 26, 113, 242

Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, opened for signature 24 February1976, 1025 UNTS 316 (entered into force 15 July 1976). 169–70, 193

Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States, opened forsignature 28 May 1975, 1010 UNTS 17 (entered into force 20 June 1975)(revised 24 July 1993). 223, 248

table of treaties xxi






Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community, opened for signature 3 June1991 (1991) 30 ILM 1241 (entered into force 12 May 1994) (‘Abuja Treaty’). 248

Treaty Establishing a Common Market between the Argentine Republic, the FederalRepublic of Brazil, the Republic of Paraguay and the Eastern Republic of Uruguay,opened for signature 26 March 1991, 2140 UNTS 319 (entered into force 29November 1991) (‘Treaty of Asunción’). 247, 256

Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, opened for signature18 April 1951, 261 UNTS 140 (entered into force 23 July 1952, expired 23 July 2002)(‘Treaty of Paris’). 129, 142

Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community, opened for signature 25March 1957, 298 UNTS 11 (entered into force 1 January 1958) (‘Treaty of Rome’).127, 129, 131, 134, 139, 142

Treaty of Lisbon, signed 13 December 2007 [2007] OJ C 306/01 (entered into force1 December 2009). 127, 131–2, 135, 153, 285

Treaty of Nice, opened for signature 26 February 2001 [2001] OJ C 80/1 (entered intoforce 1 February 2003). 132–3

Treaty of the Southern African Development Community, opened for signature17 August 1992 (entered into force 30 September 1993). 22, 248, 257

Universal Postal Convention (with Final Protocol), opened for signature 23 May 1939,202 LNTS 159. 230

Ushuaia Protocol on Democratic Commitment in the MERCOSUR, the Republic ofBolivia and the Republic of Chile, opened for signature 24 July 1998, 2177 UNTS 383(entered into force 17 January 2002) (‘Ushuaia Protocol’). 247–8, 256, 291

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature 23 May 1969, 1155UNTS 331 (entered into force 27 January 1980) (‘VCLT’). 34, 36, 178, 245, 262, 272

xxii table of treaties






LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AEC African Economic CommunityAfr. Sec. R. African Security ReviewAHSG Assembly of Heads of State and Government

(of the Organization of African Unity)Akron L.R. Akron Law ReviewAm. J. Int’l L. American Journal of International LawAm. J. Pol. Sci. American Journal of Political ScienceAPRM African Peer Review MechanismASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsASIL Insights American Society of International Law InsightsATS Australian Treaty SeriesAU African UnionAust. Y.B. Int’l L. Australian Yearbook of International LawAustrian J. Pub. & Int’l L. Austrian Journal of Public and International LawAustrian Rev. Int’l & Eur. L. Austrian Review of International and European

LawBaltic Y.B. Int’l L. Baltic Yearbook of International LawBoston Coll. Int’l & Comp. L.R. Boston College International and Comparative

Law ReviewBrit. Y.B. Int’l L. British Yearbook of International LawCal. W. Int’l L.J. California Western International Law JournalCAN Comunidad Andina/Andean CommunityCARICOM Caribbean CommunityCase W. Res. J. Int’l L. Case Western Reserve Journal of International LawCHOGM Commonwealth Heads of Government MeetingCMAG Commonwealth Ministerial Action GroupColum. L.R. Columbia Law ReviewCommon Mkt. L.R. Common Market Law ReviewComp. & Int’l L.J. Sth Af. Comparative and International Law Journal of

Southern AfricaCSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation in

EuropeCSO Committee of Senior Officials of the Conference

on Security and Co-operation in Europe

xxiii






Duke L.J. Duke Law JournalEC European CommunityECHR European Convention on Human Rights and

Fundamental FreedomsECJ European Court of JusticeECOMOG Economic Community of West African States

Monitoring GroupECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the United

NationsECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesEEC European Economic CommunityEU European UnionEur. J. Int’l L. European Journal of International LawFAO Food and Agricultural OrganizationFar East. Eco. R. Far Eastern Economic ReviewFRY Federal Republic of YugoslaviaG.W. Int’l L.R. George Washington International Law ReviewGAOR General Assembly Official RecordsGATS General Agreement on Trade in ServicesGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGlob. Gov. Global GovernanceHarv. Asian-Pac. R. Harvard Asian Pacific ReviewHarv. Int’l L.J. Harvard International Law JournalHast. Con. L.Q. Hastings Constitutional Law QuarterlyHum. Rts. L.J. Human Rights Law JournalIAEA International Atomic Energy AgencyIAIILS Inter-American Institute of International Legal

StudiesIBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and

DevelopmentICAO International Civil Aviation OrganizationICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political

RightsICJ International Court of JusticeILA International Law AssociationILM International Legal MaterialsILO International Labour OrganizationILR International Law ReportsIMF International Monetary FundInd. Int’l & Comp. L.R. Indiana International and Comparative Law

ReviewInt. Org. International Organization

xxiv list of abbreviations






Int’l Org. L.R. International Organizations Law ReviewInt’l & Comp. L.Q. International and Comparative Law QuarterlyInt’l Concil. International ConciliationInt’l Sec. International SecurityInt’l Soc. Sci. J. International Social Science JournalIsrael Y.B. Hum. Rts Israel Yearbook on Human RightsITU International Telecommunication UnionJ. Common Mkt Stud. Journal of Common Market StudiesJ. Dem. Journal of DemocracyJ. Hist. Int’l L. Journal of the History of International LawJ. Int’l Eco. L. Journal of International Economic LawJ. World Trade L. Journal of World Trade LawJohn Marsh. L.R. John Marshall Law ReviewLatin Am. Pol. & Soc. Latin American Politics and SocietyL.N. Off. J. League of Nations Official JournalLeiden J. Int’l L. Leiden Journal of International LawLiv. L.R. Liverpool Law ReviewLoyola LA Int’l & Comp. L.J. Loyola LA International and Comparative Law

JournalMAP Membership Action Plan (of NATO)Melb. U. L.R. Melbourne University Law ReviewMERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur/Southern Cone

Common MarketMFN Most-favoured nationMil. L.R. Military Law ReviewMod. L.R. Modern Law ReviewN.Y. J. Int’l L. & Pol. New York Journal of International Law and

PoliticsN.Z. Int’l R New Zealand International ReviewNATO North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNEPAD New Partnership for African DevelopmentNew Eng. L.R. New England Law ReviewOAS Organization of American StatesOAU Organization of African UnityOSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in

EuropePhil. Pub. Aff. Philosophy and Public AffairsPNTR Permanent Normal Trade RelationsPRC People’s Republic of ChinaPSC Peace and Security Council of the African UnionPTA Preferential Trade AgreementREC Regional Economic Community

list of abbreviations xxv






SADC Southern African Development CommunitySCOR Security Council Official RecordsSec. Dialogue Security DialogueSFRY Socialist Federal Republic of YugoslaviaSing. Y.B. Int’l L Singapore Yearbook of International LawSLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council

(of Burma)SPDC State Peace and Development Council

(of Burma)SPF South Pacific ForumStan. J. Int’l L. Stanford Journal of International LawTEU Treaty on European UnionTransnat’l L. & Contemp. Probs. Transnational Law and Contemporary ProblemsTRIPS Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property RightsU. Miami Inter-Am. L.R. University of Miami Inter-American Law ReviewU.N. Jurid. Y.B. United Nations Juridical YearbookUDHR Universal Declaration of Human RightsUK United KingdomUN United NationsUNCIO United Nations Conference on International

OrganizationUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural OrganizationUNTS United Nations Treaty SeriesUPU Universal Postal UnionUSA United States of AmericaUSSR Union of Soviet Socialist RepublicsVCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of TreatiesWEOG Western European and Others Group (of the

United Nations)WHO World Health OrganizationWis. L.R. Wisconsin Law ReviewWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWTO World Trade OrganizationY.B. Eur. Conv. Hum. Rts. Yearbook of the European Convention on

Human RightsY.B Int’l L. Comm Yearbook of the International Law CommissionY.B. Int’l Orgs. Yearbook of International OrganizationsY.B.U.N Yearbook of the United NationsYale J. Int’l L. Yale Journal of International Law

xxvi list of abbreviations






Documents

THE PARTICIPATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONSassets.cambridge.org/97805211/92002/frontmatter/9780521192002... · THE PARTICIPATION OF STATES IN INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS