The Nineteenth Century (1):Polity, Society, Economy

Main Themes:- Impact of European Abolition of Slave Trade and Slavery- Changing State Structure, Power- Role of Africa in Global Economy

All are interrelated.

Africa in Pre-Colonial World Systems

-Mediterranean & Middle East-Indian Ocean-Atlantic

Pre-colonial Slave Trades

Trans-Saharan:-Movement slaves from medieval African sub-Saharan states (9th-15th centuries)-Some use in Sahara, most brought in caravans to north Africa, Bornu, Egypt-Moved into Middle East-Rise of empires (Moroccan, Ottoman) major impact from 15th century

Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

Africa and Ottoman Empire

Pre-Colonial Slave Trades

Indian Ocean:-early trade part of growth Swahili Coast, trade in range of commodities Red Sea, Persia, India-growth of trade into Ottoman Empire encouraged development trade into Egypt-major developments 18th-19th centuries

East Africa – Indian Ocean

Atlantic Ocean Trade

Atlantic Trade:-tied to Europe’s ‘voyages of discovery’-initial importation to Europe, use in Africa itself-began to feed Caribbean development, Brazil-move from indentured labour to slave labour in American Colonies-peak of trade 18th century

Atlantic Slave Trade

From: http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/geography/slave_trade.htm

Impact of Slave Trades

Impact varied according to region and era:

-Demographic: stunted African growth?-Economic: growth or impediment?-Political: centralization of states – good or bad?-Social: new elites, military classes, slavery – increase in exploitation?

Nineteenth Century Changes

Complex intersection developments:- within - outside

Nineteenth Century Changes

Within Africa:- Islamic Reformist movements (West)-Nguni state-building (Southern)-Zanzibar empire (East)-Egyptian expansion (East/Central)- rise of slave-based, military states (in response to all of above)- growth ‘legitimate commerce’ (West and East)

Ninteenth Century Changes

External to Africa:-European Abolitionist Movement-transformations Ottoman Empire-European imperialism in Middle East – Oman-Islamic Reformism (Middle East)

Slave Trading: Contradictory Trends

Trans-Saharan trade influenced by:- European Abolition & ending Atlantic Slave Trade- Pressure on Ottomans to close North-African markets- Resulting Clandestine traffic (egTripoli)-Development East African – Hijaz networks- Shift into Morocco

Trans-Saharan (cont.)

Consequences: - closing of Atlantic ports shifted trade across Sahara-Sahel- Encouraged domestic slave use - Saharan traders ‘key’ in softening blow of abolition - overall appears to have been growth in slave use and slave trading in and around Sahara-Sahel

Trans-Saharan (cont.)

Darfur (from a Tunisian traveller):

“Certain rich people living in the town have installed these blacks [from the neighboring mountains] on their farms, to have them reproduce, and, as we sell sheep and cattle, so they, every year, sell those of their children that are ready for this. There are some of them who own five or six hundred male and female slaves, and merchants come to them at all times, to buy male and female slaves chosen to be sold."

End part 1.

Ottoman Trade & Abolition

Mecca became important centre as abolition took effect in Ottoman Empire:

1877 report:“Having brought to the notice of the new Governor General, Zia Pasha, the practice of importing African slaves from the markets of Mecca, with the [Pilgrim] Caravan, for sale in Syria, His Excellency informed me that he had already given very strict orders to prevent such abuses. His Excellency's orders have not, however, met with the success which he stated to me he expected, as slaves were brought as usual."

Hijaz Slave Trade

Darfur

Persia

19th century trade Hijaz Trade

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Muhammad Pasha - Egypt

Nominally Ottoman, Muhammad Pasha built own empire into Upper Nile-used slave armies-fed slave trade into Hijaz

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

Hijaz trade also from East Africa:-British in Oman influenced Sultan Sayyid Said to move capital to Zanzibar (1840)-focus on economic development-drew on Indian networks for finance-slaves from East African interior for plantation development

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

-grain plantations on mainland-clove plantations on island-Indian credit financed inland trade -Led to new settlements -‘Swahili’ traders operated caravans [eg Tippu Tib, Mirambo]-Swahili language, culture, Islam spread with network with them

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

Famous ‘Tippu Tip’ epitomized system at most effective

Tippu Tip (Muhammad bin Hamid c.1830-1905) ruled a commercial empire in Equatorial Africa from the 1860s to 1890.

Born in Zanzibar of a Swahili merchant and a Nyamwezi (African) mother, he began his ventures in the early 1860s south of Lake Tanganyika

Expanded as far as Congo (1875) establishing his own ‘state’

Both traded in slaves (to the coast), used slave labour in plantations and built slave-army

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

East African trade also supplying slaves to Qajar Persia (1800-1907), though this was gradually reduced in the course of the century

Indian Ocean Trade - Zanzibar

Rise of slave-based, military states linked to both Zanzibar empire and Nguni movements South Africa-stories of Mirambo, Tippu Tib, Msiri-early 19th century state-building among Nguni: Zulu-impact in central-eastern Africa: story of Rashid bin Hassani[see ‘Rashid bin Hassani’, Additional Readings]

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

Story of Olaudah Equiano (late 18th century):

-shows degree to which ‘slaving’ and ‘slavery’ part of West African societies

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

Abolition Trade (1807 Britain, 1817 France): Impact?

-African elites-state structure-economy-social structure

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

African Elites:-dependent on taxing trade-slaves central to tribute payments-large slave-raiding armies a threat

“why is trading in slaves suddenly ‘wrong’ when it has been ‘legitimate’ for centuries?”

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

State Structure:-large states organized around acquisition and trade in slaves (eg Dahomey, Oyo) forced to adjust-loss of monopoly depletes state coffers-ability to maintain control extensive ‘empires’ undermined-rise of smaller, regional chiefdoms-rise of Islamic states across Sahel, challenging older ‘empires’

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

Economy:-’legitimate commerce’-changing products, changing production areas-rise new groups producers, merchants-changing nature slavery

Atlantic Trade – West Africa

Social Structure:-rising importance merchant class-small(er) scale producer-both drawn into ‘global economy’-growth in domestic slavery: varied impact on slaves’ lives-many opportunities for slaves in new economies (eg Niger Delta – palm oil)

Atlantic Trade

Overall impact of changes complex:-’external’ decision to end slave trade, demand ‘legitimate’ products hugely disruptive-new competition (between Africans and with Europeans) led to new conflicts-increasing pressure by European merchants for government intervention-conflicts increasingly military, producing slaves, feeding new markets

Atlantic Trade

-new sources slaves, markets generated more outcry from abolitionists, missionaries-connection: commerce + christianity = civilisation-calls for conquest-echoed in East and Southern Africa, generated by same groups

Atlantic Trade

Arms and Ammunition:-long been used by Africans in West Africa but always inferior to those available to Europeans-grew in numbers in nineteenth century-would play role in ‘conquest’-increasingly central to actual state-building in interior of both West and East Africa

Atlantic Trade

Impact of Legitimate Commerce:-multifaceted-shifted sources and pattern slave trade and use-new wealthy classes challenge traditional authority-dependence on exporting raw materials (oils, cocoa, rubber, cloves [east])-dependence on global market-interdependent relation Africa-Europe