The Napoleonic Egyptian Scientific Expdition and the Ninetenth-Century Survey Museum- by Erin A. Peters (2009) M.A. Thesis

8/10/2019 The Napoleonic Egyptian Scientific Expdition and the Ninetenth-Century Survey Museum- by Erin A. Peters (2009)

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storage area of France's royal ar t collections prom pted its transforma tion i nt o a public ar t

The first public showing of th e roya l art collections did no t take place at th e Louvre, b ut

instead a t the Luxembourg Gallery in 1750.~ Even as this occurred, plans were initiate d fo r a

larger art museum in the Grand Gallery at the ~ o u vr e .~ 't was not until the accession of Louis

XVI in1774, owever, that th e execution of these plans began in earnest, and th e project o f

making the Louvre a national public art m useum began.

Upon accession to th e throne, Louis XVI appointe d the Com te d'Angiviller as th e d irecto r

general of roya l buildings. D'Angiviller had a vision of a new art museum in the Louvre tha t

wo uld be the most m agnificent and perfect in Europe as well as a source of na tional pride an d

royal glory.42 Andrew McClellan states that d'Angiviller was at one and the same time a child

of th e Enlightenment and a fiercely loyal servant of th e And although the outbreak o f

3 3

For histories of the Louvre, see: Christiane Aulanier, Histoire du Polois et du Musee du Louvre9vols., (Paris: Editions des Musees Nationaux, 1947-1964); ndre Blum, Le Louvre: Du Palais au Mus6e(Geneva, Paris and London: Cditions du Milieu du Monde,1946); lexandra Bonfante-Warren, The Louvre(Berkeley, CA: Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, Inc.,2000); Cecil Gould, Trophy of Conquest: The MuseeNopoleon ond the Creation of the Louvre (London: Faber and Faber, 1965); ndrew McClellan, lnventingthe Louvre:Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-century Paris (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994); nd La Commission du MusPum et lo Creation do Musee du Louvre

1792-17931, ocuments edited and annotated by A. Tuetey and J. Guiffrey, Archives de I'art frangais vol.3,1909.

4McClellan, lnventing the Louvre,13.

41 Andrew McClellan, 'The Museum and t s Public in ~ighte en th-de ntu ty rance.' in The Genesisof the A r tMuseum n the 18 Century, ed. Per Bjurstrom (Stockholm: Nationalmuseum,1993). 9.

6 McClelian, lnventing the Louvre,49

4McClellan, 'The Museum and i ts Public, 69.


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th e Re volution put a halt to d'Angiviller's Louvre project, his plans, which w ere w ell-know n

throug hou t Europe, paved the way for th e newly public Louvre.44

The Louvre opened to th e public on Augustloth 793, the first anniversary of the

storming o f the Tuileries Palace. The decision to open the Louvre on tha t date aligned the

museu m with th e Republic and its revolution ary principles. As McClellan states, on th at day

the public was first pe rmitted to inspect works of art th at had once belonged to the king,

emigres, and the Chu rch bu t which no w belong ed to the Republic, in a space that was no long er

a royal palace bu t a palace of the people. 45

Soon af ter the opening of the Louvre, Napoleon began his mil itary campaign to ~ t a l y . ~ ~

Following the precedent of th e ancient Romans, Napoleon plundered the art collections o f those

he conquered fo r installation in the Louvre, and in so doing created the greatest collection o f

Western art ever to have been on display in one pl a ~ e .~ ' ntention ally or not, N apoleon realized

bid.

5

Ibid., 74. Duncan and Wallach state tha t with the Revolution, the transform ation of theLouvre became urgent. In a series of decrees of 1792 and 1793, he new state nationalized the King'sproperty, confiscating his ar t collection and declared the Louvre a museum. This declaration dramaticallymade visible the reality of the new Republican state. What had been the King's by righ t was now decreedthe prop erty of the nation. See Carol Duncan and Alan Wallach, The Universal Survey Museum. inMuseum Studies: An Anthology of Contexts, ed. Bettina Messias Carbonellca id en MA: BlackwellPublishing, 2004 , 56.

6See David Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon (New York: Macmillan,1966 .

47 See Cecil Gould, Trophy of Conquest: The Musee Napoleon and the Creation of the Louvre(London: Faber and Faber, 1965 nd Dorothy Mackay Quynn, ' m e Art Confiscations of the Napoleonic

Wars. The American Histo ricalReview50, o. 3 April1945 : 437-460. uncan and Wallach state thatthe early Louvre deliberately evoked the Roman tradition of trium pha l display: captured enemy armswere exhibited along with works of art, and cartloads of art pillaged from conquered nations arrived atthe Louvre in trium phal processions designed to recall those of ancient Rome.. The vis itor en tering

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d'Angiviller's vision of a magnificent and perfect Louvre tha t was a source of natlonal p ride and

glory.

After Napoleon returned f rom Egypt, he became the First Consul of France, and late r he

installed himself as Em peror. Having called Vivant Denon back fro m Egypt early, Napoleon

named him th e director o f the Central Museum in the Louvre, as well as direc tor o f all artistic

services. Together, Na poleon and Denon devised a comprehensive system o f museums fo r

France and the newly conquered outlying territories. France dom inated the E uropean museum

wo rld and th e Louvre was the cen ter of that world. Denon, like dlAngiviller before him,

envisioned a perfect Louvre, and for a short time his goal of making the Louvre the world's mos t

bea utiful institutio n was realized.49 But when Nap oleon was defeated a t Waterloo and his

emp ire fell, the Allies from wh om Napoleon had plundered so much valuable art during his

milita ry campaigns demand ed that t be returned. In all, th e French museums returne d

approximately 2,065 paintings and 13 sculptures, including the B ronze Horses ofSon Morco ,

the Apollo Belvedere, and the ~ o o c o o n .~ ~

As th e rest of Europe scrambled to install representative collections of a rt in new ly

created museums, the French attempted t o fill the holes left in the Louvre collection by the

retur n of Napoleon's plundered loot, i n order to restore the Louvre as a mo num ent o f national

glory. In addition, there was an attempt t o make the collection o f the museum mo re complete

Napoleon's Louvre passed through triumpha l arches decorated with troph ies and victories. Duncan andWallach, The Universal Survey Museum, 52.

8Alexander, Museums in Motion,25.

9

Bonfante-Warren, The Louvre, 335

Alexander, Museums in Motion,27.


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by adding art from periods that previously had not been co ~e re d. ~'n this vein th e Egyptian

division a t the Louvre was forma lly created by Jean-Francois Cham pollion in1826.

The Early Egyptian Collection of t he Louvre

In the early stages of th e Louvre's existence as a museum, befo re the Napoleon ic

campaign to Egypt, there were few Egyptian objects in the collection. The few tha t entered

were acquired during the Convention in 1793 and placed in the newly established department

of antique sculpture.52 Although Napoleon brought a few E gyptian objects in to France wit h th e

Borghese collection, which w ere purchased in Italy from a private collection of a ntiq ~iti es ,'~he

first m ajor acquisition of Egyptian objects for th e Louvre were those collected as a pa rt of th e

Egyptian exped ition.

After th e signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in1801, he largest pieces in the French

collections we nt t o the British. The scholars and savants, how ever, were able to keep some

smaller items and their research. Upon return ing to France, none of these items or resea rch

made t to the Louvre's collection^ ^ They were installed instead in the savants' personal

51Marie-Claude Chaudonneret, Historicism and 'Heritage' in the Louvre,1820-40: rom the

Musee Charles X to the Galerie d'Apollon, A r tHistory 14, no. 4 (December 1991): 488,491.

52 Bernadette Letellier, A Short History of the Louvre's Department of Egyptian Antiquities. inPhoroohs: Treasures of Egyptian Artfrom the Louvre, ed. LawrenceM Berman and Bernadette Letellier(Cleveland, The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1996), 15; and Christiane Ziegler with Christophe Barbotin andMarie-Helene Rutschowscaya, The Louvre: Egyptian Antiquities (London, Scala Publications, Ltd.,1990 . .

53 Letellier, Short History, 15.

5

In their review of the Egyptian Department at the Louvre, Andreu, Rutschowscaya and Zieglerstate: A commencer par la Pierre de Rosette, don't la triple inscription a permis le dechiffrement deI'ecriture hieroglyphique, aucune de antiquites rassemblees par I'expedition de Bonaparte n'est parvenueau Louvre. Considerees comme butin de guerre, elles ont ete transportees en Grande-Bretagne oir elles

5


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collections, or sent to the Museum $Histoire ~ a t u r e l l e . ~ ~ any of the objects went t o the

private collections of Napoleon, Josephine and Vivant en on.^ Michel Dewachter states tha t a

good number o f the participants of t he Expedition made a point of offering Josephine,

Napoleon, or members of his entourage, Egyptian souvenirs that they had themselves obtained

on the banks of the ~i l e . ~ ' f any of these objects entered the Louvre, t was at a later date.

I t s clear, however, that although the British may have claimed the largest and finest

pieces in the savants' original collection destined for the Louvre, there were considerably more

objects that left Egypt than those claimed by the British. As discussed above, there were no

more than thi rty objects taken to the British Museum as a part of t he Treaty of Alexandria, and

constituent I'un des fleurons du British Museum. Quant aux aeuvres de la collection Denon, compagnonde Bonaparte puis directeur du Musee imperial, elles se montent a peine a une vingtaine. Guillemette

Andreu, Marie-Helene Rutschowscaya and Christiane Ziegler, ~ ' t ~ ~ ~ t e ncienne au Louvre (Paris:Hachette, 1997 . 4.

Paula Young Lee, The Musaeum of Alexandria and the Formation of the Museum in

Eighteenth-Century France. The Art Bulletin 79, no. 3 September 1997 : 10.

6For a catalog of a recent exhibition of Josephine's collection in the Louvre held at the High

Museum of Art in Atlanta, GA, see: Martine Denovelle, Sophie Descamps-Lequime and Marc Etienne, Eyeof Josephine: The Antiquities collection of the Empress in the Musee du Louvre (Paris: MusCe du Louvre

and Atlanta: The High Museum of Art, 2008 .

7Michel Dewachter, ''The Egyptian Collections Formed During he Expedition de I'Egypte, in

The Monuments of Egypt: The Napoleonic Edition: The Complete Archaeological Plates rom La Description

de I'Egypte, ed. Charles Coulston Gillespie and Michel Dewachter (Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky andKonecky, 1987 ,33.

8In Dewachter's discussion of the objects depicted in the plates of the Description de I'Egypte,

he notes the case of a pair statue of Amenope and Tamerout now in the Louvre (N 1594 . Theprovenance was originally thought not to precede 1824, but the statue appears in Plate 64 of Volume V of

the Description (Figure IS , and as such it was found as part of the expedition's collections. It s unknown,however, who the scholar was that took the object back to France, and when i t entered the Louvre'scollections. See Dewachter, The Egyptian Collections, 31.


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ther e are dozens m ore objects depicted in th e plates of the Description de I'Egypte (Figures 4

l ~ ) . ~ ~

After posing the question, why has no one until now thought of m aking a

bibliographical catalogue of everything engraved in the [Description's] plates?, Miche l

Dewach ter concludes tha t such a project would be next t o impossible. Althou gh he and

Charles Gillespie had intended t o tell readers of their book wh at became of the objects depicted

in th e Description's plates, such a task eluded them . Dewach ter continues: In atte mp ting to

carry ou t tha t pe rfectly reasonable task, w e have discovered, first o f all, tha t finding th e

infor ma tion is rarely easy and secondly, tha t the De scription has never yet been used for w ha tt

was meant to be, that is, a real Register of ~ o n u m e n ts . ~ '

After Denon was ap pointed director of th e Central Museum, he and Napoleon

succeeded in securing some o f the w orld's finest art treasures for display in th e newly crea ted

French system of museums. Although b oth Denon and Napoleon used h e cultural success of

the Egyptian expedition in order t o furthe r their personal and political goals-Denon as

Napoleon's a rtistic director and Napoleon as Emperor-after losing the collections of the

expedition to he British, adding to the small number o f existing Egyptian objects in the Louvre

9These figures show a small number of the plates from the Description tha t are dedicated to th e

antiqu ities collected y the members of the Egyptian expedition, and are not meant to be arepresentative collection of all of the plates that illustrate hese antiquities.

Ibid.

61 Ibid. See the remainder of Dewachtefs article for remarks on several case studies in which heand Gillespie attem pted to uncover the provenance information about the objects depicted in theDescription.


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was no t a part o f their agenda.62 Evidence o f this is tha t after th e fall o Napoleon's Empire,

there w ere few pure ly Egypt ian works in the Louvre and they had been pa r t of the royal

collection^ ^^ Most o f hem were Greco-Roman Egyp ti an ob jec ts da t ing f rom the t i me tha t t h e

country was pa r t of the Hel lenis t ic and Roman Empires . Mo st impor tan t amon g th em was a

colossal Rom an lsis fro m Hadrian's villa at Tivoli.

Durin g th e reign of Louis XVlll(1814-1824), ther e were sixteen kn ow n Egyptian objects

in the collect ions o f the ~o uv re . Of these, a t least tw o were acquired dur ing Louis XVll l's re ign .

The first , a kneeling statue o f Nakhthorheb, was purchased in 18 16 fro m th e fame d French

collector, Francois Sallier (Figure 16 ).~' The second was a statue of Sek hme t th at w as acquire d

by the French director-general of museums, the co mte de Forbin, in 181 7 (Figure 17).~' In

6This is interesting n ot only because of Denon's and Napoleon's projected alliance wi th the

Egyptian campaign, bu t also because the Egyptian Revival Style was extremem ly p opular d uring th eNap oleonic era. See Jean-Marcel Humbert, Denon and the Discovery of Egypt, in Egyptomonia: Egypt inWestern Ar t 1730-1930, ed. Jean-Marcel Humbert, M ichael Pantazzi and Christiane Ziegler (Paris: Mu seedu Louvre and Nation al Gallery of Canada, 1994). 202-205; and Jean-Marcel Humbert, The Return fromEgypt, in Egyptomania: Egypt in W esternArt1730-1930 , ed. Jean-Marcel Humbert, M ichael Pantazzi andChris tiane Ziegler (Paris: Musee du Louvre and Na tional Gallery of Canada, 1994), 252-256. A possible

explanation fo r this is as Stuart Woolf states: As Napoleon's co ntrol of Europe grew m ore complete, theless useful of the sciences-such as the anthropological quest for the stages o f civilization-lost favorand tended to go underground. Stuart Woolf, The Construction of a European World-View in theRevolution ary-N apo leonic Years, Past and Present 137 (November 1992): 87. Perhaps too, Napoleon'sutilization and promotion of the Egyptian style did away w ith th e need for acquiring new Egyptian objectsfor th e French museums. Jean-Marcel Humb ert states: the ne w surge of Egyptomania follow ing theEgyptian campaign was propelled in large part by political considerations. Humbert, 'The Return fro mEgypt, 252.

6Letellier, Short History, 15

6

Ibid.

6Ibid,, 15; 2ln2.

Ibid., 15; 2 l n l .


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addition, the sarcophagus of lnuya was given t o Louis XVlll by the son of th e collector T hedena t-

Duvent and t was also installed at the

By the tim e Charles ascended the throne in 1824, there were still only a few Egyptian

sculptures on exhibit in the ~ ouvre.' Other than the Nakh thorheb and Sekhmet statues, these

include d th e Roman Isis, thre e block statues of Akhamenru, P adimene mipet and Wahibre, t w o

sphinxes of A koris and Nepherites and the sarcophagus of ~ nu ya .~ 'his small collection o f

Egyptian antiquities was about t o be vastly altered in accordance wi th th e wishes of Jean-

Fr an ~o is hampollion, the scholar who had deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs tw o years prior to

Cha rles X's accession.

Champollion not only deciphered hieroglyphic writing, arguably the most impo rtant

achievement in the mode rn study of ancient Egypt, he also instituted the first Egyptian museum

in Turin. During the early nineteenth century, many of the European consuls stationed i n Egypt

were th e major suppliers of antiquities to European nations. The first m ajor consul collection t o

be offe red f or sale to France was that o f Italian-born French consul-general, Bernardino

67Andreu, Rutschowscaya and Ziegler, ~ ' ~ g y p t encienne, 14

8 lbid.

69 Ibid.

7 For general resources on Champollion and the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs, see: M orr isL. Bierbrier, Who wos Who in Egyptology. rd d. (London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1995); EtienneCombe and Mahmoud Saba, L'archeologie franqaise en ggypte: lrevre de Chompollion (Alexandria: Societede Publications Cgyptiennes, 1920); Michel Dewachter and Alain Fouchard, L'6gyptologle e t lesChampollion (Grenoble, Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1994); R.B. Parkinson, The Rosetta Stone

[London: British Museum Press, 2005); Robert Sole and Dominique Valbelle, The Rosetta Stone (New York:Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001); and Christiane Ziegler and Monique Kanawaty, HommageChompollion (1790-1832) (Paris: Conseil des musees nationaux, 1990).


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Drov etti. This collection was refused by the French because of i t s high price, and we nt instead

to the newly established Egyptian Museum in Turin in 1824.~'

In the same year, the first sub stantial collection o f Egyptian antiquities was purchased

for the Louvre. In addition to classical antiquities and m edieval works o f art,72 he collection o f

Edme Auguste Du rand contained 2,500 Egyptian pieces. In addition t o sma ller works such as

amulets, figurines, and mum mies-the collection included several major works, including the

sarcophagi of Sutimes, the stele of Senwosret and Usirur, the statue of M er ium and th e

s ta tu ette s o f l me ne mip et an d ~ a m e r u t . ~ ~his collection became the impetus t o forma lly create

t he E g yp tia n D ep artm en t i n t he ~ o u v r e . ~ ~nd tw o years after the approval of its purchase by

Charles X on December 14,1824, the de partm ent was newly nam ed the Muse e Charles x .~ '

The new M usee Charles X was officially created on M ay 15' 1826, whe n Charles X

institu ted an ordinance w hich forma lly created the Division des monum ents egyptiennes, and

7 1 See Silvio Curto, Storio d el Museo egizio d i Torino (Turin: Centro studi piemontesi, 1990) andAlessandro Roccati, The Egyption Museum, Turin (Rome: lstituto polig rafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1991).

7 Ziegler, The Louvre, 5.

73 Andreu, Rutschowscaya and Ziegler, ~ ' ~ g y p t encienne, 15.

74 Georges Benedite, La Formation du Musee Egyptien au Louvre.' Revue de / Art Ancien etModerne 43 (Januav-May 1923): 275-293.

75 Musee Charles X and Musee d'Egypte are sometimes used interchangeably. Todd P orte rfieldnotes that the term Musee d'Egypte was always used to mean at least the rooms curated by

Cham pollion Contemporaries sometimes called the Musee d'Egypte and Musee Charles X and viceversa. Todd Porterfield, The Allure of Empire: Art in the Service of French mperiolism1798 1836(Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 1998), 182n4.


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Champollion was named its first curator.76 The Egyptian departmen t consisted of nine rooms o n

th e second floor of the Seine wing of the Cour Carree.77 Four rooms were designated fo r Greek

and Roman antiquities, but fo r the first tim e in the history of the Louvre, four rooms were

devo ted t o Egyptian antiquities. 78 This space was used t o display the Durand collection as well

as the next t wo major collections to come to the Louvre-the Salt and Drovetti collection^ ^^

Following the procedure of other large European museums, Champollion insti tuted a

massive acquisitions policy over the next two years. Securing over 9,000 objects for the Louvre

fr om th e tw o consular collections- those of Henry Salt (obtained in 1826)~' and Bernardino

Drovetti (obtained in 1827) Champollion quickly amassed one of the largest and richest

Egyptian collections in the world. Contained in these two collections were rare treasures like a

statuette o f Amenemhat Ill a seated statue of Sobekhotep IV a seated statue o f Akhenaten,

6

Sosthenes de La Rochefoucauld, kablissement du Musee Royal gypt ti ende Paris. Bulletindes sciences historiques, ontiquites, philologie 6 (1026): 31-37; and Pierre Quoniam, Champollion et le

Musee du Louvre. Bulletin de loSoci6t4 Fronqoise d'Egyptologie 95 (October 1982): 47-49.

Porterfield, The Allure of Empire, 84.

8

Ibid.

7See Christiane Aulanier, Le Musee Chorles Xet le Deportment des ontiquit& ggyptiennes (Paris:

fditions des Musees Nationaux, 1961), 20-55; and Nestor L'HBte. Beaux-Arts-Ouverture du Musee

d'antiquites egyptiennes au Louvre, Revue EncyclopCdique 36 (1827): 827-831.

8See Christiane Ziegler's and Jean-Luc Bovot's introduction to the Egyptian collection at the

Louvre, Monuels de I'Ecole du Louvre: Art et orchCologie: 1'~gypte ncienne, for a summation of the major

nineteenth-century acquisitions in large European museums. Christiane Ziegler and Jean-Luc Bovot,

Monuels de I'Ecole do Louvre: Art et orchCologie: I'Egypte oncienne (Paris: Ecole du Louvre, 2001), 312-313.

81Salt was the British consul-general in Egypt, and had previously sold a large collection to the

British Museum in 1818.


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and a head of a statue of Amenhotep 1 1 1 ~ ~fter these three m ajor collections were acquired,

Cham pollion then led a scientific expedition to Egypt in1828 hat continued the earlier work o f

Napoleon's scholars.83

Although the forma tion o f the Egyptian collection a t the Louvre was n ot a direct result

of Napoleon's ex ped ition to Egypt, as the ob jects collected by the sava nts we nt t o Lon don

rather than Paris, the early institution of th e Egyptian Department at the Louvre can be

contextually tied to the Egyptian expedition. Charnpollion, whose vision was at the origin o f the

Egyptian departmen t at the Louvre, grew up during the Napoleonic Empire. He was

undoub tedly influenced by the explosion of interest in Egypt that was created by the Egyptian

expedition and the subsequent publication of Denon's Voyage and the ~ e s c r i ~ t i o n . ' ~

It may seem surprising that the foundation o f the Egyptian department o f the Louvre

too k place during the Re storation. Yet, althoug h the B ourbons outw ardly disassociated

8Letellier, Short History, 15.

8Christiane Ziegler, Egyptian Antiquities,' in The Louvre and the Ancient World: Greek,

Etruscan, Roman, Egyptian and Near Eastern Antiqu ities in the M u s k du Louvre, ed. The High Museum ofArt (Paris: Musee du Louvre and Atlanta, GA: The High Museum of Art,2007 . 51. See also ChristianLeblanc, Angelo Sesana and Benoit Lurson, Treasures of Egypt and Nubio: Draw ings rom the French-Tuscan Expedition of 828 ed by lean-F ran ~oise hampollion and ppo lito Rosellini (Kent, UK: GrangeBooks, 2006 .

8

Melanie Byrd states, the career of Champollion was closely linked to the work of theNapoleonic scholars, and he knew some of the savants personally. Fourier became the pre fect of lsere,where the Charnpollion family resided and he promoted the academic career of Jean-Fran~oisCharnpollion [Champollion also] made extensive use of the Description..Despite the e rrors that theNapoleonic scholars made, their work was s t l l significant. Without the Description, the co llections ofantiquities and the Rosetta Stone, Champollion could not have made the co ntributions ha t he did to

Egyptian archaeology and linguistics, which helped establish Egyptologyas an academic discipline.Me lanie Byrd, The Napoleonic Institute of Egypt (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University,1992 , 65-266;268.


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themselves from th e Re volutionary and Napo leonic eras, the Restoration monarchs st i l l

patron ized Napoleon ic Egyptological works, despite the links of these w orks to t he fallen

emp ire. For instance, the first volume of the Description was released in 1810, but th e

massive corpus was n ot complete u ntil 1828. The Bourbon monarchy did no t stop the

pub lication of the D escription, b ut instead supported t as a political tactic to legitimize the ir

returm Z6 Indeed, in the founding document of the Egyptian departmen t in the ~ou vre, the

vicom te Sosthenes de La Rochefoucauld, then t he director o f the B eaux-Arts in the Ma ison du

Roi, linked the crea tion of th e de partm ent to Napoleon's Egyptian Scientific Expedition in

1798.

EgyptianA r t in th e Sunrey Art Museum

While t wo uld seem that Egyptian culture naturally belongs in an archaeological

muse um like the British Museum, its presence in an art museum like the Louvre, th e pu rpose of

which w as to present a survey of European art from Antiquity to th e p resent, is less obvious.

Afte r all, Egypt was no t part of Europe and its culture seems only loosely related t o later G reek

and Roman culture.

To pu t this in context, t is important to realize that th e idea that Egypt was the cradle o f

European civilization was no t entirely new. The Greeks and Romans believed th at the ir o w n

cultures were ro ote d in Egyptian culture. But this idea was not carried over t o the Renaissance,

85

Porterfield, The Allureof Empire, 82 83.

86

Ibid., 83.

8 See La Rochefoucauld, ftablissement, 31-37.

La Rochefoucauld, Bablissement, 32 and Porterfield, The Allure of Empire,83.

5


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at which tim e Greece and Rome were thought to contain the origins of European culture. In the

eighteenth century, Egyptian art and cu lture were kno wn to have inspired that o f Greece and

Rome (and vice-versa in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods of Egyptian history) b ut t was

thou gh t th at th e Greeks and Romans perfected what was considered strange, mystic and exotic.

The first ma jor ar t history boo k ever written, Johann Joachim Winckelmann's Geschichte der

Kunst des Alterturns, published in 1764, was critical of Egyptian art. Winckelmann's w ork was

fueled by the Renaissance notion tha t the origins of the Western tradition were fou nd in ancient

Greece and ~ om e.

W ith the form ation of the Egyptian departmen t at the Louvre and the purposeful

addition of Egyptian art t o th e Louvre's collections, the Louvre inserted Egyptian art into the

We stern ar t canon. By displaying Egyptian art in a Western canonical ar t museum, th e Lo uvre

comm unicated to he public that Egyptian art was not only at the root of Greek and Roman art,

but that it also had aestheticvalue wo rthy of appreciation. Un til this time, appreciation of

Egyptian art was tied to its links with Greek and Roman art, rather than being valued fo r its ow n

aesthetic qualities. t is likely tha t w ithou t th e consequences of the Napoleonic Egyptian

Scientific Expedition, E gyptian art might n ot have become a part o f the We stern ar t canon, o r a

standard eleme nt in the Western art m useum.

9

See Johann Winckelmann, Histo ry of the Art ofAntiquity, trans. Harry Francis Mallgrave (Los

Angeles, CA Getty Research Institute, 2006); Guillem ette Andreu, Marie-Helene Rutschowscaya andChristiane Ziegler, L'tgyp te ancienne au Louvre (Paris: Hachette, 1997). 15; and Vernon Hyde Minor, ArtHistory's History,2 d ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 19,85-90.


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The E volution of Collecting Egyptian Antiqu ities

The collecting of Egyptian antiquities that began in the British Museum and was late r

continu ed in the Louvre, an archaeo logical museu m and an art museum, respectively, soo n

became the norm in other major European museums Figures 29-31). t would lead to the

whole-sale rem oval of Egyptian objects from Egypt first by the con sul collectors of the early

nineteenth century, then by the many travelers that we nt to Egypt during the later nineteenth

century.90 Eventually, the interest o f museums, European as we ll as American, in b uilding

Egyptian collections led to the great excavations of the late nineteenth and early twen tieth

centuries, a period when massive teams of archaeologists descended upon Egypt to atte mp t t o

uncover ever more treasures for the museums that sponsored them.

9

Fernand Beaucour, Yves Laissus, Chantal Orgogozo, The Discovery of Egypt trans. BambiBallard Paris: Flammarion,1990 , 29.


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CONCLUSION

In this thesis, I have discussed the early formation of the Egyptian collections of the

British Museum and the Musee du Louvre against the backdrop of the French Invasion o f Egypt.

I have shown that the savants who accompanied the Napoleonic expedition conducted the firs t

systematic study of Egypt. Their scholarly work was as much a product of Enlightenment

though t as a m atter o f imperial militan/ tactics, since the goal of the expedition was to make

Egypt a French colony. Napoleon and the French Directory desired to know as much abou t this

intended colony as possible. The Commission des Sciences et Arts d'Egypte and th e members

of the lnstit ut d'Egypte, which was modeled after the lnstitut de France, spent three years

completing their mission. The results were released to the European public in the form of

Dominique Vivant Denon's and the official publication of the Commission and the

Institut, the Description de I ' ~ ~ y ~ t e . '

'The expedition can be linked to the new found Enlightenment principle of philology, which was

regarded as providing the clue towards an understanding of all societies. Stuart Woolf, 'The

Construction ofa

European World-View in the Revolutionary-Napoleonic Years, Past and Present37

(November, 1992 : 8.

Abigail Moore comments on the importance of visual images in the formation of one's opinion

of history. She notes that visual images have always played an important part in the construction of

history. We look for visual signs to confirm written statements and in isolation these visual signs have a

powerful effect on our imagination when it seeks the 'truth.' Denon reconstructed Egypt's archaeology

using a scientific system of standardization, a legible language of signs recognizable to both his French andEnglish audiences. Abigail Harrison Moore, Voyage: Dominique-Vivant Denon and the Transference of

Images of Egypt, Art History 25, no. 4 (September 2002 : 32-533.

3 Andrew Bednarski, Holding Egypt: Tracing the Reception of the aescription de I'Egypte' in

Nineteenth Century Great Britain (London: Golden House Publications, 2005 . 15. The work of the Frenchscholars was also released to the European public through the Lo Decade ggyptienne and the Courier de

l'Egypte. Although Byrd states that the Description, the Decade, the Courier, Denon's Voyage, and the

various diaries, journals and memoires of the individuals who participated in the expedition and the

6


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These tw o publications presented Europe wit h th e first detailed, scholarly, and richly

illustrated body o f knowledge abou t ancient and mo dern Egypt. In France, these p ublications,

particularly th e Description, were strongly pro mo ted by Napoleon, who hailed the exp edition as

a scientific success in ord er t o disguise the failure o f his milita ry campaign and his defeat by

~ r i t a i n . ~he publications led t o a strong interest in Egypt, bo th in the scholarly and the popular

realms, whe re it led to tru e Egyptomania. In Britain, these publications had less of an effect.

Instead, th e British view o f Egypt was affected by the objects tha t came to th e B ritish Muse um,

including the famous Rosetta tone ^

Britain's acciden tal fortu ne in securing the largest and m ost prized objects from th e

French savants' collection by the Treaty of Alexandria led to the forma tion o f the early Egyptian

collection in the British Museum, which, for the first time co nfronted Europeans wi th impo rtant

Egyptian objects. Prior to th e Nap oleonic campaign, most Egyptian objects found in Europe -

didactic study collections or part of travelers' personal collections-had been small. A fter the

objects gained from the French were installed in the British Museum, the public, for th e first

time, co uld see mon um ental Egyptian statuary. Although this acqu aintance w ith Egyptian

sculpture for many contempo rary viewers confirmed the alleged supremacy of ancient G reek

Instituteall played a role in the development of Egyptology, the other publications did not have the samewidespread impact on the European view as Voyage and the Description. Melanie Byrd, The NapoleonicInstitu te of Egypt Ph.D. diss., FloridaState University, 1992 , 72.

Moore, Voyage, 539

Bednarski, Holding Egypt,96


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and Roman art, the new-found access to Egyptian objects laid the basis for later developments

in the collecting of Egyptian antiquities in m ~ s e u m s . ~

Not only the British Museum, but also the Louvre owed the form ation of its Egyptian

departm ent t o the Napoleonic expedition, although in a more indirect manner. Its creator and

firs t curator, Jean-Francois Champollion, grew up while the interest i n the Egyptian expedi tion

was at i t s height. He was familiar wi th Voyage and the Description, which he used in his work o f

deciphering Egyptian hie rog lyp h~. ~ ecause of Champollion's enterprise and because of t he

continued exploitation o f the cultural success and popularity of t he Egyptian expedition in

France by the Bourbon monarchs of the Restoration, the first Egyptian department was created

at the Louvre in 1824

Champollion not only unlocked the key to the language of th e ancient Egyptians, he also

was the f irs t t o appreciate Egyptian art as art.= Previously, Greek and Roman art had been

6Stephanie Moser notes in relation to the installation of the objects gained from the French at

the British Museum: here the presentation of Egyptian antiquities in association with recently acquired

Greek and Roman sculptures saw ancient Egypt firmly established as a primitive precursor to these morecivilized ancient cultures. More specifically, the arrangement of Egyptian antiquities was presented as a

comparative aid for demonstrating he supremacy of ancient Greek art... Stephanie Moser, Wondrous

Curiosities: Ancient Egypt at the British Museum (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), 65.

Bednarski, Holding Egypt, 96.

Bernadette Letellier states that Champollion was without a doubt the first to become aware of

Egyptian art when he visited the country in 1828-29. In his correspondence he criticized the Napoleonic

Expedition for praising the Ptolemaic and Roman temples, whose bas-reliefs appeared ugly to him, at the

expense of those in Thebes, which they did not properly appreciate. Letellier continues, he fought to

modify the taste of his contemporaries to make them share his love of ancient Egypt. Bernadette

Letellier, A Short History of the Louvre's Department of Egyptian Antiquities, in Pharaohs: Treasures ofEgyptian Artfrom the Louvre, ed Lawrence M. Berman and Bernadette Letellier (Cleveland, The Cleveland

Museum of Art, 1996), 15.


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firm ly established i n Western ar t historical and m useological tradit ions as th e fountainh ead o f

We stern a rt. As Alain Pasquier states,

[ the] depa rtment o f Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquit ies, toge ther wi th th e

Depar tment of Pain tings , i s the o ldes t a t the Musee du Louvre he grouping togethe rof th e three classical cultures is th e result o f a deliberate choice, based on he c om mo ncharacter is tics of th e three cul tures and the awareness tha t toge ther they form th ebasis on wh ich o ur W este rn civilization is founded. '

The format ion of th e Egyptian depar tment a t the Louvre caused Egyptian ar t t o b e seen once

mo re as the founta inhead of Greek and Roman ar t and hence as a p ar t of th e Western ar t is t ic

canon. t is possible, if n o t likely, tha t w ith ou t Napoleon's Egyptian Scientific Exp edition this

developmen t might n ot have happened.

Alain Pasquier, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities, in The Louvre an d the Ancien t World:Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Egyp tion and Nea r Eastern Antiquities i n the M usee du Louvre, ed. The H ighMuseum o f Art (Paris: Musee du Louvre and Atlanta, GA: The High Museu m of Art, 2007),21

10 Egyptian art was the first non -Western art to be collected at the Louvre. The Departmen t ofNear Eastern Antiquities was created in the mid-nineteenth century a t the Louvre. Beatrice Andr6-Salvini,Near Eastern Antiquities, in The Louvre an d the Ancient World: Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Egyp tian an d

Ne ar Eastern Antiquities i n the MusPe do Louvre, ed. The High Mus eum of Art (Paris: Musee du Louvreand Atlanta, GA: The High Mus eum of Art, 2007), 78. For instance, although Champo llion criticized th ework o f the expedition's sovants and Denon's Voyage as being biased w it h th e classical preference o fGreek and Roman art, Mo ore notes that in Voyage, Denon de liberately replaces the Grecian bias ofprevious pa ttern books with E gyptian architecture and aims to su pport the vita lity of these designs bylinking them visually and textua lly to th e classical orders...Thus, by adopting and attempting t o usurp thedom ination of G recian design, Denon posits Egyptian design as suitable for study in th e academies, fo rdisplay in the museums, and for illustration in historical theses about mankind wh ich discussed ideas ofancient development use ful for those involved in cultural, national or personal 'revolution.' Moore,

Voyage, 536 t i s likely, then, t ha t Denon, by linking Egyptian design with the already accepted culturesof antiquity, aided in Champollion's later study of Egyptian art rem oved from th e Greek and Romanstigma of appreciation.


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FIGURES

Figu

Be

re 1 Jean Constantin Protain. View of the inte rio r of one of the G reot Halls in Hoson KochHouse, Us ed or Me etin gs of the institu te, 1798-17 99. Pen, wash and gouache. Paris:

Bibliotheque Nationale.

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efs

,d


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Figure 2. Andre Du tertr e. A Me eti ng of the Scholars rom the Commission orA rts an d Sciences inthe Gardens of the Institute 179 8-17 99. Pen and waterco lor. Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale.

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Figure 3. Vivant Denon Drawing During the Egyptian Campaign.

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Figure 4. Description Ill Plate 8

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Figure 5. Description V Plate 3 .

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Figure 6. Description V, Plate 4

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Figure 7. Description V, Plate 21.22 .

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Plates 21,22 .


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Figure 8. Description V, Plate 23.

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Figure 9. Description V Plate 24,

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Figure 11. Description V Plate 41.

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.et, Gilles, ed. Description e I Egypte. 10s Angeles, CA: Taschen American, LLC, 2007,Plate 52.


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Figure 13 Description V Plate 53

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Figure 14. Description V, Plate 54 .

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Figure 17 Seated Statue of Sekhmet Louvre A 2.

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Figure 18. Fourier's List of Objects

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Figure 19 . Drawings and notes of British Acquisitions, EA 10 EA 23

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Figure 20 Drawings and notes of British Acquisitions, EA 86, A 66, EA 14.

Bierbrier, Morris L. The Acquisition by the British Museu m of Antiquities D iscovered During th eFrench