The Modern Era - Weebly

534

The Saturn V is on display at the Johnson SpaceCenter in Houston. It is still the largest and most

powerful single-use launch vehicle ever built. It is363 feet tall and weighs over 6 million pounds. The

Roman numeral “V” stands for the five powerful F-1engines used to lift the first stage of the rocket.

Why It MattersAs you study Unit 8, you will learn about Texas’s recent history.

Texans in the second half of the twentieth century continued to value

their heritage while Texas underwent great changes. Its population

rose to become second among the states. Women, Mexican

Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans expanded their

influence in business and government. Texas became a leader in

science and technology, in education, and in international trade.

As the twenty-first century began, Texans looked ahead with

confidence and pride.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 698–699 for primary source readings to accompany Unit 8.

The

Modern Era1950 to the Present

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title

“Manned exploration of the moon is essential.”

—Lyndon B. Johnson,

April 28, 1961

10

54

45

Rio

Gra

nd

e

Rio

Bravo

del

No

rte

M E X I

303

1993

450

2000

566,528

720,406

1993

2000

Not

avai

labl

e

CHIHUAHUA

Chihuahua

El PasoCiudad Ju´arez

1. Between which border cities is the most heavilytraveled crossing between Texas and Mexico?

2. In which state in northern Mexico has thenumber of maquiladoras grown the most?

L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y

TRADE PARTNERSBlue jeans, computer parts, portable CD players—what do these have in common? They are often produced infactories in the Texas–Mexico border region. The economy ofthe region has changed dramatically during the last decade.Most of the changes have been triggered by the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which went intoeffect in 1994. NAFTA reduced taxes on goods and servicestraded between Mexico, Canada, and the United States.

Texas’s economy has benefited from NAFTA in many ways.• In 1999, almost half of the products shipped out of Texas

went to Mexico.• More than $112 million in merchandise made in Texas

crosses the border every day.• One out every five jobs in the state is somehow related to

the trade between Texas and Mexico.

There are also some problems, however, that have resultedfrom the increase in trade.• The increased number of maquiladoras in Mexico’s north-

ern border states has created air and water pollution on both sides of the Rio Grande.

• Some Texans lost jobs when U.S. companies closed theirfactories to open maquiladoras south of the border.

• Truck traffic has quadrupled since 1990 on eight heavilytraveled bridges to Mexico. Bridge traffic has grown fromone-half million trucks per year to more than 2.2 milliontrucks per year.

• The safety of Mexican trucks has been questioned by some.After lengthy debate, however, Congress passed laws in 2001allowing Mexican trucks on U.S. highways. The trucks mustundergo regular safety inspections and the licenses of driv-ers carrying high-risk cargo must be electronically checkedat all border crossings.

Texas, as Mexico’s neighbor, will continue to benefit fromand be challenged by the interaction between NAFTA countries.

&GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

536

Trade between Canada, the United States,and Mexico has increased significantly sinceNAFTA went into effect in 1994. Almost halfof all trade between the U.S. and Mexicopasses through Texas.

1000 0 kmAzimuthal Equidistant projection

500 0 mi.

Gulf of

Mexico

Atlantic

Ocean

Pacific

Ocean

CANADA

MEXICO

Texas

UNITED STATES11.8 Billion

178.8 Billion

111.7 Billion

51.7 Billion

United States

Texas

Export Totals for 2000

537

0 km

0 mi

km

mi50 150

100 200

20

35

35

20

10

10

67

90

59

77

77

83

59

277

85

57

5440

Pecos

Nu

eces

R.

Gulfof

Mexico

C O

T E X A S

N

S

EW

290

1993

382

2000

283

2000

184

1993

24,118

34,759

62,1571993

2000

20,606

37,130

108,186

108,704

1993

2000

77,394

30,981

337,624

256,899

1993

2000

199

,331

102,

928

234

,121

304

,108

199

3

20

00

69,468

252,066

478

,458

1,509,259

1,40

9,3

36

1993

2000

COAHUILA

NUEVO

LEON

TAMAULIPAS

SanAntonio

Brownsville

MatamorosMcAllen

Reynosa

Corpus Christi

Laredo

Nuevo Laredo

Del Rio

Ciudad Acu˜na

Piedras Negras

EaglePass

Monterrey

Austin

Border Economy

283

2000

184

1993

20,60637,130

108,186108,704

1993

2000

Number of maquiladoras in 1993

Major highways

Number of maquiladoras

in 2000

Number of truck

crossings at these

major border cities

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

0 mi. 50

1000 km

Worker assemblescar mufflers in amaquiladora inReynosa, Mexico.

Brisk trade with Mexicohas increased truck trafficon Texas’s highways.

Why It MattersWorld War II had a dramatic impact on Texas and altered the way its people

lived and worked. In coming to terms with those changes, Texas became an

urban industrial state with many international connections.

The Impact TodayTwo projects from the 1950s and 1960s continue to have dramatic effects on the

Texas landscape. The first was the construction of dams across almost all of the

major rivers of Texas. The second was the establishment of the interstate highway

system linking Texas cities to each other and to the rest of the nation.

A ChangingSociety

1953

★ Texas state employees requiredto sign loyalty oaths

1951

• “Rock and Roll” era began

1953

• Soviet Union explodedhydrogen bomb

• Korean War ended

1954

• First McDonald’sopened

1955

• Montgomery, Alabama,bus boycott

1954

★ Women allowed to serve on

Texas juries

1950 1952 1954

538 CHAPTER 24 A Changing Society

539CHAPTER 24 A Changing Society

This busy freeway interchange is found in Dallas. The Texas

highway system is both a cause and an effect of urbanization.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter Overview

Visit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 24—ChapterOverviews to previewchapter information.

1956

1957

• Jack Kerouac wrote On the Road

1958

★ Jack Kilby invented the“silicon chip,” first usedin calculators

1959

• Charles de Gaullebecame presidentof France

1958 1960

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds from topto bottom.

Categorizing Information Study Foldable When you group information into categories in a table, it is easier to compare characteristics of items. Make this foldable to help you evaluate the causes and effects of the changes Texas experienced between 1952 and 1963.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter,use your foldable to record information as youlearn about how Texas developed into an urban,industrial state. Write the causes and effects ofthe events listed on the table.

Step 2 Open the paper and refold it into fourthsfrom side to side.

Step 3 Unfold and turn paper, then draw lines along the folds.

Step 4 Label your table as shown.

This formsthree rows.

Thisforms fourcolumns.

Fold it in half,then in half

again.

Causes Effects

Political Issuesand Changes

Civil RightsMovement

Technology andEconomic Growth

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/tx2003/content.php4/681/1


Dwight Eisenhower is elected president

Women areallowed to serveon Texas juries

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

Politics and New Problems

Guide to Reading

Main Idea

Texas confronted many new issuesinvolving politics and civil rights afterWorld War II.

Key Terms

liberal, conservative, moderate,

sovereignty, redistricting,

unconstitutional, McCarthyism,

libel

Reading Strategy

Classifying Create a chart like theone shown below. Indicate with an Xeach Texan’s political party.

Read to Learn

• about post-war politics in Texas.• about the Korean War.• about desegregation in Texas.• about fears of communism.

Section Theme

Government and Democracy Civilrights made Texans consider theissues of freedom and democracy.

President Trumandesegregates armedforces

Preview of Events

President Kennedy isassassinated in Dallas

In 1954, African American students in Mansfield had to ride a bus

15 miles and walk 20 blocks to the nearest African American high school.

Then, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court

wrote: “We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of

separate but equal has no place.” Mansfield resident T.M. Moody celebrated

the Court’s decision. He and other parents prepared to ask the local school

board to admit African Americans to Mansfield High.

Political Parties

Franklin Roosevelt’s death in the closing days of World War II madeVice President Harry Truman the new president. During his years inoffice, both Democrats and Republicans were divided about how to

✦1948 ✦1952 ✦1954 ✦1963

T.M. Moody

Politician Republican Democrat

Gov. Shivers

Sen. Tower

Pres. Eisenhower

Pres. Johnson

respond to new, post-war conditions. Now thatthe Great Depression was over, what should bethe role of the government in the economy?What would be the best way to deal with theCommunist threat of the Soviet Union? Howshould the government address the demand ofminority groups for equal rights?

The Republican Party was divided betweenthose who wished to return to a policy of isola-tionism and those who wished to be involved inworld affairs. In economic matters, some wishedto eliminate New Deal programs that stillexisted, while others did not. The party was alsodivided between Republicans favoring civilrights for African Americans and others sup-porting continued segregation.

The Democratic Party was even moredivided. In 1948 the party’s platform included astrong civil rights program. With PresidentTruman’s desegregation of the armed forces, theDemocrats seemed to be making a strong com-mitment to civil rights. Many Southerners,including Texans, began to rethink their loyaltyto the Democratic Party. Southerners whofavored segregation nominated ex-DemocratStrom Thurmond of South Carolina to head thenew Dixiecrat Party and run for presidentagainst Harry Truman. He received 106,000votes in Texas, or about 10 percent of the total.

Texas Democrats had their differences aswell. Some identified themselves as liberals.They remained loyal to New Deal programs.They wanted more done to ensure equal rightsand opportunities for minorities. They also sup-ported labor unions. They were strongest in thepoorer areas of Texasand also in cities withlarge labor union repre-sentation, such as PortArthur and Beaumont.Conservative Democrats,such as Texas GovernorAllan Shivers, believedthat government assis-tance weakened the ability of people to dothings for themselves. Shivers believedthat “the growing tendency to look towardWashington for financial assistance can bedestructive of a most important element in our

form of government—that of responsibility.”Many Democrats considered themselves nei-ther conservative nor liberal. They called them-selves moderates. Most political offices in Texaswere held by moderates or conservatives.

Contrasting How did liberal and

conservative Texas Democrats differ?

Texans Support Republican

Eisenhower

As the 1952 elections approached, it appearedthat Democrats were in trouble in Texas. TheKorean War, which began in 1950, had not pro-duced a decisive victory for the United States.As North Korean Communists tried to take con-trol of South Korea, they used Soviet-suppliedtanks. South Korea, the United States, and theAllies who made up the United Nations forcesgained the advantage with a surprise sea-to-land invasion far behind enemy lines. The warbecame a political issue, however, when theChinese entered the fight and inflicted reversesupon U.S. troops. President Truman firedGeneral Douglas MacArthur after he publiclydisagreed with Truman’s strategy. GeneralMacArthur enjoyed great popularity in Texas.After his dismissal and a sentimental farewell


BeaumontPort

Arthur

The Democrats nominated Harry S Trumanfor president in 1948. His Republicanopponent was Thomas Dewey from NewYork. Many Southern Democrats withdrewsupport from Truman in favor of StromThurmond. Other Democrats defected tosupport another minor party candidatenamed Henry Wallace. Based on inaccurateand misleading polling techniques, manypeople thought Dewey would win. Severalnewspapers even printed headlines that said“Dewey Wins.” The newspapers werewrong. Truman was photographed holdingup a copy of the incorrect headline the day after the election.

speech to Congress, MacArthur toured Texas,speaking to a crowd of 27,000 of his supportersat the Cotton Bowl in Dallas.

Even more important to many Texas voterswas the so-called “tidelands” issue. Tidelandsare areas under the ocean and near the shore butnot exposed in low tides. New technology wasallowing companies to drill oil wells in tidelandareas. When oil and gas were found in depositsoff the Texas coast, a dispute over ownershiparose between the federal government and Texas.

The U.S. government had agreed with Texason its coastal boundaries as far back as 1845,when it was admitted to the Union as a newstate. After that time, opinions on the legal lim-its of Texas territory changed. The federal gov-ernment now claimed that Texas sovereignty, orright to rule, stopped at the 3-mile (5-km) line.Texas claimed that the limit was 3 leagues, or10.5 miles. The 7.5-mile (12-km) area betweenthe two lines spanned 2,440,650 acres and hadthe potential to produce billions of dollars worthof oil and gas. President Truman vetoed billsthat would have given Texas revenues from thetidelands.

The Republican nominee for president, DwightEisenhower, met with Governor Shivers andannounced that he would sign a bill giving thetidelands to Texas if he was elected. Money fromthe tidelands would go to support Texas schools.Even though Eisenhower was a Republican,Shivers organized a “Democrats for Eisenhower”committee. In November 1952, Texans helpedelect the Denison-born Republican nominee,Dwight Eisenhower. When Republican leaders inTexas saw that the Democrat Shivers was sup-porting Eisenhower, they declined to name a can-didate to run against Shivers for governor. Insteadthey nominated Shivers, and his name appearedon the ballot twice—once as a Democrat and onceas a Republican—and he won.

Shivers Helps Modernize

Government

Allan Shivers served Texas as either the lieu-tenant governor or governor from 1947 to1957. He supported several programs thatmade Texas government more modern. Forexample, he helped create the LegislationCouncil to research proposed new laws. Healso established the Legislative Budget Boardto make recommendations on how muchmoney different state government agenciesshould receive. He supported funding for statehospitals, retired teachers, retired stateemployees, and roads and bridges. He influ-enced the legislature to allow women to serveon juries. In 1954 Texas women finally gainedthat right, largely through the efforts of theLeague of Women Voters. Texans endorsed theright as a constitutional amendment. Until1954, all jurors in Texas had been male.

“One-Man, One-Vote”

For most of Texas history, voting districts hadbeen based on land area, not population. Thismeant that in elections, it could take far fewer votesto win in a rural district than in a city district. As aresult, each person’s vote in a rural area seemed tocount more than each person’s vote in the city. Fora long time, this did not seem that important

Democratic Governor Shivers supported Republican presi-

dential candidate “Ike” Eisenhower in the 1952 election.

How did this strategy work in Shivers’s favor?

History


• Technology enables drilling for oilin coastal waters.

• Texas and federal government dis-pute oil deposits ownership.

• President Truman refuses to granttidelands revenues to Texas.

• Eisenhower pledges to sign bill giv-ing tidelands to Texas—if elected.

• Texans help elect Eisenhower.

• Eisenhower signs bill restoringtidelands to Texas.

Ownership of oil-rich tidelands was an issue in the presidential election of 1952.

Drawing Conclusions Why did Eisenhower give Texas the tidelands revenuewhen Truman had not?

Causes and Effects of the Tidelands Issue

because there were not many big cities. By the 1960s, however, as the number and size ofcities grew, this rural voting advantage became an issue of concern.

In 1962 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that eachstate senator must represent about the same num-ber of voters and that each state representative’sdistrict must be nearly equal in population. Thisruling was based upon the idea that every voteshould be of equal value—sometimes known as“one-man, one-vote.”

The ruling meant vast changes for Texas.“One-man, one-vote” resulted in large pop-ulation areas—large cities and surroundingsuburbs—gaining representatives in the legis-lature. Less-populated areas—small towns andrural communities—lost representa-tives. The process of changing, orredrawing, district lines to reflectchanges in population is called redis-tricting. The chart at right shows theinequality of some U.S. congressionaldistricts in 1953.

National Politics

As Texas grew in wealth and population, itincreased its influence in the federal govern-ment. Texans held several important committeechairmanships in the U.S. House of Repre-sentatives. Sam Rayburn served as the speakerof the House for all but four years between 1940and 1961. Lyndon Johnson was selected asmajority leader of the Senate in 1955. He ran forthe Democratic Party nomination for presidentin 1960. Even though he lost the nomination toJohn F. Kennedy, Johnson became the vice pres-idential nominee. Kennedy knew that Johnsonwould help win votes in important Southernstates. Many Southerners opposed Kennedy’selection because he was a Roman Catholic. On


1

4

5

6

8

20

Wright Patman

Sam Rayburn

J. Frank Wilson

Olin Teague

Albert Thomas

Paul Kilday

Texarkana

Bonham

Dallas

College Station

Houston

San Antonio

276,945

227,735

614,799

228,112

806,701

500,460

District Representative HomePopulation

of District

District Size in 1953 Before Redistricting

Summarizing This chart illustrates the population ofselected U.S. congressional districts in Texas in 1953.Write one or two sentences summarizing the informa-tion in this chart.

September 12, 1960, Kennedy came to Houstonfor his most important speech of the campaign. Inhis speech, Kennedy told the audience that hisRoman Catholic beliefs would not interfere withhis ability to be president. Film clips from thatspeech were televised in campaign commercialsin other states. The Democratic Kennedy–Johnson ticket won in one of the closestpresidential elections in U.S. history.

The Democratic victory indirectly helped theTexas Republican Party. When Lyndon Johnsonwas elected vice president, he resigned his seat inthe U.S. Senate. A special election was necessaryto replace Johnson. The Republican candidate,John Tower, surprised many Texans by winning.He was helped by a feud between conservativeand liberal Democrats. The split in the Democraticvote gave the victory to the Republicans. TheRepublican Party continued to grow in Texas.Tower remained in the Senate until 1985.

Analyzing How did the Democrats’

1960 presidential election win help Texas Republicans?

A National Tragedy

Lyndon Johnson took on important responsi-bilities as vice president. One of the key assign-ments given to him by President Kennedy wasto oversee America’s space program. Johnsonwas named chairman of the high-level NationalAeronautics and Space Council.

In November 1963, President Kennedy was ona tour of Texas, having visited San Antonio,Houston, and Fort Worth. Riding in an open-carmotorcade in Dallas, he was shot and killed.Investigators concluded that Lee Harvey Oswaldwas the assassin. Lyndon Johnson took the oath ofoffice as president. It was given by federal judgeSarah T. Hughes of Dallas. As the nation grievedover the tragedy, Johnson acted swiftly to calm the nation. In a televised address to Congress,Johnson promised to carry on programs thatKennedy had begun.

The Warren Court

Early in President Eisenhower’s first term, heappointed Earl Warren to be the new chief justiceof the United States. The “Warren Court” wouldmake many important decisions. During the1950s and 1960s, many individuals and groupsworked to extend civil rights and individual lib-erties to all citizens. Others opposed their efforts.In the American political system, questions aboutrights, liberties, and justice are ultimatelydecided in the U.S. Supreme Court. Under EarlWarren’s leadership, the Supreme Court consis-tently decided in favor of people and groupsseeking to end discrimination. These decisionsaffected many Texans.

School Desegregation

Civil rights lawyers argued that segregation ofthe races was unconstitutional, or not legal. In1896 the U.S. Supreme Court had said that racialsegregation was legal as long as the facilities forboth races were equal. In the 1954 case of Brownv. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, civilrights lawyers, including future Supreme CourtJustice Thurgood Marshall, argued that schools


Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as president of the U.S. by

Judge Hughes of Dallas after the tragic assassination of

President John F. Kennedy. What did Johnson promise thecountry in a televised address?

History

that were separatedby race could never beequal. The SupremeCourt ruled that racialsegregation in publicschools was unconstitutional. The Courtordered schools todesegregate “with alldeliberate speed.”

Some officials inTexas began a campaign of delay and resistance.The National Association for the Advancementof Colored People (NAACP) had brought theschool desegregation case to court. The stateattorney general filed a lawsuit to prohibit theNAACP from operating in Texas.

West Texas and central Texas schools obeyedthe desegregation order more quickly than didschools in East Texas. San Antonio, Austin, SanAngelo, El Paso, and Corpus Christi begandesegregating in 1955. Mansfield, about 15miles southeast of Fort Worth, was the site of themost visible resistance to desegregation, asmobs prevented African American studentsfrom enrolling at the local high school.

More common than mob action were delayingtactics. Some school districts submitted plans thatcalled for desegregating one grade per year sothat full desegregation would take 12 years. Otherdistricts desegregated school faculty members butnot students. Still other districts created schoolswith African American and Mexican Americanbut no Anglo American students. SometimesAfrican American students were enrolled in whiteschools but were grouped in segregated class-rooms in one part of the building and assigned aseparate lunch period. These tactics delayed seg-regation in many schools until the mid-1970s,twenty years after Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka, Kansas.

School officials also resisted court decisionsguaranteeing Mexican American children accessto desegregated schools. The American GIForum and LULAC filed numerous lawsuits tomake districts follow the law.

Summarizing What was Thurgood

Marshall’s argument against “separate but equal” facilities?

Desegregation of Public Facilities

Schools were not the only focus of deseg-regation. African Americans also wanted accessto public facilities such as parks, libraries,swimming pools, and auditoriums. These hadbeen built with tax revenues. African Amer-icans’ taxes helped to support these facilities,but they were denied the use of them. AfricanAmericans sued to gain access to a municipal

TEXASHISTORY

Student Web

Activity Visittexans.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 24—

Student Web Activity tolearn more about civilrights and desegregation.

CHAPTER 24 A Changing Society 545

In 1954, the principal of Linfield

Elementary School refused to enroll these

African American schoolchildren as students. What SupremeCourt decision ended legal segregation of public schools?

History ★Hutchins★

Hutchins

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=681&pt=2&bk=20

golf course in Houston. Similar suits occurred in several Texas cities. Sometimes city officialscomplied with desegregation orders. Othertimes they resisted. Apopular form of resist-ance was to turn theoperation of city prop-erties over to a privateclub organized expres-sly to maintain discrim-ination. City officialscould then claim there was no longer discrimi-nation at public facilities.

Individual Rights Versus

National Security

Fears about the rise of communism led toimportant consequences for Americans. TheSoviet threat increased when Russia tested anatomic bomb. A revolution in China installed aCommunist government in 1949. The U.S. Con-

gress reacted by making membership in theCommunist Party a crime. It held hearingsabout Communist influence in various Amer-ican industries, including the motion picturebusiness. Entertainers, producers, writers, anddirectors were investigated for signs of Com-munist Party sympathy or affiliation. In thename of national security, many people werewilling to restrict traditional American rights,such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly.

Whole groups of people, including laborunions and civil rights workers, were accused ofhaving Communist ties. Conservatives criti-cized government welfare programs that hadbeen popular during the New Deal. TheHouston School District board refused to partic-ipate in a federally sponsored school lunch pro-gram. It defended its action in a newspaper ad that said in part, “Self reliance is the strongestlesson we can teach our youth.” In 1953 thelegislature passed a law requiring all stateemployees, including teachers, to sign a loyalty


Houston

Aquarena Springs, called “the place of warm waters” by the

Tonkawa Indians, was an important stop on the Old San Antonio Road.

A popular resort grew up around the springs in the 1920s, featuring

glass-bottom boats and Ralph the Swimming Pig (left). The home of

Eli Merriman, a founder of San Marcos, was moved to the park from its

original location near the town square (center). Today, the Aquarena

Center is an educational park preserving the unique

ecosystem of the region (right).

oath before they would be paid. Many Texansfelt they were in the midst of a “red scare.”

The Red Scare

The most famous anti-Communist was SenatorJoseph McCarthy of Wisconsin. McCarthy was thefeatured speaker at the San Jacinto Day celebra-tion, April 21, 1954. Some 5,000 to 9,000 people inthe audience heard him accuse leaders in theUnited States Army of being Communists. InWashington, D.C., McCarthy led televised hear-ings to investigate charges that Communists werein the U.S. Army. His behavior was seen by manyto be bullying and cruel. Soon afterwards,McCarthy lost most of his influence. Because of hisactivities, a new word—McCarthyism—enteredthe language. It means the act of makingunfounded, sensationalist charges against persons.

Results of the “red scare” were seen in Texas inthe schools, libraries, and churches, and in oppo-sition to labor unions and the United Nations.Textbooks and school library books were exam-ined for possibly disloyal content. Some schoolboard committees required teachers to attendanti-Communist lectures. People who belongedto certain international organizations were oftenclosely watched for signs of Communist activity.

John Henry Faulk, an Austin native, was aradio star for CBS in New York City. He was fired

when a group claimed he was a member of theCommunist Party. He sued and was awarded $3.5million in damages—the largest libel judgment tothat date. Libel is the act of printing statementsknown to be false and intentionally spreadingthem to do damage to someone’s reputation.Faulk later moved back to Texas and toured thenation, speaking on the importance of protectingfreedom of speech and freedom of the press.

Identifying Which traditional

American rights were restricted because of the “red scare”?


Checking for Understanding

1. Using Key Terms Write a shortparagraph using the followingterms: conservative, moderate,redistricting, and unconstitutional.

2. Reviewing Facts How did the “redscare” and McCarthyism affect thelives of many Texans?

Reviewing Themes

3. Government and Democracy

What changes did the “one-man,one-vote” ruling bring to Texas?

Organizing to Learn

4. Cause and Effect Complete a weblike the one shown below. Identifythree responses to the 1954Supreme Court desegregationorder in Brown v. Board ofEducation of Topeka, Kansas.

Critical Thinking

5. Identifying Which groups ofpeople were most often suspectedof having Communist ties?

6. Drawing Conclusions Why didJohn Faulk value his freedom ofspeech?

Categorizing Explain the differencebetween liberal, conservative, andmoderate Democrats in Texas at this time in history.

Responses to

Desegregation Order

First Lady Lady Bird Johnson, wife of Lyndon

B. Johnson, did much to raise Americans’ aware-

ness that individual citizens should help “keep

America beautiful.” Before her efforts, it was not

unusual to see highways cluttered with billboards,

junkyards, and roadside trash thrown from car

windows. In 1987 she helped create a requirement

that 25 percent of the landscape budget of feder-

ally funded highway projects be devoted to plant-

ing native wildflowers. Today, Texans are

benefiting from her vision of a beautiful America.

548 CHAPTER 00 Chapter Title

Why Learn This Skill?

It is often necessary to make judgments about pastor current events. Sometimes it is easy to make judg-ments with little information or based on emotion.Those judgments are usually unfair or inaccurate.

It is important to make judgments based on factsand reasoning. To do so, there should be a standardor criteria for judging. To judge the effectiveness of alaw banning teenage smoking, for example, wouldrequire information about teenage smoking habitsbefore and after the law was passed.

Learning the Skill

Follow these steps to make a reasoned judgment:• Identify the criteria for making your judgment.

• For each criterion, decide what facts are neces-sary and gather that information.

• Evaluate the event according to the criteria.• Make a judgment based on reason and fact.

Practicing the Skill

Study the information on the chart at left about the two-party system in Texas. Answer the questionsthat follow.1In which years did Democratic candidates

receive more than 80 percent of the vote? TheRepublican candidates?

2In which election did a Republican first receivemore than 40 percent of the vote?

3In the last four elections shown on the chart, how many times did the Democratic candidatereceive more than 50 percent of the vote? TheRepublican candidate?

4Based on the information on the chart, is thetwo-party system in Texas today stronger orweaker than in the past? Explain.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment

Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Consider thefollowing situation: You have been invited to go to afriend’s house on Saturday and you are spending Sundaywith your grandparents. You have tests on Monday andTuesday. When will you study for your tests? What areyour priorities? Make some reasoned judgments aboutthe amount of time you will need to study for your tests and alternatives that you can make in your weekend plans.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.


1946

1954

1962

8.8

10.4

46.0

91.2

89.6

54.0

1972

1982

1986

1990

45.0

45.9

52.7

46.9

47.9

53.2

46.1

49.5

1994

1998

52.3

67.5

45.4

30.0

2002 57.840.0

Percent of votes

for DemocratsYear

Percent of votes

for Republicans

Selected Elections for Governor


Foundations for Growth

Guide to Reading

Main Idea

New interstate highways, the growthof suburbs, conservation, and techno-logical developments changed Texasin the 1950s and 1960s.

Key Terms

convoy, suburb, reservoir,

synthetic, vacuum tube, transistor,

integrated silicon circuit

Reading Strategy

Evaluating Consequences As youread this section, create a chart likethe one below of some positive andnegative consequences of interstatehighway construction in Texas.

Read to Learn

• about suburban life.• about drought conditions.• about pioneer medical and business

technology.

Section Theme

Economic Factors New technologiesgave Texans more choices regardingwhere they could live and work.

Preview of Events

Despite Brown v. Board of Education, the integration of some Texas schools

was delayed. Hearing that the Mansfield School Board had agreed to admit

African American students, mobs refused to let the students enter. Mansfield High

remained segregated until 1965. Many African Americans relied on spiritual val-

ues to help them through segregation. Maggie Briscoe wrote, “[African Americans]

have had it very very hard and some of us it has made real real bitter, but I guess

the Lord saved me, I just didn’t let it make me bitter. I just kept praying.”

Highway Construction

Although news headlines of the 1950s tended to focus on politics, inter-national affairs, and civil rights, other changes were occurring that wouldreshape Texas and the nation.

Positive Negative

Consequences Consequences

Jack Kilby invents the“silicon chip”

John Glenn orbits theearth three times

Soviet Union launches Sputnik

Americans walkon the moon

✦1957 ✦1958 ✦1962 ✦1969

Mansfield High School entrance


Michael DeBakey, aninternationally respectedphysician and surgeon,turned Baylor College ofMedicine into a world-renowned facility. DeBakeywas born in Louisiana, theson of Lebanese immi-grants. While still a medicalstudent at Tulane Univer-

sity in 1932, he inventedthe roller pump, a devicethat helped make open-heart surgery possible.

Since then, DeBakey iscredited with inventing orperfecting many medicaldevices and procedures thathave become commonplacein heart surgery. He has

served as an adviser toalmost every president inthe last 50 years, as well asto other leaders, includingformer Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin. In 1999, hereceived the United NationsLifetime AchievementAward for his medical andhumanitarian work.

Michael DeBakey 1908–

One of Dwight Eisenhower’s tasks as a youngarmy officer was leading a military convoy (agroup of vehicles) across the country. The triptook months. It convinced Eisenhower that abetter highway system was needed. When hewas president, he supported the creation of aninterstate highway system that would connectthe states with quality roads. Congress appro-priated money to help build highways thatwould have no cross traffic, stop signs, or trafficlights. Motorists could drive safely at higherspeeds on these highways than they could onregular highways. In times of crises the high-ways would help the military quickly movetroops and equipment.

Interstate highways were built with a combi-nation of federal and state money. The first inter-state highway in Texas was the Gulf Freeway inHouston, or Interstate 45. The interstate systemconsisted of east-west highways I-10, I-20, I-30,and I-40 and highways that went north andsouth, such as I-35. Three-digit highways signi-fied loops around cities, such as I-410 aroundSan Antonio.

Highway construction often caused prob-lems. Some people had to find new homeswhen their houses were purchased to makeway for the new highways. Sometimes busi-nesses were forced to close. On the other hand,new businesses such as gasoline stations and

motels sprang up to serve travelers. Truckerswere able to deliver their products much morerapidly and efficiently than before. Texansloved their automobiles more than ever.

Describing What could motorists

expect of the new interstate highways?

Texans Move to the Suburbs

Improved highways made it possible to livefarther away from the central city and still workin a downtown office building or store.Developers purchased property located milesfrom the downtown business districts andbegan building residential areas, called sub-urbs, at the outskirts of cities or large towns. An increasing percentage of Texans lived insuburbs during the 1950s and 1960s, and devel-opers built houses and shopping centers toserve these residents and attract new ones. Asthe suburban population grew, so did the needfor new schools and religious centers. Modernrecreational facilities such as Little League base-ball fields and swimming pools became part ofsuburban life. Many suburban Texans rarelyfound a reason to go “downtown.”

Downtown movie theaters and stores closedbecause they could not withstand competitionfrom the newer, more modern suburban facilities.

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Amistad ReservoirBuchanan, LakeCaddo LakeCedar Creek ReservoirChoke Canyon ReservoirConroe, LakeCorpus Christi, Lake E. V. Spence ReservoirFalcon ReservoirLake Fork ReservoirLavon LakeLewisville, LakeLivingston, LakeKemp, LakeMeredith, Lake O.H. Ivie, LakeO' the Pines, LakePalestine, LakePossum Kingdom LakeRay Hubbard, LakeRichland-Chambers LakeSam Rayburn ReservoirTawakoni, LakeTexoma, LakeToledo Bend ReservoirTravis, LakeWhitney, LakeWright Patman Lake

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Major Reservoirs in Texas

Sometimes the vacant stores were boarded up.More and more affluent people moved to the sub-urbs, while downtown neighborhoods becamehome to growing numbers of lower income peo-ple. “White flight” was the name given to describethis migration because often, lower income peo-ple were members of minority groups, such asHispanics or African Americans. City govern-ments, struggling to provide fire, police, andwaste services, often directed more of theirresources to the needs of the new suburbs andtheir residents. Almost every major city in Texashad some downtown, or inner-city, area thathoused needy people during the 1950s and 1960s.

Drought Puts a Strain

on Water Resources

Suburban, urban, and rural Texans all facedthe same problem during the 1950s. That prob-lem was drought. Rainfall amounts had been lessthan normal since 1949, but in 1956 conditionsbecame even worse. Towns depended uponhuman-made reservoirs, or open water storageareas, for their water supply. These reservoirsbegan drying up. Lake Dallas was only 11percent full. Rivers slowed to a trickle, and wellsthat had never run dry did so. Cattle went thirstyand thousands of square miles of pasture

Many cities and towns in Texas depend on reservoirsfor their water supply during times of drought. (Adrought occurs when an area receives less than 75 percent of its average rainfall.)Evaluating What do the Lake Fork Reservoir and theToledo Bend Reservoir have in common?

551

withered. In desperation, ranchers burned thethorns off cactus plants so that cattle could eatthe prickly pear pads. One rancher inWashington County reported chopping down ahackberry tree every morning so that cattle couldreach the leaves. Spring rains in 1957 ended thedrought, but thoughtful Texans knew they hadto plan for the next dry spell.

City officials, industrialists, farmers, andranchers all responded to the water crisis.Cities funded new reservoirs. Ranchers builtmore stock ponds. Farmers turned more to irri-gation. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineersbuilt more dams across Texas rivers. Thewhole state became more aware of the need forwater conservation.

Explaining How did the drought

affect water supplies?

Science and Technology

The 1950s and 1960s were a time of highinterest in science and technology. State taxmoney, federal grants, churches, and wealthydonors together founded advanced hospitalsand medical centers in Dallas, Galveston, SanAntonio, and Houston. The various facilitiestreated patients, taught medical students, andengaged in trailblazing research. Houston’s

M.D. Anderson Hospital, for example, becameknown for its cancer research. Just a short dis-tance away, Doctors Michael DeBakey andDenton Cooley were pioneering new tech-niques in treating heart disease. DeBakey usedsynthetic, or human-made, materials to replacediseased blood vessels. The technique was sonew that he had to use his wife’s sewingmachine to make the synthetic vessels at home.

Meanwhile Dallas engineers and scientistswere laying the foundation for a revolution inelectronics. Radio had become widespread in the1920s. Now television was making its mark inthe 1950s. Both radios and television setsdepended upon vacuum tubes, but such tubeswere heavy, slow, and fragile. A device called atransistor was a great improvement. In 1954 aDallas company called Texas Instrumentsbecame the first company to make a radio withtransistors. It was portable and battery operated.Soon people carried radios with them to thebeach and on picnics.

In 1958, Jack Kilby, working for TexasInstruments, invented the integrated siliconcircuit, which today we call a “chip.” The chipmade it possible to make many electronic instru-ments even smaller and faster. Within a fewyears integrated circuits were being used in per-sonal computers, calculators, watches, andthousands of other applications.

One of the most important applications of thechip was in the growing field of space science.The Soviet Union had launched Sputnik, the firstartificial satellite, in 1957. Shortly after, they sent

“That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap formankind” were not the first words transmitted fromthe moon. “Houston” was the first word, as in“Houston, the Eagle has landed.” The lunar astronautscame home to the least festive reception received byany space crew. They were immediately sealed off inthe Lunar Receiving Laboratory near Houston untildetailed studies could prove they brought nounknown contaminants with them from the moon.

T E X A SF I C T I O N

Where was NASA to be located? There wereseveral states vying for that honor and forthe economic benefits that would come withit. Massachusetts was home to greatuniversities and had scientists andlaboratories useful to NASA. Besides, it wasPresident Kennedy’s home. Florida wasconsidered a good site because rockets werealready launched from there. California hadboth great universities and skilled aerospaceworkers. That Texas was chosen is a tributeto both its resources and the political skills ofseveral of its politicians, most notably Lyndon B. Johnson.


the first man into space. The United Statesresponded quickly to this threat to Americanscientific leadership. President John F. Kennedyset the goal of landing a man on the moon by1970. The National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA), formed in 1958, wasgiven that task. In 1961, the Manned SpacecraftCenter (now the Johnson Space Center) wasbuilt near Houston. A year later, John Glennorbited Earth three times. In 1969, Americanswalked on the moon. Texans working at theCenter played a major role in these achievements.

Since then, the Center has improved spacesatellites and developed new technology. Theincrease of scientific knowledge, however, hasnot come without human costs. In 2003, forexample, seven astronauts died when the spaceshuttle Columbia broke up over Texas in the lastminutes of a 16-day flight. Texas and the rest ofthe country responded with a deep sense ofgrief.

Evaluating How did Texas

Instruments contribute to technological progress?

Organizing to Learn

4. Categorizing Create a chart likethe one shown below and fill in theuses for each invention.

Critical Thinking

5. Problem Solving Refer back tothe section about drought. Suggestways in which Texans could pro-vide additional water or conserveexisting water resources.

Analyzing How did the discoveries andinventions of the 1950s and 1960s men-tioned in the text affect the everydaylives of Texans?


Walter Cunningham is asuccessful businessman inHouston today, but he isbest known as America’ssecond civilian astronaut.Cunningham knew he want-ed to be a navy pilot fromthe time he was a child. Heserved as a Marine pilotfrom 1953 to 1956. In

1963 he became one of thethird group of astronautsselected by NASA.

Cunningham specializedin systems and systemsanalysis of the Apollospacecraft. In 1968 heserved as lunar modulepilot of Apollo 7, the firstcrewed flight of the Apollo

Program. Despite catchingcolds during their 11-daymission, he and his fellowastronauts tested lunardocking and orbitingmaneuvers and providedthe first live televisiontransmission of onboardactivities to a proud andgrateful nation.

Walter Cunningham 1932–

Invention Uses

Synthetic bloodvessels

Vacuum tube

Transistor

Integratedsilicon circuit

Checking for Understanding

1. Using Key Terms Define the fol-lowing key terms and use each onein a sentence: convoy, suburbs,reservoirs, transistor.

2. Reviewing Facts Identify two Texanswho made significant contributions inthe field of science or technology.

Reviewing Themes

3. Economic Factors How weredowntown areas of cities affected by the growth of suburbs?

Reviewing Key Terms

1. Use the following six terms to write a short paragraphabout life in Texas in the 1950s and 1960s: liberal,suburb, transistor, libel, interstate, and reservoir.

Reviewing Key Facts

2. After World War II, what were three of the issues thatdivided the Republican Party?

3. Whom did Southern Democrats who favored segregationnominate to run for president against Harry S Truman in1948?

4. What policies did liberal Texas Democrats support at thistime?

5. Why was General Douglas MacArthur, an importantAmerican general in the Korean War, fired?

6. In your own words, explain the so-called “tidelands” issue.

7. Which Texan became majority leader of the Senate, thenvice president, and ultimately president?

8. What is the name of the landmark civil rights case that ledto desegregation of schools?

Critical Thinking

9. Civic Rights and Responsibilities Why was segregation of schools and public facilities found to be unconstitutional?

10. Understanding Cause and Effect Even though the severedrought was a terrible hardship, especially for farmers,how could it also be seen as an opportunity for learningand creative problem solving?

11. Drawing Inferences Do you think that the Soviet Union’ssatellite Sputnik, launched in 1957, was the turning pointthat spurred the United States on to enter the “space race”to land a man on the moon? Why or why not?

12. Economics and Politics The U.S. Congress held hearingsto find, try, and punish suspected Communists. Some peo-ple were able to go free if they “told on” others. What doyou think the atmosphere was like?

13. Drawing Conclusions Describe some possible economicbenefits to Texas from changes in the areas of medicineand technology, highways, and civil rights during the1950s and 1960s.

14. Making Connections How did the Johnson Space Center connect Texas to the rest of the United States andthe world?

554

1950s and 1960s AChanging Society

A Changing Society1948• President Truman desegregates the

armed forces.

1949• Allan Shivers becomes

governor.

1950• The Korean War begins.

1953• All Texas state employees

are required to sign a loyalty oath.

1954• U.S. Supreme Court rules

racial segregation is unconstitutional in Brown

v. Board of Education.

• Women gain the right to serve on Texas juries.

• Texas Instruments makes a radio with transistors.

1955• Schools begin to desegregate

in Texas.

1956• Serious drought conditions affect Texas.

1958• Jack Kilby invents the “silicon chip.”

1962• John Glenn orbits the earth three times.

• U.S. Supreme Court makes “one-man, one-vote” ruling.

1963• President John F. Kennedy is assassinated

in Dallas.

1969• Americans walk on the moon.

★

★

★

★

Geography and History Activity

15. The new suburbs around cities and towns needed manyservices. Design and illustrate a map of a suburb. Drawand label residential, professional, recreational, andcommercial areas.

Practicing Skills

Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Differences in com-puter ownership among the 50 states exist because of varying economic activities, income levels, and urbanizationpatterns. Study the chart below, and then answer the ques-tions that follow.

16. Which of the following data would be helpful in under-standing this chart?

a. the percentage of urbanized areas in each state

b. the number of computers used in offices

c. the average household income in each state

17. What prediction can you make based on the informationin this chart?

Cooperative Learning Activity

18. Creating Presentations Assign groups to focus on onemetropolitan area or city in Texas. Working in groups, findmaps of the interstate highway model showing how itconnects one city to the next. Each group should focus ona different part of the state. Create an oral and visual pres-entation to show how the highway system connects theentire state and makes travel to neighboring states easier.

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity

19. Predicting Consequences Imagine that you are an AfricanAmerican student who has had to endure separate andunequal education but finally can attend desegregatedschools. Write one to two paragraphs in which you addresssome of the fears and frustrations you felt before finallygaining admission to equal, desegregated schools, and therelief you felt afterward. Save your work for your portfolio.

Building Technology Skills

20. Using the Internet or Library for Research Divide theclass equally into two research teams to gather informa-tion about the 1960 presidential race between John F.Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon. Each team shouldresearch topics such as foreign policy, domestic policy,education, taxes, and civil rights. Develop a multimediapresentation using photographs, maps, and narration toshare with the rest of the class.


Self-Check Quiz

Visit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click on Chapter 24—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

TEXAS HISTORY

Directions: Use your knowledge of Texas history to answerthe following question. In post-World War II American history, Texas has playedan important role in national government becauseF redistricting shifted the proportion of votes allotted to

urban areas.G it joined the union as an independent country.H it is a geographically large state.J several U.S. presidents have come from Texas.

Test-Taking Tip:

Make sure to read all the answers given

before choosing your answer. It is easy to recognize

a term that relates to the question, but the

answer containing that term might not be correct.

% Growth in

Ownership

1999–2000

% Computer

Ownership

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15.8

10.2

25.4

67.0

56.1

48.4

42.1

38.5

Alaska

California

Texas

Oklahoma

Arkansas

State

Household Computer Ownership

(Selected States as of August 2000)

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=681&pt=3&bk=20

There is an old expression that says, “If youbuild a better mousetrap, the world willbeat a path to your door.” Jack Kilby

proved that this is still true. Kilby developed thesilicon chip in 1958 at the Texas Instrumentsplant in Dallas. This invention had a revolution-ary effect on our daily lives. It also had eco-nomic and social consequences for the state,the nation, and the world.

Jack Kilby grew up in Great Bend, Kansas.After serving in World War II, he attended the University of Illinois and graduated in 1947with a degree in engineering. While working at

his first job, Kilby developed a famous methodfor solving complicated engineering problems.First, he considered all possible answers to hisquestion. Next, he eliminated all answers thatdid not seem likely. Last, he pursued the mostpractical solution to the problem at hand. Hewould use this method later to develop a veryimportant invention—the integrated circuit.

Working Smart

In 1958, Kilby was hired by Texas Instruments.His assignment was to find a way for the elec-tronics industry to manufacture better products

Building a Better Mousetrap

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557

1. Making Generalizations How do products using inte-grated circuits benefit your family?

2. Making Inferences How do you approach problemsthat are difficult to solve?

3. Writing About Economics Write a paragraph thatdevelops one of the themes below. Use standard gram-mar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation.Include information and examples from the feature asdetails to support your argument.a. How has technology impacted the business world?b. Imagine a career in technology or engineering. What

do you think you would or would not like about jobsin these fields?

c. Why is it important for manufacturers to keep costslow so consumers can buy affordable products?

Jack Kilby with then president George H.W. Bush

to be sold at cheaper prices. At that time, transis-tors acted as the brains of electronic equipment.However, connecting transistors to complete acircuit required expensive hand labor and leftroom for error. In addition, transistor products,such as radios, were generally big, expensive,and wore out quickly.

Kilby tackled his project at Texas Instrumentsby using the problem-solving method he hadperfected earlier. First, he considered all possibleanswers. Then he eliminated numerous plansthat did not show promise. Finally, he decidedto experiment with silicon, a substance that hasthe capacity to conduct, or carry, electricity.Previously, Texas Instruments had used thischemical element in its own transistors.

High Technology Discovery

Kilby’s efforts led to the development of whatis known as the integrated circuit. Instead ofcomplicated circuits made up of wired-togethertransistors, a single chip of silicon was designedto contain an entire circuit. This computer chip,less than half the size of a dime, could houseelectronic units capable of retaining memory andgiving commands.

Within a few years, Jack Kilby’s inventionchanged society worldwide. The silicon chipreduced the size of new electronic products, cut

down on the cost ofmanufacturing them,and, as a result,increased sales fig-ures for his companyand others in theelectronics industry.One of Texas Instruments’first inventions to use theintegrated circuit was the hand-held calculator. Ithas become an indispensable product used bypeople everywhere.

Today, the integrated circuit is part of most mil-itary weapon systems. It is necessary to run per-sonal computers, appliances, cameras, clocks,video games, and countless other everydayproducts. It is even found on spacecraft andsatellites that travel far beyond our planet.

Honors and Recognition

Jack Kilby, who left Texas Instruments in 1970,has been honored with membership in theNational Inventors’ Hall of Fame in Washington,D.C. When inducted in 1982, he joined ThomasEdison, Henry Ford, Robert Noyce (recognizedby the electronic community as the co-inventorof the integrated circuit), and other greatAmerican inventors. Will you remember thename Jack Kilby from now on?

An integrated circuit on a silicon chip

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