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The Mentoring Process in Pre‐serviceTeacher EducationSusan Martin aa School of Education , University of Bath , Claverton Down,Bath BA2 7AY, UKPublished online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Susan Martin (1994) The Mentoring Process in Pre‐service TeacherEducation, School Organisation: Formerly School Organisation, 14:3, 269-277, DOI:10.1080/0260136940140304

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The Mentoring Process inPre-service Teacher EducationSUSAN MARTINSchool of Education, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK

ABSTRACT Mentoring currently plays an important role in the professional development ofboth trainee and newly qualified teachers. However, despite the prominence given to this inthe delivery of programmes of teacher education and the associated literature there is as yetno consensus as to how it is best managed nor, indeed, that it should be done so in a waythat can be universally applied to different schemes. In order to give an overview of thecurrent state of the art this paper considers mentoring and its associated dimensions usingthe literature to inform the various aspects of the mentoring process: selection of mentors;preparation of mentors for the task; mentor-student interaction; sustaining the mentoringrole; assessment and mentoring in context.

Introduction

Mentoring is a complex process involving much more than a putting together of aperson with the 'right' skills with the person to be mentored. Even a cursory glanceat the literature reveals that there are no experts in the field, neither is there ablueprint for the desired qualities of a mentor, the model on which mentoring is bestbased or even what mentoring is. The literature on mentoring in teacher educationcan be split into two categories; that which concerns pre-service education and thatwhich is about mentoring beginning teachers. The former is largely British and ismore a compilation of descriptions of mentoring or mentor training than either atheoretical analysis or an overview of the process while the latter is largely from theUSA.

In order to get an overview of what mentoring involves this paper provides asummary of the literature, and then takes for its focus the different stages of thementoring process and uses the literature to inform and amplify the salient issuesand problems.

Summary of the Literature

Research shows no real consistency in approaches to mentoring. There is a varietyof definitions of mentoring, of contexts in which mentoring occurs (within and

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outside teacher education), and of time devoted to the mentoring process, to theextent that Jacobi states 'descriptions of mentoring programs are so diverse that onewonders if they have anything at all in common beyond a sincere desire to helpstudents succeed' Qacobi, 1991, p. 505).

Concepts of mentorship schemes in operation across different professionsespouse different perceptions of the role of a mentor (Lilley & Newton, 1990;Aiming, 1991; Wooldridge & Yeomans, 1992). For example, in industrial sectorsthe mentor is someone known to and selected by the mentee and who, on the basisof his or her own experience and knowledge of the mentee, offers guidance andadvice in a 'friendly adviser' role, carrying no responsibility for assessment (Powneyet al., 1990). In the fields of education and the health service mentors essentiallyadopt a role model, have a supporting role and act both as tutor and assessor(English Nursing Board [ENB], 1989).

Variety in the different contexts of mentoring, in the personalities of mentors,the different degrees or levels of mentoring (McIntyre & Hagger, 1993), and thosementored mean that it is not surprising that there is no uniformity of approachto mentoring. Although different definitions operate, there is a general consensusthat mentoring involves more than one dimension; for example, a mentor issomeone who is principally involved in supporting his or her mentee or actingas a critical friend (Council for National Academic Awards [CNAA], 1992) andthis role involves general skills of modelling, organisation and management,and counselling (Watkins & Whalley, 1993). Assessment, notably, is a dimensionthat does not figure as part of a mentor's role. Two other things are common.There is an assumption, which seems to be largely borne out by the evidence,that mentoring is a good thing and is beneficial, not just to those mentored.Secondly, mentoring tends to be the only or main focus of the research andprogrammes reported, and yet it is fairly clear that just as the mentoring processin teacher education is just one part of the student's whole experience, mentoringis also just one aspect of the partnership structure. Since it is unlikely thatthe potential of mentoring will be realised unless treated as one of several dimen-sions, it is perhaps surprising that it is so often treated as a subject in its ownright.

As mentioned earlier, the literature falls into two camps: mentoring pro-grammes in the USA which are for beginning teachers and those for students onvarious schemes in the United Kingdom, more of an 'amalgam' of the features orlessons learned from the plethora of schemes. The major drawback in terms of therelevance of the US literature to mentoring as it is practised in the United Kingdomis that in the transition from student to teacher new teachers perceive that theyshould be professionally autonomous and therefore should not ask for help. If theydo ask for help they are less likely to approach their formal mentor than to seek outtheir own choice of mentor (Tellez, 1992). Adults do not find it easy to ask for helpand more seems to be at stake when teachers, who see themselves as fully-fledgedand who should therefore be able to cope, seek help. As a result they tend to be moreselective in who they approach, either to ensure they get help, thus making the risk

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worthwhile, or to avoid it being seen as formal mentoring. Such choice is notnormally available to students in training.

It is clear from the United Kingdom literature that there are no experts or onemodel on how best to do the job of mentoring in initial teacher education (Mclntyreet al., 1993); nor is this likely to be the case since the need to tailor programmes toparticular aims and mentees suggests that diversity is an inherent dimension tomentoring.

Selection of Mentors

The literature is not short of lists of qualities which are desirable in a mentorin relation to initial teacher training (ITT) (Daresh, 1987; Amherst, School ofEducation, 1989; Murray, 1991; Hill et al, 1992) but there is little about howmentors are selected and indeed who selects them. The inference is that they arechosen by schools rather than college and because they have appropriate experienceor are in an appropriate post. However, attention to the exact nature of what isconsidered appropriate experience is largely neglected. It is not clear whethermentors are made aware of the reasons behind their being selected.

Several aspects affecting the success of the mentor-student relationship im-pinge on mentor selection. Outside teacher education mentors are generallyinvolved in helping and supporting their protege in developing his or her careerpath, and they take on a counselling role which is more global, perhaps, than therole of the mentor in teacher education whose role is to facilitate the developmentof the skills required for teaching. Thus mentoring student teachers does notnecessitate that the mentor has a high status. Indeed, it is likely that staff, at whattraditionally has been accepted as the appropriate level for supervising students,that of principal teacher, are too busy with the demands of their post of responsi-bility to devote the required time and energy to training students. The inceptionof the co-ordinating mentor position makes it appropriate for the latter to take onmore of the organisational and global or whole-school issues, the organisation ofwhich does require someone of high status, and so 'off-load' one aspect of theprocess from mentors.

Mentoring students involves different roles but these, as we have seen, need notall be taken on by one person. At a basic level, the organisational aspects are takenon by co-ordinating mentors, and mentors take responsibility for the more individualand intimate dimensions of the process, of the development of skills and counselling.Some students seem not to be concerned about the status of their mentor andwhether or not they are professional and proficient, but, rather, whether theirmentor is personable and approachable. (Therefore, perhaps, age also has a bearingon how well the mentor-student relationship develops, and it is therefore useful forthe mentor to be a half-generation away from the student rather than being moresenior.)

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Preparation of Mentors for the Task

The qualities required by a mentor are different from those required for classroomteaching and it is the case that some teachers who, though they exhibit thecharacteristics of the desired end product, that of a good teacher, often feel neitherconfident nor competent to effect the same in trainee teachers. Nor is it necessarilythe case that outstanding teachers are good mentors. Some teachers are uncomfort-able with trainees' questions and are uncertain of their role (Department ofEducation and Science [DES], 1991; Scottish Office Education Department[SOED], 1991; McIntyre, 1992). It is necessary to articulate what mentoring isabout not just so that those involved know what it is that they are to do but also sothat they have the confidence that they possess the skills necessary to fulfil theseexpectations. That is, mentors may be selected because they have the necessary skillsbut it is important to make these skills explicit to those selected: they are often notconfident despite demonstrating the requisite skills. Mclntyre (1992) states thatteachers find it difficult to elicit how they think about their own practice. They thusneed encouragement and support themselves in thinking about and reflecting ontheir own practice. The knowledge that they have these skills is part of the processwhich empowers them to fulfil their mentoring role.

The different aspects and features in mentoring are pertinent not only to theselection of mentors but also to their training, particularly in respect of who shouldtake responsibility for it. While it may be considered appropriate for colleges to takethe lead in this in the early stages of developing mentoring procedures (in Scottishteacher education), in the longer term, as the mentoring role and process isredefined, mentors may be the more appropriate people to develop their own role asa result of their own practice and experience. Preparation for the task is not simplya matter of training, which has a tendency to focus on skills, i.e. on what mentorsdo to students rather than reflecting on their own practice. Mentors, if they are tofulfil the wider aspects of their remit, for example, in using their own practice as abasis for discussion with students, (Cameron-Jones, 1992) also require support.

Not all mentors necessarily need training, but, as already noted, the verydelineation of the skills required gives mentors confidence in their role and anopportunity to develop these skills, some of which are less tangible than the moreobvious ones of counselling and observation. There are some which are importantbut not so obvious, e.g. the ability to ask students the right questions, such as, 'Whatproblems are you having?' rather than 'How are things going?' (Tickle, 1993)—the ability to home in on specifics rather than making the questions so generalthat students do not have the opportunity to face up to any problems they areexperiencing.

There can be no definitive goal or end point to training. By its nature, themodel of training should underpin the nature of the student training, that ofreflection on one's own development, and is therefore an ongoing process (Daresh,1987). Confidence in their role may well be an appropriate aim but there is anassociated caveat that confidence may carry with it a danger of becoming com-placent in the reflective dimension of mentoring or of becoming too introverted and

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presenting too narrow a view of teacher education. The ongoing reflective dimensionto mentoring is likely to be influenced by the culture of professional developmentexisting within a school as well as by the training.

Mentor-Student Interaction

Out of a perceived lack of any rigorous theoretical basis for the mentoring role,Wildman et al. (1992) sought to elicit a more theoretical basis for mentoringprogrammes by asking those mentored about the mentoring role. The assumption isthat a successful mentoring programme requires conceptual understanding of thementoring role and therefore realistic expectations and planned implementationstrategies. That is, in order to be effective in training students even at the initialstages of induction, mentors need a vision of the goal and the likely stages ofdevelopment that a student will experience and indeed the stages of the mentor-student relationship.

Goals may vary and again are not given much attention in the literature. Aminimalist approach might be for a student to achieve Qualified Teacher Status(QTS) at the end of the year. In contrast, this may be seen as an interim goal, asin the Oxford Internship Scheme where QTS is the goal for the end of the secondterm when the significant (for the purposes of employment) assessment is made(McIntyre, in conversation). Competences can help define the elements and canserve as a working agenda for both mentor and student, these relating to: the subjectand content of teaching, the classroom, the school and professionalism (SOED,1991). Alternatively, the goal might be induction into the profession. Mentorshopefully have the desire to see their students go beyond their present levels ofperformance, even if it might mean that students become more competent thanthemselves in some areas (Daresh, 1987).

The vision or goal is likely to affect the mentor-student relationship.Recognising that their goal centres around the student's induction into theprofession and that part of their role will be to assess their student, mentors willadopt a professional orientation to their role. In contrast, it seems that for manystudents their fundamental concern is that they 'get on' with their mentor, andthey are quite content with an informal orientation to their relationship with theirmentor. Emotional support is then an important dimension for both studentsand beginning teachers (Odell & Ferraro, 1992). Thus mentors have to balanceboth pastoral and professional demands in addition to meeting the ratherdifferent vision of the relationship that a student might have and this can cause aconflict.

Maynard & Furlong (1993), in looking at student concerns and stages ofdevelopment (early idealism, survival, recognising difficulties, hitting the plateau,moving on) and the processes involved in learning to teach, put forward threemodels of mentoring which fulfil these requirements. Each model is considered to beinadequate on its own, but when taken together they provide an appropriate view ofmentoring for trainee teachers' changing needs:

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apprenticeship model (collaboratively teaching [rather than sitting] withNellie)]competency model (coaching according to a check-list of competences canprovide a systematised approach while the student gets established);reflective model (encompassing activities other than a systematised approachdelivered by the mentor, encouraging a wider school context and attemptingto take the student beyond the basic competence stage to a more criticalfocus).

Whichever model is used it is important that mentors, tutors and students are usingthe same one. The teaching models used by tutors and mentors must support theways in which students learn (Eraut, 1989; McIntyre et al., 1993).

As already stated the goal of becoming a competent teacher will affect the focusof the mentor-student relationship. Competent students must be able to stand ontheir own and not be dependent on their mentor. Although autonomy might be theend goal it will not necessarily reflect the mentor-student relationship at each stage.It is therefore helpful to recognise what might be typical stages in the mentor-student relationship. Amherst School of Education (1989) identified three stages inthe mentor-student relationship: firstly, the formal stage where the student presentshimself or herself as a teacher in training and the mentor as one who is skilled andcompetent to train him or her. This is followed by the cordial stage. The mentor andstudent get to know each other as people and establish a mutual regard and respecton a personal as well as professional level whereby a stronger degree of trust andrespect is also established. The mentor acts as critic and instructor as well asinstilling confidence as the student goes through the inevitable stages of disillusion-ment and self-doubt. Finally, the friendship stage occurs once the student hasacquired confidence and sees himself or herself as a budding teacher. This maymean that the student no longer sees a need for a mentor; and, similarly, the mentormay resent the student's autonomy and confidence. Alternatively, some mentorsmay erroneously be too accepting of this apparent competence, and tend to leave theintern too much to his or her own devices. Some students may resent this, and seethemselves as being 'used'. This again highlights the need for the professional andpastoral dimensions of the mentoring role to be balanced.

In thinking about how goals or end points might influence the mentoringprocess it is perhaps helpful to note what mentoring is not about. Although mentorsact as role models, the purpose in this is to provide an example of good practice asa basis for reflection and not replication. What works for one does not necessarilywork for another. In addition, the perfect mentor does not exist and so goodmentors will want to identify those things they would not want to pass on to theirstudents. That is, mentoring is not cloning. Nor is mentoring about 'Nestoring':Nestor was not a listener; he simply inflicted his own experience on other people(Smith & Aired, 1993).

Maynard & Furlong (1993) provide an interesting analogy as advice on how notto mentor or how not to become an expert swimmer:

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take plenty of lessons on the theoretical aspects of swimming beforegetting into the pool;learn with an expert who has forgotten what it feels like to be a learner,e.g. afraid of the water;learn with an expert who feels that they have nothing left to learn, whomaintains that there is only one right way (their way!) to swim and whois more interested in displaying their skills than empowering you;learn with an expert who believes in throwing you in at the deep end orwho leaves you alone to play in the shallow end;learn with an expert who expects you to refine your stroke while you arestruggling to stay afloat;best of all learn with two experts who have totally different views aboutswimming, make conflicting and contradictory demands on you, but inorder to gain your swimming certificate you are required to please themboth! (p. 83)

Sustaining the Mentoring Role

The mentoring process can be classed as a partnership. Just as the mentoringprocess involves several roles and therefore can reasonably be the responsibility ofmore than one person, it is also the case that any one role is more effectively carriedout by a person if he or she can share this role either by involving other staff in theprocess or simply talking to colleagues. Although resources may have been allocatedto mentors to carry out their role, the time and energy that they can devote to it isclearly limited by their other commitments. The allocation of the resources need notbe tied to the mentor. Mentors can also be supported in their role by gettingtogether with other mentors on a subject basis for reassurance, reflection anddevelopment of ideas. Thus, there are different levels of support for sustainingmentor enthusiasm whilst training students: intra-department, intra-school, inter-school. A greater sense of coherence can also be added at the inter-school andschool-college level from a 'field development officer' providing an external per-spective. Three prerequisites are seen to be necessary for the person fulfilling thistype of role in that they should: have seniority in schools; have a commitmentto classroom teaching; and recognise the importance of theory in pre-servicetraining.

There is a further feature in some training programmes which adds a potentialdiscontinuity to the mentoring process. Not all students are in the same school foreach of their placement periods. Although the relationship at the beginning of asecond or subsequent placement will be new for both mentor and student, thestudent's development will be beyond the initial stages of survival and mentors canexpect them to make demands and have their own agenda. The mentoring processis non-linear, complex and interactive and is best sustained with support provided bythe various links that are available in the partnership structure.

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Assessment

Assessment as a specific feature of the mentoring role is not given much attentionin the literature although it is explicitly stated by Cameron-Jones (1992) as afunction of the mentor. Assessment as a feature of the mentoring process seems tohave 'crept in by the back door', almost as a carry-over from the traditionalsupervisory teacher's role. The traditional notion of a mentor is a person who actsas a guide, adviser and counsellor and, whilst assessment inevitably features in theseroles, it does so only in a formative sense. That is, Telemachus was not formallyassessed by Mentor. Assessment is a concern for mentors for two reasons. Firstly,as stated above, it conflicts with the more pastoral aspects and can create a dilemmafor mentors. Secondly, although it is not a new function of teachers involvedin students' training, they have been given a greater responsibility for assessingstudents and this has resulted in a need for a greater degree of confidence in theirability to assess. This responsibility for standards of entry into the profession has ledto a desire for greater involvement and collaboration between all who are party tothe assessment of students. Criteria for assessment and evidence that these perform-ance criteria are met should be shared by all concerned: good mentors wantconsistency. At the school level the co-ordinating mentor has a role to play inensuring consistency.

Competences should help in achieving this consistency. They will also helpmentors to assess students realistically, that is, in relation to their expected stage ofdevelopment and not in relation to their own competence. Teachers sometimes havea tendency to forget where students are in their development and competence asteachers (McIntyre, 1992).

Mentoring in Context

Mentoring should always be seen in context. It is one role amongst many others forteachers, and mentoring is only one dimension of the partnership operating inpre-service education. Mentoring is a complex activity in itself, but it is only one partof the web of training students and is also just one aspect of the overall professionaldevelopment of the teacher—gatekeeper to profession, input to probationers, selec-tion of students, further study.

The move of more training into schools must not simply reflect a reinforcementof the traditional division of labour between institution and school. Involvement byschool staff means a more meaningful participation in the training of students. Formentors to fulfil a role which is more than an extension of the supervisory functionthey must be involved in all aspects of the course. Their role can only be extendedwith an extension of a wider understanding and involvement of the course of whichthey are a part.

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