The magazine for agricultural and rural development in ACP countries

PRIVATE STANDARDS

Mind the GAPHYDROPONICS

Crops without soil

AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION

Energy of hope

INTERVIEw

Dennis Garrity,

agronomist:

“Growing crops

under canopy“

N°150DECEMBER 2010-JANUARY 2011

The magazine for agricultural and rural development in ACP countries

http://spore.cta.int

sharing knowledge, improving rural livelihoods

4 | Cover story

6 | News7 | Crops8 | Fisheries and livestock9 | Environment10 | Research11 | Trade

12 | Interview

13 | DOSSIER Agricultural mechanisation: energy of hope Using machinery to grow more, better.

17 | Viewpoint Michel Havard: the right choice A few useful tips about agricultural machinery.

18 | Field report Cameroon: women and a tractor The arrival of a tractor has sparked a small revolution at a women’s cooperative.

20 | Focus: Hydroponics

21 | Publications25 | Get on board with CTA


Energy of hope

DOSSIER13

PRIVATE STANDARDS

Mind the GAP

COVER STORY4

DENNIS GARRITY

Growing crops under canopy

INTERVIEw12

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SPORE N° 150 - DECEMBER 2010-JANUARY 2011

is the bi-monthly magazine of the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). CTA operates under the Cotonou Agreement between the countries of the Africa, Caribbean and Pacific

(ACP) group and the European Union and is financed by the EU. • Postbus 380 • 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands • Tel: +31 317 467 100 • Fax: +31 317 460 067 • Email: [email protected] • Website: www.cta.int • publisher: Michael Hailu • editorial board: Thierry Doudet, Stéphane Gambier, Anne Legroscollard, Isolina Boto, Vincent Fautrel, Felipe Fonseca, Karen Hackshaw, Ibrahim Tiémogo • editorial staff: Executive editor: Marie-Agnès Leplaideur • Editor of French version and coordinator: Denise Williams • Syfia International, 20 rue du Carré-du-Roi, 34 000 Montpellier, France • Editor of English version: Clare Pedrick • Via dello Spagna 18, 06049 Spoleto (PG), Italy • Correspondents: The following contributed to this issue: N Ackbarally (Mauritius), B Bafana (Zimbabwe), A Camara (Guinea), I Esipisu (Kenya), G Kamadi (Kenya), A Labey (France), N Mutumweno (Zambia), M Nzikou-Massala (Congo), A Nabwowe (Uganda), C Njeru (Kenya), F Patard (France), M Seck (Senegal), É Tassé (Cameroon), A Wandimoyi (DR Congo) and F Zvomuya (South Africa) • other Contributors: J Bodichon, L de Araújo, F Idir Le Meur, D Manley, Tradcatts • layout and design: Intactile DESIGN, France • printer: Pure Impression, France • © CTA 2010 – ISSN 1011-0054

EditorialAt a major conference held in November 2010 in The Hague, Netherlands, with the theme It’s Down 2 Earth, partici-pants from more than 115 countries developed a roadmap for agriculture to meet the challenges of climate change and food security. The conference brought together Ministers of Agriculture, other senior government officials, civil society groups, scientists, international and regional organizations, philanthropic foundations and the private sector.Agriculture and deforestation account for a third of global greenhouse gas emis-sions. As a result, they are a significant cause of climate change. At the same time, agriculture, especially in developing coun-tries, will increasingly suffer from frequent and extreme weather events caused by climate change. Addressing these challenges requires climate-smart agriculture that will increase its resilience to climate change and, at the same time, reduce greenhouse gas emissions.At the conference, participants present-ed several examples of agricultural prac-tices that increase soil nutrients, conserve water, restore degraded lands, protect bio-diversity, reduce post-harvest losses and reduce methane emissions. The challenge now lies in scaling up these good practices so as to achieve meaningful results that will encourage agriculture to become part of the solution for climate change adaptation and mitigation.The It’s Down 2 Earth roadmap calls for concerted action linking investments, poli-cies and strategies to achieve resilient, low-carbon agriculture that meets the objectives of both food security and eco-nomic growth. The conference also called on UN climate change negotiators to introduce incentives for climate-smart agriculture.Meeting the challenges of climate change and feeding the world’s projected popu-lation of 9 billion by 2050 is a tall order. However, a clear majority of conference participants said it could be done. With the right incentives and policies, we believe ACP farmers are up to the challenge.

Michael HailuDirector - CTA

TAblE OF CONTENTS

DECEMBER 2010-JANUARY 2011 | SPORE 150 | 3

T he farm-to-fork journey for ACP products destined for export is rarely an easy one, but the going is getting increasingly tougher. Producers wanting to sell to retail chains in the North are finding them-

selves up against a bewildering array of health, safety and ethical standards. Confusingly, the requirements are not always the same for each country or supermarket group. Nor are these standards mandatory – at least in theory. Though officially known as private voluntary standards (PVS), they are rapidly becoming the industry norm, with growing numbers of small-scale farmers forced to choose between compliance or being edged out of the market.

PVS are expanding rapidly in agrifood supply chains, with the number of private schemes now standing at 400 and rising, according to the UN Conference on Trade and Development. Often the requirements are more exacting than official standards laid down by international bodies such as the EU. St Vincent and the Grenadines flagged this seeming inconsistency when it complained to the World Trade Organization in 2005 about GlobalGAP require-ments for exporting bananas to European supermarkets. Concerns have also been raised that the rise of PVS is undermining the international system for food safety standards such as Codex Alimentarius.

Although retailers use private standards to demonstrate ‘due diligence’ to satisfy increasingly stringent European food safety legislation, they are also turning to them as a marketing tool. Increasingly, PVS are helping supermarkets to tap the willingness of consumers to opt for goods that are top quality and ethically-sourced, with criteria as diverse as pesticide use, animal welfare, envi-ronmental impact and labour standards. As a result, the goal posts for suppliers are constantly changing. “Changes in market requirements often lead to changes in stand-ards and technical regulations”, said Dr Stephen Mbithi, Chief Executive Officer of the Fresh Produce Exporters Association of Kenya (FPEAK).

Keeping up standardsPrivate standards range from requirements operated by

individual supermarket chains such as Tesco in the UK, to collective international schemes such as GlobalGAP and the Global Food Safety Initiative. PVS may relate to a particular stage of the production chain – the British Retail Consortium (BRC) targets packing and process-ing facilities – or to a specific product such as coffee or fish. A growing number of standards are tied to a label or logo signalling fair trade or environmentally sound

production. In January 2005, GlobalGAP’s European supermarket members made certification obligatory for horticultural suppliers. Annual farm audits examine more than 200 control points covering rootstocks, fertiliser, irrigation, crop protection, waste and pollution manage-ment and worker health and welfare.

The advent of PVS has led many ACP smallholders to exit export production. By 2006, 60% of the estimated 45,000 Kenyan farmers supplying exporters in 2003 had already been dropped by their export company or had withdrawn. In Uganda, a sharp drop of 40% in smallholder participation in exports in 2005-2006 is partly attributed to PVS. An analysis carried out by the CUTS Centre for International Trade, Economics and Environment (CUTS-CITEE) claimed that stringent private standards were “now impeding the export performance of develop-ing countries” and warned of the risk of PVS being used as non-tariff trade barriers. Another survey, carried out

PRIVATE STANDARDS

Mind the GAPPrivate food standards are proliferating, with measures required by supermarkets often exceeding those set down by legislation, but there are rewards for growers who can comply.

This Kenyan farmer obtained KenyaGAP certification to help sell his chillies to supermarkets.

COVER STORY

4 | SPORE 150 | DECEMBER 2010-JANUARY 2011

by COLEACP/PIP on horticultural export companies in East and West Africa showed they found PVS “difficult or very difficult to meet.” Among the report’s recommenda-tions were more dialogue with those setting and imple-menting PVS, and mechanisms to adjust them so they can be better adapted to local circumstances. It also called for “the fairer apportioning of costs along the supply chain.”

The cost of complianceDemonstrating compliance can be an expensive busi-

ness (see charts). Costs are generally paid by members of the supply chain, with the unit assessed as an individual farm, regardless of size. Some private schemes only accept specified certification bodies, leading to repeti-tion. Expenses include one-off investments such as cen-tralised systems for handling produce and recurring costs for maintaining laboratory testing programmes, annual audits and record-keeping.

The complexity of satisfying requirements poses a major barrier to some producers, with audits typically requiring several hundred documents. Suggestions from an EU consultation on PVS include the introduction of mutual recognition and group certification and combin-ing audits to take account of common features of differ-ent protocols run by, for example GlobalGAP, Utz Certified, Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade.

On the plus side, it is widely recognised that smallholders achieving PVS compliance benefit from more market opportunities as well as upgraded produce quality, improved field hygiene and better knowledge of pesticide use. Key factors of success are technical support, appropri-

ate donor aid and co-investments by exporters. In 2010, CTA-supported workshops in Sierra Leone trained 44 producers in private stand-ards, especially for the coffee and cocoa sectors. Support from the Kenya Horticultural Development Programme has helped the Karwa Women’s Group export chilli to European supermarkets. In South Africa, NGO ComMark has helped 62 farmers in Letsitele, Limpopo Province, to achieve GlobalGAP and Tesco’s Nature’s Choice accredita-tion for their citrus, banana and mango.

A 2009 study of small-scale pro-ducers in Madagascar found that given the right contract systems, thousands of small farmers are ben-efiting from spinoffs of PVS, such as “improved access to inputs, credit, extension services and technology adoption.”

Strength in numbersFarmers who pool resources have

a better chance, experience shows. An initiative by NGO TechnoServe to organise farmers into producer

business groups in central and eastern Kenya saw farm-ers’ income raised by 50 to 100%. Private standards are spilling over into high-value domestic markets, which are growing in sub-Saharan Africa, offering lucrative oppor-tunities for suppliers who can make the grade. Following introduction of the benchmarked KenyaGAP certification scheme, Nakumatt, the biggest supermarket chain in East and Central Africa, has made the standard mandatory. Nakumatt supplier Fresh N Juici, which procures fruits and vegetables from more than 400 farmers, is now training farmers in good agricultural practice. “We are educating farmers on KenyaGAP certification, so that they understand the importance of compliance”, said company Director Paresh Patel.

Non-supermarket supply chains remain an option for smallholders who cannot achieve compliance or opt not to do so, with traditional wholesale markets, catering, and food service sectors representing attractive outlets. Less than 10% of Uganda’s export horticulture trade to the UK is sold to supermarkets, with most going to eth-nic markets. The trend for PVS has also encouraged some small-scale farmers to diversify. In Kenya, a number of farmers who decided that green bean production was no longer profitable have moved into growing watermelons, kale and bananas for the domestic market, earning larger incomes in some cases.

CTA Agritrade Executive Brief http://tinyurl.com/3xwj25c Brussels Briefing: Meeting Food Safety Standards http://tinyurl.com/382rl5v

ColeaCp/pip www.coleacp.org COLEACP/Pesticides Initiative Programme, Survey of fresh fruit and vegetable exports in sub-Saharan Africa, May 2009 http://tinyurl.com/33wk6p8

GlobalGAP www.globalgap.org

iied www.iied.org • standard bearers: Horticultural exports and private standards in Africa http://tinyurl.com/36av546

nri Natural Resources Institute www.nri.org

unCtad www.unctad.org Consultative Task Force on Environmental Requirements and Market Access for Developing Countries (CTF) http://tinyurl.com/37wmyao

To find out more

44 %

36 %

86 %

14 %

20 %

Petit agriculteurExportateurBailleur

44 %

36 %

86 %

14 %

20 %


44%

36%

86%

14%

20%

Small-scale growerExporterDonor

Initial costs of GLOBALGAP, Kenya, €1,740 in 2006 per small-scale grower

Recurrent costs of GLOBALGAP, Kenya, €266 in 2006 per small-scale grower

Source: IIED

COVER STORY


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CARBON BALANCE SHEET

Africa in the black ■ Africa will now be able to keep a real-time

check on its carbon balance sheet. This is expected to give it a more powerful voice in international climate talks and strengthen its bargaining position in negotiations for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) programme.

The continent’s first network for meas-uring carbon emissions is behind the development. It is based on mechanisms called flux measurements, which calculate the quantity of gas exchanged between an ecosystem and the atmosphere. The net-work was set up as part of the European CarboAfrica project, which was launched in late 2006 and has just ended. The initia-tive, which explored various aspects of the carbon cycle in Africa, involved 15 African and European organisations. Its main con-clusion was that the continent’s carbon balance sheet is positive, since African ecosystems absorb more carbon than they

give off, a factor that should prove a strong argument in international climate change negotiations.

MANGOES

outlets for haitiHaiti’s 25,000 mango producers are to get help in processing and adding value to their harvests. At present, half their crop is lost before getting to market due to poor roads and inadequate sales channels. New outlets will be made available with the opening of mango juice factories which will take their output. The project, dubbed Haiti Hope, is being implemented by US NGO

Technoserve, with €2.15 million in funding from the Inter-American Development Bank and €2.5 million from US firm Coca Cola. The initiative will also investigate the possibility of developing units for drying mangoes and making puree.

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SCIENCE INNOVATIONS

Computers serving cows

■ A computer programme for feeding dairy cows has won the top prize in the 2009-2010 Africa-wide science competition held by CTA together with partner organisations. The Endiisa Decision Support Tool (DST) was developed by a team of scientists led by the National Livestock Resources Research Institute. Team leader Dr Sarah Mubiru said the software will help farmers know which feeds to give their cows and in what propor-tions – at the least cost.

Milk production in Uganda is low, with many cows attaining just half their poten-tial. Research shows that 72% of farmers give their cows feeds which provide protein below the minimum requirement. “Cows tested for 1 month on feed combinations developed from the Endiisa DST increased dai-ly milk production by 24%”, said Dr Mubiru.

The tool can be downloaded from the website of the National Agricultural Research Organisation. There are also plans to translate the tool into Luganda, a local language, and make the software available on mobile phones.

The first prize for the science contest aimed at young professionals went to Sandrine Nguiakam of Cameroon for a study on the impact of fluctuating international prices for raw materials on the variability of the gross domestic product in Côte d’Ivoire.

www.naro.go.ug/endiisa

STATISTICS

Free accessFAOSTAT, the world’s largest statistical database on food, agriculture, and hunger, is going free. Previously, users could download a limited amount of information from the database without charge, but access to larger batches of statistics required a paid annual subscription. Now access is open, unlimited and entirely without charge. FAOSTAT offers data on agricultural and food production, use of fertiliser and pesticides, food aid shipments, food balance sheets, forestry and fisheries production, irrigation and water use, land use, population trends, trade in agricultural products and the use of agricultural machinery. It can be consulted in English, French and Spanish.

http://faostat.fao.org

Sarah Mubiru and her team won a prize for developing a computer programme

to plan feeding for dairy cows.

NEwS


AGROFORESTRY

A tree that cossets mango plants

■ For years, farmers near Thiès in Senegal, have used the nguiguiss or camel’s foot (Piliostigma reticulatum), a small tree that favours the growth of mango trees by retaining water in the soil around its roots. “The well developed foliage of this shrub means that it also retains the arable land buffeted by the wind, in doing so creating oases of fertility which planted mango trees can take advantage of”, said Dr Ibrahima Diédhiou, a researcher at the Higher School of Agriculture in Thiès.

This innovative agroforestry technique has led to joint experiments between farmers and researchers as part of the Profeis project (Promoting Farmer Experimentation and Innovation in the Sahel to improve food secu-rity and the preservation of natural resources).

In Keur Ndioguou Ndiaye, a village 20 km from Thiès (70 km from Dakar) farmers have learned how to make nurseries for this legu-minous tree. In August 2009, they planted

young mango shoots in the midst of clumps of nguiguiss. Several months later, the farmers witnessed impres-sive growth in the young mango plants.

NEw VARIETIES

Maize beats drought

■ Farmers in Uganda’s Busia district are rushing to plant a new variety of maize, DK8031. This new hybrid, early maturing variety is proving popular with smallholder producers because of its exceptionally high resistance to drought and its excellent grain quality. “DK weighs heavily and when it goes to market it attracts higher prices compared to other varieties,” said Ogama Mourice Juma, a farmer who is growing the new variety.

The downside to DK is that farmers cannot put aside grain at harvest to plant for the fol-lowing season. “This is a serious shortcom-ing as farmers have to keep on getting new seeds to plant for the next season. This is not the case with the indigenous varieties,’’ said Ogama.

To help boost production, Belgian development agen-cy VECO-East Africa has launched an input credit scheme to provide loans for farmers planting DK maize. It also offers producers free seeds on the condi-tion that they give back 5% of their profits to the association at harvest time. VECO buys the produce from the farmers and also sources markets for them outside Uganda.

SEEDS

Venture capital for seedThe west Africa Agricultural Investment Fund (wAAIF) has received capital funding to support small and medium-sized west African seed companies. The first contributions came from the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) and the Lundin For Africa Foundation, based in Vancouver, Canada. wAAIF will invest in seed companies, offering them start-up and development capital. It will also offer various forms of technical support. wAAIF is initially operating in five countries – Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria.

GMO COTTON

New trials in burkina FasoUS company Monsanto is to test two new varieties of genetically modified (GM) cotton during the 2010/2011 season in Burkina Faso. The first, MON 88913, contains a gene that is resistant to the glyphosate weedkiller Roundup. The second, MON 15985, has a gene that is resistant to insects which attack fruits and leaves.

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COFFEE

less disease, higher yieldsKenyan farmers are shifting to a new coffee variety that has 30% lower production costs. Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), Batian variety, has been developed by scientists from the Coffee Research Foundation (CRF) after 20 years of research. The new plant has proved resistant to leaf rust and coffee berry disease, two diseases that have badly hit

Kenyan coffee production. It also matures in 2 years, compared with 3 years for more common varieties. Production costs are lower since farmers do not need to spend money on expensive insecticides. “Batian can yield 5 t/ha, following all recommended agronomical practices, compared with 2-3 t from other varieties”, said CRF Director of Research, Joseph Kimemia.

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Nguiguiss (Piliostigma reticulatum) favours the growth of mango trees.

CROPS


FISHING LIMITS

More restrictions, better catches

■ Closing fishing areas and regulating the use of fishing gear can result in more prof-itable catches and higher incomes for fish-ers. A 12-year study on fish caught in three locations off the Kenyan coast showed that fishing close to an area with restrictions led to larger catches of fish with a higher market value. Even limits on vertically hanging fishing nets improved catches and revenues.

“Resistance to closures and to gear restrictions from fishermen and the fishing industry is based largely on the percep-tion that these options are a threat to prof-its,” said Tim McClanahan, of the Wildlife Conservation Society, which conducted the study. “These findings challenge those per-ceptions.”

RETRAINING

from war to livestock

■ Near Dolisie, a town in Congo Brazzaville 370 km south-east of the capital, about 20 former soldiers have formed a group to rear pigs and train other young people to become live-stock farmers. “Before, I used to talk about the calibre of guns and bullets. These days I talk about pig breeds, fod-der and the vitamins I need to give them”, observed Roland Boubanga. He has made a clean break with his past as a soldier in one of the fac-tions that fought in the Republic of the Congo in 1997.

The National Programme of Demobilisa-tion, Disarmament and Reinsertion (PNDDR) has helped him and other ex-recruits to start

a new life in farming, small-scale enterprise or rearing goats and pigs.

Before launching their new careers, each former soldier received 2 weeks of basic training in pig keeping, as well as two ani-

mals, material and FCFA150,000 (almost €230) in exchange

for his weapons. Today, more than one-third

of the 150 newly trained livestock keepers are mak-ing a living from rearing live-stock. “With my 120 pigs, I am

well satisfied and people respect me”,

said one of them. Some of the former sol-

diers are now training about 30 other young people who also want to become livestock farmers.

FODDER

Cactus for cattleA wild cactus that has been widely dismissed as a noxious weed can sustain livestock during drought, say scientists at the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). The prickly pear or paddle cacti (Opuntia) has high tolerance to drought and remains succulent and easily digestible even in times of extreme water shortages.Researchers found that during a severe drought in 2008–2009, farmers who fed their livestock cactus lost none of their cattle. But some farmers, such as the Masai pastoralists in Laikipia North refused to use the cactus as feed and pleaded with the government to eradicate what they consider to be an invasive weed. Herders are now being trained about the benefits of the cactus as fodder in extreme conditions.

AqUACULTURE

International certificationIn an effort to harmonise aquaculture practices, FAO’s Committee on Fisheries is drawing up the first global guidelines on certification for the sector. The voluntary guidelines, due to be presented in January 2011, will focus on animal health, food safety, the environment and working conditions for staff. Certification will enable consumers to find out if shrimps have been reared without causing damage to coastal mangroves, if workers in aquaculture units have been paid a fair wage and if shellfish are free of contamination. Producers will be able to group together to share the cost of obtaining certification.

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Embryo transplants breed more cashIn Guyana, farmers are using embryo transplant technology to produce more productive sheep. A cross between the indigenous Guyanese Black Belly and the British Texel has resulted in a new breed, dubbed the Texana. The new sheep combines the top quality meat and high output levels of the Texel with the

sturdiness and versatility of the Black Belly, which is well adapted to local conditions.With the help of the UK government and the British Texel Sheep Society, embryos were extracted from Texel sheep and transported to Guyana before being implanted in Guyanese Black Belly ewes. The technology yielded a 70% success rate. Embryo transplants cost far less than moving live animals and the technology offers an effective way of guarding against the transport of diseases and pests. Farmers in Guyana are impressed with the results. “From one Texel embryo, I got 75 lambs and I am still getting more. There is more meat, it grows faster and gives better quality,” said Ronald De Freitas who owns a farm at Badrima, Soesdyke. Said Harold Martin, of Silver Hill, Linden, “I am very pleased. One of my Texana rams weighs over 200 lb (90 kg).”

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FISHERIES AND lIVESTOCK


wILDLIFE

Poachers mend their ways

■ An initiative aimed at tackling poaching is boosting revenues and saving wildlife in Zambia. Community Markets for Conservation

(COMACO) was launched by the Wildlife Conservation Society, the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and local authorities to help save the country’s threatened wildlife.

Poachers are taught better farming methods and helped to sell their crops for higher prices. In return, they must surrender snares and guns and pledge to leave wildlife alone.

Thompson Tembo was one of the first to be reformed. After three prison sentences for poaching elephants, the promise of new skills, inputs and markets per-suaded him to hand over his gun.

To date, more than 650 poachers have made the same decision, surrendering over 1,800 firearms between them. Today, Thompson makes more from his 43 beehives and cash crops than he ever did from poaching.

Household incomes have more than dou-bled since COMACO was launched in 2003. Many wildlife populations are increasing. Organic items produced by former poachers are now selling well in Zambian supermarkets. They include peanut butter, roasted snack nuts and natural honey. The label? ‘It’s Wild’.

BREADNUT TREE

Making a comeback ■ The bread nut tree (Brosimum alicastrum),

which originated in Latin America and the Caribbean, is proving highly effective in reforestation programmes. Also known as the Maya nut or ramón, this large tropical tree can tolerate degraded, salty or dry soils and, once planted, does not require any spe-cial care. Its nuts are rich in vitamins A, B, C and E, as well as in minerals such as calcium, potassium, iron and zinc, putting it on a par with soya and quinoa in terms of nutrition-al properties. All this helps to explain why the breadnut tree has traditionally been an

essential food source for the people of Mesoamerica. One tree can yield 180 kg of nuts each year.

The Maya Nut Institute recently re-introduced this tree into Haiti, where it dis-appeared 200 years ago. More than 80 women from 34 communities have been trained in processing and using the nuts for a wide range of drinks and dishes, including sauces, biscuits and pancakes, as well as in selling these prod-ucts. In Jamaica, where vast bread nut forests still remain, the forestry department is using the trees in its reforestation programmes.

IRRIGATION

The power of the sunA pilot irrigation scheme using solar energy is to be carried out by Mozambique’s Ministry of Science and Technology as part of Millennium Villages, a programme launched by the ministry to promote the use of local resources in rural areas. The initiative is backed by the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the Japanese development agency.

BIODIVERSITY

Safe havensThree African biosphere reserves have joined the UN network created to halt biodiversity loss. Kafa is an Ethiopian highland region containing 50% of the country’s remaining evergreen forest ecosystems. Also added to the world Network of Biosphere Reserves (wNBR) was Yayu, in the south-west. Another new member is the Zambezi valley, Zimbabwe, which contains riverine and terrestrial ecosystems unique to the subcontinent.

FORECASTS

Early warningSouth Africa has launched a state-of-the-art weather radar network to help protect agriculture from serious damage and citizens from danger. The radars will play a vital role in forecasting severe weather such as storms and flash floods. As well as forecasting intensity, the system can predict the path of a storm and issue warnings to people in its path. The network also offers coverage to neighbouring countries such as Lesotho and Swaziland.

REFORESTATION

Seeding by airplaneIn August Mauritania’s Ministry for the Environment and Sustainable Development launched its annual campaign of tree seeding by aircraft. The initiative aims to regenerate vegetation cover and halt desertification. The operation involved a total of 9,240 km2 in the provinces of Inchiri, Adrar and Trarza. Two tonnes of local tree seed was dropped, including jujube, acacia Seyal and acacia Senegal. According to the ministry, previous operations have produced good results. In 2009, coastal areas were seeded with balanites, acacias, Panicum tugidum and ziziphus.

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ENVIRONMENT


SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

smart water ■ Solar energy and mobile phone technology

are helping residents of Katitika village in Eastern Kenya to access clean water. The area is one of the driest in the country.

“The facility is made of hybrid technolo-gies combining the use of a solar-powered pump, a computerised card reader, a power bank comprising rechargeable batteries for energy storage, and electronic pre-paid cards,” said engineer Edgar Kaniu.

The solar powered-pump, which is linked to a borehole, transports clean water to

a fetching point, fit-ted with an automated card detector, just like a

cashpoint outside a bank. Using prepaid cards, residents pay for a given quantity of fresh water. Cards can be recharged using the mobile phone-based money transfer system M-Pesa.

“Until this facility was developed, we had to walk 11 km to the seasonal Kaiti River where we made shallow wells in the dry riverbed in search of water,” said villager Monica Kiilu.

Dubbed maji ya kompiuta (computer-ised water), the water point was developed through a collaboration between mobile phone provider Safaricom, Danish company Grundfos Lifelink and the local Katitika Self Help Group.

ANTHURIUM BACTERIAL BLIGHT

faster detection ■ CIRAD researchers in Réunion have devel-

oped a new method for detecting Anthurium bacterial blight using molecular testing. The technique enables the disease to be spotted before the first symptoms become visible. The breakthrough is likely to prove highly useful to producers who cultivate this attrac-tive and colourful heart-shaped flower. Until now, they have had to keep in vitro plants for micropropagation in quarantine for 18 months before using them. This test will reduce the quarantine period to two months. It is due to be made available as a test kit in 2011.

Anthurium bacterial blight causes plants to wither and die. There is no treatment avail-able for the disease, which was introduced

into Réunion by plants imported from Europe in 1997. Anthurium growing is a com-mon activity in East Africa, espe-cially in Kenya, Tanzania and Mauritius, which is the world’s second largest producer.

YAM

3000 specimens to preserveThe Global Crop Diversity Trust has launched a programme to preserve 3,000 yam specimens in a bid to protect the biodiversity of this plant. At present, in most African countries where yam is cultivated, many potentially important varieties only exist in the

fields where they are grown. As a result, they are vulnerable to parasites, disease, floods and fires which can wipe them out without trace. The project will focus on African varieties, but will also protect yams from the Caribbean and Pacific. It represents the first global effort to conserve yam varieties and cultivars.

CACAO

Decoding the genomeAn international consortium of scientists drawn from 20 institutions in six countries has succeeded in decoding and analysing the genome sequence of the cacao plant. The research, coordinated by CIRAD, should enable scientists to develop new more productive and disease resistant varieties, while retaining the plant’s aromatic qualities.

EDUCATION

Seat of learningEthiopia has opened the country’s first science academy. The Ethiopian Academy of Sciences (EAS), based in Addis Ababa, plans to focus on promoting the national science agenda, with special emphasis on new farming and industrial technologies, say senior officials. The academy will also give researchers financial and technical support, and publish journals and books for scientists and the public.

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CLIMATE CHANGE

Tree ringsDendrochronology – the study of growth patterns in tree stems – can provide insight into past climate fluctuations and may hold information about how trees will cope with what lies ahead. The growth of tree rings depends mainly on temperature in

temperate regions, and on the amount and distribution of rain in the tropics.“We are able to see how tolerant certain agroforestry species have been to drought, how efficiently they use water, and better understand the relationship between tree growth and climate,” says scientist Aster Gebrekirstos, who is investigating tree rings in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Tanzania. “This is valuable information that will inform decisions about the right tree species for the right place.”

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Edgar Kaniu demonstrates the smart water system.

RESEARCH


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Relaunch in Côte d’ivoire

■ Buoyant rubber prices on the interna-tional market have prompted Africa’s lead-ing producer Côte d’Ivoire to focus on this product, which is now more profitable for farmers than either coffee or cocoa. To enable the country to triple output and achieve a goal of 600,000 t/year, the govern-ment is planning to use incentives to increase the area planted from the current figure of 140,000 ha to 440,000 ha in 2015. Last year, in response to a call for applications, about one hundred producers each received 3,000 selected rubber plants at the special price of FCFA100/plant instead of FCFA250. The government made up the difference.

MARKET LINKAGE

Coming home ■ Zimbabwean farmer Amai Nyasha’s son

Teurai has given up his job with a transport company in Harare to take up farming again on the family plot. Two years ago, Amai, who lives on a 3-ha farm 90 km south-east of Zimbabwe’s capital, became one of local com-pany KAITE’s partner farmers. Now she is mak-ing such a good living from growing herbs and spices that she needs more help. “Teurai came home because at last I am making real money,” she said. “He wants to help me on the farm now, so that we can prepare more land for the chilli crop.” As rural dwellers flock to the city or even leave the country in search of employ-ment, this is an unusual development.

KAITE is training more than 800 small-scale farmers, many of them women, to produce, process and certify organic essential oils, herbs and spices. It also connects producers to local and international fair trade markets to target markets in Europe and the US in the flavouring, fragrance, cosmetics and phar-maceutical industries. Products include wild khaki (Tagetes minuta), often considered a valueless weed, but highly prized for the cos-metics and natural pesticide sectors.

TIMBER

Certification in progressIn accordance with an agreement signed in Brussels in October, all wood exported from

Cameroon to Europe after July 2012 will be accompanied by a certificate proving that it

was legally harvested, in environmentally sound conditions. Two accords of this nature

have already been signed this year with Congo and Ghana. In Accra, the government has

set up an office for timber certification to monitor logging and timber processing. Europe

is preparing similar agreements with the Central African Republic, DR Congo and Liberia.

SINGLE CURRENCY

Yes but…The Association of Central African Banks’ annual symposium, held in Dakar in August, has relaunched the debate on proposals for a single African currency. Some countries support the idea, as a way of increasing inter-African trade, but not until good infrastructures have been put in place to make it possible.

CREDIT

Rural microfinanceRural Impulse II is a new specialist microfinance fund backed by leading European public and private financial institutions and investors. The €100 m fund will channel credit through microfinance institutions, which must be in developing countries with at least a 30% presence in rural areas. The fund will invest in a range of intermediaries, including NGOs, credit unions, microfinance banks and institutions targeting small businesses.

DOMINICAN BANANA

Destination EUThe Dominican Republic is exporting more and more bananas to Europe: in the first 6 months of 2010, its exports rose by 25%, with an expected total of over 300,000 t by the end of the year – 20,000 t more than in 2009. The sector provides jobs for 15,000 people in the country.

STORAGE

Economy of scaleThe Zambia Agricultural Commodity Exchange (ZAMACE) has launched a system that allows smallholder farmers to pool their commodities and transport them for safe storage at district warehouses. The larger quantities enable producers to get better prices for their crops, which they offer to the market through ZAMACE authorised brokers.

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Harvesting wild khaki (Tagetes minuta)

TRADE


What is evergreen agriculture and how does it work?Evergreen agriculture is a practice where trees are intercropped in annual food crop and livestock systems. It sustains green cover on the land throughout the year and also in-volves the integration of appropriate fertiliser trees into agriculture. This approach bolsters nutrient supply through nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling, and increases direct produc-tion of food, fodder, fuel, fibre and income from products produced by the trees. Such trees also greatly enhance carbon storage above-ground and below-ground compared to conventional agriculture, thus improving opportunities for rewards in the form of agri-cultural carbon offsets for farmers.

Do we have proof that it works?Yes. We have solid proof that it works because it has been used by millions of farm-ers for many years. There is evidence of the use of evergreen agriculture in Burkina Faso, Niger, Malawi and Zambia where farmers have successfully restored their exhausted soils with richer sources of organic nutrients, dramatically increasing their crop yields and incomes.

How are African farmers involved in evergreen agriculture?In Niger, for example, we have evidence from satellite analysis that 5 million ha of land are covered by Faidherbia albida, an indig-enous African acacia, and this has enhanced millet and sorghum production, with up to 160 trees on each hectare. I was in Malawi last year and visited a couple of women farmers who showed me maize growing under a full canopy of 70 Faidherbia albida trees in 1 ha. They explained that they had planted

the trees 20 years ago and their yields were three times higher than before they planted the trees. Farmers have recognised the value of trees for generations and only recently is the scientific community realising the revo-lutionary importance of these trees to agri-culture.

What is special about Faidherbia albida?Faidherbia albida is already a natural com-ponent of farming systems across much of the African continent. Unlike most other

trees, it sheds its nitrogen-rich leaves dur-ing the early rainy season and remains dor-mant throughout the crop-growing period. The leaves grow again when the dry season begins. This makes it highly compatible with food crops because it does not compete with them for light, nutrients, or water during the growing season.

If African farmers have known about this technique for generations, why have scientists taken so long to validate it?That is a question that has puzzled me for many years. The scientific community has had ample evidence of the value of these trees for a long time. The first research paper on this goes back to 1952 and hun-dreds of other papers have been published. But modern agriculturalists have a certain mindset that where you grow crops you do not grow trees. There is a need to cam-

paign to higher levels of government, policy makers and science to accept these practices. We also need to reach out to the farmers with no trees and no knowledge of the value of the trees.

Is evergreen agriculture a solution to the impact of climate change on agriculture?There are few practices in agriculture that dramatically increase crop yields and resil-ience and at the same time increase carbon sequestration. Evergreen agriculture is one

such option. If carbon markets are developed by selling the carbon in the trees, crops and soil, evergreen agriculture will be one of the most attractive investments in the future for African farmers.

There is criticism that evergreen agriculture takes a long time to deliver results?There are those who want quick fixes and short-term solutions, but the planting of fer-tiliser trees can provide fertiliser within a few years, lasting generations – at no cost. We have trees such as Sesbania sesban and Tephrosia candida which mature within a year and can provide the short-term benefit. Faidherbia albida takes a long time to grow but we are looking at sustainability here – the health of the soil in the long term. Fertiliser companies make a case of this because they see the trees as competition, I see this system not as competition but as complementary.

DENNIS GARRITY

Growing crops under canopyFor generations, African farmers have grown crops beneath trees. Known as evergreen agriculture, this form of agroforestry offers higher yields, revenues from tree products, and the potential for extra income from carbon markets.

“Farmers have recognised the value of trees for generations”

Dr Dennis Garrity, an agronomist whose career has focused on developing small-scale farming systems in the tropics, is Director-General of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). He also chairs the steering committee of Landcare International, a movement that promotes innovative solutions for natural resource management.

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Energy of hope

At a time when increasing agricultural output is the main priority for ACP countries, mechanisation promises to play a pivotal role in improving productivity and helping to generate more profit from under-utilized land. Long neglected, mechanisation will only offer results if it is well adapted to the needs of farmers and to local constraints. It also needs to be incorporated into global strategies, not just at the technical level.

17 | VIEwPOINT MiChel havard: the right choice

18 | FIElD REPORT FROM CAMEROON Women and a tractor

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Many experts now believe that the growth so badly needed for agricultural productivity in countries of the South (see Spore special issue Population and Agriculture) will depend to some

extent on mechanisation. Agricultural mechanisation in Africa… Time for action, urged the report of an expert group meeting organised by FAO and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) in 2008.

In 2007 there were just 626,000 tractors in Africa, according to FAO. Between 1980 and 2003, the number of tractors per 1,000 ha on the continent fell from two to 1.3 (compared with 14.9 in Asia), with most of them used for major commercial crops such as sugarcane. South Africa and Sudan (each with more than 60,000 tractors in 2007) are easily the best equipped countries, ahead of Nigeria and Zimbabwe. This type of machinery is equally rare in the Caribbean, with the notable exception of the Dominican Republic and Trinidad and Tobago, where it is mainly used for cultivating sugarcane. The situation is similar in the small islands of the Pacific region – Papua New Guinea stands alone, with more than 1,000 tractors. In many ACP countries, soil is still cultivated with a hoe, except for industrial crops such as sugar, cotton and large-scale cereal cultivation. In East and southern Africa, 50% of land is still worked by hand, while in Central Africa, the figure rises to 80%.

An essential approachDonors and governments shifted attention away from

mechanisation in the 1970s in the wake of various failed attempts to introduce motorised equipment into African rural areas. Given that rural dwellers are now flocking to the towns, and that each farmer needs to feed twice as many mouths as 30 years ago, more use of agricultural machinery is re-emerging as an essential approach.

Many agricultural tasks are less arduous and much quicker when machines are used. These include planting, treatments, harvesting, transport and especially prelimi-nary cultivation, which remains a major obstacle to the

cultivation of more land. In Burkina Faso, a study carried out in 2001-2002 showed that a farmer could only work 3 ha of cotton by hand, compared with 63 ha (more than 20 times more) if equipped with machinery and 7 ha if using animal draft.

In Africa, where just 22% of arable land is farmed, mechanisation could make a significant contribution to increasing the amount of land under cultivation, as well as improving yields and the quality of crop production. The use of rotovators in irrigated crop cultivation is highly cost-effective, whether it be close to Lake Alaotra, in Madagascar or in Mali’s Office du Niger region, where rice yields are 6 t/ha with a rotovator, compared with 3 to 4 t/ha without. Mechanisation also allows farmers to

intervene more swiftly and at the right time, reducing risks in a situation made difficult by climate change.

For young people, the prospect of growing more with less hard labour is likely to help per-suade them not to leave the land. It also increases their prestige, since they consider it more pro-fessional to use a tractor or a rotovator than to make do with a hoe. For women, small-scale mechanisation, such as the multifunctional plat-form (see Box page 16) offers relief from long laborious tasks and frees their time for other more profitable activities such as processing.

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Tractors

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Percentage use of different sources of powerin agriculture in Africa

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Agricultural mechanisation drives the development of other sectors, especially in industry. It also creates employ-ment opportunities, for example in sales and repairs, for rural dwellers wanting to move into new lines of work. However, some critics claim that on a global scale, mecha-nisation will destroy more jobs than it will create, with the poorest farmers paying the highest price.

But if mechanisation is now considered an essential pre-requisite for achieving food self-sufficiency, certain hurdles will have to be overcome before it can become wide-ly available. First and foremost is the need to address issues of insecure land tenure and fragmented holdings (in Africa the average plot size is 0.1 to 1 ha per active farmer). The other stumbling block is financial: most small-scale farmers and rural communities cannot afford to buy machines or engage outsiders to work their land. Weak credit systems do little to encourage farmers to invest in machines, and as a result the private sector is prevent-ed from playing a full role in supplying material. In the past, machine maintenance and repair, and especially the availability of spare parts, have been the weak points in the mechanisation sector. Also lacking has been adequate training of users and technicians, which is crucial if this costly equipment is to work properly and last a long time.

Shared mechanisationThe need to mechanise agriculture has spawned a range

of new solutions to these problems. Farmers are forming cooperatives and clubbing together to buy or make joint use of material, a system that cuts the cost of the initial out-lay and lowers their reliance on costly service providers. In Benin, a system of cooperatives for pooling agricultural machinery has been evolving since its launch in 1995. At the end of 2009, 116 of these were highly active. In Cameroon, the authorities are encouraging farmers to form common interest groups (CIGs) so that they have larger plots to cultivate and can take advantage of tractors and other equipment.

These days, training for technicians and users of agri-cultural equipment is more readily available. As part of its agricultural villages programme, the Congolese govern-ment is subsidising the training of young people to drive farm vehicles and helping to provide technical assistance. In Cameroon, 2,000 drivers and mechanics are being trained on the fringe of an assembly plant at Ebolowa, in the south of the country. In Madagascar, the agricultural machinery centre at Antsirabe is setting up a higher insti-tute for training engineers in agricultural mechanisation. An ambitious agricultural machinery training programme in Papua New Guinea allows students to choose from a num-ber of careers to become machine designers, developers, inspectors, distributors and sales personnel, etc.

Until recently, little agricultural machinery was manu-factured or assembled in Africa, apart from in the southern part of the continent. But the situation is rapidly changing. In 2009, Mali opened an assembly plant for tractors and accessories at Samanko, the result of a partnership with an Indian company. At the end of 2009, an industrial plant for assembling tractors started operations in N’Djamena, Chad. At Ebolowa in Cameroon, the assembly line for

Driving a tractor increases prestige for young rural dwellers.

young people behind the wheelHaving abandoned agriculture in favour of oil, the Republic of Congo is seeking to kick-start crop production through mechanisation. Barely 2% of its 10,000 ha of arable land is cultivated in this country, which spends vast sums (€198 million per year) on importing food products. This year has seen the setting up of the first ‘Agricultural Villages’, initially in the North, all of them equipped with tractors and other machinery. The government trains young machine operators in agricultural high schools and at the Institute for Rural Development. It will be their job to drive the tractors and repair them when they break down. People living in the villages call on these young tractor drivers to work their fields. An operation to raise producer awareness of the benefits of mechanisation has been launched in the departments of Cuvette and Plateaux. Thirty-six tractors have been supplied by the government to three agricultural machinery centres. Farmers can hire their services at a rate of €3 for pruning and planting, €6 for ploughing and less than €4 for spraying. Here too, the Congolese government is focusing on young people, funding training courses for drivers and operators.

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tractors, motor pumps, shellers and combine harvesters is due to open soon, again with backing from Indian part-ners. The location should lower the price of equipment and reassure users regarding availability of spare parts.

less costly machinesSeveral countries in sub-Saharan Africa are in the

process of developing strategies and programmes for agricultural mechanisation. Benin has embarked on an agricultural recovery plan which seeks to increase the mechanisation ratio from 0.1% of farms in 2006 to 20% by 2015. In Congo Brazzaville, a campaign to mechanise agriculture was launched in June 2010 in the two depart-ments of Cuvette and Plateaux.

The stakes have changed with the arrival of new mate-rial, much of it from Asia, which is less sophisticated, less expensive and more suitable than the heavy equipment once imported from Europe. The press is full of articles about gifts from Brazil, China and India of tractors, motor pumps and other machinery to African countries, so that they can try them out and determine which ones are best suited to the climate and soils of different regions. With the help of specific loans, governments can later make bulk purchases. In an effort to boost irrigation farming in Ghana, the government has imported huge quantities of Asian and Czech-built tractors, which are then sold to farmers who pay half the cost upfront and stagger the rest over a 3-year period. In Benin, several billion CFA francs have been invested in purchasing machinery from China, India and Libya, which is subsequently sold to farmers and service providers.

However, mechanisation is just one of many factors that can lead to more intensified agriculture. The best

machinery will be of little use to farmers if they do not also have access to fertiliser, improved seed and water, if they do not have tracks and roads so they can get their harvests out of their fields, and if they do not have outlets for their produce.

In their joint report of 2008, experts from FAO and UNIDO, state that, “If agricultural mechanisation efforts are to succeed in Africa, there is an urgent need for all concerned, be they farmers, supporters, planners or policy-makers, to understand and contribute to agricultural mechanisation efforts across the entire farming system and with a value chain perspective.”

Motor pumps make it easier to irrigate rice fields (seen here near Gao in Mali)

All purpose platformsThe multifunctional platform (MFP) is a small machine for rural use consisting of a medium-powered diesel engine (8 to 10 hp) that drives various tools such as water pumps, huskers, graters, grinding mills, oil presses, battery chargers and welding torches. It can also generate electricity and distribute water. Widely used in West Africa, but also in Tanzania and Zambia, especially in energy poor areas, the MFP provides a range of services, especially to women, but also to young people and rural craftworkers, such as blacksmiths and carpenters. The machine costs about €3,500. The platforms are installed at the request of women’s rural associations, who pay for 20% of the cost, with the remainder being covered by NGOs. Mali pioneered their diffusion in 1999, through an initiative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO). Since 2007, UNDP has been working with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to supply MFPs to rural agro-enterprises in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal. It is also developing the concept in Ghana with the help of various NGOs.

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KEY FIGURES

The success of national agricultural mechanisation strategies lies in a participatory approach – it is important to pinpoint the requirements of farmers and match these up with an offer of material that is suited to their needs. Experts currently believe that it is up to the private sec-tor – manufacturers, importers, suppliers and mechanical services – to fulfil this role. In the early stages, the gov-ernment can smooth the path by opening the way to the first imports. This is done in partnership with a private company, which is subsequently given the go ahead to take over. The same report observes that government, “sup-port with supply and demand contacts, management and finance securities or tax waivers would help the private sector to come up to speed in a relatively short period.”

A more recent trend in Africa has been the development of regional strategies, mapped out by ECOWAS, COMESA, SADC or UEMOA. Regional centres would have the task of identifying and adapting mechanisation techniques to local conditions. Better equipped and trained, the farmers of the South would be able to produce more in better conditions, goes the plan. This would be on vast expanses of land that more and more foreign investors are farming, using the resources and material at their disposal.

viewpoint

The right choiceWhat criteria have to be taken into account before buying agricultural machinery? First and foremost, you need to assess the advantages that this will bring and make sure that the machinery answers a real need. Mechanisation can be justified if it leads to a significant saving in time, or if it lightens the burden of tasks. These criteria are behind the development of huskers and grinding mills for cereals among women. Next, you need to ensure that the material is well adapted to your needs. If that is not the case, there may be other solutions. One option may be a group purchase as part of a cooperative or producers’ organisation. This system enables farmers to pool material and hence share the cost of purchasing and maintaining it. You can also go to a contractor who will lease you the machine for the period required. Or you can purchase the machine and rent it out when you don’t need it. It is also important to find out if the government has a policy on agricultural machinery. If it does, there is often help available to buy material, in the form of grants, low-interest credit or help with the cost of diesel.

What about maintenance and spare parts?It is crucial to be sure that you will be able to get hold of spare parts quickly and easily, at a reasonable price. That is not always the case when you buy imported machinery. Fortunately, more and more blacksmiths are making small motor-driven machines locally. That is a big advantage, as it means you can be sure of getting maintenance and repairs for your machine. India is also in the process of setting up factories to make tractors in Africa.

Any other advice?The type of engine you choose is important: electric or diesel? Electric motors have the advantage of being cheaper to purchase and easier to maintain. For example, they don’t need oil changes. But you must have a reliable source of electricity. Training is essential to make the best use of machinery and keep it well maintained, so as to reduce breakdowns and ensure that it lasts longer. It is important to find out if the supplier offers adequate training or if it is possible to receive training in the region, either from other farmers using the same equipment or from ad hoc training centres.

A researcher in agro-economics at CIRAD since 1981, Michel Havard spent more than 20 years working in Africa. He has written severaI books and articles on agricultural mechanisation and animal traction in household farming.

29,3 million farm tractors were in service worldwide in 2007

3,5 million tractors (seven times more than at present) would be needed to bring Africa up to the level of other regions

2 to 4 hours a day: that is the average time women save when they use a multifunctional platform

5% of arable land is irrigated in Africa, compared with 30% in other developing regions

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All this was ploughed in just 1 week. I’m seri-ous – just a week!” Pointing to a field of green maize that stretches as far as the eye can see, Rebecca Kamgue, president of Coopaferlos, a

women farmers’ cooperative in Mélong, 130 km west of Douala in Cameroon, explains how the arrival of a trac-tor sparked a small agricultural revolution. “This field is 11 ha. You can see that it was impossible to work such a large area by hoe”, adds Régine Ndemanzé, one of the 3,000 women who belong to the cooperative. The group could have produced even better results if the whole chain has been mechanised. “We prepared 20 ha of land”, said the president. “But without a mechanical seeder, we could only plant 11 ha by hand.”

At a brisk pace, Kamgue heads towards another plot 100 m further off. Here, watermelon seedlings have just been planted out on 2 ha. Next to them, weeds are starting to take over the 3 ha where tomatoes have been harvested. Plots that were already ploughed have had to be abandoned due to flooding caused by unexpected

downpours in October. Tomatoes, chillies, aubergines, watermelon, peppers, ginger – each crop stretches over several hectares.

A gift from IndiaNever before had Coopaferlos farmed such large

expanses of land. “Thanks to this machine, we have gone from less than 2 ha in 2006 to 50 ha this year”, says Kamgue, who was recently elected to the Chamber of Agriculture. In the absence of any more available land in Mélong, the women have gone to Santchou, 25 km away, to rent other plots to farm. At this site, the cooperative expects to reach and rapidly exceed 200 ha of community plantations. There has also been progress on individual farms, with some women working over 5 ha, five times more than 4 years ago. “You just have to pay for the fuel if you want the tractor to work your plots”, explains Régine Ndemanzé.

This vehicle was one of a batch of 60 Sonalika trac-tors received by Cameroon as a gift from the Indian

Women and a tractorThe gift of a tractor has enabled a women’s cooperative in Cameroon to increase the amount of land it farms 25-fold in 4 years, thus ensuring financial independence for its members.

FIELD REPORT FROM CAMEROON

From left to right:

A male farmer has offered to drive the tractor and take care of maintenance.

This maize field has been ploughed using a tractor, but the other work must be done by hand.

A meeting of cooperative members

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government in April 2006. The donor country wanted to test the machinery with a view to setting up a local assembly plant in Cameroon. By a happy coincidence, during a field visit shortly before to check on the use of motor pumps given to farmers, the committee sent by the Ministry of Agriculture was highly impressed by the output of Kamgue’s collective interest group (CIG). “The head of the committee called the ministry in Yaoundé and asked that our CIG be put on the list of recipients for the tractors.” The cooperative’s contribution was limited to FCFA1.5 million (€2,287) for customs duties. Kouongun, one of the few male members of the cooperative, offered to act as the tractor driver: “I paid FCFA200 000 (€305) for a 3-month training course and information on break-downs”, he said. Women are now gradually starting to drive the tractors as well.

But everything is not perfect for the women farmers of Mélong – the plough, designed for Indian rice fields is not suited to the soil and the tall weeds that grow here. The women have had to clear the weeds by hand before tilling the soil. The tractor was delivered without any accesso-ries, so until the CIG can afford to buy them, it is hiring a disc plough, seeder and trailer.

Part of the cooperative’s revenue is equally shared among the members, with payment generally made just before the start of the school year. “This money means we can pay for our children’s education, from primary school to university, without having to turn to our hus-bands”, says Julienne Ouandji. “Children who, just a few years ago were on the verge of leaving school due to lack of money, have now gone back to class”, adds Kamgue. This year, more than FCFA11 million (€16,768) has been distributed among the members. The rest of the profits goes into a welfare fund, which provides financial help in hard times.

Étienne Tassé

To find out more

ase

Regional portal on Access to Energy Services (AES)

http://energyaccessafrica.org

CTA

• integrating Mechanisation in sustainable

agricultural development strategies

1998. 306 pp.

http://tinyurl.com/39zel7l

CuMa benin www.cumabenin.com

fao

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division:

Agricultural Mechanization

http://tinyurl.com/28b34pw

• agricultural Mechanization in africa:

Time for action

FAO/UNIDO, 2008. 36 pp.

Downloadable as PDF file from:

http://tinyurl.com/3y4r58t

• rural transport and traction enterprises

for improved livelihoods

FAO, 2008. 104 pp.


http://tinyurl.com/354fw2g

• farm power and Mechanization

for small farms in sub-saharan africa

FAO, 2006. 21 pp.


http://tinyurl.com/3aykh4m

• agricultural mechanization in Mali and ghana:

strategies, experiences and lessons

for sustained impacts

FAO, 2010. 69 pp.


http://tinyurl.com/2gxew2j

• guidelines for policy makers and service

providers: experiences from Kenya,

pakistan and brazil

FAO, 2009. 67 pp.


http://tinyurl.com/2e85v9g

farm Machinery industrial research Corp. • agricultural Mechanization in asia,

africa and latin america

Quarterly journal

http://tinyurl.com/3yzvz9t

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As every school child knows, plants need light, water and soil to grow. Or do they? Pupils in schools as far from each other as Guyana and

Zimbabwe are learning that flowers and vegetables can thrive without any soil at all, often producing much healthier plants and bigger yields. Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro, water, and ponos, labour) is the term given to soil-less cultivation, and it is taking off in a number of ACP countries. The technique, which involves growing plants in water laced with nutrients, or in an inert medium such as gravel or perlite, is particu-larly well suited to locations where land is scarce or soil is of poor quality. One of the ear-liest hydroponic systems was set up back in the 1930s to grow vegetables for airline pas-sengers on Wake Island, a rocky atoll in the Pacific Ocean used as a refueling stop.

Crops grown this way – usually plants such as tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, herbs and flowers – require a fraction of the space of those grown in the ground. In soil, vegetables grow a large root system to search for food and water. With hydro-ponics, food and water are fed directly to the roots, enabling plants to spend more energy growing the part above the surface. Because they have smaller roots, plants can be grown much closer together. In general, hydroponic gardens require about 20% of the overall space required of soil gardens for the same output. At some hydroponic plantations in the Caribbean, herb and vegetable plants are stacked on top of each

other to make towers, each plant fed by pipes bearing nutrient-rich water.

Small spacesHydroponic systems can be highly sophis-

ticated, with computerised nutrient delivery, or far more simple. Beds for crops grown in water can be made from locally available materials such as discarded tyres or plas-tic containers and soil-less substrates can be made of rice hulls and ground coconut husks. A CTA-funded hydroponics workshop held in Kiribati in 2008 explored the scope for using low-cost organic compost made from seaweed, copra mill and fish waste.

Given the use it makes of small spaces, hydroponic cultivation is especially suited to urban and peri-urban settings, with plots on roof-top gardens, balconies and in back yards. One of the chief merits of soil-less cultivation is that it produces higher yields. A 1-acre (0.4 ha) hydroponics greenhouse produces the same output as 10 acres (4 ha) of fields, according to one US study. Other advantages include little or no weeding – since plants grow in a near sterile environ-ment – clean conditions for planting and harvesting, no hard labour for ploughing and digging, and optimum use of water, which stays in the system and can be reused.

Consistent suppliesOn a commercial scale, hydroponics is

often practised inside greenhouses, which regulate temperature, humidity, and carbon

dioxide levels to produce the highest levels of growth and productivity. Plants grown this way have another important asset. Con-sistent production is assured, regardless of outside conditions such as weather. This is proving an important factor for producers in the Caribbean who are now able to guar-antee constant supplies of top quality pro-duce to tourist outlets. In Jamaica, farmers have been given training in the technique, and a hydroponic greenhouse farm in Middlesex, St Elizabeth is producing vegeta-bles to supply some of the island’s leading hotels. Yields are more than twice those of similar-sized traditional farms. At St Andrew

and Manchester, hydroponic greenhouse production is growing tomatoes, lettuce and strawberries.

But in spite of the undoubted benefits, hydroponic cultivation is not without its drawbacks. Systems generally involve high investment and are therefore better suited to higher value crops than those cultivated by many ACP farmers. The process involved is technical, and people involved need to be trained in procedures such as preparing nutrient solutions and maintaining correct acidity levels. Hydroponic units require elec-tricity or some alternative source of energy, as well as additional inputs to maintain optimum temperature. Growing soil-less crops is an interesting technique for those in a position to make the investment in time, cash and expertise. But hydroponics is not for the faint-hearted!

Growing plants in nutrient solutions is attracting growing interest in some ACP countries. Hydroponic vegetables are prolific and consistently reliable, and they also need less land and water. But growing soil-less crops comes at a price.

HYDROPONICS

Crops without soilFOCUS


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Commodity marketsThe significant food price increases of 2007-2008 and their impact on food security and poverty in developing countries prompted a shift in policy thinking towards making global markets less fragile and more resilient. This biennial Commodity Market Review (CMR) is devoted to exploring a variety of issues relevant to the recent price surge. It draws a number of lessons from the price episode and the policy reactions.

Commodity Market Review 2009-2010 FAO, 2010, 198 pp. ISBN 978-92-5-106552-5 US$45 • €33 Earthprint Ltd PO Box 119 Stevenage Hertfordshire SG1 4TP UK Fax: +44 1438 748 844 [email protected] www.earthprint.com

ICTs and cooperativesICT Update devotes an issue to

cooperatives and the services that ICTs can offer them. For example, a new open-source software, used in Mexico, is helping coffee cooperatives in production control with a view to obtaining or maintaining certification. Once the programme has been installed on his or her mobile telephone, the inspector follows the instructions and enters the answers directly, either verbally or in written form. Photos, videos and additional comments can also be uploaded.

Cooperatives ICT Update number 55 http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/55

CTA catalogueThe print version of the catalogue

for CTA publications for 2010 is available free of charge.

The Publications Catalogue 2010: Supplement CTA, 2010 ISBN 978-92-9081-453-5 CTA number 101 0 credit points

livestock and rice

■ When it comes to greenhouse gases, most of the attention is focused on carbon dioxide, and the ways in which fossil fuels contribute to its production. But methane (CH4), a gas produced by a number of sources, also has a major share of the blame for climate change, and recent years have seen increasing recog-nition that reducing CH4 emissions may offer a more efficient and cost-effective means of mitigation. Methane is estimated to be respon-sible for about one-fifth of man-made global warming. Per kilo, it is 25 times more powerful than CO2 over a 100-year time horizon.

Agriculture plays a particularly strong role in methane production, which is derived from the anaerobic metabolism of micro-organisms, whether in wetlands or rice fields, manure or wastewater, or the digestive systems of cattle and other ruminant animals.

Each chapter in this book examines some of the major natural sources of methane. Rice cul-tivation, often in waterlogged soils, provides perfect conditions for methane production.

Ruminant livestock, such as cattle, sheep, goats and deer, produce CH4 as a by-product of feed fermentation in their rumens. Livestock manure and wastewater can produce signifi-cant sources of the gas. Whatever the cause, there is scope for mitigation, and some of the potential approaches are explored. Changes in livestock diet could bring about reductions in methane emissions, and better management of manure and wastewater could make a valu-able contribution. Globally, emissions could be reduced by some 30% if continuously flooded ricefields were drained at least once during the season, and if rice straw were applied.

inside and outside

■ Many smallholder farmers producing for the export market are embedded in global value chains with strong multinational firms that increasingly exercise power. This book takes the example of small-scale cocoa farmers in Ghana to look at how smallholder producers may or may not benefit from being inserted in a global value chain that is increasingly driven by multinational cocoa processors and choco-late manufacturers. Attempting to unravel

upgrading opportunities for small-scale cocoa farmers in Ghana, the author looks at the different power relations in which many cocoa pro-ducers find themselves.

Ghana, the world’s second largest producer of cocoa, where around 30% of total earnings come from export of this commodity, offers an interest-ing case because, unlike other West African countries, its cocoa sector is only partially liberalised. The state still plays a strong role in the cocoa market. Examining the position of producers here offers scope for a

greater understanding of the implications of so-called hybrid governance structures, where both public and private actors play a role. The study explores the processes of inclusion and exclusion of cocoa farmers in value chains and highlights some of the risks in each case.

The Risks of Inclusion: Shifts in Governance Processes and Upgrading Opportunities for Small-scale Cocoa Farmers in Ghana By A Laven KIT, 2010. 256 pp. ISBN 978-94-6022-111-8 US$31.95 • €23 KIT Publishers PO Box 95001 1090 HA Amsterdam The Netherlands www.kit.nl [email protected]

Methane and Climate Change Edited By D Reay, P Smith & A van Amstel Earthscan, 2010. 262 pp. ISBN 978-1-84407-823-3 GBP49.99 • €57 Earthscan Dunstan House 14a St Cross Street, London EC1N 8XA, UK Fax: +44 (0)20 7242 1474 www.earthscan.co.uk

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Emergency markets

■ When human disaster strikes, develop-ing or restoring market systems can be just as important as relief distribution and other emergency help. Lack of market analysis in humanitarian programmmes may actually damage the livelihoods, jobs and businesses on which people’s long-term survival and security depends. Well-intentioned responses can harm local people by distorting markets and income sources. For example, prolonged relief of food and non-food products may aggravate the natural depression of a local economy caused by people’s loss of income in an emergency. And ill-considered cash transfers may intensify price rises caused by local shortages of essential goods.

The Emergency Market Mapping and Analysis Toolkit (EMMA) is a set of tools pre-sented in the form of a manual offering guid-ance to help emergency staff carry out rapid

assessments of market systems in the first few weeks of a crisis. The toolkit, which includes a CD-ROM, is designed to be adaptable, and speed-oriented, offering quick market-based support options such as local procurement, so that opportunities to bolster future recovery in the local economy are not missed. The manual takes the reader through 10 practical steps, offering guidance for understanding market implications in an emergency. Acknowledging that this may be a novel approach for many people involved in humanitarian work, the toolkit assumes little prior market knowl-edge and presents information with plenty of graphics and simple explanations.

Emergency Market Mapping and Analysis Toolkit By M Albu Practical Action, 2010. 218 pp. ISBN 978-1-85339-699-1 GBP17.96 • €21 Practical Action Publishing Bourton Hall Bourton-on-Dunsmore Rugby warwickshire CV23 9qZ UK Fax: +44 1926 634502 [email protected] www.developmentbookshop.com

Setting a priceThe environment is crucial to people in developing countries, not just to their way of life, but also to their incomes. Starting from the premise that economics is important for understanding and influencing environmental behaviour, the author asks a number of questions. How can we compare the value of environmental benefits to the costs of safeguarding them? How can we assess the impacts of environmental action on the poor? How should we share the costs of environmental improvements? The answers are reached by examining a variety of concrete situations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

Valuing the Environment Economics for a Sustainable Future + CD ROM By D Glover IDRC, 2010. 120 pp. ISBN 978-1-55250-476-5 US$20 • €15 IDRC PO Box 8500 Ottawa, ON , Canada K1G 3H9 Fax: (+1-613) 238-7230 [email protected] www.idrc.ca

Natural resourcesA new monthly newsletter on natural resources and the environment offers information about important issues and events, new publications and projects, as well as interviews with experts on various issues related to bioenergy, climate change, genetic resources and biodiversity, land resources, land tenure and water resources. It can be dowloaded free of charge

Natural Resources and Environment Newsletter FAO, 2010. 4 p. www.fao.org/nr/nr-home/en

Fishing gearIn marine areas throughout the globe, increasing quantities of fishing gear are being lost, abandoned or discarded in some other way. Although it is hard to obtain clear data for fishing areas off the coast of Africa, this form of waste is having a serious impact on the marine environment, polluting beaches and posing a danger to small and large boats and their crews. A new report outlines the problem and explores steps needed to ensure that this worrying trend is halted in its tracks.

Abandoned, Lost or Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear By R. Cappell, T. Huntingdon & G. Macfadyen FAO, 2010. 160 pp. ISBN 978-92-5-106196-1 €30 Downloadable as PDF file from: http://tinyurl.com/2vxgfyg For Earthprint’s address, see page 21

Community video

■ Participatory video (PV) can play an important role in helping local communities to advocate for their rights, and Insightshare, a leader in the field, just made the process easier by producing a toolkit. Available free to download on-line, this practical guide is aimed at community leaders hoping to strengthen their work through a rights-based approach to participatory video.

Simple to use and full of links to videos and photostories, the toolkit offers exercises and techniques, checklists, templates and resource lists. Users can click on case studies to see how other communities have used PV to further their causes. One shows how the Batwa indigenous community in Uganda has been using participatory video to cam-paign for land after being expelled from their ancestral forests. In South Africa, residents of a tea estate in Inanda show how PV has helped them to obtain a safe water supply, and in Burkina Faso, a photostory documents midwives and health workers who have been trained in community video as a way of fos-tering safer motherhood.

A Rights-Based Approach to Participatory Video Insightshare Downloadable free from: http://tinyurl.com/3xylyse

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Protection – values and costs

■ The past half century has seen the planet change more drastically than at any other time in history due to human intervention. Needless to say, the effects have been over-whelmingly negative, with estimates that around 60% of the world’s ecosystem services are now being degraded or used in an unsus-tainable manner.

One solution increasingly being pursued is the establishment of protected areas (PAs), on land and sea. Rapidly developing as the cornerstones of conservation, these national parks and nature reserves act as refuges for species and ecological processes. Terrestrial protected areas now cover more than 13% of the world’s land surface and over 12% of marine coastal areas. In 2004, 188 signato-ries to the Convention on Biological Diversity pledged to expand the world’s protected areas even further.

This book looks at the development of PAs since the first national parks were set up in the 19th century. It discusses the debate over their impact on local communities, exploring charges that some protected areas have actually worked against the interests of local people by forcing them to relocate, or removing their source of income. And it analyses the costs and benefits of protection. With case studies from around the world, including Lake Malawi and Kiunga Marine National Reserve, Kenya, the authors consider the role of protected areas in poverty reduction strategies. And while few PAs are perfect, the book draws the overall conclusion that they can do much to offset the damage wrought by the human hand.

Arguments for Protected Areas Multiple Benefits for Conservation Use Edited by N Dudly & S Stolton Earthscan, 2010. 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-84407-881-3 GBP24.99 • €29 For Earthscan’s address, see page 21

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projects, with advice on the hydrology, engineering, agronomy, economics and local organisation and rules.

Guidelines on spate irrigation By J M Faurès, A M Haile, P Lawrence, M Slaman & J M Van Steenbergen FAO, 2010, 252 pp. ISBN 978-92-5-106608-9 US$80 • €58 For Earthprint’s address, see page 21

An ancient techniqueSpate irrigation has evolved over the centuries and provided rural populations in arid and semi-arid regions with an ingenious way to manage their scarce water resources. It involves diverting floodwater from its river bed and channelling it into basins. The unpredictable nature and the magnitude of spate floods mean that the technique requires special skills. These guidelines aim to help planners design and manage spate irrigation

Useful wasteRecycling urban wastewater and using it to grow food crops can help mitigate water scarcity problems and reduce water pollution, but the practice is not being as widely implemented as it should. A report from FAO shows how safely harnessing wastewater for food production can offer a way to alleviate competition between cities and agriculture for water in regions of growing water scarcity.

Wealth of Waste: the economics of wastewater use in agriculture By S Koo-Oshima, I Heinz & J winpenny FAO, 2010. 146 pp. ISBN 978-92-5-106578-5 US$35 • €26 For Earthprint’s address, see page 21

local management

■ Management of natural resources such as wildlife, forests and fisheries has undergone considerable change in many parts of Africa, with numerous initiatives introduced to reform state-based centralised management systems and give more control to local institutions. In some eastern and southern African countries, these innovative approaches to natural resource management (NRM) have proved to be success-ful, generating other participatory NRM experi-ments in their wake. Zimbabwe’s CAMPFIRE programme has been particularly influential, producing revenues for local communities from wildlife and tourism. Adapting the formula to take account of some of its weaknesses, Namibia’s communal conservancies have resulted in rapid-ly increasing local revenues and improved levels of wildlife stocks. In Tanzania, reforms carried out in the 1990s have led to collective rights for forest management, resulting in both environ-mental and community benefits.

Globally, there is growing evidence that local communities often do a better job than central government in managing resources, and at a fraction of the cost. But as this book reveals, there is still a long way to go when it comes to handing NRM down to the people most closely concerned. In many parts of Africa, there is still widespread resistance to reform, largely based on competing interests and the knowledge that natural resources are a valuable commodity.

Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land The Politics of Natural Resource Governance in Africa Edited by F Nelson Earthscan/IUCN, 2010. 352 pp. ISBN 978-1-84407-916-2 GBP60 • €69 For Earthscan’s address, see page 21

Hands off!

■ The experience of the San people in Southern Africa, whose traditional use of the local plant hoodia as an appetite suppressant was capitalised on by a UK company who developed it as a slimming aid, has become emblematic of cases of biopiracy. The term is now widely used to describe the unauthor-ised extraction of biological resources, such as plants with medicinal properties, as well as associated traditional knowledge from indigenous peoples and local communi-ties. It may also refer to the patenting of spurious ‘inventions’ based on such knowl-edge or resources, more often than not with no compensation paid to their real custodians.

With international vigilance now more acute, blatant cases of biopiracy are going unpunished less frequently. But there are plenty of border-line cases, such as the dis-pute over a peanut registered in the US that is arguably the fruit of crossbreeding in the 1950s with two other peanut varieties from Brazil and Malawi.

By examining a wide range of case studies – the result of interviews and field-work with researchers, government, industry, local farmers, healers and indigenous peo-ple – the author documents events that have occurred in biopiracy and bioprospecting con-troversies. Among recommendations are ways forward for international negotiators, NGO and interest groups, researchers and indus-try. But there are also suggestions about what local communities themselves can do to pro-tect their natural heritage from opportunists.

Confronting Biopiracy Challenges, Cases and International Debates By D F Robinson Earthscan, 2010. 208 pp. ISBN 978-1-84407-722-9 GBP60 • €69 For Earthscan’s address, see page 21

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Knowledge sharingThis bulletin presents four examples on how projects and organisations in West Africa encourage knowledge sharing and capacity development in land resource management. Examining soil and water conservation in southern Mali, farmer-managed natural regeneration in Niger, integrated soil fertility management in Togo and agricultural practices of the Mahi people in Benin, the report concludes that knowledge management is usually not planned but happens on an ad hoc basis.

Natural Resource Management in West Africa Towards a Knowledge Management Strategy By S Nederlof & F van der Pol KIT, 2010. 96 pp. ISBN 978-94-6022-094-4 US$35 • €26 For KIT’s address, see page 21

An interesting optionPlantation forests are often held to be poor substitutes for natural forests, particularly for biodiversity conservation, carbon storage and other non-timber goods and services. Yet they can play a vital role in the provision of ecosystem services, when compared to agriculture and other forms of land use or when natural forests have been degraded. As well as exploring the benefits of plantation forests, including examples from the tropics, this book offers guidance for plantation managers, policy-makers and conservation practitioners.

Ecosystem Goods and Services from Plantation Forests Edited By J Bauhus, P van der Meer & M Kanninen GBP49.99 • €57 Earthscan, 2010. 240 pp. ISBN 978-18-4971-168-5 For Earthscan’s address, see page 21

Recipes for success ■ A new book takes

a refreshingly positive look at the challenge of improving agricul-tural performance and incomes in Africa, adopting the half-full glass approach as opposed to the half-empty one. Rather than repeating a dis-mal list of failures, as many past studies have done, this volume iden-tifies episodes of successful agricultural growth in Africa and singles out processes, practices, and policies that could lead to more of the same in the future. Through examples of successful maize farming in East and southern Africa, cassava cultivation across the middle belt of Africa, cotton growing in West Africa, horti-culture in Kenya, and dairy production in East Africa, a picture begins to emerge of hope and solid growth.

Contributors, who include agricultural spe-cialists and politicians, help to narrow down just what it takes to increase agricultural pro-ductivity, raise rural incomes and stimulate growth in other economic sectors. Two key factors are revealed as being important for sus-tained agricultural output, and both public and private sectors can help bring them about. The first is agricultural research, to provide more productive and sustainable technologies. The

other is a policy framework that fosters market incentives for increasing production.

Riches from the forest

■ Forest products other than timber feature prominently in the health and nutrition of many rural populations and often provide an important source of income. Known as non-timber forest products (NTFPs), these wild products are used as medicines, cosmetics, drinks, foods and for a host of other purposes. But though this sector is attracting growing interest, many aspects are still largely unregu-lated, a factor that can give rise to poor man-agement of the resource and its trade. Areas that need further definition include sustainable harvesting, product quality and ownership.

Though some countries have attempted to introduce policies and regulations governing production and trade of NTFPs, little has been done to draw that information together to assess what common patterns emerge. A pub-lication that attempts to do just that is now available. It presents 13 country or regional case studies that examine experiences with NTFP regulation, among them examples from Cameroon, Fiji, Nigeria and South Africa. In doing so, it examines the impact of different policy approaches – good and bad – the influence of globalisation and relationships between NTFP regulation, land tenure and resource rights.

Successes in African Agriculture: Lessons for the Future Edited by S Haggblade & P B R Hazell International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2010. 464 pp. ISBN 978-080189503 US$45 • €33 Johns Hopkins University Press c/o Hopkins Fulfillment Service PO Box 50370 Baltimore Maryland 21211-4370 USA Fax: +1-410-516-6998 [email protected] www.press.jhu.edu

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HOW TO OBTAIN PUBLICATIONSCTA publications mentioned in Spore are marked by the green leaf symbol, and these are available free-of-charge to subscribers to CTA’s Publications Distribution Service (PDS). Other readers can buy these titles from CTA’s commercial distributor. Only agricultural and rural development organisations and individuals resident in ACP countries can apply for PDS subscriptions. Each PDS subscriber is assigned a certain number of credit points annually for purchasing publications on CTA’s list. The list of CTA publications can be consulted on CTA’s electronic catalogue: www.cta.intAll other publications, indicated by a square, are available from the publishers listed, or through commercial booksellers.Commercial distributorSMI (Distribution Services) Ltd PO Box 119 Stevenage Hertfordshire SG1 4TP United Kingdom Fax: + 44 1438 748844 Email: [email protected] website: www.earthprint.com

Wild Product Governance Finding Policies that work for Non-Timber Forest Products Edited by S A Laird , R McLain & Rachel P. wynberg Earthscan, 2010. 352 pp. ISBN 978-1-84407-500-3 GBP65 • €75 For Earthscan’s address, see page 21


A framework contract signed this year marks the start of a new partnership between CTA and Engineers Without Borders in Cameroon (EWB, www.isf-cameroun.org) to publish a series of practical booklets in English and French – the PRO-AGRO series (read page 26)

5 questions for giaCoMo raMbaldiSenior Programme Coordinator at CTA

Key dates1982 Gabon: start of career as

associate expert for FAO

1989 Zimbabwe: my view of ‘development’ changes

1992 Kenya: marriage to Manuela

2000 Philippines: launch of my first website

2007 Italy: winner of world Summit Award

new pro-agro series launched!

1 What is participatory mapping?It is a practice dealing with

generating, managing, analysing and communicating spatial information in a bottom-up mode. It empowers communities by adding value and authority to local spatial knowledge.

2 How does it help decision-making?

When it comes to accessing, using and/or managing natural resources, spatial dimensions always influence decision-making. Maps are an accepted support to analysing spatially defined issues and getting the broader view which is essential in the process of making decisions.

3 What are the potential benefits to rural communities?

The process leading to the production of maps is more important than the outputs themselves. The process is quite motivating and often leads to stronger identity and cohesion among community members. On top of that, maps are powerful (and quite convincing) media which can be used to convey local concerns and aspirations to decision- and policy-makers.

4 How can participatory mapping have long-lasting impacts?

Good practice recommends performing participatory mapping activities only within the context of a long-lasting initiative

having resources to continue beyond map-making. It is a moral obligation of those accompanying the communities to secure resources ensuring the continuation of the initiative to address new realities (positive and maybe negative) which may emerge in the process.

5 What steps can be taken to prevent third parties from using

this information to their own advantage?Good practice recommends that those assisting knowledge holders in the process are trusted intermediaries and that prior informed consent is obtained. Map-making is a political process which can have positive or negative impacts. Drawing a line on a map may ignite conflict. How many wars have been fought over a line? Intermediaries facilitating map-making processes should be aware of these implications and operate at the highest ethical standards. Being or not being on a map is a trade-off. Nowadays if you are not on a map, you do not exist.

After a long career in several countries of Africa and South-East Asia, Giacomo joined CTA in 2003 when he was appointed Programme Coordinator. Currently Senior Coordinator, he has responsibility for the Centre’s activities linked to sustainable natural resource management and promoting new ICTs, including participatory mapping and Web 2.0.

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Always tuned into the needs of its benefi-ciaries, the Centre is organising a training course in Papua New Guinea next January on the production of extension materials. Documents aimed at producers are often drawn up in Ministry of Agriculture offices and distributed without asking if they will be really useful to the people at whom they are aimed. The Centre takes a different approach.

During this course, participants will have the opportunity to go out into the field and talk to producers so as to pinpoint their needs and expectations regarding agricul-tural information. They will then develop documents whose format will be adapted

to the various levels of literacy encoun-tered. In the final stage, participants will return to the field to test and endorse the publications and check their relevance and usefulness.

This participatory approach has already been tried and tested during training courses organised in a number of ACP countries, notably the Dominican Republic, Fiji, Uganda and Zambia. Convinced that this system is effective, the Centre has pledged to continue to work in this direc-tion in 2011.

There are many obstacles to trade and competitiveness for West African products on regional markets: transport costs, admin-istrative red tape, ‘voluntary contributions’ for the passage of goods, official taxes to be paid…

The Conference of Ministers of Agriculture for West and Central Africa (CMA-WCA), the Network of West and Central African Journalists for Agriculture (REJAOCA), the regional observatory on the cattle-meat sec-tor in West Africa and CTA explored these problems in 2008, helping journalists to see the situation for themselves along the cattle-meat export corridor between Bamako and Dakar. The media campaign that followed has produced results. Senegal, for example, has lowered VAT on livestock imported from Mali.

The experience will be repeated in 2011. This time it will focus on fruit exports from Guinea to Senegal. A group of journalists will be guided by transporters and exporters to give them a better understanding of the hurdles that these people face. Through this initiative, CTA and its partners hope to raise media awareness of problems in the sector, with hopes for a new media campaign to remove some of the constraints observed.

For several years, the Centre has carried out needs assessment studies for informa-tion in more than 60 ACP countries. To date, over 400 institutions have expressed the need to implement information and communication management (ICM) strat-egies in order to attain their objectives. How to answer this need? By developing two manuals on the subject, with the help of education and ICM experts. The first is aimed at trainers, while the second tar-gets users. CTA recently tested both manu-als in Ghana among about thirty political decision-makers from five different coun-tries and representatives from ministries, universities, research centres, farmers’ organisations and NGOs. This has also been an opportunity for the Centre to form partnerships with important institu-tions such as RUFORUM – a consortium of 25 universities of East and southern Africa – FAO and FARA, all of which have shown keen interest in the initiative.

For more information, see http://icmpolicy.cta.int

new pro-agro series launched!

• Great success for CTA’s first regional briefings:

more than 700 participants

attended meetings held in

Burkina Faso, Cameroon,

Grenada, Malawi and Uganda.

• The next Brussels Development Briefing will

take place on 26 January on

the ‘Geopolitics of food’

• Launch of new training for Web 2.0 scheduled for

February in Ghana.

SMS

PACIFIC

Closer to the field

TRADE BARRIERS

Take up your pens and your mikes!ICM

institutions speak out

(continued from page 25) Covering a wide range of issues linked to rural and agricul-tural development, such as conservation, livestock keeping, food processing, water and sanitation, the series aims to strengthen the capacities of farmers, rural communities and extension workers in ACP regions. The work involved in collecting and exchanging experiences is reflected in the choice of titles and the participatory way in which the book-lets are produced. Each publication is han-dled by a team of ACP and European authors

and illustrators, and all of them work closely with experts and proofreaders to endorse and finalise the content of each issue before publication. The series seeks to build up knowledge generated in ACP countries and to promote and share this local knowledge with a wider audience.

The first five titles planned for the end of the year will cover the following themes:

• Agricultural crops: Improved production of the plantain banana

• Food processing: Maize production and

processing• Forestry: Rattan production and processing• Agricultural engineering: Making hand

pumps• Livestock: Rearing cane ratsThe booklets will be available through

the usual CTA channels; EWB Cameroon will also distribute them through their own networks. Readers with Internet access will be able to download the publications as PDF files from the CTA virtual library at: www.anancy.net.

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new recipeMr Goodfellow Tsilizani writes to tell us about his family’s taste for sorghum: “I am writing from Malawi with a new taste for sorghum. My family is now eating ‘soso phala’ a sorghum-soybean meal. Malawi’s staple is maize but now it may be losing ground to sorghum. I take 2 kg of fired soyabean and 5 kg of raw sorghum and mill the mixture into flour. The porridge made is more nutritious than that of maize for adults and children. To make it better, add moringa leaf powder.”

Telecentres and fair prices

Mr Sadou Amadou has words of praise for telecentres and adds: “I also think that, for the future of telecentres and for the good of the African economy, it would be a good idea to review pricing for mobile telephones in line with revenue. I don’t understand why a villager should pay the same rate as someone who lives in a town: they don’t have the same income.

If the urban dweller pays a rate of FCFA100, then the villager should

pay FCFA50.” On the same subject, Mr Patrice Yapi N’Cho says: “Congratulations to CTA for creating and setting up rural telecentres. They enable rural communities to keep up with the latest production methods, take example from the success of others and to increase the productivity of farms in developing countries (…). we are sure that this programme will

lead to a better dissemination of information and more successes in the rural world, especially for producers, women and young people.”

Mangoes and jujubesFather Jean Calon writes to tell us: “I have been a French missionary in Chad for more than 50 years, in the south of the country. Before the first rains fall in April, the millet and sorghum storehouses are empty. Fortunately, the abundance of mangoes helps people get through the hungry season and the difficult financial period, by selling them at market. Isn’t there a way of adding another even more significant resource to this one: jujubes (…)?” Father Calon has launched an appeal for cuttings from China to be imported to Chad and grafted on to wild African jujubes. If you are interested in the idea, contact Father Calon at BP 155, Moundou, Chad.

Conserving land Mr Jean Marie Cheuteu looks at the protection of agricultural land in Cameroon and concludes: “There can be no protection for agricultural land (…) so long as Man’s vital need is and remains food, which needs space for its production. In this regard, the authorities as a whole and the

government of the Republic in particular need to be reminded about the principle of protecting agricultural land and conserving or improving its fertility, in order to establish solid foundations for good management of space, so as to tackle the food crisis effectively. The authorities should introduce regulations for the protection and conservation or improvement of farmland fertility, in the same way it does with forests and other public spaces.”

Greenhouse gasOn the subject of ‘Green Doors’ in the village of Ibi, DRC, where people have transformed the savannah into forests and food crops to act as carbon sinks, Mr Willy Bassa Dheu is enthusiastic: “Congratulations to the Ibi village project. Initiatives like these should be encouraged and promoted to achieve the desired aims: a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.”

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