1

The Invention of Brasilia

José Barki PROURB - FAU / UFRJ, Brazil

The commemorative exhibition marking Lucio Costa’s birth centennial that took place at the“Paço Imperial”, Rio de Janeiro, from March to April 2002, showed a surprising collection of studydrafts for the Capital-City of Brasilia (1956/1957) design competition. This paper attempts todocument and critically analyze these sketches from a renewed methodological perspective ofresearch, which scrutinizes its ‘design logic’.

It has been considered that, in the absence of reliable or rigorous accounts of a design process,these graphic records can be inspected, rebuilding a complex chronology of motifs, methods andcircumstances informing the conception and development of an idea. For that matter, besidespresenting these original and unpublished study drafts, a concurrent intent is to investigate theimplications of graphic notations in a practical use for problem structuring, problem solving,creativity and conceptualization in architectural and urban design.

Costa (1995, p.283) argued that he was “...unarmed of design preconceptions and urbantaboos and imbued with the implicit dignity of the program: to invent the definitive capital-cityof the country.” The architect alleged that he did not intend to compete, just rid himself of apossible alternative. The influences, acknowledged long after presenting the “Plano Piloto”[Master Plan], were described as the ‘Ingredients for the Urban Design’: “... The sweet lovingmemories of Paris ... the immense English lawns... the pureness of distant Diamantina [old colonialcity inland Brazil] of the twenties... the fabulous photographs of China in the beginning of thecentury... attractive typical viaducts in the surroundings of the city [New York]...”

The opportunity that arises with the production of a master must be seized aiming tocomprehend, in a general way, the nature of an act that is both difficult and commonplace toarchitects. However, as some authors have been demonstrating, through the examination ofremarkable situations, one could understand the importance of graphic notations for the practiceof the architect.

zbki@ufrj.br

Introduction

The commemorative exhibition marking Lucio Costa’s birth centennial that took place at the“Paço Imperial”, Rio de Janeiro, from March to April 2002, showed a surprising collection ofstudy drafts for the Capital-City of Brasilia (1956/1957) design competition. This paper attemptsto document and critically analyze these sketches from a renewed methodological perspectiveof research, which scrutinizes its ‘design logic’.

It has been considered that, in the absence of reliable or rigorous accounts of a designprocess, these graphic records can be inspected, rebuilding a complex chronology of motifs,methods and circumstances informing the conception and development of an idea. For thatmatter, besides presenting these original and unpublished study drafts, a concurrent intent is toinvestigate the implications of graphic notations in a practical use for problem structuring,problem solving, creativity and conceptualization in architectural and urban design.

The opportunity that arises with the production of a master must be seized aiming tocomprehend, in a general way, the nature of an act that is both difficult and commonplace toarchitects. However, as some authors have been demonstrating, through the examination ofremarkable situations, one could understand the importance of graphic notations for thepractice of the architect.

Graphic Notations and Project Conceptualization

IGraphic records have become a dominant way of conceiving the project in architecture and, in acertain way, is a symbol of what makes the architect’s craft (or ability) a unique practice(ROBBINS, 1994; HERBERT, 1993). However, for architects the most significant graphic records arethose simple and immediate notations, those study notes and outlines mostly done in thebeginning of the design process. The uncountable publications concerning notable architects’personal files demonstrate unequivocally that symbolic importance (SCHÖN, 1983; GÖEL, 1995;GOLDSCHMIDT, 1991; ARNHEIM 1995).

Combining miscellaneous visual elements with distinct nature: schemes, illustrations, wordsand scripted annotations, besides some calculation and math operations, freely, with fewconventions, these graphic notations receive a wide range of definitions. Michael Graves (1997)nominates this kind of notation as a ‘Referential Drawing’, and defines it as a pictographicrecord. That is, an abbreviated mode of registering, with which it is possible to sketch downideas as quick as the thinking process. He compares this mode of materializing representationswith the structuring of a logbook or with a sort of discovery journal. Lucio Costa (1995, pp.242-243), taking advantage of the ambiguous definition of the word “risco” in Portuguese — thatmeans taking risks and also means to sketch something down — states, in the sense that,sketching project ideas presume in fact, taking risks, a tersely phrased adage: “... o risco é umrisco” [... a sketch is a risk].

‘Graphic notations’ are here defined as the initial written annotations together with thefree-hand drawn externalization produced by a designer of envisioned or partially envisionedentities. That is, a first draft or general outline often made as a preparatory consideration, withwhich one takes chances to the emergence of the architectural form. Acknowledging the greateffect or consequence of graphic notations to design processes, visual reasoning, designthinking and form generation, significant issues can be raised. With analysis and interpretation,

2

graphic notations allow one to peer onto the reasons, methods and techniques that are thefunctional and technical aspects of an, otherwise, uncharted creative process.

This approach assumes that architects depend on materialized imagery, drawings and othermeans of drafting media, as fundamental tools in design. In fact, architects regularly use bothimagery, to generate new form combinations, which they represent through sketching, andsketch to generate images of forms in their minds. Through graphic notations, architectsdiscover and consider design issues, speculate to their resolution, generate forms, evaluate whathas been proposed and communicate conclusions (OXMAN, 1997; OXMAN, 2002).

For Arnheim (1995) sketches are tangible visual percepts which, transformed into newmental images, nourish and provoke formal arguments which will, then, provoke a continuousrestructuring of necessarily diffuse mental images. Reinforcing this approach Goldschmidt (1991,1994) understands the schematic graphic notation as fundamental and necessary for projectinception. Göel (1995) argues that architect’s notation is a particular form of symbolic systemcharacterized by semantic and syntactic density and by its ‘ambiguity’. For being ‘dense’ and‘ambiguous’, they become perfectly adequate for idea exploration and for an ‘opportunistic re-interpretation.’ Goldschmidt (1991) identified two ways which architects comprehend graphicnotations: ‘seeing this’ and ‘seeing as’. The second way, proposed as a mode of ‘interactiveimagination’, is treated as a powerful means of interpretation, transformation and creativeemergency. Oxman (1997, 2002) expanded Schön’s (1983) approach — which describes theconception as a ‘reflection-in-action’ in a defined cycle: ‘seeing-moving-seeing’. Rejecting theidea of ‘accidental creation,’ Oxman proposes the notion of ‘visual re-cognition’ in designemergency. Introduces a model for conception cycle, where formal emergency relies on thevisual memory and imagination. Based on these approaches, it could be said that theconception cycle embodies to some extent a sort of ‘cognitive escalate’ that would propelincreased enrichment in design reasoning.

Geometry, measures, scales and orthogonal projections condition the architectural scene. Inthe core of this imposition, the notions of line and alignment are brought to light. For LeonBattista Alberti [1404-1472] architectural conception starts by ‘lineamentis’, a Latin term thatrefers to the mental formulation flowing through drawing. Alberti’s ‘Flying Eye’ emblemperhaps acts as a representative metaphor that summarizes and bases the designer’s attitudefacing a complex demand. Its insignia “QUID TUM”, minimum and subtle, reveals the enormousintellectual effort before the challenge of enunciating project terms and choosing solutionpossibilities, or in other words defining the ‘problem-space’ (ROWE, 187).

II

When carrying out technical drawings, designers make intensive use of instruments and specialpapers and search for preserving scale relations and spatial references. However, when doinggraphical notations they will use any kind of pen or pencil at hand on any available surface,most of the time concentrating in ratios, abstract aspects and formal qualities. Graphs,diagrams, sketches, schemes or any other mode of graphic notation serve, not only to assistmemory, but, mainly, to facilitate inference, problem solving and understanding (SIMON, 1996).

The emergence of architectural form comprehends complex interactions between theengendering of representation and the cognitive processes of interpretation-&-reinterpretationby the same agent who created them (ROWE, 1987). Architects record lines, numbers and wordsin search of ideas and inspect them continuously. In this procedure, they are able to notice orestablish relations, aspects and qualities that had not been anticipated and that, in turn,

3

indicate possibilities of development, revision and refinement. These types of notation areelaborated without any commitment with preset codes.

Despite the fact that they express a particular or personal way of registering ideas,nevertheless, they possess a sort of architectural syntax. Therefore, even with some difficulty,another architect somehow can understand them. However, as they are produced with greatfreedom, some of these sketches will be ambiguous and inexact. Many times a drawing can benot clear even to the person who elaborated it. Nevertheless, the free hand sketch is a veryspecial type of drawing, a creative excitement that opens ways for formal discovery. Thesedrawings will not communicate everything that could be in the mind of the designer because,at that moment, he still does not have complete idea of the way the design will succeed.

One could consider the act of designing as a process of bringing forth and transformingmaterialized representations. For a designer, the production of graphic notations implies threedifferent types of commitment: one with his own bias and working methodology; a second thatdeals with the actual uses and constructive possibilities; and a third that relates to theoutgrowth of a given program demanded by a client. In this succession of states and changes inthe production and transformation of representations, the designers will make use of a variedrepertoire of graphical systems and each one of them with a specific symbolic value.

During the conception deployment, the designer tends to alternate his approach to theproblem. For times he will apprehend it as a fuzzy inquire; and in others as a quest for a specificand well defined issue. It will come out as a constant pendulum movement, oscillating betweendifferent kinds of requirements, alternating periods of free speculation with moments where hewill choose a conservative approach. The manners these conception episodes might occur seemto be closely related with the way the designer will structure the representation of his projectinquest. As soon as the image of the project starts to gain substance, this type of progression issubstituted by a linear and analytical sequence. It could be said that fast graphic notationsconcern the designer in a heuristic instance, as a mode to think. In the action of a designer, whoinvestigates with drawings, one can identify “poiesis”, as productive creation and “mimesis” asa form of creative representation. The sketch is a lucid mode of thinking-&-doing in whichhand, eye and mind participate. Pending conceptualization, thinking means drawing anddrawing means thinking.

When drawing, the designer senses the solution in a direction which he presumes it to be,for he does not know, beforehand, if it will actually be where his reasoning is leading to. Hemakes rational, probable and possible assumptions and seeks convincing himself. He proceedsevaluating them as if they were true and, in the absence of actual knowledge searches forprobabilities of discernment and understanding.

Graphic Notations and the Conceptualization of Brasilia

I

Costa’s skilled hand allied with what Goldschmidt (1994) defines as ‘design visual thinking’enables him to use simple graphic records to implement the remarkable ‘invention’ of theCapital-City. It could not be different, since for Costa (1995), it is through drawing that theobservation habit, the analytical spirit and the need for precision are developed. Costa (1995)also would assert that through drawing an operative ‘pure fantasy’ could be brought to bear.Indeed, this particular kind of ‘active imagination’ — the sort of imagination the philosopherBachelard would propose as an imagination with volition — would empower the talent forinvention. It is also evident that one who cultivates the habit of imagining and thinking over

4

issues that he finds interesting shall improve his abilities to develop authentic and originalconnections.

The set of unpublished graphic notations for the conception of Brasilia shows drawings andrecords that were not surely done aiming at a clear delineation for the general public. However,they still keep the marks of its emergence. These lines are different from the defined ones,which come out continuous and uniformly, either in the analysis sketches, or in the explanationoutlines that are part of the master plan presented. The lines of these notations are fast andsometimes nervous, marking the paper with the expressiveness of a hand that tries and adjustsformal alternatives for an idealization that, according to Costa (1995, p.282): “...it was notsearched but has emerged, so to speak, already set.”1 Nonetheless, the architect concurrentlyreasoned that his “suggestion” had been deeply analyzed and intensively resolved.2

The strength of these notations comes from the experimentation that configures the shapeof an idealization. Costa combines unmistakable outlines or schematic regulators. He thenwould associate them to the memories and lived experiences of places and scales progressivelyadjusting his composite. Segre (1998) holds that the conception of Brasilia is an endless utopianideal. The author states that Costa’s project constitutes a prominent link between tradition andmodernity resulting in the only recognized new paradigm in terms of an urban image ideal.

II

To define an analytical methodology that, through graphic notations, can disclose a conceptionprocess is neither a simple nor an obvious task. Pauly (1987), studying Le Corbusier’s plans anddocuments for Ronchamp Chapel, introduced an original and direct method of working withdrawings and sketches. The author organized, chronologically, graphic material and writtendeclarations made by the architect himself in order to propose a conceivable explanation forthe decision making process. In her analysis, Pauly searched unusual connections givingemphasis to references and lived experiences that could have influenced design intention. Later,Herbert (1993) applied a cognitive processing model to the material set forth by Pauly in orderto reconstruct systematically Le Corbusier’s first drawing. His goal was to describe identifiablecommon cycles in the design process.

Galle and Kovács (1996) proposed an analysis method labeled as RPA (Replication ProtocolAnalysis) for the study of ‘real world design thinking.’ They claim that this method allows oneto recreate possible creative decision paths that might have occurred in the development of anidea. Moreover, that it can be of great utility when used as a mental exercise support in projectstudy for advanced classes.

In light of the above approaches, one could consider that graphic notations could beanalyzed and interpreted in order to reveal a probable creative development. Alternatively, inother words, that it is possible to treat a graphic notation as an open work-in-progress,available and ready to be reinterpreted. For this action, which is interpretative but also critical,establishing relations cause to become necessary. Not through a systematic and uniformmethodology, but through an analytical process based in a continuous movement betweenexternal references and internal matters of the graphic notation itself. The chosen approachwas a sort of ‘interference’ in the drawing, attempting to explain and understand it byredrawing and substituting it, in order to unravel some of the motives, methods and techniquesthat have established the creative process mechanics. Therefore, in this piece of work themethod proposed could be defined as an ‘ideogrammatic reduction.’ The method refers to theOxman’s (2002) ‘visual re-cognition’ model, aiming at the main idea, re-imagining its motivation

5

and intention and then translating it into the simplest geometrical scheme, searching tofacilitate a creative appreciation (BARKI, 2003).

III

Five different stages can be recognized in the course of creation (MOLES, 1900):

Documentation or knowledge assimilation;Incubation or mobilizing concerns;Illumination or construction of a statement and its alternative solutions;Verification or problem retake and progressive testing of the alternatives and, finally,Formulation or concrete realization of the proposal.

Incubation would be the stage when it is possible to unclearly premeditate and, concerningCosta’s conception, would be the moment when he internalizes and processes those ingredients,which will result in his idealization. The idealization’s data organization by itself even if itappears to be very simplified might indicate the course of his creation and his concern aboutclearly showing his idea.

Costa (1995, p.283) argued that he was “...unarmed of design preconceptions and urbantaboos and imbued with the implicit dignity of the program: to invent the definitive capital-cityof the country.”3 The architect alleged that he did not intend to compete, just rid himself of apossible alternative.4 The influences, acknowledged long after presenting the “Plano Piloto”[Master Plan], were described as the ‘Ingredients for the Urban Design’: “... The sweet lovingmemories of Paris ... the immense English lawns... the pureness of distant Diamantina [oldcolonial city inland Brazil] of the twenties... the fabulous photographs of China in the beginningof the century... attractive typical viaducts in the surroundings of the city [New York]...”5

IV

Axis and Triangles (see illustration1):What would be the first study developed for Brasilia has no records of scales or date and

was made with pencil over legal size paper, and shows simpler assertive when compared to thefinal draft. There shows indications of two axis developing distinctively from one another butwhich are presented as two subdivided rectangular fields intersecting each other. One of themcontains a triangular element marked by three circles, which might have been the origin for themonumental square of “Três Poderes” [the ‘Three Powers’: executive, legislative and judiciary].From the triangle of “Três Poderes” — which consists in the head of the city — emerge the“Esplanada” [Esplanade]. A flat and broad open stretch especially proposed to accommodateministries and monumental (cathedral, etc.) buildings. Applying Goldschmidt nomenclature, two‘arguments’ can be proposed for this study: 1) a sort of ‘civic citadel’ as the ‘head’ of the town,2) the intersection of both axis by over positioning them. The bastion or ‘civic citadel’ willanchor and structure the monumental axis with the esplanade. The over positioning of axiswould result in a city with three ‘orders’ of occupation: axis (monumental and residential) andintersection (communal city center). Two basic ‘design moves’ were also intended: 1) thedefinition of a triangular platform for the ‘civic citadel’ associated to the ideal of a strongholdor bastion laying the groundwork for the “three powers,” 2) the definition of territorialoccupation along the axis as a ‘linear city’. According to Oxman, it could be said that those

6

decisions initiate a ‘design story.’ In a second moment where there is a clear development of theidea and information enrichment, occurs an inversion in the direction of the support paper.Curiously in this inversion, the triangle, which supported and balanced the set of axis now,seems to be ‘crowning’ the system, and the whole set gains the aspect of a ‘crowned body’. Themain elements stand out in the ‘ideogramatic reduction’ and are compared with themonumental axis diagram effectively presented at the competition. Since its primitive stages theconception structure was based upon three ‘scales’ or orders: the monumental, the residentialand the communal, the latter placed at the crossing region of the two axis.

Illustration 1

The use of axis and triangular shapes as elements in a composition is part of tradition inarchitecture. The axis establishes an imaginary support line that organizes some sort of relationamong the parts of the composition or else it defines an ideal framework that supports theregulation of these parts. The military roman settlings used axis crossovers to generate a gridand this served as basic layout to the formation of permanent cities. Contemporarily, the“Ciudad Lineal” of Arturo Soria y Mata, proposed in 1882 is one of the first examples of acontinuous residential axis, which has been experimentally constructed in a suburb of Madrid.Even so, the axis crossover, emphasizing its crossing region, gains a brand new character whenLucio Costa ascribes them three different scales, giving a broader meaning to the whole set. Thetriangle as a primary shape is used to emphasize or relieve a formal aspect; as the center ofvisual interest, a focal point drawing attention or as an elementary mark. Pyramids, ziggurats,obelisks, among others are examples of this practice. Therefore, the solution adopted by LucioCosta for the civic citadel would give a new meaning to ancient architectural themes. In fact,axes and triangles are important elements in the ‘design palette’ of Lucio Costa. The architect

7

uses them both as compositional elements and organizational strategy. The most importantexamples are Monlevade company town, University Campus, Master Plan for Barra da Tijuca [Riode Janeiro’s district], Brasilia’s Television Tower and in the monument to Estácio de Sá thatsymbolically marks the foundation of Rio de Janeiro.

V

One Axis and Two Triangles (see illustration2):Considering the unfolding of a ‘cognitive escalate’, this study is probably a third moment in

the design process. The indication of the artificial lake outline indicating a probable firstrecognition of site limits is noticed here. There is the adoption of a vast equilateral triangle asthe perimeter of the urban area. Within this triangle there are three rectangles representingdifferent sectors. This composition is disposed with a longitudinal rectangle, the probableesplanade, and a small triangle, the probable square of “Três Poderes.” The ‘parts’ areorganized along an axis that equilibrates the composition. The ‘ideogrammatic reduction’suggests the combination of two bodies: in the larger triangle, the conventional city subdividedin sectors, in the combination of the longitudinal rectangle with the smaller triangle the civic,monumental and symbolic town. At the bottom of the page, one can note the tense sketch thatregisters the monumental axis initial image: congress and square of the three powers,esplanade and tower.

The probable fourth conception moment reveals one axis and two triangles fitted in thesite. Several small outlines mature schematic ideas from previous documents. The maincomposition advances to a stronger character with the radicalization of the idea of twotriangular bodies connected by the vertex along an axis. The ‘ideogrammatic reduction’ stressesthe main elements for comparing them with the artificial lake outline and the finalmonumental axis outline.

VI

The Functional Conception (see illustration3):In these two studies, there is a change in the graphic expression. They seem to gain a more

utilitarian character that indicates a more defined ‘programmatic’ or ‘functional’ figuration forthe conception considering the various elements: traffic system, residential blocks, monumentalesplanade, three powers square, city center and topographical adjustment. There is a clearpassage from one mode of representing to another. This renewed visualization had evidencedfunctional aspects and enabled an opportunistic re-interpretation, consolidating and concludingthe formal conception.

VII

Monumental Axis (see illustration4):A series of perspective studies for the monumental axis and for the square of “Três

Poderes” clearly demonstrates Costa’s intention regarding the implementation guidelines andthe formal aspects of those architectural elements that could define both the character andsymbolic image of the civic citadel. The graphic treatment of these schemes, with stress oncontrast to emphasize the image, suggests that the great ramp to access the great stone-

8

furnished plain of this stronghold would define the façade of the town. On the background,the Congress placed upon the triangle’s noblest vertex, the one that would articulate themonumental axis, would be framed by the Palace of Justice, the Palace of Government and byan urban park.

In an intriguing way of comparison, and in a similar scale, Versailles and the Mall inWashington DC compared with the final scheme of the monumental axis as it was presented inthe competition will raise some issues about the permanence of spatial experience in memoryand of a certain universality, at least in terms of western civilization, regarding the ‘symbolicimage’ of the monument scale that happens in project envisioning. It is important to emphasizethat what Oxman called the ‘memory based reasoning’ is crucial for the conception.

Illustration 2

Illustration 39

Illustration 4

In fact, memory, recognition and association are particular acts of the thinking process andwill establish the necessary conditions for the development of experience and creative capacity.Making use of their own memory and of several modes of ‘collective memory’, designers willdevelop their conception steps as well as recover or relate project precedents in a new projectsituation.

VIII

Preparation of the Master Plan (see illustration5):In small sketches Lucio Costa develops three ideas that were at that time unprecedented:

the traffic scheme with a new system of streets and roads, the central bus terminal platformintegrated to that traffic system in such way that city and building interlace and the residentialsuper blocks system. In the drafts for the memoir, the studies for diagrams explaining thesolution demonstrates Lucio Costa’ concern with establishing a clear formal argument in suchway that enables any reader to reassemble the ‘image’ of his own vision.

The probable first preparatory drawing for the final presentation was accomplished withboth axes already clearly defined. The second preparatory drawing defined the final geometric

10

configuration. The geometric reductions propose the possible evolutionary stages of thedrawing. Besides these plans, Lucio Costa prepares a panoramic aerial vision of the city.

IX

In the end, some aspects of the original plan had gone through some reasonable changes: thewhole city moved east and the residential lots were taken to the other side of the artificial lake,the residential axis was bended and shortened, there was an addition of super block areas (theneighborhood cell created by Costa), the central platform went through changes as well andthere was a reduction in the area for the university campus, among other changes; but still, thegeneral structure for the Master Plan was kept. Analyzing the development of the project in theperspective of ‘ideogramatic reduction’, it is clear that the essence of the idea was kept, since itsprimitive sketches, until its construction. Moreover, Lucio Costa’s idealization was of suchcoherence and strength that it might have influenced Oscar Niemeyer’s conception of thebuilding for the congress. On the other hand, the image of the building generated by Niemeyerchanged the predicted dimensions and position previously established for both the “TrêsPoderes” civic square and central “Esplanada”, creating a new image to the composition. Forhim the Congress would continue to be the central element to define the image of the city, andthe idea of the great ramp would be extended to the esplanade of the ministries. The rampwould work as a linking element to the Congress building, but with this action, the image ofthe civic citadel stronghold created by Lucio Costa would be lost.

Conclusion

In spite of the seductions of computer graphics, it is surprising how the drawings of a mastercan still attract so much attention and interest. It is true that new computer resources haverevolutionized the various forms of representation and consequently, changed the projectparadigms and the ways of producing artificial objects. Nevertheless Lucio Costa’s drawingbrings back this practice and shows us its strength and energy before the noisy promisesbrought forth by the international architecture media. This freshness is extremely important,especially in a moment where so many fashionable ‘nouveatés’, news items, and digitalresources have been having a generalized, and in a certain way, non-critical acceptance.

11

Illustration 5

12

Bibliography:

ARNHEIM, R. (1995), “Sketching and the Psychology of Design”, in MARGOLIN, M. &BUCHANAN, R. eds., The Idea f Design, Cambridge: MIT Press.

BARKI, J. (2003), O Risco e a Invenção: Um Estudo sobre as Notações Gráficas de Concepçãono Projeto, Doctoral Thesis, Rio de Janeiro: FAU/UFRJ.

COSTA, L. (1995), Registro de Uma Vivência. São Paulo: Empresa das Artes.GALLE, P. & KOVÁCS L. B. (1996), “Replication Protocol Analysis: A Method for the Study of

Real-World Design Thinking”. In Design Studies vol. 17, London: Elsevier Science.GÖEL, V. (1995), Sketches of Though, Cambridge: MIT Press.GOLDSCHMIDT, G. (1991), “The Dialectics of Sketching”, in Design Studies vol. 4, London:

Elsevier Science.GOLDSCHMIDT, G. (1994), “On Visual Thinking: The Vis Kids of Architecture”, in Design

Studies vol. 15, London: Elsevier Science.GRAVES, M. (1977), “The Necessity of Drawing: Tangible Speculation”, in Architectural

Design, Vol. 47, # 6. London: Academy Editions.HERBERT, D. M. (1993), Architectural Study Drawings, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.MOLES, A (1971), A Criação Científica, São Paulo: Perspectiva.OXMAN, R. (1997), “Design by Re-Representation: A Model of Visual Reasoning in Design”.

In Design Studies vol. 18, London: Elsevier Science.OXMAN, R. (2002), “The Thinking Eye: Visual Re-Cognition in Design Emergency”. In Design

Studies vol. 23, London: Elsevier Science.PAULY, D. (1987), Ronchamp: Lecture d’une Architecture, Paris: Associations des Publications

pres les Universités de Strasbourg.ROBBINS, E. (1994), Why Architects Draw, Cambridge: MIT Press.ROWE, P. G. (1987), Design Thinking. Cambridge: MIT Press.SCHÖN, D. A. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner, Washington: Basic Books.SEGRE, R. (1998), “Brasilia: La Utopia que No Cesa”, in Obras: Panorama de la Construction

nº 311, vol.XXV. Mexico DF.: Ediciones Obras.SIMON, H. (1996), The Sciences of the Artificial

1 “... que não foi procurada mas surgiu, por assim dizer, já pronta ...”2 “... apesar da espontaniedade original, ela [a sugestão] foi intensamente pensada e resolvida

...”3 “... estar desarmado de preconceitos e tabus urbanísticos e imbuído da dignidade implícita do

programa: inventar a capital definitiva do país ...”4 “... na verdade, não concorro ... apenas me desvencilho de uma solução possível ...”5 “... a lembrança amorosa de Paris ... os imensos gramados ingleses ... a pureza da distante

Diamantina dos anos vinte ... [a]s fabulosas fotografias da China de começo do século ... osbelos viadutos-padrão nos arredores da cidade [de NovaYork]...”

13