THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND

EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY IMAGE OF

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN HONG KONG

By

TANG KING HEI

12003875

AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMNET FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ARTS

IN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS)

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

APRIL 2015

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

24th APRIL 2015

We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Mr Tang

King Hei entitled ldquoTHE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY

IMAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN HONG KONGrdquo be accepted

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor

of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education And Recreation

Management

______________________ ________________________

Prof Chow Bik Chu Prof Huang Ya Jun

Chief Adviser Second Reader

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this honours project ldquoTHE

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND

EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY IMAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS IN HONG KONGrdquo represents my own work and had not been

previously submitted to this or other institution for a degree

diploma or other qualification Citations from the other

authors were listed in the references

_______________________________

TANG KING HEI

24th APRIL 2015

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

supervisor Prof Chow Bik Chu for her kindness support

patience and guidance throughout the whole process of the

project Special appreciation is given to my second reader

Professor Huang Ya Jun Special thanks to the principle of

Christ College Mr Fung Chi Tak for giving me permission to

collect data in School Finally I would to thanks all

participants involved in this study including 206 students

in Christ College

TANG KING HEI

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

24th APRIL 2015

ASTRACT

The purposes of this study were to examine whether there

are any differences in self-body image between types of

physical activeness and types of eating habit Also it aimed

to understand the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score In this

study 206 secondary school students in Christ College were

invited to do the questionnaire International Physical

Activity Questionnaire Long Form Body-esteem Scale for

Adolescent and Adult and Adolescents Food Habit Checklist were

used to collect data from subjects Result showed that There

was no significant interrelationship on body image score of

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits while

there was significant main effect on body image between groups

of eating habit and there was significant main effect on body

image between groups of physical activeness Also there was

significant correlation between Body Mass Index and Body image

score

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY

24th APRIL 2015

We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Mr Tang

King Hei entitled ldquoTHE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY

IMAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN HONG KONGrdquo be accepted

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor

of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education And Recreation

Management

______________________ ________________________

Prof Chow Bik Chu Prof Huang Ya Jun

Chief Adviser Second Reader

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this honours project ldquoTHE

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND

EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY IMAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS IN HONG KONGrdquo represents my own work and had not been

previously submitted to this or other institution for a degree

diploma or other qualification Citations from the other

authors were listed in the references

_______________________________

TANG KING HEI

24th APRIL 2015

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

supervisor Prof Chow Bik Chu for her kindness support

patience and guidance throughout the whole process of the

project Special appreciation is given to my second reader

Professor Huang Ya Jun Special thanks to the principle of

Christ College Mr Fung Chi Tak for giving me permission to

collect data in School Finally I would to thanks all

participants involved in this study including 206 students

in Christ College

TANG KING HEI

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

24th APRIL 2015

ASTRACT

The purposes of this study were to examine whether there

are any differences in self-body image between types of

physical activeness and types of eating habit Also it aimed

to understand the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score In this

study 206 secondary school students in Christ College were

invited to do the questionnaire International Physical

Activity Questionnaire Long Form Body-esteem Scale for

Adolescent and Adult and Adolescents Food Habit Checklist were

used to collect data from subjects Result showed that There

was no significant interrelationship on body image score of

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits while

there was significant main effect on body image between groups

of eating habit and there was significant main effect on body

image between groups of physical activeness Also there was

significant correlation between Body Mass Index and Body image

score

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this honours project ldquoTHE

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPAION AND

EATING HABIT TOWARDS SELF-BODY IMAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL

STUDENTS IN HONG KONGrdquo represents my own work and had not been

previously submitted to this or other institution for a degree

diploma or other qualification Citations from the other

authors were listed in the references

_______________________________

TANG KING HEI

24th APRIL 2015

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

supervisor Prof Chow Bik Chu for her kindness support

patience and guidance throughout the whole process of the

project Special appreciation is given to my second reader

Professor Huang Ya Jun Special thanks to the principle of

Christ College Mr Fung Chi Tak for giving me permission to

collect data in School Finally I would to thanks all

participants involved in this study including 206 students

in Christ College

TANG KING HEI

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

24th APRIL 2015

ASTRACT

The purposes of this study were to examine whether there

are any differences in self-body image between types of

physical activeness and types of eating habit Also it aimed

to understand the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score In this

study 206 secondary school students in Christ College were

invited to do the questionnaire International Physical

Activity Questionnaire Long Form Body-esteem Scale for

Adolescent and Adult and Adolescents Food Habit Checklist were

used to collect data from subjects Result showed that There

was no significant interrelationship on body image score of

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits while

there was significant main effect on body image between groups

of eating habit and there was significant main effect on body

image between groups of physical activeness Also there was

significant correlation between Body Mass Index and Body image

score

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

supervisor Prof Chow Bik Chu for her kindness support

patience and guidance throughout the whole process of the

project Special appreciation is given to my second reader

Professor Huang Ya Jun Special thanks to the principle of

Christ College Mr Fung Chi Tak for giving me permission to

collect data in School Finally I would to thanks all

participants involved in this study including 206 students

in Christ College

TANG KING HEI

Department of Physical Education

Hong Kong Baptist University

24th APRIL 2015

ASTRACT

The purposes of this study were to examine whether there

are any differences in self-body image between types of

physical activeness and types of eating habit Also it aimed

to understand the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score In this

study 206 secondary school students in Christ College were

invited to do the questionnaire International Physical

Activity Questionnaire Long Form Body-esteem Scale for

Adolescent and Adult and Adolescents Food Habit Checklist were

used to collect data from subjects Result showed that There

was no significant interrelationship on body image score of

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits while

there was significant main effect on body image between groups

of eating habit and there was significant main effect on body

image between groups of physical activeness Also there was

significant correlation between Body Mass Index and Body image

score

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

ASTRACT

The purposes of this study were to examine whether there

are any differences in self-body image between types of

physical activeness and types of eating habit Also it aimed

to understand the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score In this

study 206 secondary school students in Christ College were

invited to do the questionnaire International Physical

Activity Questionnaire Long Form Body-esteem Scale for

Adolescent and Adult and Adolescents Food Habit Checklist were

used to collect data from subjects Result showed that There

was no significant interrelationship on body image score of

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits while

there was significant main effect on body image between groups

of eating habit and there was significant main effect on body

image between groups of physical activeness Also there was

significant correlation between Body Mass Index and Body image

score

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

Table of Content

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of Problem 4

Hypotheses 5

Definition of terms 5

Delimitation 6

Limitation 7

Assumption 8

Significance of study 9

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11

Body Image 11

Factors Affecting Body Image 12

Body Dissatisfaction 16

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction 18

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction 21

Summary 23

Method 25

Subjects 25

Development of Questionnaire 26

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

Data Collection 29

Data Analysis 30

ANALYSIS OF DATA 32

Data Cleaning 32

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents

and adult (BESAA) 33

Descriptive statistics 33

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

37

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit 38

DISCUSSIONS 40

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and

adult 41

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image

scores 42

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and

types of physical activeness towards self body image

43

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

The relationship on body image score between types of

eating habit 44

Relationship between the physical activeness and body

image score 46

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 50

Summary of result 50

Conclusion 51

Recommendation 52

Reference 54

APENDIX 63

APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 63

APPENDIX B Research Questionnaire 64

APPENDIX C International Physical Activity Questionnaire

protocol 71

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass

Index of all the participants of participants 34

2 Descriptive statistic of Physical active groups of all

participants 35

3 Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score 36

4 Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit 37

5 Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score

andsbody image score 37

6 2X3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of

physical activeness towards self-body image 38

7 Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups 40

1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Since 21st Century there has been an increasing trend that

Asians are more conscious about their self-body image A

recent research showed that the body dissatisfaction rate of

the university students in China and Korea was higher than

that of the US university students (eg Jung and Forbes

2006 Jung et al 2009) This situation also exists in Hong

Kong society Some researchers (Lee amp Lee 2000) found that

girls and women in Hong Kong were not satisfied with their

body image In addition according to the Hong Kong Stock

Exchange (2014) a listed beauty company had 67 increase in

profit within four years This fact implied that people in

Hong Kong were more willing to spend money for getting better

body image than before The trend is not just affecting women

but it has also been shifted to men (Furnham Badmin amp Sneade

2002 Ricciardelli amp McCabe 2004) Jung et al (2010) found

that more and more men in Hong Kong are focused on improving

their body image especially in the aspect of muscularity Thus

2

more new fitness centres have been operated in the past few

years in Hong Kong Moreover van den Berg Mond Eisenberg

Ackard and Neumark-Sztainer (2010) found that no matter what

ages or backgrounds the adolescents were they had experienced

body image dissatisfaction

According to the Association for Applied Sport Psychology

(2015) people with a satisfied body image were usually more

engaged in physical activities than those who had body

dissatisfactions Thus it implied that physical activities

may be a useful method for people to get better self-body shape

and self-body image (Huddy and Cash 1997 Williams and Cash

2001) Kirkcaldy Shephard and Siefen (2002) found that

regular endurance exercise can help Germen adolescents to

promote a favorable body shape and structure improve body

image and enhance self-esteem However a research of a six-

week aerobic dance program showed that there was no

significant positive effect between the six-week program and

self-body image among British adolescents (Duncan Nakeeb

3

Nevill and Jones 2004) It was likely that cultural and racial

issues were affecting the relationship between body image and

participation of physical activities (Kruger Lee Ainsworth

amp Macera 2008)

In fact eating habit is another factor to influence

self-body image Kang and Choue (2010) found that food

behavior and eating attitude were significantly correlated

to body image A better the eating attitude would lead to a

better image score In Hong Kong fast-food eating and eating

outside styles were common for secondary school students This

culture may affect students in forming unhealthy eating habits

because there were not many Hong Kong restaurants which would

provide menu with low fat salt and oil A recent research

also showed people who had balanced dieting and healthy eating

habit usually had higher score on self-body image (Bernstein

2011) Other researchers have supported that notion of

Bernstein and stated that body image dissatisfaction or

distortion was often discussed with eating disorder (Furnham

4

et al 2002) and people who have retained eating habit trended

to have lower score of self-body image (Mandy Jagoda Ivana

Jelena amp Marion 2003) According to the data of Student

Health Service of the Hong Kong Health Department (2014)

184 of secondary school students were categorized as

overweight teens while underweight problem was as serious as

obesity (Mak et al 2010) These numbers may imply that there

are over 30 students who are suffering from unhealthy eating

habit Hence they may also dealing with low self-body image

problems

Statement of Problem

The main purpose of the current study was to compare the

score of self- body image of secondary school student in terms

of physical activeness and types in eating habit The second

purpose of the study was to examine the interrelationship of

physical activities participation and eating habit towards

self-body image of the Hong Kong secondary school students

5

Hypotheses

To study the problem above the following statistical

hypotheses were examined

1 There would be a significant correlation between the BMI

and self-Body image score

2 There would be a significant interaction effect between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit in

self-body image score

3 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types physical activeness

4 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types eating habit

Definition of terms

The following terms were operationally defined for this

study

Hong Kong Secondary School Students

Hong Kong Secondary School Students were defined as a group

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

2

more new fitness centres have been operated in the past few

years in Hong Kong Moreover van den Berg Mond Eisenberg

Ackard and Neumark-Sztainer (2010) found that no matter what

ages or backgrounds the adolescents were they had experienced

body image dissatisfaction

According to the Association for Applied Sport Psychology

(2015) people with a satisfied body image were usually more

engaged in physical activities than those who had body

dissatisfactions Thus it implied that physical activities

may be a useful method for people to get better self-body shape

and self-body image (Huddy and Cash 1997 Williams and Cash

2001) Kirkcaldy Shephard and Siefen (2002) found that

regular endurance exercise can help Germen adolescents to

promote a favorable body shape and structure improve body

image and enhance self-esteem However a research of a six-

week aerobic dance program showed that there was no

significant positive effect between the six-week program and

self-body image among British adolescents (Duncan Nakeeb

3

Nevill and Jones 2004) It was likely that cultural and racial

issues were affecting the relationship between body image and

participation of physical activities (Kruger Lee Ainsworth

amp Macera 2008)

In fact eating habit is another factor to influence

self-body image Kang and Choue (2010) found that food

behavior and eating attitude were significantly correlated

to body image A better the eating attitude would lead to a

better image score In Hong Kong fast-food eating and eating

outside styles were common for secondary school students This

culture may affect students in forming unhealthy eating habits

because there were not many Hong Kong restaurants which would

provide menu with low fat salt and oil A recent research

also showed people who had balanced dieting and healthy eating

habit usually had higher score on self-body image (Bernstein

2011) Other researchers have supported that notion of

Bernstein and stated that body image dissatisfaction or

distortion was often discussed with eating disorder (Furnham

4

et al 2002) and people who have retained eating habit trended

to have lower score of self-body image (Mandy Jagoda Ivana

Jelena amp Marion 2003) According to the data of Student

Health Service of the Hong Kong Health Department (2014)

184 of secondary school students were categorized as

overweight teens while underweight problem was as serious as

obesity (Mak et al 2010) These numbers may imply that there

are over 30 students who are suffering from unhealthy eating

habit Hence they may also dealing with low self-body image

problems

Statement of Problem

The main purpose of the current study was to compare the

score of self- body image of secondary school student in terms

of physical activeness and types in eating habit The second

purpose of the study was to examine the interrelationship of

physical activities participation and eating habit towards

self-body image of the Hong Kong secondary school students

5

Hypotheses

To study the problem above the following statistical

hypotheses were examined

1 There would be a significant correlation between the BMI

and self-Body image score

2 There would be a significant interaction effect between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit in

self-body image score

3 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types physical activeness

4 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types eating habit

Definition of terms

The following terms were operationally defined for this

study

Hong Kong Secondary School Students

Hong Kong Secondary School Students were defined as a group

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

3

Nevill and Jones 2004) It was likely that cultural and racial

issues were affecting the relationship between body image and

participation of physical activities (Kruger Lee Ainsworth

amp Macera 2008)

In fact eating habit is another factor to influence

self-body image Kang and Choue (2010) found that food

behavior and eating attitude were significantly correlated

to body image A better the eating attitude would lead to a

better image score In Hong Kong fast-food eating and eating

outside styles were common for secondary school students This

culture may affect students in forming unhealthy eating habits

because there were not many Hong Kong restaurants which would

provide menu with low fat salt and oil A recent research

also showed people who had balanced dieting and healthy eating

habit usually had higher score on self-body image (Bernstein

2011) Other researchers have supported that notion of

Bernstein and stated that body image dissatisfaction or

distortion was often discussed with eating disorder (Furnham

4

et al 2002) and people who have retained eating habit trended

to have lower score of self-body image (Mandy Jagoda Ivana

Jelena amp Marion 2003) According to the data of Student

Health Service of the Hong Kong Health Department (2014)

184 of secondary school students were categorized as

overweight teens while underweight problem was as serious as

obesity (Mak et al 2010) These numbers may imply that there

are over 30 students who are suffering from unhealthy eating

habit Hence they may also dealing with low self-body image

problems

Statement of Problem

The main purpose of the current study was to compare the

score of self- body image of secondary school student in terms

of physical activeness and types in eating habit The second

purpose of the study was to examine the interrelationship of

physical activities participation and eating habit towards

self-body image of the Hong Kong secondary school students

5

Hypotheses

To study the problem above the following statistical

hypotheses were examined

1 There would be a significant correlation between the BMI

and self-Body image score

2 There would be a significant interaction effect between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit in

self-body image score

3 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types physical activeness

4 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types eating habit

Definition of terms

The following terms were operationally defined for this

study

Hong Kong Secondary School Students

Hong Kong Secondary School Students were defined as a group

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

4

et al 2002) and people who have retained eating habit trended

to have lower score of self-body image (Mandy Jagoda Ivana

Jelena amp Marion 2003) According to the data of Student

Health Service of the Hong Kong Health Department (2014)

184 of secondary school students were categorized as

overweight teens while underweight problem was as serious as

obesity (Mak et al 2010) These numbers may imply that there

are over 30 students who are suffering from unhealthy eating

habit Hence they may also dealing with low self-body image

problems

Statement of Problem

The main purpose of the current study was to compare the

score of self- body image of secondary school student in terms

of physical activeness and types in eating habit The second

purpose of the study was to examine the interrelationship of

physical activities participation and eating habit towards

self-body image of the Hong Kong secondary school students

5

Hypotheses

To study the problem above the following statistical

hypotheses were examined

1 There would be a significant correlation between the BMI

and self-Body image score

2 There would be a significant interaction effect between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit in

self-body image score

3 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types physical activeness

4 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types eating habit

Definition of terms

The following terms were operationally defined for this

study

Hong Kong Secondary School Students

Hong Kong Secondary School Students were defined as a group

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

5

Hypotheses

To study the problem above the following statistical

hypotheses were examined

1 There would be a significant correlation between the BMI

and self-Body image score

2 There would be a significant interaction effect between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit in

self-body image score

3 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types physical activeness

4 There would be a significant mean score difference on body

image score among types eating habit

Definition of terms

The following terms were operationally defined for this

study

Hong Kong Secondary School Students

Hong Kong Secondary School Students were defined as a group

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

6

of young people who age from 12-18 and studying in Hong Kong

Secondary School

Physical activity

Physical activity (PA) is defined as any bodily movement

produced by skeletal muscles that require energy expenditure

(WHO 2015)

Eating habit

Eating habit was defined as the way a person or group eats

considered in terms of what types of food are eaten in what

quantities and when (Collins English Dictionary 2015)

Body image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance- your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson Heinberg Altabe amp Tantleff-Dunn 1999 p

4)

Delimitation

The results of the study were delimited by the

followings

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

7

1 206 secondary school students were selected to be the

sample

2 The subjects in this study were delimited to Christ College

Secondary school students

3 The subjects in this study were delimited to Form 1 to Form

5 Secondary school students

4 Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used to measure the

healthiness of eating habit

5 International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to

measure the physical activeness of students

6 Self-esteem scale for adolescent and adults was used to

measure the score of Body image satisfaction

Limitation

The following limitations were recognized in the

following

1 There was only one secondary school for data collecting

the sample size was limited

2 Convenience sampling was used in data collection there

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

8

would be chance that bias appeared

3 Subjects were reported the questionnaire with their

subjectivity the result of questionnaire may be influenced

by internal and external factors such as peer discussion

motivation of reporting on data collecting date

4 Physical Activity Questionnaire was done by self-memory

recalling subjects may not be able to accurately report

the times and days

Assumption

The following assumptions were set for this study

1 Students are honestly and conscientiously report the

questionnaires

2 The translated version of questionnaire was valid and

reliable for data collecting

3 The subjects were a representative sample of the secondary

school students in Hong Kong

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

9

Significance of study

Body image dissatisfaction is usually correlated with

low-self esteem (Griffiths amp McCabe 2000) In Hong Kong the

body image declination of adolescents (Littleton amp Ollendick

2003) is getting more serious than before (Jung et al 2009)

To tackle with this problem some researchers showed that

healthy eating habit and regular physical activities may help

to improve body image and self-esteem However Kruger et al

(2008) stated that the level of body image improvement was

varied with different racial and culture And there is lack

of research on this topic in the Hong Kong Therefore this

study aims at proofing that there is a positive relationship

on body image among physical activity participation and eating

habit and there is a positive inter-relationship between

physical activity participation and eating habit towards

self-body image for secondary school students

After understanding the relationships teachers in

secondary schools can encourage students who have low body

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

10

esteem to engage in physical activity In addition providing

healthy eating information also helps students who have low

body image to change their eating habit and hence they may

obtain more satisfaction in their body and become more

confident

Moreover the survey filling processing is beneficial to

students This process is a learning opportunity for students

to acquire knowledge about eating habits and understanding

present situation of themselves The self assessment result

may motivate them to engage more in physical activities and

become healthy eaters

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

11

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Literature Review is about body image physical

activity participations and eating habit It is divided into

six sections (1) Body image (2) Factors affecting body image

(3) Body dissatisfaction (4)Physical activities and body

satisfaction (5) Healthy eating habit and body satisfaction

and (6) Summary

Body Image

Body image is defined as ldquothe internal representation of

your own outer appearance your own unique perception of your

bodyrdquo (Thompson et al 1999 p 4) and the process of this

internal self construction could be operated with either

subjectivity or objectivity Another researchers Weinshenker

and Siegel (2002) did further explanation to body image

formation he pointed out that psychological construction of

self-body image required unique personal input of emotion

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

12

cognitive and sensory Body image could be simply divided into

positive and negative aspects According to the National

Eating Disorder Association (2015) positive body image

refers to people who feel proud and comfortable to hisher

unique body shape and refuse to spend unreasonable time to

monitor their body shape weight and eating calories while

negative body image refers to people who feel ashamed anxious

about their body and they would have distorted perception of

their own body shapes According to Mendelson Mendelson and

White (2001) appearance weight and attribution were three

main elements that contribute to body image Any factors that

affect these three elements would make vary on self-body image

of a person

Factors Affecting Body Image

There were different factors that affecting body image

According to the review of literature personalities family

media and peers may directly or indirectly influence self-body

image

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

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httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

13

Firstly personality was found as an element influencing

self-body images For examples Swami Hadji-Michael and

Furnham (2008) did a research about personality and body image

In this study 950 subjects were recruited to report a detailed

survey and the research pointed out that self assessed

emotional stable or the person who had extraversion

personality were usually associated with self body

appreciation and they were usually satisfied with their body

image

Secondly family was another factor affecting self-body

image of teenagers Green and Pritchard (2003) stated that

family is one issue to change onersquos self concepts about body

image the expectation and thoughts of parents were directly

impacting self-body image to their own child Children would

judge their own appearance according to the comment of their

parents and make adjustment of it Ricciardelli McCabe and

Banfield (2000) made further research and stated that

self-body image of college boys were significantly affected

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

14

by the perception of their mothers

Thirdly some researchers have claimed that media was an

important factor to influence self-body image of people (Field

et al 2001) Media includes movies television social

applications newspapers radios and so on Nowadays idols

and celebrities were using this medium to showoff themselves

and conveying a message that ldquothey are having ideal bodyrdquo

This phenomenon or trend had made a huge impact to the public

Some idols and celebrities had become an ideal body image model

for the publics people would imitate the idols vary their

perception of ideal body image and make adjustment on their

own appearance Wiseman Sunday and Becker (2005) made

additional discussion about the impact of media and they

found that the media had made the huge effect on body image

to adolescent This effect was also explained by Ericksonrsquos

theory Ericksonrsquos stages theory (Erikson 1963) pointed out

that people in stage 5 (13-19 yrs) would usually relate

themselves to idols and peers Thus adolescent was the group

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

15

suffering most from unstable ideal body image problems

(Littleton amp Ollendick 2003)

However some evidence showed there may have some

relationship between peers and self-body image Ricciardelli

et al (2000) pointed out that the views of friends were

significantly affecting body image of college boys

especially when the comment came from male friends Aliyev

and Tuumlrkmen (2014) made more in-depth research to compare the

effect on body image among parents peers and media In that

study 70 teenagers aged from 12-14 were recruited and the

result showed that peer (m = 1603) had the lowest mean score

and made largest negative influence towards body image when

comparing with parents (m = 2093) and media (m =2193)

Peers opinion would affect the internal process of self-body

image construction of students and hence students usually

affected by peers to get body dissatisfaction

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

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Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

16

Body Dissatisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction was defined as the difference

between actual body image and ideal body image of a person

(Šerifović-Šivert amp Sinanović 2008) Additionally other

researchers have pointed out that body image difference is

usually formed by a negative self assessment of particular

body parts (Myers amp Crowther 2007)

In the previous years many researchers had discussed the

reasons of body image dissatisfaction Some of them pointed

out that low body image scores was related to eating disorders

and low self esteem (eg Cash amp Fleming 2002 Keeton Cash

amp Brown 1990 Powell amp Hendricks 1999) In addition

physical inactiveness (Ransdell Wells Manore Swan amp Corbin

1998) poorer life quality (Ganem Heeramp Morera2009) and

unhealthy behaviors such as lack of sleep or smoking (King

Matacin White amp Marcus 2005) would also increase the chance

of people to suffer from body image dissatisfaction Based

on the research of Falloon Katzman and Wooley (1994) body

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

17

dissatisfaction is influencing people with different degree

according to different cultural norms and expectations In

Western society body dissatisfaction has been prevalent

Different researches also make addition statement on this

topic and they found 12-26 adolescent in community samples

were not satisfied with their body image (Presnell Bearman

amp Stice 2004 Stice amp Whitenton 2002)

In fact Hong Kong people also suffered from body image

dissatisfaction Lee et al (1996) found that majority of

women in Hong Kong was not satisfied about their body parts

they wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and hip but

not the breasts while men in Hong Kong wanted to be taller

and had muscular upper body In addition Lee et al (1996)

pointed out that fat phobic become prevalent among Hong Kong

people and they usually relate body dissatisfaction with

weight issues A similar result was found in the research of

Calzo et al (2012) that they pointed out that adolescents

who have higher BMI trended to have more serious body

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

18

dissatisfaction Moreover because of westernization and

modernization the socio-economic status of Hong Kong people

has raised children were getting better protection and

nutrition from their parents and this change of

socio-economic status has led to a trend that more students

were becoming overweighed According to the research there

was positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and

Body image (Olds 2010) and higher body weight would lead to

a higher BMI Thus there were more students who became

overweighed and higher body dissatisfaction rate in

adolescent found in Hong Kong

Physical Activities and Body Satisfaction

To tackle with body dissatisfaction problem some

researchers suggested people should become more physically

active Ransdell et al (1998) found that people were

categorized as physically active may result in having better

selfndashbody image According to WHO (2015) children (5 ndash 17)

that are categorized as physically active should do vigorous-

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

19

intensity physical activity for at least 60 minutes per day

People can get much benefit when engaged in physical

activities According to the findings of the Association for

Applied Sport Psychology (2015) physically active people

would trend to have better body image than those who are not

engaged in physical activity In addition Active Healthy Kids

Canada (2008) has listed out many benefits of physical

activities and they found that adolescents and children can

get better posture gain good control on balance enhance

self-esteem build stronger muscles and reduce body fat when

they were regularly engaged in physical activities

Some researchers have further discussion on physical

activities towards body image and they found that physical

activities could also help to eliminate some negative

influence on body image among personality Borkoles Polman

and Levy (2010) did a research on body image satisfaction

between the effect of physical activity and Type-D personality

people while Type-D personality refers to people who have

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

20

tendency towards negative affectively and social inhabitation

In the study 564 Type-D personality males were selected and

divided into three different physical activeness Type-D

groups namely sedentary Type-D weight-training Type-D and

active Type-D The study result showed that sedentary Type-D

people were significantly associated with poor body image

while groups of weight-training Type-D and active Type-D did

not suffer from low self-body image Thus the result

concluded that physically active would help to reduce the

chance of getting body dissatisfaction

Although the benefits of physical activity were so

significant and well-known by the public it seemed not

prevalent among the general population in Hong Kong The

Community Sports Committee of the Sports Commission (2012)

found that 469 of Hong Kong secondary school students in

2517 sample were labeled as sedentary Only 84 of people

were physically active This undesirable data have shown that

around half of students in Hong Kong cannot acquire the benefit

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

21

of participation in physical activities and this may also be

a reason why the body dissatisfaction rate among Hong Kong

secondary students was high

Healthy Eating Habit and Body Satisfaction

Eating habit may also contribute to self-body image scores

Healthy eating is widely known as consuming a variety of foods

in the correct portion sizes in line with Food Pyramid

recommendations (Irish Heart Foundation 2007) People will

always benefit from healthy eating habit Artinian (2001)

states that healthy eating habit can help people to reduce

body weight get full feeling in between meal and improve self

appearance On the contrary people with undesirable eating

habit and unplanned meal consumption pattern would usually

have body dissatisfaction and over fat status (del Mar

Bibiloni et al 2013) In addition long term undesirable

eating habit was not just diminishing our body image but it

also lead to a serious negative consequence Pompili Girardi

Tatarelli Rubertoand and Tatarelli (2005) stated that there

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

22

were significant interrelationships between Body

dissatisfaction eating disorder and thoughts of attempting

suicide therefore if people could not cope with their eating

habit and body image problems it could take their lives

Although healthy eating habit was a good behavior and

benefit people many adolescents in Hong Kong did not have

intention to arrange healthy diet According to Chan and Tsang

(2010) attitudes toward healthy eating and behavior control

were the most important elements predicting intention for

healthy eating However there were not many resources to

improve healthy eating attitudes among Hong Kong secondary

school students According to Gandhi et al(2015) there was

5275 (N = 153) subjects in the research were having a habit

of eating outside the home at least once in a week Therefore

Chan and Tsang (2010) suggested that the Government should

design some activities or campaigns to help students alert

the importance of healthy eating Students should be motivated

to become more independent and they should be helped to enhance

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

23

the intention for selecting healthy meals

Summary

According to the above review of literature self-body

image was defined as a product of self-constructing and this

product required the contribution of self sensory emotion

and cognitive However because of the unstable

characteristic of those three elements our body image would

vary over time There were different factors that would highly

affect the self-presentation process of a person From the

internal factors points of view personality was

significantly associated to body image Outgoing and sociable

people were seem to be having a higher rate of body satisfaction

On the other hand there were many external factors

influencing body image Peer seems to have the most power to

distort body image when comparing with the effect of family

and media Indeed researcher have found that Hong Kong

teenagers were suffering from body dissatisfaction But they

have suggested some cures for solving this problem They

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

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Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

24

claimed that physical activity engagement and healthy eating

habit may help to improve self-body image Therefore this

study aims to prove that physical activity and healthy eating

would positively contribute to body satisfaction

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

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Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

25

Chapter 3

Method

In this chapter the method of the study was presented as

follows (a) Subjects (b) Development of the questionnaire

(c) Data Collection and (d) Method of Analysis

Subjects

In this study a total of two hundreds and six students

from Christ College were recruited All subjects were aged

between 14 ndash 19 They would be the representative of Hong Kong

Secondary School students They were having at least one

regular Physical Education class in ten days and some of them

have regular school team training per week Subjects were

required to finish a questionnaire and they were reporting

it in reading period with guidance of researcher Data has

been collected in five consecutive days

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

26

Development of Questionnaire

Three valid and reliable questionnaires were combined to

be a measuring instrument in this study Before start there

would be a cover letter to explain the purpose of study the

use of research data and acquire the consent for conducting

the survey

The survey was divided into four main parts The first part

was the measurement of Body image Body ndashesteem scale for

adolescent and adult (BESAA) was used to assess the body image

score of students The questionnaire consists of 23 questions

and was divided in three subscales (BEndashAppearance BEndashWeight

and BEndashAttribution) 5 point Likert scale was used and the

score of this part range from 0-92 Some questions were scored

by reversing method the scares were reversed when scoring

(ie 0=4 1=3 2=2 3=1 4=0) The scoring method is simply

sum up the score In this part the higher the score of students

who got the better the self body image of them This

questionnaire was examined and proved to have good validity

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

27

and reliability The test-retest correlation for 12 years old

and older people was Cronbachrsquos α = 089 p lt 001

The second part of survey was about physical activity

International Physical activity questionnaire -Long form

(IPAQ-LF) was used to measure the physical activeness of

student The questionnaire was done by memory recalling method

Students recorded the days and minutes that they have engaged

in different categories of physical activity on questionnaire

After a complex calculation (Apendix C) subjects were divided

in to three groups (High Moderate and low) ldquoHigh physical

activenessrdquo was referred to student who had done vigorous

physical activities for at least three days with one hour per

week or student who had done any strength of physical

activities for at least seven day with one hour per week On

the other hand ldquoModerate physical activenessrdquo was

representing as students who had done vigorous physical

activities for at least three days with 20 minutes per week

or student who had done any strength of physical activities

for at least five day with 30 minutes per week And finally

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

28

ldquoLow physical activenessrdquo was represented as students who were

not categorized in either high or moderate The IPAQ-LF has

showed a good reliability coefficient for total physical

activity (r=082 Plt005) vigorous activity

(r=079 Plt005) moderate activity (r=083 Plt005) and

time spent walking (r=073 Plt005) In terms of validity

the time spent in each of activity was reported in the IPAQ

was modestly correlated with the 24-hour recall data

The third part of survey was used to measure the eating

habit of students Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was used

to define healthy and unhealthy group of student According

to the questionnaire ldquohealthy group studentsrdquo were usually

consuming fruits and vegetables in their meals and they would

try to consume food that with less sugar oil and fat

Oppositely speaking ldquounhealthy group studentsrdquo were seldom

eating fruits and vegetables and they were always eating food

that with sugar oil and fat The questionnaire consists of

23 questions 1 point would record for each lsquohealthyrsquo response

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

29

Final score should be adjusted for lsquonot applicablersquo and

missing responses using the formula AFHC score = no of

lsquohealthyrsquo responses x (23no of items completed) This

questionnaire were established with good level of convergent

validity and the test-retest reliability was (r=090 P

lt0001) In this study 9 points would use as the cut-off line

to separate the groups of healthy and unhealthy eating habit

Data Collection

A pilot studies have been done to make sure the

questionnaire was adequate to use in this study Total 20

questionnaires were distrusted by using convenience sampling

After the pilot test and modification of questionnaire no

more adjustment was done And the final version of the

questionnaire was delivered to Christ College student by

convenience sampling method

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

30

Data Analysis

All data of questionnaire was inputted to Statistical

Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for data analysis The

level of significance was set at 005 with two tailed analysis

Descriptive Statistics were shown

Cronbachrsquos reliability test was used to test the internal

consistency of Body esteem scale for adolescent and adult

the Weight subscale the Appearance subscale and the

attribution subscale when assessing Hong Kong Secondary

School Students 070 of Cronbachrsquos alpha was the cutoff value

for being acceptable internal consistency

Pearson Correlation test was use to test the correlation

coefficient of variable towards self-body image scores In

this study the variable was Body Mass Index (BMI)

2 x 3 ANOVA was used to test two or more independent

variables towards single dependent variable In this study

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

31

two independent variables were Physical activeness and eating

habit while the single dependent variable was self-body image

and weight subscale respectively If there was significant

main effect of physical activeness towards dependent

variables Bonferroni post Hoc test would be conducted to find

out the mean different between groups

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

32

Chapter 4

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Result

The purposes of this investigation were to find out whether

there are any mean differences in self-body image between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habit Also

it aimed to examine the interrelationship between physical

activities and eating habit towards body-image score The data

of this study were presented and analyzed below

Data Cleaning

There were a total of 206 questionnaires received However

twelve of them were excluded because the surveys were

inadequate answers or there were too many missing answers on

those questionnaires Therefore 194 samples were used in the

data analysis

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

33

Reliability Test of the Body-Esteem Scale for adolescents and

adult (BESAA)

The Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adult was

consists of 3 subscales which are Body EsteemndashAppearance

Body EsteemndashAttribution and Body EsteemndashWeight Nunnally

(1978) suggested that scale would be having acceptable

reliability if Cronbachrsquos alpha is greater than 07 In this

study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient for overall scale was

0875 which showed the overall scale had acceptable internal

consistency Also the result showed that the Cronbachrsquos alphas

of BodyndashEsteem Weight (α = 838) Body-Esteem Appearance (α

= 724) and BodyndashEsteem Attribution (α = 740) subscales were

higher than 07 They were also had acceptable internal

consistency

Descriptive statistics

There were total 194 participants 454 (n= 88) of them

were male while 546 (n= 106) of them were female The Age

of subjects were ranged from yrs 14 -18yrs Table 1 has revealed

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

34

the mean range maximum minimum and the standard deviation

of the height weight and Body Mass Index of the participants

There were some missing data so that the numbers of response

on Height were 192 participants and the numbers of response

on Weight and Body Mass Index were 190 participants

Table 1

Descriptive statistic of Height Weight and Body Mass Index of all

the participants of participants

Sex N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Male Height 88 4300 15000 19300 17202 695

Weight 87 6400 3500 9900 6221 1185

BMI 87 1879 1317 3196 2102 381

Female Height

104 3100 14900 18000 16160

Weight

103 5800 3500 9300 5165 645

BMI 103 2108 1457 3565 1977 10017

Subjects were divided into three groups to represent their

physical activeness by using a formula which provided by the

organization that establishing International Physical

activity Questionnaire Long Form (See Appendix C) 490 (n=

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

35

95) subjects were categorized as High physical Activeness

366 (n= 71) of them were categorized as Moderate Physical

Activeness and 144 (n= 28) were categorized as Low Physical

Activeness The table below also showed the descriptive data

of physical activity according to gender

Table 2

Descriptive statistic Physical active groups

Sex Frequency Percent

Male High Physical Activeness 56 636

Moderate Physical Activeness 23 261

Low Physical Activeness 9 102

Female High Physical Activeness 39 368

Moderate Physical Activeness 48 453

Low Physical Activeness 19 179

The mean score of Body-esteem scale for adolescents and

adult was 4414 (n =194) And the mean score of BESAA for male

and female was 4544 (n = 88) and 4306 (n = 104) respectively

The maximum score that the students got was 86 while the minimum

score was 4 (range = 82) and the standard deviation of the

overall scale was 1227 The range of BESAA subscale-

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

36

Appearance subscale-Weight and subscale- Attribution were

0-40 0-32 and 0-20 respectively The mean score range

maximum minimum and Standard Deviation were shown below (See

Table 3)

Table 3

Descriptive statistic Body-Image subscale score

Rang

e

Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

BEndash

Appearance

340 200 3600 2071 542773

BEndashWeight

300 000 3000 1558 601000

BEndash

Attribution

200 000 2000 784 339564

The range of Adolescent Food Habit Checklist was 0 ndash 23

marks The cutoff point was designed by 50 percentile of

eating score Therefore the cut off was set at 10 There are

443 (n= 86) subjects categorized as healthy eating types

and 557 (n= 108) subjects being categorized as unhealthy

eating group The mean eating habit score for male was 1047(n

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

37

= 88) while the mean eating habit score for female was 1068

(n = 106) The Eating habit score mean range maximum minimum

and standard deviation for all subject was shown in Table 4

Table 4

Descriptive statistic of Eating Habit

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation

Eating

Score

2200 100 2300 1059 481

Pearson Correlation Test between BMI and body-image score

The result of Pearson Correlation Test between body mass

index and body-image score has shown in Table 5 The result

showed that there was significant negative correlation (r=

-031 p lt 005) between body mass index and body-image score

when the alpha level was set at 005

Table 5

Pearson Correlation Test between eating habit score and body

image score

Eating Score r -310

rsup2 096

Sig (2-tailed) 000

N 190

Correlation is significant at the 005 level (2tailed)

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

38

2 x 3 ANOVA on body image score between physical activities

and eating habit

Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances was conducted

and the result showed that the samples were equal variance

(F=0894 p=0486) Table 6 showed the result of hypothesis

2-4 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) on body image score between types physical

activeness and types of eating habit However the result

showed that there was significant mean difference on body

image score between different types of physical active groups

(F= 1449 p= 0000)and there was significant mean difference

on body image score among types of eating habit (F= 906

p=0003)

Table 6

2x3 ANOVA between types of eating habit and types of physical

activeness towards self-body image

Source df Mean

Square

F Sig

EatingTypes 1 112842 906 003

NewTypePA 2 180476 1449 000

EatingTypes

NewTypePA 2 1977 159 853

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

39

Since there was significant main effect on body image among

physical activeness Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was conducted

The result showed that there were significant mean differences

on body image score among Physical Activeness

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

=4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low physical active

group (m = 3671 p = 0000) However there was no significant

mean difference (p = 0 258) on body image score between

Moderate physical active group and Low physical active group

Figure 1

The interrelation on body image score between physical

activities and eating habit

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

40

Table 7

Bonferroni Test on body image score among Physical active

groups

(I) NewTypePA (J) NewTypePA Mean

Differe

nce

(I-J)

Std

Error

Sig

High Physical

Activeness

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-765 175 000

Low Physical

Activeness

430 249 258

Low Physical

Activeness

High Physical

Activeness

-1195 240 000

Moderate

Physical

Activeness

-430 249 258

DISCUSSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the

interrelationship of eating habit and physical activeness

towards self body image The following discussion consists

of five parts (1) Reliability of Body-esteem scale for

Adolescent and adult (2) The relationship between Body Mass

index and Body image scores(3) The interrelationship between

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

41

types of eating habit and types of physical activeness towards

self-body image (4) The relationship on body image score

between types of eating habit and (5) The relationship between

the physical activeness and body image score

Reliability of Body-esteem scale for Adolescent and adult

The body-esteem scale contains three subscales namely

Appearance Attribution and Weight Before analysis data

Cronbachrsquos alpha test was computed to determine the internal

consistency of Body-esteem scale for Hong Kong Secondary

School students According to Mendelson et al(2001) the

BESAA scale had a good internal consistency of Cronbachrsquos α

= 089 In this study the Cronbachrsquos alpha coefficient of BESAA

was 0872 This indicated that the Body-esteem scale for

Adolescents and Adults has acceptable internal consistency

to be used for Hong Kong secondary school students In addition

Mendelson et al(2001) also stated the Cronbachrsquos alphas for

three subscales The Cronbachrsquos alphas for weight appearance

and attribution were found to be 092 089 and 083

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

42

respectively In this study the Cronbachrsquos alphas was found

to be 084(Weight) 072(Appearance) and 074 (Attribution)

Although the Cronbachrsquos alphas of this study are lower than

the findings from Mendelson the subscales are still having

acceptable internal consistency to be used

The relationship between Body Mass Index and Body image scores

Using Pearson Correlation test to examine the relationship

between Body Mass Index and Body image score the result shows

that there was significant negative correlation between Body

Mass Index and Body image score (r= -031p= 000) This means

the higher the Body Mass Index is the lower body satisfaction

the people get This study result was explained by some

researchers Watkins Christie and Chally (2008) pointed out

that the body satisfaction level of overweight and obese

college men were significantly lower than normal and

underweight students and the reason is that overweight and

obese college men experienced so much pressure for being thin

Nowadays being thin becomes an ultimate goal for many people

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

43

to get better body image The advertisements of fitness

centers and beauty salons are always claiming that their

products or services can help to promote a better body image

by burning fat As result students in secondary school are

assimilated by this climate overweight or even

pre-overweight students usually fear fatness However the

correlation coefficient was -031 It means Body Mass Index

and Body image score are slightly correlated Other factors

such as personality (Swami et al 2008) and media (Field et

al 2001) also contributed to affect the self body image of

people

The interrelationship between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self body image

2 X 3 ANOVA was computed to find out the interrelationship

between types of eating habit and types of physical activeness

towards self body image The result showed that there was no

interaction effect between types of eating habit and types

of physical activeness towards self-body image(F=0 159 p=0

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

44

853) The result indicates that in all condition of eating

habit the more physically active the better the body image

score people will get

The relationship on body image score between types of eating

habit

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was main effect

on body image score between types of eating habit(F= 906

p=0003) This means that there was mean difference on body

image score between healthy and unhealthy eating habit groups

There are some reasons to explain this situation

First unhealthy eating is directly contributing to

overweight As discussed above weight is an important factor

that affecting body image Increased weight will lead to

increased Body Mass Index and decrease the score of Body image

In our study 796 unhealthy eater reported that they would

not avoid eating oiled and fried food while 733 healthy

eaters would According to Pereira et al (2005) they stated

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

45

that fast foods were usually associated with high fat food

and this kind of food was significantly related to weight gain

As result unhealthy eaters will have serious weight gaining

problem both their weight and appearance satisfaction will

decrease and they will suffer from body image dissatisfaction

On the other hand healthy eating may help to improve the

satisfaction of subjectrsquos appearance According to the survey

report 814 (n = 70) healthy eaters will eat at least one

portion of vegetable per days and 826 (n = 71) healthy eaters

will try to ensure eating lots of vegetables and fruits Eating

lots of fruits and vegetables is benefit to our appearance

According to Craig (2009) he stated that there were

significant benefits to bone health and bone formation when

eating lots of fruits and vegetables Secondary students were

experiencing physical developmental period and healthy bone

can help student to get better posture and prevent injuries

Thus the appearance of secondary school students can be

enhanced and their body image may boost by satisfied

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

46

self-assessment on their own appearance

In addition unhealthy eating may avoid in controlling body

weight According to Malik Pan Willett and Hu (2013) they

found adult and adolescent who did not avoid consuming

sugar-sweetened beverages would significantly gaining body

weight Similar result was found in this study there are 88

of unhealthy eaters reported that they would not buy drinks

that with low calories As result the body weight of them

cannot be monitored Thus the score of self-body image

decrease

Relationship between the physical activeness and body image

score

The result of 2 X 3 ANOVA showed that there was a main effect

on body image score between types of physical activeness(F=

1449 p= 0000) Bonferroni Post Hoc Test was computed and

the result shows that there was significant mean difference

on body image score between groups of physical activeness

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

47

The mean body image score of High physical active group (m

= 4866) was significantly different from Moderate physical

active group (m= 4101) and Low physical active group (m =

3671)

A recent research can explain the group difference Trapp

Chisholm Freund and Boutcher(2010) stated that both

steady-state exercise and high-intensity intermittent

exercise can help to improve cardiovascular performance but

only high-intensity intermittent exercise can help to reduce

total body mass fat mass and trunk fat Based on the findings

of Lee et al (1996) they pointed out that majority of female

in Hong Kong wanted to have slim stomach waist thighs and

hip Therefore high physical activities would have a better

effect for female of Hong Kong to gain better self-body image

scores

The second reason for higher mean score on high physical

activeness may associate with the ability of self-regulation

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

48

People who categorized as high level of physical activeness

required high level of persistency to keep regular physical

activity engagement According to Oaten and Cheng (2006) they

stated that regularly engaging in physical activities can gain

improvement in self-regulatory capacity Self-regulation

could be a motivator forcing people to evaluate and make

adjustment on their own self-body image As result higher

engagement in physical activities will have higher level of

self-regulatory capacity and stronger drive to monitor their

own appearance Hence the body image scores for ldquohigh

physical activenessrdquo were higher than other two levels

The result of Post Hoc test has also showed there was no

significant mean difference on body image score between

moderate and low physical activeness (p = 0 258) There are

two reasons explaining this result

The reason for no mean difference may be explained in terms

of body fat reduction effectiveness of both group According

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

49

to Marlin Nankervis (2013) fat in human body would be break

down by lipolysis only after the first two exercise energy

pathways ATP-CP and glycolytic pathway was inefficient The

criterion to be Moderate Physical group and Low Physical group

does not require students to put much exercise energy and

body fat reduction is not significant in both moderate

physical group and low physical group As result there was

no significant mean difference between moderate physical

group and low physical group in terms of weight

The second reason for this result may be explained by the

sample size Only 28 students were categorized as low physical

activeness error may form due to small sample size

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

50

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of result

The present study was designed to examine the relationship

on self-body image score of groups of eating habit and groups

of physical activities Two hundred and six students of Christ

College completed a questionnaire and there are twelve invalid

data The data were analyzed by Statistical Package of Social

Science (SPSS) Cronbachrsquos reliability test Pearson Product

Moment Coefficient of Correlation (r) and 2 x 3 ANOVA were

used and significance alpha level was set at 005 The results

of this study were summarized as follows

1 There was significant correlation (r= -031 Pgt 005)

between Body Mass Index and body-image score

2 There was no significant interaction effect (F=0 159

p=0 853) in body image score between groups of eating habit

and groups of physical activeness

3 There was significant mean difference (F= 906 p=0003)

on body image score between groups of eating habit

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

51

4 There were significant mean difference(F= 1449 p= 0000)

on body image score between three groups of physical

activeness and the mean body image score of High physical

active group (m =4866) was significantly higher than

Moderate physical active group (m= 4101 p = 0000) and Low

physical active group (m = 3671 p = 0000) In addition

it is found that there was no significant mean difference

on body image score between Moderate physical active group

and Low physical active group (p = 0256)

Conclusion

Within the limitation the followings are the conclusion

drew

1 There is no interrelationship on body image score between

types of physical activeness and types of eating habits

among Hong Kong secondary school students

2 The body image score for Hong Kong secondary school students

in High physical active group is higher than students in

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

52

moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

3 There is no difference on body image score between students

in moderate physical active group and Low physical active

group

4 Healthy eating Hong Kong secondary school students get

higher body image score than unhealthy eating students

5 The higher the Body Mass Index of Hong Kong secondary school

students the lower the body image scores

Recommendation

Based on study procedure it is recommended that the study

sample size should be enlarged more secondary school should

be recruited in order to conduct a more representative

research Moreover random sampling could be used to ensure

the generalization of data Lastly some questionnaires

reported by students were inadequate data collectors should

make the delivery and the introduction to be more precise

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

53

Based on findings the subscales of body-esteem scale for

adolescent and adults should be further studied to examine

the relationship in details In addition the study can be

extended to examine more specific eating habit groups such

as ldquoemotional eatingrdquo ldquovegan eatingrdquo and ldquoFast food consumerrdquo

After examined these groups people could monitor their eating

style in more precise ways

54

Reference

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on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

54

Reference

Aliyev B amp Tuumlrkmen A (2014) Parent Peer and Media Effect

on the Perception of BodyImage in Preadolescent Girls and

Boys

Artinian N T (2001) Perceived benefits and barriers of

eating heart healthy Medsurg Nursing 10(3) 129

Retrieved from

httpsearchproquestcomdocview230523745accounti

=11440

Bernstein H (2011) Promoting a healthy body image

Norwalk Belvoir Media Group LLC

Borkoles E Polman R amp Levy A (2010) Type-D

personality and body image in men The role of exercise

status Body Image 7(1) 39-45

Calzo J P Sonneville K R Haines J Blood E A

Field A E amp Austin S B (2012) The development of

associations among body mass index body dissatisfaction

and weight and shape concern in adolescent boys and

girls Journal of Adolescent Health 51(5) 517-523

Cash T F amp Fleming E C (2002) The impact of body image

experiences development of the body image quality of life

inventory International Journal of Eating

Disorders 31(4) 455-460

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

55

Chan K amp Tsang L (2011) Promote healthy eating among

adolescents a Hong Kong study Journal of Consumer

Marketing 28(5) 354-362

Craig W J (2009) Health effects of vegan diets The

American journal of clinical nutrition 89(5)

1627S-1633S

del Mar Bibiloni M Pich J Pons A amp Tur J A (2013)

Body image and eating patterns among adolescents BMC

Public Health13(1) 1-18 doi1011861471-2458-13-1104

Duncan M J Al-Nakeeb Y Nevill A amp Jones M V (2004)

Body image and physical activity in British secondary

school children European Physical Education

Review 10(3) 243-260

Falloon O Katzman M A amp Wooley S C (Eds) (1994)

Feminist perspectives on eating disorders NY Guildford

Field A E Camargo C A Taylor C B Berkey C S

Roberts S B amp Colditz G A (2001) Peer parent and

media influences on the development of weight concerns and

frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls

and boys Pediatrics 107(1) 54-60

Furnham A Badmin N amp Sneade I (2002) Body image

dissatisfaction Gender differences in eating attitudes

self-esteem and reasons for exercise The Journal of

Psychology 136 581-596

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

56

Ganem P A Heer H D amp Morera O F (2009) Does body

dissatisfaction predict mental health outcomes in a sample

of predominantly Hispanic college students Personality

and Individual Differences 46 557ndash561

Green SP amp Pritchard ME (2003) Predictors of body

image dissatisfaction in adult men and women Social

Behavior and Personality 31(3) 215-222

Griffiths J A amp McCabe M P (2000) The influence of

significant others on disordered eating and body

dissatisfaction among early adolescent girls European

Eating Disorders Review 8 301-314

Huddy D C amp Cash T F (1997) Body-image attitudes among

male marathon runners a controlled comparative

study International journal of sport psychology 28(3)

227-236

Jung J amp Forbes G B (2006) Multidimensional assessment

of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Korean

and US college women A comparative study Sex Roles 55

39ndash50

Jung J Forbes G B amp Lee Y (2009) Cross-cultural

differences in body dissatisfaction and behaviors

associated with disordered eating among early adolescent

boys and girls A study in South Korea and the United

States Sex Roles 61 42ndash54

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

57

Kang M H amp Choue R (2010) Relationships of body image

body stress and eating attitude and dietary quality in

middle school girls based on their BMIKorean Journal of

Nutrition 43(3) 285-293

Keeton W Cash T amp Brown T(1990) Body image or body

images Comparative multidimensional assessment among

college students Journal of Personality Assessment 54

213-230

King T K Matacin M White K amp Marcus B H (2005)

A prospective examination of body image and smoking

cessation in women Body Image An International Journal

of Research 2 19ndash28

Kirkcaldy B D Shephard R J amp Siefen R G (2002)

The relationship between physical activity and self-image

and problem behaviour among adolescents Social

psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology 37(11)

544-550

Kruger J Lee C D Ainsworth B E amp Macera C A

(2008) Body size satisfaction and physical activity

levels among men and women Obesity 16(8) 1976-1979

Lee S amp Lee A M (2000) Disordered eating in three

communities of China A comparative study of female high

school students in Hong Kong Shenzhen and rural Hunan

International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 317ndash327

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

58

Lee S Leung T Lee A M Yu H amp Leung C M (1996)

Body dissatisfaction among Chinese undergraduates and its

implications for eating disorders in Hong

Kong International Journal of Eating Disorders 20(1)

77-84

Littleton H L amp Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image

and disordered eating behavior in children and

adolescents what places youth at risk and how can these

problems be prevented Clinical child and family

psychology review6(1) 51-66

Mak K K Ho S Y Lo W S Thomas G N

McManus AM Day J R amp Lam T H (2010)

Health-related physical fitness and weight status in Hong

Kong adolescents BMC public health 10(1) 88

Malik V S Pan A Willett W C amp Hu F B (2013)

Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and

adults a systematic review and meta-analysis The

American journal of clinical nutrition 98(4) 1084-1102

Mandy J B Jagoda J Ivana D Jelena M amp

Marion M H (2003) Evaluation of adolescent body

satisfaction and associated eating disorder pathology in

two communities European Eating Disorders

Review 11(6) 478-495

Marlin D amp Nankervis K J (2013) Equine exercise

physiology John Wiley amp Sons

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

59

Mendelson B K Mendelson M J amp White D R (2001)

Body-esteem scale for adolescents and adults Journal of

personality assessment 76(1) 90-106

Myers T amp Crowther J (2007) Sociocultural pressures

thin-ideal internalization self objectivation and body

dissatisfaction Could feminist beliefs be a moderating

factor Body Image 4 296-308

Nunnally J C (1978) Psychometric theory New York

McGraw-Hill

Oaten M amp Cheng K (2006) Longitudinal gains in self

regulation from regular physical exercise British

journal of health psychology 11(4) 717-733

Olds M S (2010) The Relationship Between Body Image and

Body Mass Index in Attendees at a Health Fair

Pereira M A Kartashov A I Ebbeling C B

Van HornL Slattery M L Jacobs D R amp

Ludwig D S (2005) Fast-food habits weight gain and

insulin resistance (the CARDIA study) 15-year

prospective analysis The Lancet 365(9453) 36-42

Pompili M Girardi P Tatarelli G Ruberto A amp

Tatarelli R (2006) Suicide and attempted suicide in

eating disorders obesity and weightndashimage concernEating

behaviors 7(4) 384-394

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

60

Powell M amp Hendricks B (1999) Body schema gender and

other correlates in non-clinical populations Genetic

Social and General Psychology Monographs 125 333 - 412

Presnell K Bearman S K amp Stice E (2004) Risk factors

for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls A

prospective study International Journal of Eating

Disorder 36 389-401

Ricciardelli L A amp McCabe M P (2004) A biopsychosocial

model of disordered eating and the pursuit of muscularity

in adolescent boys Psychological Bulletin 130 189-207

Ricciardelli L A McCabe M P amp Banfield S (2000)

Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys Role

of parents friends and the mediaJournal of psychosomatic

research 49(3) 189-197

Šerifović-Šivert Š amp Sinanović O (2008) Body

dissatisfaction Is age a factor Facta

universitatis-series Philosophy Sociology Psychology

and History 7(1) 55-61

Stice E amp Whitenton K (2002) Risk factors for body

dissatisfaction in adolescent girls A longitudinal

investigation Developmental Psychology 38 669ndash678

Swami V Hadji-Michael M amp Furnham A (2008)

Personality and individual difference correlates of

positive body image Body image 5(3) 322-325

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

61

Swami L B Wells C L Manore M M Swan P D amp

Corbin C B (1998) Social physique anxiety in

postmenopausal women Journal of Women amp Aging 10 19-39

Thompson K J Heinberg L J Altabe M amp

Tantleff-Dunn S (1999) Exacting beauty theory

assessment and treatment of body image disturbance

Washington DC APA

Trapp E G Chisholm D J Freund J amp

Boutcher S H (2008) The effects of high-intensity

intermittent exercise training on fat loss and fasting

insulin levels of young women International journal of

obesity 32(4) 684-691

van den Berg P A Mond J Eisenberg M Ackard D amp

Neumark-Sztainer D (2010) The link between body

dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents

Similarities across gender age weight status

raceethnicity and socioeconomic status Journal of

Adolescent Health 47(3) 290-296

Watkins J A Christie C amp Chally P (2008)

Relationship between body image and body mass index in

college men Journal of American College Health 57(1)

95-100

Weinshenker N J amp Siegel A (2002) Bimodal

classification of aggression Affective defense and

predatory attack Aggression and Violent Behavior 7(3)

237-250

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

62

Williams P A amp Cash T F (2001) Effects of a circuit

weight training program on the body images of college

students International Journal of Eating

Disorders 30(1) 75-82

Wiseman C V Sunday S R amp Becker A E (2005) Impact

of the media on adolescent body image Child and adolescent

psychiatric clinics of North America 14(3) 453-471

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

63

APENDIX

APPENDIX A

問卷調查同意書

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響」

你好

本人是香港浸會大學體育學系三年級生現在誠意邀請你參與本人的畢業研究

在你決定是否參與此不記名問卷調查之前請細閱本次研究之內容目的及問卷資

料用途以保障你個人之權益

本次研究是一項關於中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認

知的影響的研究這項研究旨在探討香港中學生對自我體形滿意度和生活習慣的

相關性你需要完成一份關於體形自我認知活動量和飲食習慣的問卷需時大

約十五分鐘在回答問卷的過程當中如你有任何原因不想繼續作答你可隨時

終止回答問卷有關決定將不會引致任何不良後果問卷將會以不記名方進行

所有收集的資料將會用作本次研究和供受訪者所就讀之學校參考除以上兩項用

途外資料將絕對保密不會再作其他用途是次研究將在香港浸會大學體育學

系教授周碧珠博士監督下進行研究將於五月前完成報告將交由受訪者之學校

決定是否公開

如你對項研究有任何查詢或意見請與鄧景禧實習老師(G18 室)聯絡

如你已明白是次問卷調查的研究目的及內容同時清楚了解資料的用途和保密條

款請在下方決定是否參與是次問卷調查

我 同意不同意參與是次問卷調查(刪除不適用者)

簽署 日期

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

64

APPENDIX B

「中學生日常活動量與飲食習慣的互聯相關性對體形自我認知的影響問卷調查」

甲 國際身體活動問卷

我們對找尋人們在他們日常生活中多種的身體活動有興趣這個問卷會問你在最

近 7 天花在身體活動的時間請回答每一個問題甚至如果你想自己是一個沒有

身體活動的人請想一想你在工作時的活動或是你在家裡或園藝的部份從一

個地方到一個地方及在你空閒的時間運動或娛樂

第 1 部份工作或相關的身體活動

第 1 部份是關於你的工作包含家以外支薪的志願參加的學校課程的及任何其它在

家以外非支薪的工作不包括在你在家中非支薪的工作如家事園藝工作一般維修

的工作及家庭照顧

1 現在你在家以外有支薪非支薪志願參加的學校課程的或任何其它工作嗎

有

沒有 請跳至第 2 部份交通

下一個問題是關於你在最近 7 天裡所有支薪與非支薪工作的身體活動這個不包含從家

到工作場所來回交通上的身體活動

2 最近 7 天期間你做了多少強而有力的身體活動像是提重物苦工繁重的建築

工或是在工作中爬階梯等活動僅回想每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的身體活動 跳到問題 4

3 通常於工作的那些天你花多少時間在做強而有力的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

4 再一次僅回想你每次至少花 10 分鐘的那些身體活動在最近 7 天期間你花多

少天在做像是提輕的物品之適度身體活動請不要包括走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的適度身體活動 跳至問題 6

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

65

5 通常於工作中你花多少時間在做適度的身體活動

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

6 最近 7 天期間在學校或支薪的志願參加的工作場所中你花多少天從事每次至

少 10 分鐘的走路請不要計算你上放學屬於交通性質之走路

_____ 每週幾天

沒有工作相關的走路 跳至第 2 部份交通

7 通常於工作中你花多少時間在走路

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 2 部份交通相關的身體活動

這些問題是指你運用何種交通工具從某地移動到某地包含移動至學校商店電影院

等等

8 最近 7 天期間你有多少天是搭乘交通工具如火車巴士或汽車

_____ 每週幾天

沒有搭乘交通工具 跳至問題 10

9 你通常在那些天花多少時間在搭乘火車巴士汽車小巴或任何交通工具

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

現在只回想你到學校工作場所或外出時以騎單車作為交通工具時候

10 最近 7 天期間你上放學到工作場所或外出時花多少天在從事每次至少 10 分

鐘的騎單車呢

_____ 每週幾天

從某地到某地沒有騎單車 跳至問題 12

11 通常騎單車上放學到工作場所或外出的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

66

12 最近 7 天期間你從某地到某地花多少天從事每次至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

沒有從某地走路到某地 跳到第 3 部份家事房子維修及家庭照顧

13 通常走路從某地到某地的那些天你會花多少時間

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 3 部份家務房屋維修及家庭照顧

此部份是指最近 7 天你在家周遭所從事的一些身體活動如家務園藝庭院工作一

般維修工作及家庭的照顧

14 僅回想你所做每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多少天在家中或

花園從事強有力的身體活動像是提重物或大型維修呢

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有強而有力的活動 跳至問題 16

15 通常在花園或家中裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

16 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間你有多

少天在花園及庭院中從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物打掃洗窗或在花園及庭

院耙草等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家中沒有適度的活動 跳至問題 18

17 通常在花園或庭院裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

67

18 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在家裡

你有多少天在室內從事適度的身體活動像是提輕物洗窗刷地或打掃室內活動

_____ 每週幾天

在家裡沒適度的身體活動 跳到第 4 部份娛樂遊戲及休

閒時的身體活動

19 通常在家裡的那些天你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 4 部份遊憩運動及休閒時的身體活動

此部份是指最近 7 天裡你僅僅在從事遊憩運動健身及休閒的所有身體活動請不

要包含之前你已述說的任何活動

20 不要計算任何你敘述過的走路最近 7 天期間在休閒時你花多少時間在從事每次

至少 10 分鐘的走路呢

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有走路活動 跳至問題 22

21 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在走路呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

22 只要回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒時你有

多少天從事強而有力的身體活動像是有氧運動跑步快騎單車快泳激烈球

賽或高強度練習等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有強而有力的身體活動 跳至問題 24

23 通常在休閒時的那些天你花多少時間在從事強而有力的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

68

24 再一次僅回想那些你從事每次至少 10 分鐘的身體活動最近 7 天期間在休閒

時你有多少天從事適度的身體活動像是一般的速度騎單車一般的速度游泳一

般運動比賽或練習打等活動

_____ 每週幾天

在休閒時沒有適度的身體活動 跳至第 5 部份耗費在坐著

25 在休閒時的那些天通常你花多少時間在從事適度的身體活動呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

第 5 部份坐著的時間

最後的問題是指你於休閒時花在工作在家或做作業的坐著之時間這可以包含時間

花在書桌訪問朋友讀書或坐或躺看電視的坐著不要包含已經敘述過的搭乘機動交

通工具的坐著時間

26 最近 7 天期間通常於週間（非假日時間）你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

27 最近 7 天期間通常於週末時間你花多少時間在坐著呢

_____ 每天幾小時

_____ 每天幾分鐘

乙 個人資料

1 性別 女性 男性

2 年齡 12 13 14 15 16 17 gt18

3 身高 米 (m)

4 體重 公斤 (kg)

5 班級

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

69

丙 青少年和成年體形自我認知問卷 請細閱以下描述同意程度以 0 至 4 分標示4 分代表總是同意0 分代表從不同

意請圈選適合的數字 從不

同意

很少

同意

有時

同意

經常

同意

總是

同意

1 我喜歡我在照片上的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

2 其他人覺得我是好看的 0 1 2 3 4

3 我的外觀值得我感到驕傲 0 1 2 3 4

4 我會全神貫注地嘗試改變自己的體重 0 1 2 3 4

5 我的外觀能夠為我帶來工作機會 0 1 2 3 4

6 我喜歡我照鏡時的模樣 0 1 2 3 4

7 可能的話我願意在我的模樣上作出大量的

改變

0 1 2 3 4

8 我滿意我的體重 0 1 2 3 4

9 我希望我更好看 0 1 2 3 4

10 我十分喜歡現在的重量 0 1 2 3 4

11 我希望我的外觀可與某人相提並論 0 1 2 3 4

12 人們認為我的外觀與年齡相稱 0 1 2 3 4

13 我的外表令我感到傷心 0 1 2 3 4

14 我的外表比大部份人好看 0 1 2 3 4

15 我為我擁有的外觀感到歡喜 0 1 2 3 4

16 我認為我的體重高度比例是合適的 0 1 2 3 4

17 我的外觀令我感到羞愧 0 1 2 3 4

18 量度體重會令我感到沮喪 0 1 2 3 4

19 我的體重令我不悅 0 1 2 3 4

20 我的外觀為我帶來約會的機會 0 1 2 3 4

21 我為我擁有的外觀感到擔憂 0 1 2 3 4

22 我認為我有很好的體形 0 1 2 3 4

23 我正擁有理想的外觀 0 1 2 3 4

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

70

丁 青少年飲食習慣清單 請細閱以下描述並圈選出最合適的答案 (正確錯誤或從不)

從不選項只供題目 167111718192021

正

確

錯

誤

從

不

1 如在家午饍我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我從不在家午饍

2 我經常避免進食油炸食物 T F

3 若有甜品或布丁提供我經常進食 T F

4 我每日最少進食一份水果 T F

5 我嘗試減少總食物脂肪涉取量 T F

6 如果購買薯片類零食我會選擇低脂的品牌 T F 我從不購買薯片

類零食

7 我會避免進食香腸或漢堡 T F 我從不進食香腸

或漢堡

8 我經常購買糕餅進食 T F

9 我嘗試減少總食物糖份涉取量 T F

10 我每日最少進食一份蔬菜或沙律 T F

11 如在家中進食甜品我會選擇低脂的食物 T F 我不會進食甜品

12 我絕少吃外賣 T F

13 我會嘗試確保自己會吃大量的蔬菜和水果 T F

14 我在經常在正餐之間 （早午晚）進食糖果

或零食

T F

15 我常常在正餐時進食最少一份蔬菜或沙律 （薯

仔除外）

T F

16 在購買飲料時我會選擇減肥或低卡飲料 T F

17 在麵包上塗牛油時我會只會塗上薄薄的一層 T F 我從不塗牛油在

麵包上

18 當我進食飯盒午餐時通常會加上朱古力或餅乾

一起進食

T F 我從不進食飯盒

午餐

19 我會在正餐之間以水果代替零食 T F 我從不在正餐之

間吃零食

20 如果在餐廳吃甜品我會選擇最健康的款式 T F 我從不在餐廳吃

甜品

21 我經常吃有奶油的甜品 T F 我從不吃甜品

22 在大部份我日子中我每天最少吃三份水果 T F

23 我通常會盡量吃健康的餐單 T F

-完-

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

71

APPENDIX C

6 Protocol for IPAQ Long Form

The long form of IPAQ asks in detail about walking moderate-intensity and

vigorous-intensity physical activity in each of the four domains Note asking

more detailed questions regarding physical activity within domains is likely to

produce higher prevalence estimates than the more generic IPAQ short form

61 Continuous Score

Data collected with the IPAQ long form can be reported as a continuous

measure and reported as median MET-minutes Median values and

interquartile ranges can be computed for walking (W) moderate-intensity

activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) within each domain using the

formulas below Total scores may also be calculated for walking (W)

moderate-intensity activities (M) and vigorous-intensity activities (V) for each

domain (work transport domestic and garden and leisure) and for an overall

grand total

62 MET Values and Formula for Computation of MET-minutes

Work Domain Walking MET-minutesweek at work = 33 walking minutes walking days at work

Moderate MET-minutesweek at work= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days at work Vigorous MET-minutesweek at work= 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days at work Total Work MET-minutesweek =sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous MET-minutesweek

scores at work

Active Transportation Domain

Walking MET-minutesweek for transport = 33 walking minutes walking days for

transportation Cycle MET-minutesweek for transport= 60 cycling minutes cycle days for

transportation Total Transport MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Cycling MET-minutesweek

scores for transportation

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

72

Domestic and Garden [Yard Work] Domain

Vigorous MET- minutesweek yard chores= 55 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days doing yard work (Note the MET value of 55 indicates that

vigorous gardenyard work should be considered a moderate-intensity activity for scoring

and computing total moderate intensity activities) Moderate MET-minutesweek yard chores= 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing yard work Moderate MET-minutesweek inside chores= 30 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days doing inside chores Total Domestic and Garden MET-minutesweek =sum of Vigorous yard + Moderate yard +

Moderate inside chores MET-minutesweek scores

Leisure-Time Domain Walking MET-minutesweek leisure = 33 walking minutes walking days in leisure Moderate MET-minutesweek leisure = 40 moderate-intensity activity minutes

moderate-intensity days in leisure Vigorous MET-minutesweek leisure = 80 vigorous-intensity activity minutes

vigorous-intensity days in leisure Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek = sum of Walking + Moderate + Vigorous

MET-minutesweek scores in leisure

Total Scores for all Walking Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activities Total Walking MET-minutesweek = Walking MET-minutesweek (at Work + for Transport + in

Leisure) Total Moderate MET-minutesweek total = Moderate MET-minutesweek (at Work + Yard

chores + inside chores + in Leisure time) + Cycling Met-minutesweek for Transport +

Vigorous Yard chores MET-minutesweek Total Vigorous MET-minutesweek = Vigorous MET-minutesweek (at Work + in Leisure)

Note Cycling MET value and Vigorous gardenyard work MET value fall within the coding

range of moderate-intensity activities

Total Physical Activity Scores

An overall total physical activity MET-minutesweek score can be computed

as Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total (Walking + Moderate +

Vigorous) MET-minutesweek scores

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

73

This is equivalent to computing Total physical activity MET-minutesweek = sum of Total Work + Total Transport + Total

Domestic and Garden + Total Leisure-Time MET-minutesweek scores

As there are no established thresholds for presenting MET-minutes the

IPAQ Research Committee proposes that these data are reported as

comparisons of median values and interquartile ranges for different

populations

63 Categorical Score

As noted earlier regular participation is a key concept included in current

public health guidelines for physical activity4 Therefore both the total volume

and the number of daysessions are included in the IPAQ analysis algorithms

There are three levels of physical activity proposed to classify populations ndash

lsquolowrsquo rsquomoderatersquo and lsquohighrsquo The criteria for these levels are the same as for

the IPAQ short [described earlier in Section 42]

Category 1 Low

This is the lowest level of physical activity Those individuals who not meet

criteria for Categories 2 or 3 are considered lsquolowrsquo

Category 2 Moderate

The pattern of activity to be classified as lsquomoderatersquo is either of the following

criteria

d) 3 or more days of vigorous-intensity activity of at least 20 minutes per

day OR

e) 5 or more days of moderate-intensity activity andor walking of at least

30

minutes per day

OR

f) 5 or more days of any combination of walking moderate-intensity or

vigorous-intensity activities achieving a minimum Total physical activity

of at least 600 MET-minutesweek

Individuals meeting at least one of the above criteria would be defined as

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7

74

accumulating a moderate level of activity See Section 75 for information

about combining days across categories

Category 3 High

A separate category labelled lsquohighrsquo can be computed to describe higher

levels of participation The two criteria for classification as lsquohighrsquo are

a) vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 1500

MET-minutesweek

OR

b) 7 or more days of any combination of walking

moderate-intensity or vigorous-intensity activities achieving a

minimum Total physical activity of at least 3000

MET-minutesweek

See Section 75 for information about combining days across categories

64 IPAQ Sitting Question IPAQ Long Form

The IPAQ sitting question is an additional indicator variable and is not included

as part of any summary score of physical activity To-date there are few data

on sedentary (sitting) behaviours and no well-accepted thresholds for data

presented as categorical levels For the sitting question lsquoMinutesrsquo is used as

the indicator to reflect time spent in sitting rather than MET-minutes which

would suggest an estimate of energy expenditure

IPAQ long assesses an estimate of sitting on a typical weekday weekend

day and time spent sitting during travel (see transport domain questions)

Summary sitting variables include

Sitting Total Minutesweek = weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend day sitting

minutes 2 weekend days Average Sitting Total Minutesday = (weekday sitting minutes 5 weekdays + weekend

day sitting minutes 2 weekend days) 7