S:Sensory&Food

Quality

The Influence of Sodium on Liking andConsumption of Salty FoodLisa Lucas, Lynn Riddell, Gie Liem, Susie Whitelock, and Russell Keast

Abstract: Excessive sodium (Na) intake has been linked to development of hypertension and related pathologies. In thisstudy, we assessed if the sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration in a prototypical food influences the liking and intake ofthat food. In study 1, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed, and perceived salt intensity and likingfor hash browns of varying sodium concentrations (40 mg, 120 mg, 170 mg, and 220 mg Na/100 g) were compared in alab setting. In study 2, detection and recognition thresholds for NaCl were assessed in a lab setting, and lunches consistingof hash browns, basic salad, and beverages were consumed freely in a dining setting on 4 separate occasions. Intake andliking ratings for hash browns were recorded after the lunch. In both studies, detection and recognition thresholds forNaCl were not associated with perceived saltiness, liking, or intake of hash browns. Liking and perceived salt taste intensityof hash browns were correlated (r = 0.547 P < 0.01), and in study 1 the 220 mg sodium hash brown was most liked(P < 0.05). In study 2, there was no association between Na concentration and liking or consumption of hash browns.In summary, liking of hash browns were influenced by whether testing was in a lab or dining room environment. In adining room environment, large decreases (>50%) of sodium content of food were achievable with only minor decreasein liking and no effect on consumption of the food.

Keywords: dietary sodium, hedonic response, NaCl, sensory, taste

IntroductionSodium chloride (NaCl) is the prototypical stimulus that elicits

salt taste (McCaughey and Scott 1998), and salt taste is appetitive.The biological significance of sodium (Na) is reflected by the factthat 1 taste quality (salty) is solely dedicated to identifying foodsthat contain sodium (McCaughey and Scott 1998). Sodium is es-sential for human functioning (Oh and Uribarri 2006) and it hasbeen theorized that the evolutionary transition from sea to landrequired bodily cells to be surrounded by salty solution compara-ble to sea water. However, further along in human evolution ourancestors subsisted on a predominately herbivorous diet lacking insodium. As a result, an appetitive response to sodium evolved to en-courage the seeking out and intake of sodium sources (Cordain andothers 2005; Morris and others 2008). The modern food supplyhas developed to meet not only human’s nutritional requirementsbut also our appetitive wants. Processed foods provide approxi-mately 80% of dietary sodium (Dyer and others 1997; Grimes andothers 2008) and as our diet is comprised of many processed foods,we are now consuming concentrations of sodium well in excessof recommended intakes and this is presumably driven by our lik-ing of higher sodium concentrations (Beauchamp and Engelman1991).

Excessive intake of dietary sodium has been strongly linked tohypertension, and hypertension is a risk factor for the developmentof cardiovascular disease (CVD) and stroke (He and MacGregor2007). There is also evidence suggesting that excess sodium intakeis linked to gastric cancer (Joossens and others 1996; Tsugane and

MS 20100669 Submitted 6/15/2010, Accepted 10/8/2010. Authors are withthe School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Sensory Science Group, Deakin Univ.,Burwood, Vic, Australia. Direct inquiries to author Keast (E-mail: russell.keast@deakin.edu.au).

others 2004), decreased bone density (Devine and others 1995;Evans and others 1997), and higher rates of obesity (He and oth-ers 2008), prompting calls for mandatory regulation of sodiumlevels in processed foods (Food Standards Agency 2007; AmericanNational Academy of Sciences 2010). As the majority of sodiumintake is via processed foods, the most effective strategy to reducesodium intake would be to reduce the level of sodium containedin processed foods. While there are technological reasons for theaddition of sodium to foods (Ruusunen and Puolanne 2005),the primary reason is to satisfy the consumers’ liking of salt taste(Krause and others 2007; Childs and others 2009).

There is some evidence linking an individual’s salt taste sensitiv-ity with their liking and consumption of salty foods. Perceived saltintensity and liking of salty foods has been shown to be influencedby prior exposure to decreased or increased sodium concentration.Reducing sodium intake to 1600 mg Na/day has resulted in in-creased perceived salt intensity and decreased liking of salty foodsover time (Blais and others 1986). Sensory habituation to higherconcentrations of sodium has also been reported resulting in in-creased liking for high sodium concentrations in food (Bertinoand others 1986). This apparent plasticity in salt taste intensityand liking favors increases in dietary sodium, as consumers tendto prefer high sodium to low sodium products (Beauchamp andEngelman 1991) although liking of high sodium concentrationsmay also be food specific (Hayes and others 2010). Processed foodstherefore contain appetitive concentrations of sodium to maintainpalatability as the mean daily sodium intake increased during theearly 1970s and has remained consistently high (Briefel and John-son 2004; Brown and others 2009). As the food environmentbecame saltier, habituation to higher sodium concentrations mayhave occurred (Hill 2004).

The objective of this research was to determine if there is an as-sociation between salt taste sensitivity, perceived saltiness intensity,

C© 2010 Institute of Food TechnologistsR©

S72 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 76, Nr. 1, 2011 doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01939.xFurther reproduction without permission is prohibited

S:Se

nsory

&Fo

odQu

ality

Salt taste and liking . . .

and liking of a food with varying concentrations of sodium and toassess if manipulating the sodium concentration in a prototypicalfood (hash browns) influences intake of that food.

Materials and Methods

SubjectsThis research consisted of 2 separate studies and was conducted

at Deakin Univ., Melbourne, Australia. We established a minimumof 52 subjects were required to detect differences of 0.5 units onthe 9-point hedonic scale with 90% power. Fifty-six participants,48 female, 8 males (20 ± 0.4 y, body mass index, 22 ± 0.4 kg/m2)took part in study 1 and were students enrolled in a sensory sciencecourse. Twenty-two participants, 15 females, 7 males, aged 18 to59 y, (body mass index 22 ± 0.6 kg/m2) took part in study 2 andwere recruited from Deakin Univ. campus via e-mail communica-tion or in response to advertising placed around the university. Thisresearch was approved by Deakin Univ. Human Research EthicsCommittee and all participants provided written informed con-sent prior to participation. Height was measured in centimeters ona stadiometer (Seca, Birmingham, United Kingdom) and weightwas measured in kilograms (Tanita BF-522, Arlington Heights,Ill., U.S.A.). Data were collected for both study 1 and 2 on theday of testing and participants were asked to refrain from eat-ing, drinking, and chewing gum for 1 h prior to sensory testing.All sensory testing was conducted in computerized, partitionedsensory booths at the Deakin Univ. sensory laboratory.

Study 1: To determine the association between salt tastesensitivity, perceived saltiness intensity, and liking of hashbrowns

Overview of study 1. Study 1 was carried out over 2 sessions.Session 1 involved threshold assessment to determine detection andrecognition thresholds for NaCl. Session 2, involving the sameparticipants, was conducted at the same time of day, 2 wk later todetermine perceived saltiness intensity (suprathreshold intensity)and liking of 4 different sodium concentrations contained in hashbrowns.

Session 1: Taste threshold measurementsA series of 8 NaCl solutions (3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 17, 24, 34 mM) were

prepared in accordance with the Intl Standards Organization (ISO3972:1991). Food grade Anhydrous NaCl (Saxa, Premier FoodsInc., UK), and filtered deionized water (CUNO filter cartridgemodel: FS115S 5 microns) was used to make solutions. Participantswere presented with the 8 NaCl solutions, served in ascendingconcentration. Samples were served in 20 mL portions at roomtemperature, with a 3-digit blinding code to prevent assumptionsto the order of concentration. Participants did not know the orderof concentration and were requested to taste each sample fromleft to right (from lowest to highest concentration), then expelthe solution. Participants had to choose and record whether therewas absence of taste (water like), a taste identified but unrecogniz-able (detection threshold), or a taste quality that was recognized.Recognition threshold was defined as the concentration at whichthe taste quality (salty) was correctly identified and the 2 subse-quent solutions were also identified correctly. Participants whodid not reach recognition threshold at a concentration of 34 mMNaCl were asked to return on separate day for retesting where 3NaCl solutions (34, 45, 60 mM) were served. Participants were re-quired to wear nose clips throughout the sensory testing to preventconfounding from other sensory input that may influence flavor

perception. Room temperature deionized water was provided fororal rinsing (3 times) between samples.

Session 2: Liking and perceived saltiness intensityof hash browns

Fried potatoes are a commonly consumed food (Rangan andothers 2008), therefore hash browns were used as a prototypicalfood in this study. Four variations of hash browns were produced(Simplot, Australia) and were identical apart from the concentra-tion of Na (40 mg/100 g, 120 mg/100 g, 170 mg/100 g, and 220mg/100 g). The Na was added to the hash browns during pro-duction ensuring Na distribution throughout the hash-brown, notto the exterior of the hash-brown product postproduction. Eachvariation of hash brown was assigned a 3-digit blinding code. Priorto the commencement of each session, ovens (Mareno AC7FE-8G) were preheated to 200 ◦C for 10 min and calibrated using athermocouple. The frozen hash browns were then transferred tothe ovens and cooked for 20 min. The hash browns were allowedto cool for 5 min prior to presentation. Participants were presentedwith the 4 variations of hash browns served in a random order andfirst rated the liking of each variation on the 9-point hedonic scalewhich ranged from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely), andthen the perceived intensity of saltiness on a structured 10-cm linescale (anchored at each end with “not salty at all” to “very salty”).

Study 2: To determine the influence of sodiumconcentration on consumption of hash browns

Overview of study 2. Study 2 was performed over 2 wk, withsubjects attending 5 sessions. The 1st session was to determine tastethresholds. The 4 remaining sessions consisted of freely consump-tion of one of the 4 varieties of hash brown during lunch. Priorto each session, participants were required to complete a morningfood record (household measures) and were asked to refrain fromeating, drinking, and chewing gum for the 1 h prior to their al-located session. Food records included quantity, brand, time themeal was eaten, and preparation, cooking method. FoodworksNutritional Software (Xyris, Brisbane, Australia, 2007) was usedto analyze kilojoule and sodium intake for the food consumedprior to the lunch. Participants were given a self-administeredadapted salt intake questionnaire to include both frequency andquantity of intake (Charlton and others 2007). The Three FactorEating Questionnaire (TFEQ) (disinhibition subscale) was also ad-ministered to identify participants that may exhibit dietary restraintduring this study (Stunkard and Messick 1985).

Salt taste sensitivityParticipants attended a preliminary session to test detection and

recognition thresholds for NaCl using the same method as usedin study 1 in accordance with the Intl. Standards Organization,ISO-3972:1991.

Lunch preparation and procedureParticipants attended 4 lunches at the same time of day, over

a period of 2 wk. Each lunch consisted of 1 hash brown variety(40 mg Na/100 g, 120 mg Na/100 g, 170 mg Na/100 g, and220 mg Na/100 g), salad with a lemon olive oil dressing, tea,coffee, and water. Trays were assigned displaying subject num-bers and participants were instructed to only eat off their tray.Instructions were also given to leave all plates, glasses, or mugson the tray when finished eating. The serving of each variationof hash brown was randomly assigned for each lunch time. Salads

Vol. 76, Nr. 1, 2011 � Journal of Food Science S73

S:Sensory&Food

Quality

Salt taste and liking . . .

(130 g/serving) were prepared the morning of the lunches. Glassesof water (200 mL) were measured and refrigerated and tea and cof-fee volumes were also measured. The hash browns were cookedfor 20 min (refer to methods for study 1) and participants were allinitially served 2 hash browns (132 g), and could take a salad if de-sired. Hash browns were then passed around at regular intervals toensure participants did not need to ask for more. Each additionalhash brown served was discreetly recorded under the participant’sidentification number. At the conclusion of each lunch, partic-ipants were asked to rate their liking of the lunch on a 9-pointhedonic scale that ranged from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (likeextremely). Trays were removed at the conclusion of the lunchesand any remaining food and beverages weighed and recorded.

Statistical analysisStatistical analysis was performed on SPSS statistical software

Ver. 12.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Ill., U.S.A.) and values presentedare mean ± SEM. One-way repeated measures analysis of vari-ance (ANOVA) and Tukey HSD comparison were used to assess ifthere were a significant differences in liking and perceived saltinessintensity between the 4 variations of hash brown samples and todetermine if there was a significant difference in intake and likingof the hash brown variations. Pearsons’ product moment correla-tion was used to determine if there was an association between salttaste sensitivity, liking, and saltiness intensity of the 4 different Naconcentrations and if there was an association between salt tastesensitivity, liking, and intake of the hash browns variations. P <

0.05 determined statistical significance.

Results

Detection and recognition thresholds for NaClThe mean (±SEM) detection threshold was 5.45 ± 0.35 mM

NaCl. There was no significant relationship between detectionthreshold and liking (r = 0.113, P = 0.091) or perceived saltinessintensity (r = 0.045, P = 0.498). The mean (± SEM) recognitionthreshold was 19.30 ± 1.56 mM NaCl. There was no significantrelationship found between recognition threshold and liking (r =0.020, P = 0.767) or perceived saltiness intensity (r = 0.004, P =0.957).

Liking of hash brownsThe hash brown containing 220 mg Na/100 g was

liked more than the hash brown containing 40 mg Na/100 g, 120 mg Na/100 g, and 170 mg Na/100 g (all P < 0.05),however, there was no statistical difference in liking between the120 mg/Na/ 100 g and the 170 mg Na/100 g (Table 1).

Saltiness intensity of hash brownsThere were significant differences in perceived saltiness be-

tween all 4 sodium concentrations in the hash browns (P < 0.05)(Table 1), and perceived saltiness intensity increased with NaCl

Table 1–Study 1: effect of sodium concentrations on perceivedsalt intensity and liking.

Na concentration Intensity Liking

40mg/100g 1.78 ± 0.19a 5.07 ± 0.21a

120mg/100g 2.89 ± 0.22b 6.00 ± 0.21b

170mg/100g 3.76 ± 0.26c 6.09 ± 0.21b

220mg/100g 5.00 ± 0.21d 6.83 ± 0.15c

All values are mean ± SEM; n = 56. Perceived salty intensity on a 10-cm structured linescale (anchored each end, 1 = not salty at all; 10 = very salty). Scale 1 to 9 (liking): 1 =dislike extremely; 9 = like extremely. Mean values with different letters are significantlydifferent at P < 0.05.

concentration. A significant positive correlation was observed be-tween perceived salty intensity and liking of the hash browns (r =0.547 P < 0.01) (Figure 1).

Study 2: Salt taste sensitivityThe mean (± SEM) detection threshold was 5.55 ± 0.83 mM

NaCl and the mean (± SEM) recognition threshold was 17.55 ±3.36 mM NaCl. There was no significant relationship betweendetection threshold and liking (r = 0.068, P = 0.529) or intake(r = 0.011, P = 0.921) of the 4 variations of hash browns. Therewas no significant relationship between recognition threshold andliking (r = −0.189, P = 0.078) or intake (r = 0.023, P = 0.832)of the 4 variations of hash browns.

Liking of the hash brownsThe hash browns containing 170 mg Na/100 g were signifi-

cantly more liked than the hash browns containing 40 mg Na/100 g (P < 0.05) (Table 2). There were no significant differencesin liking between the hash browns containing 120 mg Na/100 g,170 mg Na/100 g, or 220 mg Na/100 g.

Hash brown intakeThere were no significant differences in the intake of hash

browns across the 4 sodium concentrations (Table 2) and therewas no relationship found between liking and intake for pooledconcentrations (r = 0.099, P = 0.35), or for individual con-centrations: the 40 mg (r = 0.112, P = 0.619), the 120 mg(r = 0.056, P = 0.803), the 170 mg (r = 0.172, P = 0.444),the 220 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.211, P = 0.346). All partici-pants consumed salad and there were no significant differencesin salad intake (g) for the lunch with the 40 mg Na/100 g (121± 7.78), 120 mg (118 ± 9.07), 170 mg (122 ± 7.89), or the220 mg Na/100 g (119 ± 9.47) hash browns. There were nosignificant differences in kilojoule intake in the morning prior tothe hash brown lunch containing 40 mg (1533 ± 179), 120 mg(1967 ± 212), 170 mg (1397 ± 155), or the 220 mg Na/100 g(1809 ± 267).

Dietary sodium intakeThere was no association between morning sodium intake

and liking of the 40 mg Na/100 g (r = −0.066, P = 0.772),120 mg Na/100 g (r = −0.050, P = 0.826), 170 mg Na/100 g(r = −0.046, P = 0.840), or the 220 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.047, P =0.835) hash browns. There was no association between morningsodium intake and intake of the 40 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.194, P =0.386), 120 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.250, P = 0.262), 170 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.359, P = 0.101), or 220 mg Na/100 g (r = 0.283,P = 0.201) hash browns.

DiscussionThis study adds to previous literature suggesting oral sensitivity

to salt taste is not a factor in liking salty food (Bartoshuk 1978;

Table 2–Study 2: effect of sodium concentrations on liking andintake.

Na concentration Liking Intake hash brown (g)

40mg/100g 6.50 ± 0.35a 221 ± 12.6120mg/100g 7.32 ± 0.24a,b 232 ± 16.4170mg/100g 7.72 ± 0.15b 237 ± 15.0220mg/100g 7.18 ± 0.23a,b 239 ± 16.2

All values are mean ± SEM; n = 22. Scale (liking) 1–9: 1 = dislike extremely; 9 = likeextremely. Mean values with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05.

S74 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 76, Nr. 1, 2011

S:Se

nsory

&Fo

odQu

ality

Salt taste and liking . . .

Pangborn and Pecore 1982), and these data also illustrate the com-plex interrelationships between salt taste, liking, and intake of saltyfoods. Decreasing sodium concentration of hash browns decreasedsalt taste intensity, but has variable effects on liking, with the likingresponse affected by the setting in which liking was determined.In the lab environment, the highest sodium concentration hashbrown was most liked, however in a more natural lunch settingthere was no difference in liking between all except the lowestsodium hash brown, which was least liked. Liking of hash brownshad no effect on consumption as the sodium concentration didnot affect the quantity of hash browns eaten at lunch. Overall, thelunch setting illustrated that a significant proportion of sodiummay be reduced in hash browns without affecting liking or intakeof that food.

This study did not find any association between salt taste recog-nition thresholds, liking, perceived intensity, and sodium intake.Indeed, there is little evidence to suggest that salt taste recognitionthresholds determined by tasting sodium in solution are corre-lated with suprathreshold intensity ratings in foods (Bartoshuk1978; Pangborn and Pecore 1982; Beauchamp and others 1990).Different factors may be involved in reducing any influence salttaste thresholds have on liking and intake of salty foods. Much ofsodium in foods is “invisible,” hidden within the food matrix, andnot available to initiate a taste response. Therefore, a fixed con-centration of sodium in 2 different matrices may initiate widelyvarying salt taste perception. Also, the relationship between likingand saltiness is complex and it has been suggested that the hedonicresponse to differing sodium concentrations may be food specific(Hayes and others 2010). Individual variations in oral processing,such as rate of mastication and time in the mouth, determine theextent to which sodium trapped in the food matrix is released andis therefore able to contact taste receptors, and as such, adds to thecomplexity in determining a link between salt taste recognitionthresholds and the liking or intake of salty foods (Brown and oth-ers 1996). Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that thresholdtesting may not be reliable due to residual sodium chloride leftin the mouth after tasting a sodium chloride stimulus (Morinoand Langford 1978). Thus, it has been suggested that oral sensi-

tivity studies should be conducted using suprathreshold stimuli infood rather than solutions (Pangborn and Pecore 1982). In sup-port of this, the present research did find an association betweenperceived saltiness intensity (Figure 1) ratings and liking for thehash browns, which is possibly more relevant to everyday dietaryintake (Bartoshuk 1978; Pangborn and Pecore 1982).

The environment and context in which this study was per-formed are likely to have influenced results. This supports previousresearch suggesting that the food environment significantly impactshedonic responses and intake (King and others 2005), and differ-ences in liking of the same food can occur depending on whethertesting is conducted in a laboratory or a naturalistic environment(Meiselman and others 2000). In the current study, there was apositive relationship between saltiness intensity and liking in study1 that was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting. However,in study 2 where the environment was modified to imitate a morenatural eating environment, saltiness had no effect on hash brownliking or intake. This could be due to sample size of the hash brownand that the saltiest hash brown is most liked when only consuminga small bite (exp 1), but after having eaten to satiety (exp 2), anydifferences in liking between different samples are reduced. Also,it is possible that if we had varied the sodium component of thewhole meal, including salad, to match the sodium content of thehash brown, we may have observed increased intake with sodiumconcentration (Mathey and others 2001). This raises an interestingissue; product testing is usually conducted with only single fooditems, not in a meal context (King and others 2005). However,food items such as hash browns and many other processed foodsare consumed as part of a meal. Results from this study suggestthat intake and liking of hash browns as part of a meal is not sig-nificantly affected when the sodium concentration is reduced by80% (from 220 mg to 40 mg Na/100 g). This extends previousresearch in which 25% sodium reductions were made over a shortperiod of time without influencing consumers hedonic responses(Girgis and others 2003). Further research is required in thisarea.

In the present study, there was no association between dietarysodium intake, liking of hash browns, and hash brown intake.

Figure 1–Study 1: relationship between likingand perceived salt intensity (n = 56). X-axisrepresents perceived salty intensity measuredon a 10-cm structured line scale (anchored eachend, 1 = not salty at all; 10 = very salty). Y-axisrepresents ratings liking (1 = dislike extremely;9 = like extremely).

Vol. 76, Nr. 1, 2011 � Journal of Food Science S75

S:Sensory&Food

Quality

Salt taste and liking . . .

The assessment of food intake measured prior to the hash brownlunch showed no difference in total energy intake or sodium intakebetween the 4 test conditions. Thus, variances in total intake orsodium intake are unlikely to have influenced the current finding.However, it is known that to accurately assess sodium intake, 24 hurinary collection and analysis would be required (Day and others2001), therefore, we cannot confidently exclude any variance inprior sodium intake influencing the data.

Some limitations of this study warrant discussion. The reliabil-ity of the assessment of food and sodium intake measured priorto the hash brown lunch has been questioned previously due tounderreporting (Charlton and others 2007). However, the partici-pants included in this study do not display dietary restraint and thishas been suggested to reduce the likelihood of the underreportingthat is associated with food intake questionnaires (Hayes and others2010), and as subjects acted as their own controls in study 2, anyunderreporting could be assumed to be consistent from one mealto the next. The sample used in this research cannot be consideredrepresentative of the population as the sample selected for study 1were university students and negatively skewed toward a lower ageand BMI. Furthermore, the sample size for study 2 was small (n =22), therefore generalization to the general population is limited,and may have affected the power of study 2 to find a differencein liking and consumption. Finally, we acknowledge that brief adlibitum consumption during lunch may not reflect an individual’susual dietary intake.

ConclusionsAn individual’s salt taste sensitivity, as measured by recognition

threshold had no association with liking or intake of salty foods;however, suprathreshold intensity (perceived saltiness) was associ-ated with liking (Keast and Roper 2007). The environment andcontext in which testing is done can have an influence on results.The liking of a food changes when evaluated as a single item incomparison to part of a meal, and saltiness is rated as more intensein meals consisting of a number of ingredients rather than a sin-gle component. As the food industry prepares to meet probablemandatory limits for sodium in foods, this study suggests signifi-cant sodium reductions can be achieved without influencing foodintakes; however food manufacturers may need to accept minorreductions in consumer liking as a result.

AcknowledgmentsThis work was supported by the RPA cluster funding from

Health, Medicine, Nursing, and Behavioral Sciences Faculty,Deakin Univ. The authors thank Simplot Australia for supply-ing hash-browns of varying Na concentration.

ReferencesAmerican National Academy of Sciences (Institute of Medicine). 2010. Strategies to reduce

sodium intake in the United States. Washington, DC: The National Academics Press. 1–27p.Bartoshuk L. 1978. The psychophysics of taste. Am J Clin Nutr 31:1068–77.Beauchamp GK, Engelman K. 1991. High salt intake sensory and behavioral factors. Hyperten-

sion 17(suppl 1):176–81.Beauchamp GK, Bertino M, Burke D, Engelman K. 1990. Experimental sodium depletion and

salt taste in normal human volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 51:881–9.

Bertino M, Beauchamp GK, Engelman G. 1986. Increasing dietary salt alters salt taste preference.Physiol Behav 38(2):203–13.

Blais CA, Pangborn RM, Borhani NO, Ferrell MF, Prineas RJ . 1986. Effect of dietary sodiumrestriction on taste responses to sodium chloride: a longitudinal study. Am J Clin Nutr44:232–43.

Briefel R, Johnson C. 2004. Secular trends in dietary intake in the United States. Annu RevNutr 24: 401–31.

Brown W, Dauchel C, Wakeling I. 1996. Influence of chewing efficiency on texture and flavourperceptions of food. J Texture Stud 27:433–50.

Brown I, Tzoulaki I, Candeias V, Elliott P. 2009. Salt intakes around the world: implications forpublic health. Intl J Epidemiol 38(3):791–813.

Charlton K, Steyn K, Levitt N, Jonathon D, Zulu J, Nel J. 2007. Development and validationof a short questionnaire to assess sodium intake. Public Health Nutr 11(1):83–94.

Childs J, Yates M, Drake M. 2009. Sensory properties and consumer perception of wet and drycheese sauces. J Food Sci 74:205–18.

Cordain L, Eaton SB, Sebastion A, Mann N, Lindeberg S, Watkins BA, O’Keefe JH, Brand-Miller J. 2005. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21stcentury. Am J Clin Nutr 81:341–54.

Day N, McKeown N, Wong M, Welch A, Bingham S. 2001. Epidemiological assessment of diet:a comparison of a 7-day diary with a food frequency questionnaire using urinary markers ofnitrogen, potassium and sodium. Intl J Epidemiol 30(2):309–17.

Devine A, Criddle AR, Dick IM, Kerr DA, Prince RL. 1995. A longitudal study on the effectof sodium and calcium intakes on regional bone density in post menopausal women. Am JClin Nutr 62:740–5.

Dyer A, Elliot P, Chee D, Stamler J. 1997. Urinary biomechanical markers of dietary intake inthe INTERSALT study. Am J Clin Nutr 65:1246S–1253S.

Evans CEL, Chughtai AY, Blumsohn A, Giles M, Eastell R. 1997. The effect of dietary sodiumon calcium metabolism in premenopausal and postmenopausal women effect. Eur J Clin Nutr51:394–9.

Food Standards Agency (FSA). 2007. Campaign continues to drive down salt consumptionand improve public health. Available from: http://www.food.gov.uk/healthiereating/salt/.Accessed Jun 10, 2009.

Girgis S, Neal B, Prescott J, Predergast J, Dumbrell S, Turner C, Woodward M. 2003. A onequater reduction in the salt content of bread can be made without detection. Eur J Clin Nutr57:616–20.

Grimes CA, Nowson CA, Lawrence M. 2008. An evaluation of the reported sodium content ofAustralian food products. Intl J Food Sci Technol 43:2219–29.

Hayes J, Sullivan B, Duffy V. 2010. Explaining variability in sodium intake through oral sensoryphenotype, salt sensation and liking. Physiol Behav 100:369–80.

He FJ, MacGregor GA. 2007. Dietary salt, high blood pressure and other harmful effects onhealth. Reducing salt in foods: practical strategies. Cambridge, U.K.: Woodhead PublishingLimited.

He FJ, Marrero N, MacGregor GA. 2008. Salt intake is related to soft drink consumption inchildren and adolescents- A link to obesity? Hypertension 51:629–34.

Hill DL. 2004. Neural plasticity in the gustatory system. Nutr Rev 62(11):208–17.Joossens JV, Hill MJ, Elliot P, Stamler R, Stamler J, Lesaffre E, Dyer A, Nichols R, Kesteloot

H. 1996. Dietary salt, nitrate and stomach cancer mortality in 24 countries. Intl J Epidemiol25(3):494–504.

Keast RS, Roper J. 2007. A complex relationship among chemical concentration, detectionthreshold, and suprathreshold intensity of bitter compounds. Chem Senses 32(3):245–53.

King S, Meiselman HL, Hottenstein A, Work T, Cronk V. 2005. The effects of contextualvariables on food acceptibility: a confirmatory study. Food Qual Prefer 18:58–65.

Krause A, Lopetcharat K, Drake M. 2007. Identification of the characteristics that drive consumerliking of butter. J Dairy Sci 902:2091–102.

Mathey M, Siebelink E, de Graaf C, Van Staveren WA. 2001. Flavor enhancement of foodimproves dietary intake and nutritional status of elderly nursing home residents. J Gerontol:Med Sci 56A:200–5.

McCaughey SA, Scott TR. 1998. The taste of sodium. Neurosci Behav Rev 22(5):663–76.Meiselman HL, Johnson JL, Reeve W, Crouch JE. 2000. Demonstrations of the influence of

the eating environment on food acceptance. Appetite 35:231–7.Morino T, Langford H. 1978. Salivary sodium correlates with salt recognition threshold. Physiol

Behav 21(1):45–8.Morris M, Na E, Johnson A. 2008. Salt craving: the psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake.

Physiol Behav 94:709–21.Oh M.S, Uribarri J. 2006. Modern nutrition in diet and disease. In: Shills, M. E., Shike, M.,

Ross, C., Caballero, B., Cousins, R. J., editors. Electrolytes, water and acid-base balance.Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Pangborn R, Pecore S. 1982. Taste perception of sodium chloride in relation to dietary intakeof salt. Am J Clin Nutr 35:510–20.

Rangan AM, Schindeler S, Hector DJ, Gill TP, Webb KL. 2008. Consumption of ‘extra’ foodsby Australian adults: types, quantities and contribution to energy and nutrient intakes. Eur JClin Nutr 63(7):865–71.

Ruusunen M, Puolanne E. 2005. Reducing sodium intake from meat products. Meat Sci 70:531-41.

Stunkard AJ, Messick S. 1985. The three- factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint,disinhibition, and hunger. J Psychosom Res 29:71–83.

Tsugane S, Sasazuki S, Kobayashi M, Sasaki S. 2004. Salt and salted food intake and subsequentrisk of gastric cancer among middle-aged Japanese men and women. Br J Cancer 90:128–34.

S76 Journal of Food Science � Vol. 76, Nr. 1, 2011