The Influence of a TV Drama on Visitors’ Perception: A Cross-Cultural Study

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The Influence of a TV Drama on Visitors’ Perception: ACross-Cultural StudySamuel Seongseop Kim, Jerome Agrusa & Kaye ChonPublished online: 15 May 2014.

To cite this article: Samuel Seongseop Kim, Jerome Agrusa & Kaye Chon (2014) The Influence of a TV Drama on Visitors’Perception: A Cross-Cultural Study, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 31:4, 536-562, DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2014.883950

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THE INFLUENCE OF A TV DRAMA ON VISITORS’PERCEPTION: A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY

Samuel Seongseop KimJerome AgrusaKaye Chon

ABSTRACT. The goal of this study is to assess the effects the Korean food featured on the KoreanTV drama series Daeganggeum has on the perceptions of national image and intention to visit Koreaby residents of Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Thailand. Estimates of structural equation models are used forsamples from the three countries to produce information for comparing relationships between vari-ables: on preferring Korean food, the national image of Korea, and the intention to visit Korea for foodtourism. The results show similarities and differences between the three national groups. Virtuallyidentical models are found for Hong Kong and Taiwan groups. However, the comparison of HongKong and Taiwan groups to the Thailand group demonstrate differences. Specifically, in the Thaisample, distinctiveness of Korean food culture significantly increases the intention to visit Korea forfood tourism. All three national groups demonstrate that a strong relationship exists between thenational image of Korea and the intention to visit Korea for food tourism.

KEYWORDS. Visual media, food, culture, Hallyu, structural equation model, image perception

INTRODUCTION

The keywords of the study are film and foodtourism. In modern society, the effects that filmhas on its viewing population as well as on alocation can be enormous, while food hasbecome an important attraction for a tourismlocation. The convergence of these two compo-nents is likely to be a very effective contributorto attract tourists. With recognition on theimportance of these variables as tourism attrac-tions, a large number of studies have identifieddiverse aspects of film tourism, including the

motivation of film tourists (e.g., Beeton, 2005,2010; Macionis, 2004; Macionis & Sparks,2009; Riley & Van Doren, 1992) or the percep-tion of a destination’s image by film tourists(e.g., Butler, 1990; Chalip, Green, & Hill,2003; Croy, 2010; Frost, 2006; O’Connor,Flanagan, & Gilbert, 2010; Sealy & Wickens,2008). Past studies have described the impactsof film tourism (e.g., Aitchison, Macleod, &Shaw, 2000; Croy, 2011; Han & Lee, 2008;Heitmann 2010; Kim, Agrusa, Lee, & Chon,2007; Riley & Van Doren, 1992; Riley, Baker,

Dr. Samuel Seongseop Kim, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Hotel and Tourism Management atHong Kong Polytechnic University, School of Hotel and Tourism Management, 17 Science Museum Rd,TST East, Kowloon, Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong (E-mail: [email protected]).

Jerome Agrusa is a Professor of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hawaii Pacific University, TravelIndustry Managment, Honolulu, United States (E-mail: [email protected]).

Kaye Chon is a Professor of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hong Kong Polytechnic University,China (E-mail: [email protected]).

Address correspondence to: Dr. Samuel Seongseop Kim, PhD, at the above address.

Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 31:536–562, 2014Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1054-8408 print / 1540-7306 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10548408.2014.883950

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& Van Doren, 1998; Tooke & Baker, 1996),while film-induced tourism literature has ana-lyzed the cultural perspectives of film tourism(e.g., Bandyopadhyay, 2008; Huang, 2011; Su,Huang, Brodowsky, & Kim, 2011) as well asthe managerial aspects of film tourism (e.g.,Croy & Walker, 2003; O’Connor et al., 2010;Riley & Van Doren, 1992; Tooke & Baker,1996). Most studies consistently demonstratethat a film is a medium that attracts tourists toa film destination or film story-relateddestinations.

Food is embedded in national social practices,dining habits, gastronomy, national traditions,and history (Chaney & Ryan, 2012; Cohen &Avieli, 2004). It manifests as a part of societal,cultural, and artistic values (Groce & Perri, 2010;Hegarty & O’Mahony, 2001). Food is one of theessential elements that enhance the nationalimage or competitive advantages of a nation(Boyne, Hall, & Williams, 2003; du Rand &Health, 2006; du Rand, Heath, & Alberts, 2003;Enright &Newton, 2005; Hjalager & Corigliano,2000; Horng & Tsai, 2010). It is a factor thatstrongly affects tourists’ satisfaction with a tour-ism destination (Kim, Kim, & Goh, 2011; Nield,Kozak, & LeGrys, 2000), and it is a medium ofstimulating interest of the nation and willingnessto revisit the location (e.g., Cohen & Avieli,2004; du Rand & Health, 2006; du Rand et al.,2003; Kim et al., 2011; McKercher, Okumus, &Okumus, 2008; Meler & Cerovic, 2003; Nieldet al., 2000; Tikkanen, 2007). Food also helps tosustain regional identity as well as promoteregional development (Boyne et al., 2003;Everett & Aitchison, 2008). Accordingly, sincefood is a central part of tourists’ consumptionbehavior at a tourism destination, it also gener-ates economic benefits to the tourist-receivingcommunity (Belisle, 1983; Henderson, 2009;Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2009; Armesto Lopez &Martin, 2006; Telfer & Wall, 1996).

This study analyzes the effects of Koreanfood as the theme on the Korean TV dramaseries Daegangeum (Jewel in the palace). TheTV drama series consists of 70 episodes in aking’s palace, featuring a cooking maid’sexperience amid political conspiracies and fac-tion fighting. After the TV drama series wasfirst aired in Korea in September 2003, it was

released in May 2004 in Taiwan, October 2004in Japan, January 2005 in Hong Kong,September 2005 in Mainland China, andOctober 2005 in Thailand. Since then,Daegangeum has reached approximately 55other countries, including Singapore, Malaysia,Vietnam, Iran, the Philippines, several Europeannations, and African countries, such asZimbabwe, Tanzania, and Ghana (Kim, 2012).

Since the effects of this TV drama series areinternationally well known, particularly in Asiancountries, there are a multiple number of studiesin international journals that have provided evi-dence of the effects of the film on Hong Kong,Taiwan, and Thailand (Huang, 2011; Iwashita,2008; Kim, 2012; Kim, Agrusa, Chon, & Cho,2008; Kim, Long, & Robinson, 2009; Kim et al.,2009; Lee, Scott, & Kim, 2008; Shim, 2006; Suet al., 2011). These studies consistently reportthat the high popularity of this 70 episode,food-themed TV drama series has been con-nected to the enhancement of the nationalimage of Korea and has increased interest inKorean tourism resources. Additionally, numer-ous TV drama-related products were developedincluding DVDs, VCDs, OSTs, albums, cook-books, comic books, original Korean novels,translated novels, dolls, musicals, T-shirts, mugcups, and Korean traditional dress (Kim et al.,2009). Even though most studies reported thatthe popularity of the film resulted in it becominga magnet attracting tourists to taste Korean food,there are very limited sources of research thatanalyzed the effects of the food depicted on theTV drama through primary data analyses.

The main goal of this study was to explorehow potential tourists in three nations (HongKong, Taiwan, and Thailand) perceive Koreaafter experiencing the Korean food featured onDaegangeum. Three specific objectives areinvolved in this study. The first was to assesswhether the reasons for the preference of aKorean food storylined on the TV drama havea positive effect on the national image of Korea.Second, was to investigate whether the reasonsfor the preference of Korean food storylined onthe TV drama have a positive effect on theintention to visit Korea for food tourism.Third, was to compare structural equation mod-els measuring the relationships between the

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reasons for preferring Korean food storylinedon the TV drama, the national image of Korea,and the intention to visit Korea for food tour-ism, according to the three national samplegroups.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Film Tourism

A research stream of film tourism is to ana-lyze the economic impact of film-induced tour-ism. Some studies have reported that theadverse economic impact film-inducted tourismhas on a destination include increases in realestate prices, higher house rental fees and con-sumer prices, and the growth of social costs dueto congestion (Beeton, 2006; Riley & VanDoren, 1992; Rothman, 2003; Tooke & Baker,1996). However, most studies indicate the posi-tive impacts on a backdrop site, such as devel-opment of the tourism industry, jobopportunities, and an increase in taxes beingreported (Busby & Klug, 2001;Connell, 2005a;Connell, 2005b; Croy, 2010; Han & Lee, 2008;Huang, 2011; Kim et al., 2007; Riley & VanDoren, 1992; Riley et al., 1998; Tooke & Baker,1996). Other studies indicate that post-effectsafter the airing of a film is completed may beminimal (Croy & Heitmann, 2011; Croy, 2010;Di Cesare, D’A ngelo, & Rech, 2009; Macionis& Sparks, 2009).

It is interesting to assess film tourism fromthe anthropological and sociological perspec-tives. Film-induced tourism deals with postmo-dern epistemologies of hyper-reality or myth-telling (Beeton, 2005; Buchmann, 2006;Couldry, 1998), commercialization (Beeton,2005; Couldry, 1998; Frost, 2006), authenticityor pseudo effect (Beeton, 2005; Buchmann,2010; Donnelly, 2005; Frost, 2006; Karpovich,2010; Mordue, 2001; Yeoman, Brass, &McMahon-Beattie, 2007), and the deconstruc-tion or construction of a location’s image(Aitchison et al., 2000; Heitmann 2010];Iwashita, 2008; Jewell & Crotts, 2002; Jewell& Mckinnon, 2008; Schofield, 1996). Objectsexposed in a film also perform an underpinningrole as cinematic fictional representation of the

screened location. Therefore, the objects areconstructed as a sign or icon of the destinationin the tourist’s mind (Abbas, 1997; Baudrillard,1988; Buchmann, 2006; Hirschman &Thompson, 1997; Hirschman, 2000; Sydney-Smith, 2006; Tooke & Baker, 1996; Tzanelli,2004; Zukin, 1991).

In summarizing the above anthropologicalaspects, the deconstruction of space by a filmand its reconstruction of the image of a placecan occur as a post-tourist experience, while aboundary between the authentic and unauthenticworlds exist. Thus, hyper-reality or myth-tellingare framed through the process of soft filteringso that viewers can accept fictional cinemato-graphic storylines portrayed or representedwithin a film or TV program. As a result, filmtourists construct their own interpretations ofimages that are framed through a film and con-sume represented images featured on a film.Consequently, researchers in sociology andanthropology have criticized film locations asbecoming commercialized and organized leisuresites to gain mercenary pursuits as opposed tooffering entertainment to film tourists.

Studies of film tourism have been exploredfrom the cultural perspective. New film-inducedtrends from the Asian cultural tourism perspec-tive have been reviewed (Huang, 2011; Kimet al., 2007; Kim, 2010, 2012; Lee et al.,2008; Shim, 2006; Su et al., 2011). Some stu-dies indicated that the demand for TV drama-induced tourism from Asian countries to Koreastemmed from the cultural similarity or proxi-mity. In a similar vein, visual media coverage isan effective medium that can be used to createcultural or philosophical meanings of the indi-genous food shown on the screen (Boyne et al.,2003; du Rand et al., 2003; Horng & Tsai,2010; Kim, 2012; Su et al., 2011).

Individuals who are genetically tied or inter-ested in different cultural diversities are swayedby the backdrop of the storyline since filmsrepresent a multiplicity of race, migration, colo-nialism, persecution, power, tradition, conflict,culture, and religion (Mordue, 2001; Portegies,2010). Thus, a film leads to promoting diasporatourism that stimulates overseas residents to visittheir homeland and connect with their heritageidentity or reminisces (Bandyopadhyay, 2008).

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Some studies warn that film tourism assistsWestern or more economically powerful coun-tries through visual media imperialism or cul-tural power dominance (Boyd-Barrett, 2006;Chung, 2011).

Food Tourism

Food tourism studies have focused on threemajor areas: economic benefits, tourist motiva-tions, and national image. Numerous studieshave discussed the monetary benefits createdby food tourists or the selling of food productsfrom an area or location (Belisle, 1983;Armesto Lopez & Martin, 2006; McKercheret al., 2008; Telfer & Wall, 1996). In a previousstudy, approximately half of the foreign touriststo Korea selected “tasting Korean food” as oneof the most impressive experiences during theirstay in the country (KTO, 2007). In addition tothe tourism destination reaping the economicbenefits of increased tourist spending, foodtourism does not have the level of seasonalityconcerns of other types of destination tourism(Belisle, 1983; Telfer & Wall, 1996).

Furthermore, food-tourism literature exploresgastronomical motivations, culinary tourists’experiences, and the intention to visit a foodtourism destination (Chang, 2009; Enright &Newton, 2005; Hall & Sharpels, 2003; KTO,2007; McKercher et al., 2008; Quan & Wang,2004; Ryan, 1997; Tikkanen, 2007). A leisuretourist has a culinary motivation to taste authen-tic food that may be an antecedent of intentionto visit a destination (Hall & Mitchell, 2000;Ryan, 1997; Tikkanen, 2007). A study byMcKercher et al. (2008), which segmentedoverseas food tourists to Hong Kong into fivecategories (nonculinary tourists, unlikely culin-ary tourists, possible culinary tourists, likelyculinary tourists, and definite culinary tourists),reported that demographic and travel profileswere different across the five segments. Theirstudy found that the authentic food touristsdemonstrated the highest level of expendituresin Hong Kong and tended to provide positivespecifications on their intention to revisit.

Some food tourism studies assess the meri-torious role of food in improving the image of a

food-producing nation (Boyne et al., 2003;Cook & Crang, 1996; du Rand et al., 2003;Everett & Aitchison, 2008; Hall & Mitchell,2000; 2006; Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000;Rimmington & Yüksel, 1998). Tikkanen’s(2007) study found that culinary tourists seek-ing the highest level of need in Maslow’s hier-archy of needs are more interested in a nation’sindigenous culture and the positive perceptionof a nation’s image. Experiencing a foreigncountry’s traditional cuisines in a potential tour-ist’s domestic country often leads to animprovement in the image of the country fromwhich the cuisines originate (du Rand & Health,2006; du Rand et al., 2003; Horng & Tsai,2010; Kim et al., 2009; Rimmington &Yüksel, 1998).

In summary, most food tourism studies sup-port the argument that food is one of the mostimportant tourism destination attributes thatconveys a worthwhile experience for the tourist.Some studies indicate that stakeholders in des-tination tourism should make the most of foodas a tool for building a destination’s brand andconsolidating their tourism competitivenessinitiatives at the local or national level (Cohen& Avieli, 2004; du Rand et al., 2003; Hall &Mitchell, 2000; Hall & Sharpels, 2003; Horng& Tsai, 2010).

Convergence of Film Tourism and FoodTourism

A tourist’s interest in food begins in itsdifferences from his or her ethnic or nationalgroups. There are many examples of intercoun-try cultural disparities between both the Asianand Western dining contexts. There is alsocross-cultural incongruence between differentethnic or national groups within Asian andWestern dining cultures (Cohen & Avieli,2004; Horng & Tsai, 2010). For example,Chinese or Thai diners are not accustomed tovegetable side dishes, whereas it is commonKorean cuisine to have side dishes of vegeta-bles. While in some studies, food may not havebeen the direct motivator to attract internationaltourists, it was established that food was a con-tributing factor in determining the perceptions


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of national image, satisfaction or expectations,and the intention to visit (Groce & Perri, 2010;Hall & Mitchell, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010;Meler & Cerovic, 2003; Rimmington &Yüksel, 1998).

As described above, the diverse impacts ofDaejanggeum has been demonstrated in inter-national journals (Huang, 2011; Iwashita, 2008;Kim, 2012; Kim et al., 2008, 2009; Lee et al.,2008; Shim, 2006; Su et al., 2011). Therefore, itis likely that the prominence of food in thismega-hit drama series will influence the percep-tion of national image and increase travelers’interest in potentially visiting Korea. The con-ceptualization section elaborates specifically onhow film can enhance national image andincrease the intention of visiting a nation forfood tourism at a previsit stage.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptualization of this study demonstratesa convergence of food-related tourism andfilm-induced tourism. The popularity of theDaejanggeum’s 70 episodes, which highlightthe use of Korean traditional cuisine and med-icine, was particularly significant in Asiannations such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, andThailand. This Korean drama was overwhel-mingly engrossed by Hong Kong societywhere it was recorded as the most popularTV drama in the 25-year history of HongKong’s broadcasting industry, showing anaveraged audience rating of 37% and a topviewer rating of 49% (Kim, 2012). A similarimpact was evident in Taiwan where each epi-sode of this TV drama was watched by anaverage of 1.1 million people in Taiwan(Huang, 2011). In Thailand, the popularity ofthe drama resulted in an increase in the num-ber of new Korean restaurants and Koreanlanguage courses, more Thai tourists visitingKorea after the showing of the series, and anincrease in the sales of Korean electricalproducts (Kim, 2012).

Before using factor analysis to evaluate thepreference for Korean food, which was thetheme on Daegangeum, three hypotheseswere established to analyze the effects of

Korean food featured on the TV drama onforeign residents’ perceptions through the useof primary data sets, which were collectedfrom three countries. Since reasons for prefer-ence for the food is a significant factor indetermining a destination’s image or awarenessof the destination, it is likely to influence aperson’s intention to visit the film destination(du Rand & Health, 2006; du Rand et al.,2003; Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Kimet al., 2011; Tikkanen, 2007). As a result,Korean cuisines, which were featured on themega-hit cuisine-themed TV series, are effec-tive tools in heightening the interest of Koreaand improving the country image, even thoughit may not be a decisive factor in leading toreal travel to the drama-shot destination.

Up until this point, numerous film-tourismand food-tourism studies have been con-ducted separately. Except for a few researchstudies commenting on the importance of anational food in promoting a nation on visualmedia (Groce & Perri, 2010; Hall & Mitchell,2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010), there are limitedstudies that investigated a convergence ofthese two types of tourism using primarydata. On the basis of the explosive popularityof Daeganggeum and the results of previousstudies that reviewed the effects of film tour-ism and food tourism, hypothesis 1 wasdesigned to identify the reasons for preferringKorean cuisine, which was a subject in theinternationally recognized TV drama, and islikely to contribute to enhancing the nationalimage of Korea. Some reasons why foreign-ers prefer Korean cuisine is that it is knownas a healthy food consisting of diverse vege-tables, a good combination of vegetables withmeats, and containing Korean traditional cul-ture (Ju & Kennon, 2002; Kim, 2005; KTO,2007).

In this context, the independent variables arereasons for preferring the Korean food story-lined in Daeganggeum, whereas one dependentvariable is the national image of Korea. Thealternative hypothesis presents a causal relation-ship between the independent variables and onedependent variable. In contrast, the null hypoth-esis is a no cause-effect relationship betweenthem.


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Hypothesis 1: Reasons for preferring theKorean food storylined in Daeganggeumpositively affects the national image of Korea.

A film that features a theme of a nationalcuisine is effective in heightening the interest ofthat food as well as attracting potential tourists tothat nation (Boyne et al., 2003; du Rand et al.,2003; Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Horng &Tsai, 2010). A film is also a medium to affectintention to visit the destination exposed on thebig screen, even though it may not strongly leadto a film tourist’s final visit because of diversetravel constraints (Croy & Heitmann, 2011; DiCesare et al., 2009; Macionis & Sparks, 2009).Alternative hypothesis 2 was designed to explorethe reasons for preferring Korean food shown onDaeganggeum, which may affect the intention tovisit Korea for food tourism. Here, the indepen-dent variables are reasons for preferring theKorean food storylined on the TV drama,whereas one dependent variable is the intentionto visit Korea for food tourism.

Hypothesis 2: Reasons for preferring theKorean food storylined on Daeganggeumpositively affects the intention to visit Koreafor food tourism.

Since a destination’s image contains the inherentmeaning of the brand for consumers, it is an ante-cedent of determining where to go (Croy, 2011;Gnoth, 2002; Pike, 2009; Qu, Kim, & Im, 2011;Riley & Van Doren, 1992). Thus, image is consid-ered to be central to the formation of a destinationbranding model (Cai, 2002; Elliot, Papadopoulos,& Kim, 2011; Konecnik & Gartner, 2007), and afilm may undoubtedly contribute to consolidatingthe branding of a film destination (Crofts, 1989;Macionis, 2004; O’Connor et al., 2010). Most filmstudies demonstrate that enhancement of image ona filmed country can contribute in leading toincreased tourism in the backdrops that were fea-tured on a film (Crofts, 1989; Hudson & Ritchie,2006; Moyle & Croy, 2009; O’Connor et al., 2010;Pan, Tsai, & Lee, 2011). One alternative hypothesisis shown, as follows, to identify the effect of thenational image of Korea (independent variable) onthe intention to visit Korea for food tourism(dependent variable).

Hypothesis 3: The national image of Koreapositively affects the intention to visit Koreafor food tourism.

These hypotheses will be tested according tothree national groups, and the results will thenbe compared. The rationale of comparing threestructural equation models by three nationalgroups rests on the possibility that culturallydiverse people interpret complexity of scenesor cultural codes shown on film in a hybridcultural context (Portegies, 2010; Su et al.,2011). It is understandable in a hermeneuticalapproach that interpretation of cuisine may bedifferent according to different cultural parties(Bandyopadhyay, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2010).Since perceptions of tourists on foreign tradi-tional food are likely to differ according to theircultural heterogeneity (du Rand et al., 2003;Everett & Aitchison, 2008; Hegarty &O’Mahony, 2001; Howes, 1996; Nield et al.,2000; Su et al., 2011), this study compares theresults of analyzing structural equation modelson all three national samples.

Aside from theoretical cross-cultural differ-ence assumption, a main reason why results ofstructural equation models among samples ofThailand, Taiwan, and Hong Kong are likelyto be different is based on the fact that theeffects of the food-themed Korean TV dramaon the three nations have somewhat differentlybeen reported on newsletters with regard toconsumption pattern, purchase behavior, or rea-son for preferring Korean food. In particular,because tourists in these countries have differentreasons for preferring Korean food, statisticalsignificances on paths starting from the reasonsfor preference for Korean food are likely to bedistinctive among the three cohorts.

Hypothesis 4: Significance or sign on structuralequation models are different among threenational groups.

METHODOLOGY

The method section of this study includes mea-surements used in a questionnaire, data collection,and introduction of data analysis approaches.


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They are all processes employed to conduct quan-titative data analysis using primary data.

Measurement

A main measurement instrument developedfor this study was a research questionnaire thatincludes items indicating the reasons for prefer-ring Korean cuisine by Hong Kong, Taiwanese,and Thai residents. Items related to reasons forpreferring Korean cuisine featured onDaeganggeum were derived by reviewing pre-vious studies of Korean food characteristics (Ju& Kennon, 2002; Kim & Kim, 2004; Kim,2005; Min, 2003) as well as the mass mediathat were describing the popularity of Koreanfood in the three nations selected for this study(Korea Economy, 2005; Positioning Magazine,2005, 2006; Prachatai Newspaper, 2006).Questionnaires were written in English,Chinese, and Thai for the different respondentgroups. In designing the questionnaires, thedouble translation method (back translation)was utilized prior to distribution (McGorry,2000). Although occasions exist where the lit-eral translation process may have misinforma-tion, the double translation method is one of themost adequate translation processes (Lau &McKercher, 2004).

The survey was initially written in Koreanand then translated into English. An indepen-dent bilingual Korean American professor thentranslated the English version back into Koreanin order to check for inconsistencies or mistran-slations. Finally, the Korean version was trans-lated back into English to reveal anyinconsistencies.

In order to avoid ambiguity in the questionsand to ensure that all of the questions written onthe survey instrument were clearly understood,a pilot test of 20 students of the language acad-emy and 50 Hong Kong diners participated inchecking the accuracy of the translation, whichwas completed prior to data collection. On thebasis of reviewing the respondents’ comments,slight modifications to the survey instrumentwere made, and a final questionnaire wasdesigned.

To develop the Chinese questionnaire, aTaiwanese tourism professor, who is very

familiar with the English language, translatedthe English version of the survey into aChinese version. Finally, for the Thai versionof the questionnaire, an English professor, whowas fluent in the Thai language and teachestourism in Thailand, translated the English ver-sion of the questionnaire into Thai. As a finalstep to guarantee the accuracy of the translatedversions of the questionnaires, a reverse transla-tion (where the three different language versionswere translated into a Korean version) was pro-cessed in a meeting of three Korean tour guides,who are fluent in the languages of the threecountries selected for this study. It was throughthis rigorous methodology that the final ver-sions of the questionnaires in the three lan-guages were created.

A set of 12 questions were developed inorder to determine the respondents “reasonsfor preference for Korean food,” using a mixof cognitive and affective attitude attributesfrom previous studies (Ju & Kennon, 2002;Kim & Kim, 2004; Kim, 2005; Min, 2003).That is, the items reflected the following fiveaspects: characteristics of Korean food, such ashealthy features based on the amount of vege-tables and low calories; traditional culture; con-geniality as Asian food; and influences of TVdramas. In order to determine the “reasons forpreference for Korean food,” a statement wasoperationalized as “Please check the level ofagreement regarding reasons why you preferKorean food.” Responses to the items weremeasured on a 5-point Likert-type scale where1 = strongly disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree,3 = neutral, 4 = somewhat agree, and 5 =strongly agree.

A question for identifying the image change ofKorea after experiencing Korean food wasworded as “after experiencing Korean food, howhas your image of Korea changed?” Respondentsanswered on a 5-point Likert-type scale where1 = became very unfavorable, 2 = became some-what unfavorable, 3 = unchanged, 4 = becamesomewhat favorable, and 5 = became very favor-able. One item in reference to their intention tovisit Korea for food tourism was worded as “afterexperiencing Korean food, has your intention tovisit Korea for food tourism increased?”Respondents answered on a 5-point Likert-type


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scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = somewhatdisagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = somewhat agree, and5 = strongly agree.

Data Collection

In the data collection, the following five con-siderations were commonly taken when the threenational samples were collected. First, amongpotential respondents, teenagers were not eligi-ble because they cannot afford to make a trip toKorea as high school students. Second, since thepurpose of this study compares responses ofthree national data sets, sample sizes for thethree national data sets should be of similarsize. The decision of the sample size for thisstudy reflected the rationale that the sample sizeis recommended to have at least 300 cases toconduct exploratory factor analysis (Comrey &Lee, 1992). Thus, this study set an effectivesample size a minimum of 340 from each of thethree countries participating in the study.

Third, data should be collected from four tofive Korean restaurants that are located in busybusiness zones of large cities so that a representa-tive sample of each national data group is guaran-teed. The reasons why data collection wasconducted in Korean restaurants are as follows:The customers of Korean restaurants are believedto understand the features of Korean food basedon their dietary experience. Another reason is thatthey are the end-users of consuming Korean cul-tural products. Four, it is assumed that most peo-ple watched, or know of, the TV drama seriesDaeganggeum through gossip, since it is extre-mely popular in Hong Kong, Taiwan, andThailand. Additionally, since restaurant customerscan see pictures or posters of cuisine scenes fromDaeganggeum at these restaurants, they can easilyrecollect the drama. As a result, those who wereexposed to the TV drama were part of the samplegroups. Five, the survey was distributed to custo-mers after they ordered their food but before thefood was served, which allowed time to answerthe questionnaire during the waiting period fortheir food. In sum, a high level of willingness toanswer the questionnaire was based on the factthat data collection was completed in Koreanrestaurants, restaurant owners agreement to

allow their customers to participate in the study,Korean food diners as respondents, credibility byparticipation of professors and graduate studentswith the data collection, and the time in which thesurveys were collected.

The data collection in Hong Kong was car-ried out at five Korean restaurants that wererepresentative of Korean restaurants in HongKong, including four located on Hong KongIsland and one in Thsim Sha Tsui. Surveyswere collected by both postgraduate studentsof the Hong Kong Polytechnic University andemployees working in the Korean restaurants.The survey collection was undertaken betweenMarch 21 to April 28, 2006 with a total of 500questionnaires distributed and a total of 456returned. Of those collected, 45 questionnaireswith multiple missing values and thoseanswered by teenagers were removed becausethey were supposed not to be able to afford totravel overseas, even though they show a highintention to visit Korea. A total of 411 usablesurveys were coded for data analysis.

Taiwan was the next country where data werecollected. Survey collection was implemented atthree of the largest Korean restaurants located inTaipei and at two restaurants that are located inKaohsiung, which is the second largest city afterTaipei. Before distributing the questionnaires,cooperation was endorsed by all restaurant own-ers. At the three Korean restaurants in Taipei, ofthe 345 distributed questionnaires, 339 were col-lected. After further review, 72 questionnaireswere excluded due to numerous incomplete ques-tions or respondents in high school, resulting in267 usable questionnaires for analysis. As for theother locations in Taiwan, at the two Koreanrestaurants in Kaohsiung, 169 questionnaireswere distributed and 164 were returned. Afterfurther review, 21 questionnaires were eliminateddue to numerous missing values and thoseanswered by teenagers, resulting in 143 usablesurveys to be included in this study. The totalnumber of useable surveys from Taiwan was410, with 267 from Taipei and 143 fromKaohsiung. Data collection was directly con-ducted by both the professor who helped withthe Taiwan translation of this questionnaire andfour PhD students at National Chiayi University


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that were studying under the supervision of theprofessor during December 3 to 31, 2006.

The survey in Thailand was conducted atSukhumvit Plaza, which is located in the centerof Bangkok at the location known as “LittleKorean Town” at five Korean restaurants thatwere selected for this study. After receiving per-mission from the owners of these Korean restau-rants to carry out this survey process, datacollection was conducted by five postgraduatestudents from Dhurakij Pundit University andemployees working in the Korean restaurants.Data was collected from November 1 to 30,2006. A total of 435 surveys were collected, afterexcluding 32 questionnaires with multiple missingvalues, and 403 of usable surveys were analyzed.

Data Analysis

To identify characteristics of the respondents,a frequency analysis was initially conducted. Anexploratory factor analysis was initially con-ducted to identify the underlying dimensions tounderstand the reasons for the preference ofKorean food depicted on Daeganggeum. Next,reliability coefficients with extracted domainswere calculated to measure the internal consis-tency among the items. Then a confirmatoryfactor analysis was undertaken to assess validity.Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) wasapplied to assess if the hypothesized modelcould be supported. If the results are inconsistentwith the model, it would be a good indicationthat the model is flawed. Data analyses wereconducted on all three national cohorts. In addi-tion, a group analysis was finally conducted toidentify invariance between each pair among thethree groups. Results of all data analyses weregained using SPSS 13.0 and AMOS 5.0.

RESULTS

This section is divided into the followingsubsections: demographic profile of respon-dents, characteristics of experiencing Koreanfood, factor analysis and reliability test, resultsof confirmatory factor analyses and

measurement invariance tests, structural equa-tion model, and invariance tests of paths.

Demographic Profile

This information regarding demographic pro-file of respondents is shown in Table 1. Allthree national groups indicated a high educa-tional level due to the fact that approximately71% of respondents were college students orreceived a college degree or higher. Regardingoccupation, respondents indicated companyemployees as a response 29% to 43% for thethree groups. There are two reasons that respon-dents had indicated high levels of education anda high percentage as company employees. Thefirst is that surveys were conducted in the centerof capital cities, where companies are locatedwho usually employee higher-educated employ-ees and a primary younger age cohort who aremore willing to taste exotic food.

Among the large amount of information ondemographic profiles of the respondents, someof the highlights worth discussing are as fol-lows. Concerning the number of respondentswho have visited Korea, Taiwanese respondentsshowed the highest percentage of those whohave not visited (78.9%), followed by Thairespondents (58.6%) and Hong Kong respon-dents (44.5%). Based on these findings,Korean restaurant patrons in Hong Kong arethe highest percentage of respondents who hadpreviously visited Korea and tasted Koreanfood. Hong Kong respondents may show morefrequency in the aspect of number of visits toKorea since there are more than 10 flights dailybetween Hong Kong and Korea, and HongKong residents on average are wealthier thanthe other two national groups.

Characteristics of Experiencing KoreanFood

Table 2 addresses questions indicating interestin Korean food by all three national respondentgroups (Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Thailand).

Regarding the most influential informationsources that influence consuming Korean food,the responses of the three national samples


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were very similar, with TV/Radio having thehighest (61.2–66.3%) and Newspaper/Magazine (11.9–21.4%). Concerning theimage change of Korea after experiencingKorean food, Hong Kong respondents indi-cated the highest percentages on “positivechange” at 69.4%, whereas Taiwan andThailand showed relative lower percentages at57.3% and 48.7%, respectively. Results thatnational food may be an influential mediumin changing the national image of Korea areconsistent with those of previous studies(Boyne et al., 2003; Cook & Crang, 1996; duRand et al., 2003; Everett & Aitchison, 2008;Hall & Mitchell, 2000; Hall & Sharpels, 2003;

Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Rimmington &Yüksel, 1998).

The three national respondent groups showed apercentage range of 44.1–61.7% on the questionthat after experiencing Korean food featured onDaeganggeum, the main purpose or intention tovisit Korea would be to taste Korean food. Theseresults are backed up by the response to the ques-tion of “a reason for preferring Korean food is theTV drama Daeganggeum.” A range of 41.5–60%of the respondents answered strong agreement tothe question. These results are evidence of reflect-ing the strong effects this TV drama has on thesecountries. As a result, the findings support thoseof previous studies that national food can be an

TABLE 1. Demographic Profile

Variable Category Hong Kong(N = 411)

Taiwan(N = 410)

Thailand(N = 403)

Gender Male 48.0% 34.6% 32.4%Female 52.0% 65.4% 67.6%

Marital status Married 50.9% 22.9% 33.7%Single 49.1% 77.1% 66.3%

Age 20s 35.6% 48.2% 47.7%30s 41.2% 40.8% 33.5%40s 16.8% 6.6% 14.6%50s or older 6.4% 4.4% 4.2%

Number of visits to Korea No visit 44.5% 78.9% 58.6%Once 36.3% 14.1% 31.0%2 times 10.2% 4.1% 8.9%3 times 4.0% 1.5% 1.0%4 times or above 5.0% 3.5% 0.5%

Educational level High school or below 29.3% 13.2% 20.2%College student or above 70.6% 86.8% 80.9%

Occupation Company employee 28.8% 34.9% 43.2%Self-employed businessmanCivil servant

5.8%13.0%

2.4%4.1%

15.1%9.4%

Professional 12.1% 6.2% 2.8%Technician 2.2% 1.8% 1.2%Homemaker 7.1% 2.9% 3.5%Student 10.2% 23.6% 13.4%Sales/service employee 7.8% 12.9% 5.2%Teacher 0.7% 3.4% 1.7%Others 12.4% 7.6% 4.5%

Annual householdincome (US$)

39,000 or below(40.6%)

36,000 or below(32.9%)

3,600 or below(15.1%)

39,001–64,999(29.8%)

36,001–60,000(30.7%)

3,6001–7,200(35.2%)

65,0000–90,999 (15.3%) 60,001–84,000(17.8%)

7,2001–10,800(27.8%)

91,000 or more(14.3%)

84,001 or more(18.6%)

10,801 ore more(21.9%)


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ancillary medium to lead to travelling to a nation(Chang, 2009; Enright & Newton, 2005; Hall &Sharpels, 2003; McKercher et al., 2008; Quan &Wang, 2004; Ryan, 1997; Tikkanen, 2007).

Factor Analysis and Reliability Test

An exploratory factor analysis was con-ducted using the combined three sample sets.The reasons why the combined data set for thefactor analysis were employed rather than con-ducting factor analysis for each sample was thatthe same factor structures should be guaranteedto estimate the effects of reasons for preferringKorean cuisines themed in Daegangeum onnational image or intention to visit for food

tourism. In addition, results of undertaking fac-tor analyses using each of the three sampleswere very similar to those of conducting factoranalysis using the combined data set. Since atotal of 1,224 respondents were used for factoranalysis, the sample size met recommendationthat the sample size of 1,000 can be consideredexcellent (Comrey & Lee, 1992).

To assure assumptions of the factor struc-ture produced based on factor analysis, fig-ures, and statistics such as scree plot, eigenvalues for extracted factors, factor loadings,communalities, explained variance, and theKMO measure of sampling adequacy wereutilized. To extract the underlying factors, aprincipal components method was employed.The rotation method used was “varimax,”

TABLE 2. Characteristics of Experiencing Korean Food

Variables Category Hong Kong(N = 411)

Taiwan(N = 410)

Thailand(N = 403)

Most influential informationsource to eat Korean food

TV/Radio 61.2% 66.3% 62.5%Newspaper/ 21.4% 13.4% 11.9%Magazine 9.2% 15.9% 12.4%Internet 3.5% 1.0% 4.5%Cinema 3.3% 2.7% 6.2%Restaurant 1.4% 0.7% 2.5%Others

Frequency of recentlyvisiting a Korean restaurant

Never 1.5% 4.6% 6.0%Mostly not 4.9% 16.3% 5.2%Seldom 18.7% 21.2% 47.4%Often 52.3% 46.3% 33.0%Frequently 22.6% 11.5% 8.4%

Image change of Koreaafter experiencing Korean food

Very unfavorable 0.5% 1.2% 0%Somewhat unfavorable 3.2% 2.4% 0.2%Same 27.0% 39.0% 51.1%Somewhat favorable 40.9% 51.0% 37.0%Very favorable 28.5% 6.3% 11.7%

Intention to visit Korea to taste Koreanfood after experiencing Korean food

Strongly disagree 4.1% 10.5% 1.05Somewhat disagree 6.8% 9.8% 1.2%Neutral 27.5% 35.6% 36.7%Somewhat agree 36.5% 35.1% 43.2%Strongly agree 25.1% 9.0% 17.9%

A reason for preferring Korean foodis attributed to Daeganggeum

Strongly disagree 2.9% 7.8% 4.2%Somewhat disagree 5.8% 11.0% 10.2%Neutral 30.4% 39.8% 25.8%Somewhat agree 38.1% 29.5% 40.0%Strongly agree 21.9% 12.0% 19.9%

A reason for preferring Korean food isexperiencing traditional culture throughKorean food

Strongly disagree 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%Somewhat disagree 3.4% 5.9% 7.9%Neutral 31.9% 33.9% 37.0%Somewhat agree 43.8% 43.9% 41.4%Strongly agree 20.0% 14.9% 11.7%


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which attempts to maximize variances of thefactor loadings in a certain predeterminedfashion. According to the result of the screeplot test, the eigen values for the three factorswere greater than 1.0, indicating that the fac-tor structure consists of three factors. AsTable 3 presents, the factor analysis using 12items, which indicate reasons for preferencefor Korean food storylined on the TV drama,found three underlying domains where eigenvalues were greater than 1.0. In addition, thefactor structure explained 60.05% of the var-iance. Since the KMO measure of samplingadequacy was .90, the results of the factoranalysis were considered a useful validationto extract the factor structure.

Barlett’s test of sphericity was introduced toassess all factors together and each factor sepa-rately against the null hypothesis to evaluate thatthere are no factors. The value was .82 (p = .000),indicating more than one factor exists. All relia-bility alpha scores within the three domains wereabove Nunnally’s (1978) 0.70 criterion as .82,.73, and .75, respectively, indicating the internalconsistency of items within each factor. Factor

loadings that measure correlation between theobserved measurements and the factors shouldexceed the recommendation of Comrey and Lee(1992) that loadings greater than .45 can beclassified as fair or above in interpreting thederived factors. The values were greater than.51 on the three domains, indicating that thevalues have met the criterion.

The derived three domains were labeled“healthy menu” (domain 1), “uniqueness ofKorean food culture” (domain 2), and “varietyand harmony” (domain 3), respectively. Itemsfor domain 1 indicate a healthy menu represent-ing low calories, balanced nutrition, and foodmade from scratch (not instant food). Domain 2includes items of representing characteristics ofKorean food, such as unique Korean spicesused in the menu items, Korean tradition, andinfluence of Daegangeum. Last, domain 3included items of diversity and the harmoniouscharacteristics of Korean food.

The mean values for the 12 items ranged from3.43 to 3.78, and the grand means for the threedomains were 3.55, 3.67, and 3.54, respectively.These items somewhat represent reasons for

TABLE 3. Results of Factor Analysis Regarding the Reasons for Preferring Korean Food Themedon Daegangeum (N = 1,224)

Items FactorLoading

Mean Variance(%)

Domain 1 : Healthy menu (Reliability Alpha = .82)Because of low calories (Item 6) .74 3.43 23.49Because of the good diet due to a range of vegetables (Item 4) .72 3.67Because of balanced nutrients of carbohydrate, protein, and fat (Item 5) .71 3.55Because of healthy food (Item 3) .65 3.70Because of feeling high class with a lot of efforts unlike instant food (Item 12) .58 3.43Grand mean (mean = 3.55)

Domain 2 : Peculiarity of Korean food culture (Reliability Alpha = .73)Because of experiencing traditional culture through Korean food (Item 10) .79 3.55 19.59Because of liking pungent, salty, and spicy food compared to Western food (Item 8) .75 3.74Because of unique and exotic relish due to having food different from that of other

countries (Item 7).53 3.78

Because of feeling a familiarity with Asian food compared to Western food (Item 11) .52 3.59Because of the Korean TV drama series Daeganggum (Item 9) .52 3.65Grand mean (mean = 3.67)

Domain 3: Variety & harmony (Reliability Alpha = .75)Because of diverse food ingredients (Item 1) .82 3.47 16.97Because of providing beautiful combination due to diverse food (Item 2) .73 3.61Grand mean (mean = 3.54)

Note. Items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree (1) – neutral (3) – strongly agree (5)).


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preferring the Korean food themed on the TVdrama. After factor analysis using 12 items indi-cating reasons for preference for Korean food,which was the theme of the Korean TV drama,hypotheses 1 and 2 were divided into threehypotheses, respectively, because the reasonsgenerated three domains. The overall conceptua-lization is exhibited in Figure 1.

Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysesand Measurement Invariance Tests

Before conducting the SEM procedures, a con-firmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed toguarantee the proposed measurement model thatspecifies the posited relations of the observedvariables to the latent constructs. Since results ofa CFA generate construct reliability, convergentvalidity, and discriminant validity, this statisticalapproach is useful compared to an EFA, whichproduces only information of a factor structure.Further findings from CFAs that used each of thethree national samples make a comparison of

reliability or validity of the scales across thethree national groups.

The sample size should be more than 200 incase the number of observable variables is lessthan 12 to conduct a CFA (Joreskog & Sorbom,1993), and the goodness-of-fit measures should besatisfactory to guarantee the model fit. The max-imum likelihoodmethod of estimation was used totest the model. The goodness-of-fit measures wereused to evaluate the overall model fit. As shown inTable 4, in the Hong Kong data set, results of theCFA revealed that an acceptable level of fit wasmet through checking the overall fit indices withthe exception of the chi-square value (χ2

(69) = 188.15, p = .000). However, since the chi-square is sensitive to the sample size, other fitindices are substantially helpful in evaluating themodel (Bentler, 1990; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993).The goodness-of-fit indices include Goodness-of-fit (GFI) = .94, Adjusted Goodness-of-fit index(AGFI) = .91, Comparative fix index(CFI) = .94, Root mean residual (RMR) = .04,and Root mean square of approximation(RMSEA) = .06.

FIGURE 1. Proposed Structural Model


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TABLE

4.Res

ults

ofCon

firm

ationFac

torAna

lyse

s

Hon

gKon

gTaiwan

Tha

iland

Con

struct

items

Fac

tor

load

ing

t-va

lue

SMC

AVEb

CCRc

Fac

tor

load

ing

t-va

lue

SMC

AVEb

CCRc

Fac

tor

load

ing

t-va

lue

SMC

AVEb

CCRc

Hea

lthy

men

u6

.62

11.06

.39

.52

.84

.59

10.22

.35

.55

.86

.59

9.24

.35

.58

.87

4.67

11.81

.45

.71

11.91

.51

.66

10.03

.44

5.72

12.50

.52

.68

11.45

.46

.76

10.89

.57

3.73

12.61

.53

.70

11.70

.48

.66

10.01

.44

12.67

−a

.44

.66

−a

.43

.58

−a

.34

Pec

uliarity

of Korea

nfood

cultu

re

10.56

8.43

.31

.49

.75

.74

10.45

.54

.49

.81

.69

7.34

.48

.48

.77

8.55

8.33

.30

.61

9.33

.37

.54

6.66

.29

7.51

7.86

.26

.65

9.69

.42

.67

7.26

.45

11.65

9.30

.43

.70

10.13

.49

.63

7.07

.39

9.55

−a

.30

.56

−a

.31

.42

−a

.17

Variety

&ha

rmon

y1

.51

7.45

.26

.63

.76

.85

17.56

.71

.81

.89

.76

11.64

.58

.77

.87

2.97

−a

.94

.88

−a

.78

.80

−a

.63

Nationa

lim

age

13Not

Ava

ilable

Not

Ava

ilable

Not

Ava

ilable

Intentionto

visit

Korea

forfood

tourism

14Not

Ava

ilable

Not

Ava

ilable

Not

Ava

ilable

Fitindice

sχ2(69)

=18

8.15

(p=.000

),GFI=.94,

AGFI=.91,

CFI=.94,

RMR

=.04,

RMSEA=.06

χ2(69)

=18

1.04

(p=.000

),GFI=.94,

AGFI=.91,

CFI=.95,

RMR

=.03,

RMSEA=.06

χ2(69)

=38

8.03

(p=.000

),GFI=.88,

AGFI=.82,

CFI=.84,

RMR

=.04,

RMSEA=.09

Note.

aIn

themea

suremen

tmod

el,thees

timated

parameter

was

fixe

dat

1.0.

bAve

rage

Varianc

eExtracted

(AVE)=∑stan

dardized

load

ings

2/∑stan

dardized

load

ings

2+∑ε j,whe

reε jis

themea

suremen

terror.

cCom

posite

Con

struct

Reliability(C

CR)=(∑stan

dardized

load

ings

)2/(∑stan

dardized

load

ings

)2+∑ε j.


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In the Taiwanese data set, the goodness-of-fitindices were very supportive of the measurementmodel except for the chi-square value, which wassignificant (χ2 (69) = 181.04, p = .000). Othergoodness-of-fit indices were Goodness-of-fit(GFI) = .94, Adjusted Goodness-of-fit index(AGFI) = .91, Comparative fix index (CFI) = .95,Root mean residual (RMR) = .03, and Root meansquare of approximation (RMSEA) = .06).

Lastly, the Thai data set showed a good modelfit among the data, with a chi-square value indi-cating χ2 (69) = 388.03 (p = .000), Goodness-of-fit (GFI) = .88, Adjusted Goodness-of-fit index(AGFI) = .82, Comparative fix index (CFI) = .84,Root mean residual (RMR) = .04, and Root meansquare of approximation (RMSEA) = .09.

Reliability was assessed in a construct reliabil-ity aspect by checking the composite constructreliability (CCR) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair,Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). The measure-ment model is considered reliable when the valueis greater than .70 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hairet al., 1998). Since the CCR values were all higherthan .70 on all three national data sets, constructvalidity was satisfactory. In addition, validity indi-cates the extent to which a scale or set of measuresaccurately accounts for the concept of interest(Hair et al., 1998). As suggested by someresearchers (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al.,1998), validity can be assessed by the scale of t-values between each construct and a latent vari-able and the average variance extracted (AVE). Inthe three national cohort data sets, every item on

the three domains had a significant t-value on itslatent construct. Thus, the results indicate that themeasurement scales for each construct are suppor-tive for high convergent and construct validity. Toconfirm the above result, the AVE values in eachdomain were analyzed. Since they were close toor exceeded .50 on all three data sets, the conver-gent validity was not a factor.

Discriminant validity indicates the extent towhich a given construct is different from otherconstructs (Hair et al., 1998). To assess the dis-criminant validity, the average variance extracted(AVE) for each construct should be greater thanthe squared correlations between the constructand all other constructs on the three differentdata sets (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). As shownin Table 4, the lowest AVE values were .48, .49,and .48, on the Hong Kong, Taiwanese, and Thaidata sets respectively. In Table 5, the highestsquared correlations between each pair of con-structs were .44, .40, and .37 on the three datasets, respectively. Since the lowest AVE valueswere greater than the highest squared correlationon all three data sets, this measurement modeldemonstrated discriminant validity.

As one of this study’s objectives was to com-pare structural equation models between thethree national groups, an examination of mea-surement invariance and structural invarianceshould be implemented. If the measurementinvariance is not acceptable, the structural invar-iance test could be erroneous (Steenkamp &Baumgartner, 1998). The general method used

TABLE 5. Correlation Matrix

Construct Hong Kong (N = 411) Taiwan (N = 410) Thailand (N = 403)

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

1 1.000 1.000 1.0002 .663 1.000 .629 1.000 .609 1.0003 .516 .445 1.000 .577 .596 1.000 .530 .431 1.0004 .510 .465 .366 1.000 .379 .527 .406 1.000 .410 .387 .373 1.0005 .543 .469 .376 .632 1.000 .413 .452 .384 .574 1.000 .403 .443 .375 .625 1.000Mean 3.54 3.76 3.47 3.94 3.72 3.26 3.54 3.33 3.59 3.22 3.85 3.66 3.80 3.60 3.76Standard

deviation.679 .603 .810 .850 1.045 .601 .670 .782 .702 1.087 .525 .596 .609 .692 .792

Note. All correlation coefficients were significant at the .01 level.Construct 1 (Healthy menu), Construct 2 (Peculiarity of Korean food culture), Construct 3 (Variety & harmony of Koreanfood), Construct 4 (National image), Construct 5 (Intention to visit Korea for food tourism)


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to assess measurement invariance is the chi-square difference test (Han, Back, & Barrett,2009; Yoo, 2002). If the chi-square differencedoes not indicate significance at a certain signifi-cant level, full metric invariance is supported. Asshown in Table 6, a nonrestricted model usingconfirmatory factor analysis was first tested, fol-lowed by assessing the equality of the factorloadings across groups (full metric invarianceof confirmatory factor analysis model). AsTable 6 indicates, measurement invariance canbe guaranteed when the chi-square differencebetween the nonrestricted model and the fullmetric invariance of confirmatory factor analysismodel is lower than χ2.05 (9) = 16.9. In all threecomparisons, the chi-square differences werefound to be lower, with 16.7, 15.0, and 15.7 onthe Hong Kong, Taiwanese, and Thai data setsrespectively. Therefore, it was found that the fullmetric invariance model was supported; thus,factor loadings across the three sets of twonational groups were equivalent in the measure-ment models.

Conclusively, the measurement model wasacceptable in terms of construct reliability, con-vergent validity, and discriminant validity. Inaddition, measurement invariance between thethree national data sets was supported.

Structural Equation Model

To identify if the hypothesized theoreticalmodel was consistent with the collected data, anempirical structural equation model with the max-imum likelihood method of estimation was tested.The covariance matrix was input to further test the

hypothesized structural model. Table 7 representsthe goodness-of-fit indices for the hypothesizedstructural model on the Hong Kong, Taiwanese,and Thai data sets. Since the significance level inthis study was set at .05, an alternative hypothesiswas accepted if p-value on a structural equationmodel path is lower than .05. If a path betweentwo variables is significant with a positive sign, itmeans that one independent variable has the posi-tive effect on one dependent variable.

First, the model on the Hong Kong data setshowed that since the chi-square value wasstatistically significant (χ2 (69) = 188.15,p = .000), the model was not adequate.However, the other overall fit indices wereexcellent, demonstrating GFI = .941,AGFI = .911, CFI = .942, RMR = .038,RMSEA = .065. Among the seven estimatedpath coefficients, two were statistically signifi-cant at the .01 or .001 level. The significantrelationships were “variety and harmony” to“national image” (ϒ13 = 0.19, t = 2.56,p < .01) and “national image” to “intention tovisit for food tourism” (β21 = 0.57, t = 13.64,p < .001). These findings imply that the featureof variety and harmony among characteristics ofKorean food may perceive in the enhancementof national image as well as the intention totravel to the food-making nation.

Second, the examination of the structural equa-tion model on the Taiwanese data set indicated thatexcept for the chi-square value (χ2 (69) = 181.04,p = .000), the overall fit indices are acceptable,showing GFI = .938, AGFI = .906, CFI = .950,RMR = .032, RMSEA = .063. Among the sevenpath coefficients, significance at the .05 or .001level was found on three paths, including

TABLE 6. Results of Measurement Invariance Tests

Models Hong Kong & Taiwan Taiwan & Thailand Hong Kong & Thailand

χ2/df Δχ2/df CFI(RMSEA)



Nonrestricted 369.2/138 .95 (.04) 569.1/138 .90 (.06) 576.2/138 .89 (.06)

Full metric invariance ofCFA model (L(X)Y = invariance

385.9/147 16.7/9 .94 (.04) 584.1/147 15.0/9 .90 (.06) 591.9/147 15.7/9 .89 (.06)

Note. Chi-square difference test: if Δχ2 (df) <χ2.05 (9) = 16.9, the full metric invariance is supported.


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TABLE

7.Res

ults

ofSEM

Ana

lyse

s

Path

Uns

tand

ardize

dco

efficien

tStand

arde

rror

Stand

ardize

dco

efficien

tt-va

lue

p-value

Total

effect

Indirect

effect

Dec

ision

Hon

gKon

gSam

ple

χ2(69)

=18

8.15

(p=.000

),GFI=.941

,AGFI=.911

,CFI=.942

,RMR

=.038

,RMSEA=.065

Hyp

othe

sis1–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Nationa

limag

e).21

.28

.14

.75

.456

.14

.00

Rejec

tHyp

othe

sis1–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Nationa

limag

e).55

.28

.34

1.94

.052

.34

.00

Rejec

tHyp

othe

sis1–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Nationa

limag

e).17

.07

.19

2.56

***

.009

.19

.00

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis2–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Intentionto

visitKorea

for

food

tourism)

.44

.26

.24

1.66

.097

.32

.08

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis2–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Intentionto

visit

Korea

forfood

tourism)

.07

.27

.03

.25

.801

.23

.19

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis2–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Intentionto

visitK

orea

forfoo

dtourism)

.01

.06

.01

.22

.823

.12

.11

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis3(N

ationa

limag

eto

Intentionto

visitKorea

forfood

tourism)

.70

.05

.57

13.64***

.000

.57

.00

Acc

ept

Taiwan

eseSam

ple

χ2(69)

=18

1.04

(p=.000

),GFI=.938

,AGFI=.906

,CFI=.950

,RMR

=.032

,RMSEA=.063

Hyp

othe

sis1–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Nationa

limag

e)−.16

.13

−.13

−1.23

.217

−.13

.00

Rejec

tHyp

othe

sis1–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Nationa

limag

e).78

.15

.65

5.33

***

.000

.65

.00

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis1–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Nationa

limag

e).05

.08

.06

.65

.515

.06

.00

Rejec

tHyp

othe

sis2–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Intentionto

visitKorea

forfood

tourism)

.39

.18

.21

2.15

*.031

.15

-.06

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis2–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Intentionto

visit

Korea

forfood

tourism)

.08

.20

.04

.38

.706

.33

.29

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis2–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Intentionto

visitK

orea

forfoo

dtourism)

.08

.11

.05

.69

.493

.08

.02

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis3(N

ationa

limag

eto

Intentionto

visitKorea

forfood

tourism)

.68

.08

.44

8.35

***

.000

.44

.00

Acc

ept

(Con

tinue

d)


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TABLE

7.(C

ontin

ued)

Path

Uns

tand

ardize

dco

efficien

tStand

arde

rror

Stand

ardize

dco

efficien

tt-va

lue

p-value

Total

effect

Indirect

effect

Dec

ision

Tha

iSam

ple

χ2(69)

=38

8.03

(p=.000

),GFI=.880

,AGFI=.817

,CFI=.842

,RMR

=.045

,RMSEA=.107

Hyp

othe

sis1–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Nationa

limag

e).12

.20

.07

.59

.555

.08

.00

Rejec

tHyp

othe

sis1–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Nationa

limag

e).52

.19

.33

2.77

**.006

.33

.00

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis1–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Nationa

limag

e).23

.10

.18

2.25

*.025

.18

.00

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis2–

1(H

ealth

ymen

uto

Intentionto

visitKorea

forfood

tourism)

−.22

.20

.12

−1.13

.258

−.09

.03

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis2–

2(Pec

uliarityof

Korea

nfood

cultu

reto

Intentionto

visit

Korea

forfood

tourism)

.62

.20

.34

3.15

**.002

.49

.15

Acc

ept

Hyp

othe

sis2–

3(Variety

&ha

rmon

yto

Intentionto

visitK

orea

forfoo

dtourism)

.16

.10

.11

1.58

.115

.20

.09

Rejec

t

Hyp

othe

sis3(N

ationa

limag

eto

Intentionto

visitKorea

forfood

tourism)

.53

.05

.47

10.11***

.000

.47

.00

Acc

ept

Note.

*p<.05,

**p<.01,

***p

<.001

.


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“uniqueness of Korean food culture” to “nationalimage” (ϒ12 = .65, t = 5.33, p < .001) and “healthymenu” to “intention to visit Korea for food tour-ism” (ϒ21 = .21, t = 2.15, p < .05) as well as“national image” to “intention to visit for foodtourism” (β21 = .44, t = 8.35, p < .001). Thisfinding implies that interest in the uniqueness ofKorean food culture leads to the enhancement ofnational image, and interest in the feature ofhealthy Korean food encourages the intention tovisit Korean for food tourism.

Finally, the results of the SEM analysis usingthe Thai sample indicated that except for the chi-square value (χ2(69) = 388.03, p = .000), theoverall fit indices are appropriate (GFI = .880,AGFI = .817, CFI = .842, RMR = .027,RMSEA = .007). Four path coefficients were sig-nificant at the .05, .01, or .001 level. The signifi-cant paths include “uniqueness of Korean foodculture” to “national image” (ϒ12 = .33, t = 2.77,p < .01), “variety and harmony” to “nationalimage” (ϒ23 = .18, t = 2.25, p < .05), “uniquenessof Korean food culture” to “intention to visitKorea for food tourism” (ϒ12 = .34, t = 3.15,p < .01), and “national image” to “intention to

visit Korea for food tourism” (β21 = .47, t = 10.11,p < .001). The result indicates that uniqueness ofKorean food culture has a significant impact onnational image and intention to visit Korea forfood tourism. Figure 2 demonstrates the summar-ized outcomes of the SEM analyses.

Invariance Tests of Paths

As presented in Figure 2 and Table 7, thethree national groups demonstrated both differ-ent and similar outcomes in terms of signifi-cance of estimated path coefficients betweenthe three groups. However, there is a need toexamine invariance in the specific parameter ofinterest across the groups since the SEM ana-lyses were independently conducted on thethree different cohorts (Han et al., 2009).

Prior to attempting invariance tests for eachgroup, path structural invariance was examinedby comparing chi-square values between the base-line model (full metric invariance model) and theconstrained model (full path invariance model).The baseline model is gained by conducting the

FIGURE 2. Results of Structural Model Analyses

Peculiarity of Korean food culture (ζ2)

Healthy menu (ζ1)

Variety and harmony (ζ3)

Intention to visit Korea for food

tourism(η2)

National image(η1)

HK: .14, TA: –.13, TH: .07

HK: .34, TA: .65***, TH: .33**

HK: .24, TA: .21*, TH: –.12

HK: .19***, TA: .06, TH: .18*

HK: .03, TA: .04, TH: .34**

HK: .01, TA: .05, TH: .11

HK: .57***, TA: .44***, TH: .47***

Item 4

Item 5

Item 3

Item 12

Item 10

Item 6

Item 8

Item 7

Item 11

Item 9

Item 1

Item 2

δ1

δ2

δ3

δ4

δ5

δ6

δ7

δ8

δ9

δ10

δ11

δ12

Item 13 Item 14

ε13 ε14

ζ1ζ2

Reasons for preferring Korean food themed on Daeganggeum

Hypothesis 1–1(γ11)






Hypothesis 3(β21)

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. HK: Hong Kong sample, TA: Taiwanese sample, TH: Thai sample


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general structural model, whereas the constrainedmodel is obtained when all paths of the structuralequation model is fixed to be invariant acrossgroups (Yoo, 2002). If the chi-square differencebetween the twomodels is found to be significant,then there is an existence of structural invariance.In testing structural invariance for the Hong Kongand Taiwanese samples, Taiwanese and Thai sam-ples, and Hong Kong and Thai samples, fullstructural invariances were not supported byshowing that Δχ2.05 (13) = 131.6, Δχ2.05(13) = 95.8, and Δχ2.05 (13) = 102.2, respectively,are greater than Δχ2.05 (13) = 22.4. As a result, theabove findings present that path coefficientsbetween two national structural models are differ-ent or at least some of them are not equal.

In this study, the invariance of one specificpath between the three national pairs was tested.The examination was repeated on differentpaths. Table 8 presents the findings for theinvariance test for the specific paths betweenthe Hong Kong and Taiwanese samples,Taiwanese and Thai samples, and Hong Kongand Thai samples. For example, the particularparameter of interest (“healthy menu” to“national image”) in a comparison of the HongKong and Taiwanese samples in the testedmodel was constrained to be equal across the

groups, where all paths in the baseline modelwere able to be freely estimated.

As shown in Table 8, between the Hong Kongand Taiwanese samples, invariance in a certainpath parameter was not found because there werenot significant chi-square differences across thegroups. Results of the cross-group invariancetests for the Taiwanese and Thai samples indicatethat significant chi-square differences werefound on two paths including “healthy menu”to “intention to visit Korea for food tourism”(ϒ21) and “uniqueness of Korean food culture”to “intention to visit Korea for food tourism”(ϒ22). The coefficient value of a path between“healthy menu” and “intention to visit Korea forfood tourism” (ϒ21) on the Taiwanese samplewas significantly greater than that value on theThai sample. Meanwhile, the coefficient value ofa path between “uniqueness of Korean food cul-ture” and “intention to visit Korea for food tour-ism” (ϒ22) on the Thai sample was significantlygreater than that value on the Taiwanese sample.Significant chi-square differences between theHong Kong and the Thai samples were foundon two paths such as “healthy menu” to “inten-tion to visit Korea for food tourism” (ϒ21) and“national image” to “intention to visit Korea forfood tourism” (β21). The path coefficients of

TABLE 8. Results of Invariance Tests of Paths

PathHong Kong & Taiwan Taiwan & Thailand

Hong Kong &Thailand

χ2/df Δχ2/df χ2/df Δχ2/df χ2/df Δχ2/df

Hypothesis 1–1 (Healthy menu toNational image)

370.4/139 1.2/1 570.4/139 1.3/1 576.3/139 0.1/1

Hypothesis 1–2 (Peculiarity of Koreanfood culture to National image)

369.7/139 0.5/1 570.1/139 1.0/1 576.2/139 0.0/1

Hypothesis 1–3 (Variety & harmonyto National image)

370.6/139 1.4/1 570.9/139 1.8/1 576.4/139 0.2/1

Hypothesis 2–1 (Healthy menu to Intentionto visit Korea for food tourism)

369.2/139 0.0/1 574.5/139 5.4/1* 580.0/139 3.8/1*

Hypothesis 2–2 (Peculiarity of Koreanfood culture to Intention to visit Koreafor food tourism)

369.2/139 0.0/1 572.9/139 3.8/1* 578.8/139 2.6/1

Hypothesis 2–3 (Variety & harmony toIntention to visit Korea for food tourism)

369.4/139 0.2/1 569.4/139 0.3/1 577.8/139 1.6/1

Hypothesis 3 (National image toIntention to visit Korea for food tourism)

369.2/139 0.0/1 571.4/139 2.3/1 581.6/139 5.4/1*

Note. * denotes the source of significant differences (Δχ2/df>χ2.05(1) = 3.84).


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“healthy menu” to “intention to visit Korea forfood tourism”(ϒ21) on the Hong Kong data setwere greater than those on the Thai data set.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Implications and Discussions

The following considerations and implica-tions are based on the results of analyzing theinfluence of experiencing national food has onperceptions of national image and intention tovisit a country for food tourism. Approximately49% to 69% of the three national groupsanswered that their image perception of Koreawas more favorable after viewing the TV dramathat storylined Korean food. Regarding thequestion in reference to their increased intentionto visit Korea for food tourism after eatingKorean food, 44% to 62% of the three nationalrespondent groups expressed agreement withthis statement. The above results confirmedthat the major effects of the food-themed visualmedia discussed in the literature review arereasonable (Horng & Tsai, 2010; Kim, 2012;Kim et al., 2008; 2009; Lee et al., 2008; Shim,2006; Su et al., 2011).

The implications from results of conductingSEM analyses are as follows: First, among threesamples, reasons for preferring Korean foodthemed on Daeganggeum influenced nationalimage differently. In the Hong Kong sampleand Thai sample, the “variety and harmony”-characteristic was a reason for preferringKorean food, which had a positively significanteffect on improving the national image ofKorea. One of the practical implications is thatmaking Korean cuisine menus more visuallyappealing and having diverse decorations islikely to influence the national image of Koreato Hong Kong and Thai residents.

The Taiwanese sample and Thai sample indi-cated that the uniqueness of Korean food cul-ture as a main reason for preference of Koreanfood themed on Daegangeum, which led tomaking their perceived image of Korea morefavorable. Based on this finding, managementcan use this as a tool to enhance the nationalimage of Korea for the two national cohorts by

placing an importance on a restaurant’s interiorby providing eye-catching décor, such asKorean traditional wooden paper or curtainsusing natural dyed material, and an interiorambience that uses natural acoustics, such asthe sounds of wind, rain, or birds.

The findings that “healthy food”significantlyinfluenced the “intention to visit Korea for foodtourism” in the Hong Kong sample that thehealthy aspect of Korean food can be an impor-tant factor in attracting Hong Kong diners ofKorean restaurants to Korea. Since Chinesefood is sometimes referred to as oily or greasy(Horng & Tsai, 2010), Hong Kong residentsmay prefer Korean food because it uses diversevegetables and Korean natural medicinal ingre-dients. This result also implies that Hong Kongresidents are likely to prefer menus with naturaland health-conscious ingredients rather than alarge amount of meats or instant foods withpreservatives. This information can be helpfulin developing Korean food menus for HongKong tourists or customers.

In a comparison of the results of SEM ana-lyses using both the Hong Kong and Taiwansample, significant differences were found on apath between perceptions of the enhancement ofnational image and the “uniqueness of Koreanfood culture” and “variety and harmony.” Basedon the finding, people from Hong Kong, whobelieve the uniqueness of Korean food cultureand its diverse and appealing combination asreasons for preferring Korean food, perceivedthe taste of Korean food to be a contributoryfactor to raising the national image of Korea.

Implications from amethodological perspectiveinclude that this study contributes complexapproaches, such as themeasurement of invariancetests and invariance tests for paths to compare twoor more groups, which can be easily neglectedfrom data analyses because of the difficulty withthe data manipulation. Furthermore, rather than anunsophisticated comparison of the three structuralequation models by the naked eye, this study usedadvanced methods such as measurement of invar-iance tests and invariance tests of paths to preciselycompare significance of each path between eachpair of the three national groups.

In all three national data sets, the intention tovisit Korea for food tourism was significantly


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influenced by the heightened national image. Thefindings are supported by the notion that the imageof the food-making country formed throughexperiencing a national food is likely to be linkedto the intention to travel to that country wheretourists can experience the food (Groce & Perri,2010; Hall &Mitchell, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010;Meler & Cerovic, 2003; Rimmington & Yüksel,1998). However, a film may not be an immediateagent for an actual visit to the film backdropdestination even though it helps enhance theimage of a film destination (Croy & Heitmann,2011; Di Cesare et al., 2009; Macionis & Sparks,2009). In particular, popularity of a national foodmainly shown on a film can provide strong impli-cations to visit that destination for food tourism.

CONCLUSION

The following major concluding points arebased on the results of data analysis: Frequencyanalyses results show that 42% to 60% ofrespondents among the three national samplesindicated the effect of viewing Daejanggeum asa reason for preferring Korean food. Theseresults are consistent with comments in film-induced tourism studies relating to the role of afilm in promoting a film tourism destination or itsattractions (e.g, Butler, 1990; Chalip et al., 2003;Croy & Walker, 2003; Croy, 2010; Frost, 2006;O’Connor et al., 2010; Sealy & Wickens, 2008).

Regarding the question on image change ofKorea after experiencing Korean food, 49% to69% of the respondents expressed agreementwith this question. The finding supports those ofprevious studies that a national food can be devel-oped in modifying the image of a tourism destina-tion (Boyne et al., 2003; du Rand & Health, 2006;Enright & Newton, 2005; Hjalager & Corigliano,2000; McKercher et al., 2008).

According to the results of the SEM analyses,food is likely to be effective in promoting a foodorigin tourism destination at least to people whoare involved with a food-themed TV drama.These results correspond to comments of previousstudies, which place the importance on the rolethat visual media has in promoting a food tourismdestination (Boyne et al., 2003; du Rand et al.,

2003; Kim, 2012; Kim et al., 2008; 2009; Leeet al., 2008; Shim, 2006; Su et al., 2011).

This study examines whether the effects of anational food shown on a mega-hit TV dramaon the perception of national image and inten-tion to visit the country for food tourism aredifferent according to three national cohorts.The result generated both similarity and dissim-ilarity between each pair of the three nationalgroups. In particular, exact similarity was foundbetween the Hong Kong and Taiwanese datasets. These two national groups may be analo-gous in preferring Korean food or its impacts onits perceived image of Korea as well as theintention to visit Korea for food tourism. Theresults are consistent with those of some pre-vious studies that an individual’s behavior andattitude in consuming food could vary cross-culturally (du Rand et al., 2003; Everett &Aitchison, 2008; Hegarty & O’Mahony, 2001;Howes, 1996; Nield et al., 2000).

This study has three limitations or suggestionsfor future studies. First, a majority of the respon-dents for this study consisted of those in the 20sand 30s age category. It is natural to reflect pre-ference or desire of young generations becausethey are quick to catch or embrace new worldtrends and are intensely interested in exotic food.On the one hand, it is a global trend that the seniorpopulation (baby boom generation) have substan-tial income and tremendous purchasing power thatcontinues to grow. It would be meaningful whenthe conceptual model of this study is applied to asenior age segment sample. Second, this studyfocused on Thailand, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.However, the preference for a national food canbe different according to nations. As a conse-quence, results of this study can be compared infuture studies to samples of other Asian countrieslike Japan, Singapore, or mainland China. Third,the popularity of a national food highlighted onfilm in a TV program can disappear as time passes,especially after a TV program’s broadcasting hasbeen terminated. This concern is supported by paststudies that show the impacts of a film may betemporary or limited to the airing time (Croy &Heitmann, 2011; Croy, 2010; Di Cesare et al.,2009; Macionis & Sparks, 2009). Thus, a futurestudy needs to explore whether post-effects afterairing a film or a TV program are consistent with


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the effects during the airing, and if the effects exist,how long they continue.

Conclusively, this study attempted a conver-gence of film tourism and food tourism. Futurestudies need to apply the international conceptsof this research in the context of other nationalfood groups in order to identify whether theresults of this study can be generalized to othercultural destinations. In addition, each food tour-ism destination needs to develop a visual pro-gram in order to improve the image of the nation,which will eventually result in the developmentof food-tourism to the food origin country.

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SUBMITTED: October 28, 2012FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED:

April 3, 2013ACCEPTED: April 4, 2013

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