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The Inexcusable Absence of Girls in School. Marlaine Lockheed Center for Global Development World Bank Global Symposium October 2, 2007. Gender Parity in Primary Enrollments Rose Between 1960 and 2000. Gender Parity Improved at Secondary Level in Most Regions, 1990-2000. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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The Inexcusable Absence of Girls
in School
Marlaine LockheedCenter for Global Development
World Bank Global Symposium October 2, 2007
2
4
Gender Parity in Primary Enrollments Rose Between 1960 and 2000
5
Gender Parity Improved at Secondary Level in Most Regions, 1990-2000
Figure 2.3. Ratio of female-male gross secondary school enrolment, by region (1990-2000)
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
East Asia and thePacif ic
Europe andCentral Asia
Latin America andthe Caribbean
Middle East andNorth Africa
South Asia Sub SaharanAfrica
1990 2000
Source: UNESCO data
7
Socially Excluded Girls as Estimated Share of All Girls Out of School, by Region
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
World SSA SA MENA LAC EAP ECA
PercentExcluded
9
India: Rural SC/ST girls least likely to be in school, 2001
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15-19 Age
Majority Urban Male Majority Urban Female
Majority Rural Male Majority Rural Female
SC/ST Rural Male SC/ST Rural Female
10
Pakistan: Fewer Baluchi/ Pathan rural females complete primary school than any other group, 1995-2002
Figure 2.10 Pakistan: Percent Primary Completion by Gender, Ethnicity and Location, 1995-2002
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1995-96 1998-99 2001-02 Year
Punjabi Urban Male
Punjabi Urban Female
Punjabi Rural Male
Punjabi Rural Female
Balochi/Pathan Rural Male
Balochi/Pathan Rural Female
Source: Pakistan Integrated Household Survey 2001-02
11
Laos: Hill tribe girls complete fewest years of school
Urban-Male-Lao-Tai
Urban-Female-Lao-Tai
Rural-Male-Lao-Tai
Rural-Female-Lao-Tai
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60
Age
Average years of schooling
Rural female- Other
Rural-Male-Other
12
Guatemala: Indigenous girls are least likely to have ever enrolled in school
13
Benin: Non-Fon/French-speaking males have caught up with Fon/French speaking females, but non-Fon/French speaking females still lag
Figure 1.12a Benin: Average Years of Schooling by Gender and Ethnicity, 2001
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
61+ 52-61 42-51 32-41 22-31 15-21Age Cohort
Yea
rs o
f sc
ho
olin
g (
aver
age)
Fon/French-speaking male Fon/French-speaking female
Non-Fon/French-speaking male Non-Fon/French-speaking female
Source: Benin DHS 2001
14
Malawi: The gender gap has become an ethnic gap
Figure 2.12c Malawi: Average Years of Schooling by Gender and Ethnicity, 2000
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
61+ 52-61 42-51 32-41 22-31 15-21
Age Cohort
Yea
rs o
f sc
ho
olin
g (
aver
age)
Chichew a-speaking male Chichew a-speaking female
Non-Chichew a-speaking male Non-Chichew a-speaking female
Source: Malaw i DHS, 2001
15
Ghana: The gender gap has become an ethnic gap
Figure 1.12b Ghana: Average Years of Schooling by Gender and Ethnicity, 2003
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
61+ 52-61 42-51 32-41 22-31 15-21Age Cohort
Yea
rs o
f sc
ho
olin
g (
aver
age)
Akan-speaking male Akan-speaking female
Non-Akan-speaking male Non-Akan-speaking female
Source: Ghana DHS 2003
16
Roma complete fewer years of school than non-Roma in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia/Montenegro
Figure 1.11: Roma Educational Attainment by Ethnicity (age 18+)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Non Roma Roma Non Roma Roma Non Roma Roma Serbs Roma
Bulgaria Hungary Romania Serbia and Montenegro
% o
f G
rou
p P
op
ula
tio
n
Completed secondary or higherCompleted primary, some secondary
17
New Zealand: More females complete 6th Form or higher, but Maoris lag Europeans, 2001
Figure 4.1 Educational Attainment in New Zealand, by Gender and Ethnicity
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24
Age
Per
cen
t o
f p
op
ula
tio
n
European/Pakeha Female with6th Form or Higher
Maori/Pacific Islander Femalewith 6th Form or HigherEuropean/Pakeha Male with6th Form or Higher
Maori/Pacific Islander Malewith 6th Form or Higher
Source: New Zealand Census 2001
19
Quechua Girls Outperform Quechua Boys in 5th Grade, Peru 2000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Reading Math
Quechua Girls
Quechua Boys
Urban Girls
Urban Boys
20
Indigenous Girls Outperform Indigenous Boys in Ecuador
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Grade 5 Math
Indigenous Girls
Indigenous Boys
Nonindigenous Girls
Nonindigenous Boys
21
Hill Tribe Girls’ Performance Same as Hill Tribe Boys’ Performance in Laos
420430
440450
460470480
490500510
520
Grade 5 Reading
Tai Kadai Boy
Tai Kadai Girl
Hmong Emien Boy
Hmong Emien Girl
Mon Khmer Boy
Mon Khmer Girl
23
Male-Female Gap in Primary Completion Rates Larger in Heterogeneous Countries
Argentina
Armenia
Bangladesh
Benin
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Bulgaria
China
Comoros
Cote d'IvoireEthiopia
Fiji
Guatemala
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iran Kenya
Lao PDR
Lesotho
Liberia
Morocco
Namibia
Palau
Papua New Guinea
PhilippinesRomania
Sierra Leone
South Africa
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Turkey
Uzbekistan
-20
02
04
0P
rim
ary
com
ple
tion
ra
te, m
ale
- fem
ale
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1Ethnolinguistic fractionalization
24
Primary Completion and Learning and Ethnolinguistic Fractionalization (elasticities)
(1) (2) (3)
Coefficient log (Female PCR) log (Male PCR) – log (Female PCR)
log (Learning score)
Ethnolinguistic fractionalization, log –0.22*** 0.09*** –0.17***
(–4.27) (3.99) (–3.65)
Constant 4.06*** 0.17*** 5.74***
(62.8) (6.46) (101)
Observations 118 118 55
R2 0.14 0.12 0.20
* Significant at the 10 percent level.** Significant at the 5 percent level.*** Significant at the 1 percent level.Note: Figures in brackets are t-statistics.
25
Table 6. Determinants of gender disparity in primary school completion
Difference between male and female primary completion rates
Variable (1) (2) (3) (4)
GDP per capita (log) –2.93*** (2.88)
–3.18***( 3.46)
Ethnolinguistic fractionalization 10.61*** (3.01)
–18.32* (1.77)
17.88*** (4.42)
16.43***(3.52)
Ethnolinguistic fractionalization squared 31.69***
(2.72)
Average years of schooling, female (age 25+) –2.93*** (4.49)
Education expenditure (percentage of GDP) –0.32(0.92)
–0.44(1.39)
0.13(0.24)
Female labor force participation rate 0.10(1.41)
Socialist dummy 11.59*** ( 4.86)
Road density (total network/land area) 0(0.45)
0.02*(1.89)
Rural population (percentage of total population) 0.04(1.15)
Constant 20.77**(2.06)
30.52***( 3.60)
–7.04** (2.44)
2.75(0.77)
Number of observations 111 97 94 53
R2 0.39 0.46 0.3 0.60* Significant at the 10 percent level. ** Significant at the 5 percent level. *** Significant at the 1 percent level.
26
Ethno-linguistic Fractionalization and Learning Achievement, Various Countries
AlbaniaArgentina
Belize
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Cameroon
Chile Colombia
Cote d'Ivoire
Czech Republic
Dominican RepublicHonduras
Hungary
IndonesiaIran, Islamic Rep.Jordan
Kenya
Latvia
Lesotho
Lithuania
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Mali
Mauritius
MexicoMoldova
MoroccoMozambique
Namibia
Niger
ParaguayPeru
Philippines
Poland
Romania
Russian Federation
Senegal
Seychelles
Slovak Republic
South Africa
SwazilandTanzania
Thailand
Trinidad and TobagoTunisia Turkey
Uganda
Venezuela, RB
Zambia
Zimbabwe
200
300
400
500
600
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1Ethnolinguistic fractionalization
Imputed learning score Fitted values