The impact of load shedding on gender relations in ...isdsnet.com/ijds-v1n2-26.pdf · The study therefore seeks to examine how load shedding in urban areas which is also known as

International Journal of Development and Sustainability

Online ISSN: 2186-8662 – www.isdsnet.com/ijds

Volume 1 Number 2 (2012): Pages 402-416

ISDS Article ID: IJDS12080402

The impact of load shedding on gender relations in heterosexual households in Mkoba north, Gweru, Zimbabwe: Implications for sustainable development

Manuku Mukoni *

Faculty of Education, Midlands State University, P.Bag 9055, Gweru, Zimbabwe

Abstract

This study explored the impact of load shedding on gender relations in heterosexual households. 20 couples were

selected through judgmental sampling that was followed by network referencing; bringing the sample to 40

participants. Study was descriptive in nature. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data. Study reveals

that load shedding have ripple effects in the social fabric of sustainable development through its impacts on gender

relations. Load shedding is proving to be reproducing and maintaining gender relations of inequality, thus holding

back sustainable development. Women are deprived control of areas that traditional belongs to them like the

decision and control of energy use in the household giving men more power over women. Load shedding is

increasing men’s time in the public sphere while women are tied more to the private sphere. For sustainable

development to be achieved, household relationships should uphold the principles of sustainable development and

gender equality is one of them. Empowerment of women and men in household energy uses will aid in opening up

their ‘functioning space’. An understanding and appreciation of gender equality in the household will help men and

women to be influential in the larger society leading to sustainable development.

Keywords: Load shedding, Gender relations, Practical gender needs, Strategic gender needs, Sustainable

development

Copyright © 2012 by the Author(s) – Published by ISDS LLC, Japan

International Society for Development and Sustainability (ISDS)

Cite this paper as: Mukoni, M. (2012), “The impact of load shedding on gender relations in

heterosexual households in Mkoba north, Gweru, Zimbabwe: implications for sustainable

development”, International Journal of Development and Sustainability, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 402–416.

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]

International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol.1 No.2 (2012): 402–416

ISDS www.isdsnet.com 403

1. Introduction

Sustainable development involves improving people's opportunities in life by expanding their skills,

capabilities and abilities so that they can set their own agendas in life. It entails increased autonomy in

addition to freedom as observed earlier by Sen (2000). From the standpoint of this paper it would mean

women and men having equal and increased access to, and extended control of energy use in the household.

According to Clancy et al. (2007:241), energy is an enabling factor in development because nothing works

without energy To many of us load shedding is nothing more than an inconvenience but this author believes

it can have far reaching consequences on sustainable development. This paper, therefore, seeks to explore

how limited access to energy by women and men in households through load shedding is impinging on

gender equality which is a precursor to sustainable development. Oparaocha and Dutta (2011) argue that

energy services are linked to well being and have the potential to impact almost every area of human life

from increased economic activity to improved child literacy, safe drinking water and women’s empowerment.

2. Background

One of the key objectives of the World Summit on Sustainable Development is to improve people’s lives. This

article therefore aims to contribute to the developing area of scholarship on energy as a key variable in

promoting gender equality and empowerment of women towards the achievement of MDG 3 and sustainable

development. Worth noting in this argument are the assumptions made in existing literature that expanded

access to energy services will enable women to follow literacy and numeracy classes; have more leisure time;

more access to information through radio and television making them more aware and empowered and that

improved energy services will change the gendered division of labour in the home as men will take up more

domestic responsibilities (Dutta et al., 2005). Electricity is the main source of energy for women to meet their

practical gender needs in urban settings. The study therefore seeks to examine how load shedding in urban

areas which is also known as demand side management impinges on the attainment of MDG 3 through an

assessment of its impacts on gender relations and how it cascades onto sustainable development. According

to Annecke (2002) access to energy has become a marker of the differences between the poor and rich, men

and women. It is against this backdrop that this study explored how the occurrence of load shedding at

Mkoba north impinges on gender relations to map out the aforesaid gap between men and women and show

how this practice is holding back the fulfilment of MDG 3 and sustainable development. Gender dimensions

become particularly important when practical gender needs are no longer fully meet due to

loadshedding.Knowing how men and women participate in the household energy system and how they differ

in priorities, access and control over energy needs to be analysed. Cecelski (2004) argues that household

energy problems exist and strategies to prioritise gender issues alongside household energy are necessary.

These strategies can only be developed with a deeper understanding of how gender relations are affected by

this service delivery


404 ISDS www.isdsnet.com

Many studies linking gender and energy have been conducted the world over. Karekezi, Banda and

Kithyoma (2002), looked at the gender perspective in improving energy services for the poor in Africa.

Ditlhale and Wright (2003) investigated energy use in rural Botswana to see if the gender of the decision

makers in households affects the choice of energy and they concluded that female decision makers are more

likely to opt for modern energy. Chukuezi (2009) looked at how increased attention to renewable energy and

gender linkages can help promote development as well as work towards meeting the target set out in the

millennium development goals. He argues that increased access to renewable energy sources of rural women

can contribute to empowerment of women. Mahat (2011) looked at gender, energy and empowerment in a

rural energy development programme, whereby he reports that intervention in rural energy takes place

without considering the needs, roles, interests and potential of rural women. Clancy et al. (2007) noted that

in rural and low-income urban households, energy is a women’s business in that they collect fuel and use it

for domestic chores and productive activities. Looking at all these studies they were earmarked for the rural

women and see women in this set up as the primary users and managers of rural energy resources (Mahat,

2011). The studies are silent to the issue of gender relations thus announcing a point of departure from this

study which targets an urban set up and specifically looks at the impact of load shedding on gender relations

and the implications it holds for sustainable development. Electricity is the main source of energy for women

to meet their practical gender needs in urban settings. Kelka and Nathan (2005) looked at gender relations

and the energy transition in rural Asia which was still a rural set up. This study wants to look at an urban set

up and at the situation that obtains in a situation where load shedding takes place. Yahaya et al. (2007)

looked at the gender energy and environment nexus in female farmers in Nigeria and they concluded that

females were exclusively responsible for fuel wood collection and were equally responsible for taking

decision in the cooking energy system.

Green (2003) conducted a study to find out the gender impacts of various renewable energy technologies

in South Africa where it was found out that the impact of energy technologies was predominately on women.

Amartya and Shrestha (1998) concluded that unless women’s practical and strategic gender needs are

internalised by policy makers and unless gender based programmes are planned and implemented rural

energy interventions are likely to remain ineffective and unsustainable. The study therefore seeks to unveil

the state of events in the households, to show how load shedding is reproducing, perpetuating or challenging

the gender relations status quo, and the implications it is posing for sustainable development.

3. Definition of terms

Load shedding is what electric utilities do when there is a huge demand for electricity that exceeds the

available supply. It is an intentionally engineered electrical power shut down where electricity delivery is

stopped for non-overlapping periods of time over geographical regions. It is also known as demand side

management or load management. It was implemented to save money and pollution.

Gender relations on the other hand refers to the range of gendered practices such as the division of labour

and access to and control over resources and the gendered ideologies such as ideas of acceptable behaviour



for men and women’’ (Bridge report no 55:18). They determine what is socially acceptable and what is

socially inappropriate and work in most cases to subordinate women hence holding back sustainable

development. In this study gender relations will be taken to mean what is considered socially accepted and

appropriate for men and women to do in order to fulfill the duties that they normal do with electricity in

times when electricity is not available. It seeks to interrogate how the adopted strategies are impacting on

the gender relationships by trying to map out the cooperation, connection, support or conflict in face of load

shedding. This study therefore seeks to find out the impact of load shedding on gender relations to see

whether it is reproducing, maintaining or challenging these gender relations towards the attainment of

sustainable development. Gender asymmetrical relations have been shown to be one of the major hindrances

to the development process (Tsanga et al., 2004). Gender relations are taken in this article as the structural

relationships and power distribution between men and women in a given heterosexual household that has an

influence in the creation and reproduction of systematic differences in the positioning of men and women in

the wider society, thereby holding back sustainable development due to gender inequality brought about by

the subordination of women. These will be understood through an analysis of the adaptation and coping

strategies that men and women have devised to meet their practical and strategic needs that need electricity.

Practical gender needs are those needs which, when met, would assist women in their current activities

(Moser in March et al., 1999:57). In this study they are taken to mean availability of energy for women to

perform their reproductive roles such as cooking, ironing and in this situation inadequacies are evident due

to load shedding hence sustainable development can be achieved if men and women are empowered to

realise that these needs are for the household not specific needs of women. Strategic gender needs refer to

the needs which, if they were met would enable women to transform existing imbalances of power (Moser,

1993), and in this case relates to access, control and decision making over the use of alternative sources of

energy in households that are experiencing load shedding.

In dealing with gender relations issues of access and control of resources are important. Access in this

paper refers to the opportunity that men and women have to make use of the alternative sources that are

secured as a response to load shedding. Control on the other hand is taken to mean the power that men and

women in households have as individuals to decide about how the alternative source of energy will be used.

The study evaluates who between husband and wife has the ultimate power to decide and control the use of

alternative sources of energy in households and what implications this distribution of power poses on

sustainable development.

4. Theoretical framework

Amartya Sen’s capability theory was used as the theoretical framework to understand how load shedding is

hindering women’s freedoms and capability to use and manage household energy and how their capability in

this area could be enhanced for the purposes of sustainable development. According to Amartya Sen in Elliot

(2007:142), development consists of the ‘’expansion of capabilities of persons to lead the kind of lives they

value and have every reason to value ‘.Based on this approach sustainability issues facing the people of the



world today is a deprivation of capability. Issues of food insecurity, poverty, Hiv/Aids, lack of access to

energy among others have assumed a feminine face as a result of deprivation of capability, thus showing that

empowerment as a strategy that results in the expansion of one’s capability is a necessary precondition for

sustainable development. The study therefore, uses this theory as a theoretical framework to understand

how load shedding at Mkoba residential area is depriving women and men of their capabilities and freedoms

and its implications on sustainable development.

As gender relations are social relations that include the resources people use, the study used the social

relations approach of gender analysis as a tool of analysis to understand how load shedding is creating and

reproducing gender relations of inequalities at household level and what must be done at this institutional

level if sustainable development was to be achieved. The social relations framework which conceptualise

gender as central to development thinking not an add on was chosen because it enabled an analysis of the

impacts of load shedding on gender relations focussing on the distribution of power, responsibilities to show

how these are reworked as a result of load shedding and how they are limiting human well being as the final

goal of development. The framework was chosen because it helps to understand how things get done (rules)?

In the presence and absence of electricity, who does what (activities)? With what alternative sources

(resources), who is in or out (men and women) in the securing of alternative sources and who decides

(power) on the use of the alternative source, thus, uncovering processes of impoverishment and

empowerment?

5. Research purpose

The purpose of the study was to establish the relationship between load shedding and sustainable

development using gender relations as a wedge.

5.1. Research objective

The objective of the study was to find out whether load shedding has an impact on gender relations and

sustainable development.

5.2. Main Research Question

How does load shedding impact on gender relations in households and sustainable development?

5.3. Sub-Research questions

In coming up with a response to this research question, the study sought answers to the following sub

research questions

1. Are the uses of electricity in the home gendered?

2. What coping and adaptation strategies are used by men and women in response to load shedding?



3. Do men and women have the same access and control to use of energy in the household?

4. What is the impact of load shedding on gender relations?

5. What implications does all this have on sustainable development?

6. Research methodology

6.1. Study area

Mkoba north is one of the high density residential areas located in the western side of Gweru town in

Zimbabwe in sub Sahara Africa. Gweru is the third largest city of Zimbabwe located 275km from the capital

city of Zimbabwe and 164km from Bulawayo. Gweu has both heavy and light industrial sites and Mkoba 17 is

along the light industrial site. The area is selected as the study locale because it is hard hit by load shedding

more than the Mkoba south which is along the heavy industrial sites. The fact that it is located in a region

(Sub Sahara Africa), a region that is facing significant gender equity challenges, with the highest level of

poverty which contributes to the prevailing low levels of appropriate energy services (Karekezi et al., 2002)

makes it an ideal area to map the impacts of load shedding as it has not escaped the myriad experiences of

load shedding that characterise sub Sahara Africa. The study reviews the gender –load shedding nexus with

special emphasis being placed on gender relations, empowerment and sustainable development.

6.2. Participants

Study targeted married couples staying together in Mkoba North households in Gweru urban in Zimbabwe

from May to July 2012 because these are the types of households where gender relations are more clearly

defined due to the differences in the roles that men and women are supposed to play in society. Their

practical gender needs are clearly defined in terms of their existing roles in the households as it relates to

how they fulfill them using electricity as the main source of energy in an urban set up. De Facto, where

females act as heads of households because of the absence of the male head; under such circumstances the

woman becomes a provider with husband having little responsibility and very little decision making. De jure

households as households headed by females who never married, divorced and widows as well as child

headed families were not included in this study because it was felt by the researcher that in such households

gender relations are a bit obscured. The study looked at how load shedding was shaking that expected

gender division of labour at household level, which is, addressing their strategic gender needs. A study

sample of 20 couples participated in the study bringing the number of participants to 40 (20 men and 20

women) from this sample 8 couples were interviewed by the researcher. All the 40 participants filled in the

questionnaires. Sampling was done judgmental at first and then through network referencing to connect to

other couples staying together in the residential area. Participation in the interviews was arranged with the

respondents the very day that the questionnaires were left in the households for filling in.

6.3. Data collection



The study employed a descriptive survey design to map out the impacts of load shedding on gender relations.

The design was chosen because as this was an explorative study it enabled an in depth assessment of the

impact of load shedding on gender relations by allowing the researcher to gather a wide range of data that

could be generalised to the target population (Sarantakos, 2005). Qualitative paradigm was adopted because

it enabled the researcher to get an in depth description of the impacts of load shedding on gender relations

through interaction with respondents through face to face interviews and through open ended

questionnaires. Questionnaire and interviews were used to gather data from the couples.

Questionnaires enabled the researcher to gather data from a large sample over a larger geographical area

within a short space of time. Questionnaires targeted heterosexual households assumed to have concrete

information on daily survival activities in the face of load shedding. Information solicited included

employment status ,their use of electricity in the home, alternative sources of energy in response to load

shedding, challenges met, adaptation and coping strategies. Questionnaires were left open ended to give

respondents a chance to narrate their experiences and the researcher to gather as much detail as possible

concerning the impact of load shedding on gender relations. Questionnaire was the main data gathering

instrument. Questionnaires were used because they enabled the researcher to gather information that was

not influenced by the researcher’s personal attributes as respondents answered the questions on their own.

Questionnaire assured anonymity hence details such as clashes that occur due to divergent expectations

were forthcoming despite being confidential information. Use of a questionnaire therefore contributed to the

validity and reliability of the data gathered in this study. Interviews were done so as to corroborate the data

obtained through questionnaires. Interviews also enabled the researcher to probe further, thus leaving no

gaps in the data collected.

The instruments were pilot tested on 5 couples in Mkoba south a residential area in Gweru town which is

outside the study area to check on feasibility of the designed questionnaire and interview guide items. The

questionnaires were physical handed to the households that were having husbands and wives that stayed

together as referred by the other respondents. The researcher verbally asked for the respondents’ consent to

participate in the study after explaining the purpose of the study. Keeping in view of the misconceptions that

can occur in interpreting questions by the respondents the researcher negotiated for a possible interview

with the respondents during questionnaire distribution. In households where consent was granted the

researcher left the two questionnaires to be completed by the mother and the father in that particular

house .This was done to avoid combined effort in the completion of questionnaires in houses where more

than one family resides. The researcher noted down the house numbers where questionnaires were left as

well as those couples that agreed to be interviewed, noting the time and the dates for interviews in a diary.

6.4. Data Analysis

The results for the study were analysed using both statistical analysis where necessary in which the

responses were counted and the frequency converted into percentages some open ended questions in the

questionnaire and interview questions were analysed using interpretative explanation in which the

responses were characterised by themes.



7. Research findings

To ascertain the characteristics of the respondents, question one was included to map out the employment

status of the participants. Table 1 below gives a summary of the findings

Table 1. Employment Status of respondents by Gender

Gender Formal Employed (%) Self Employed (%) Not Employed (%) Male 14(70) 4(20) 2(10) Female 7(35) 8(40) 5(25)

Findings on the research questions are presented according to sub research questions that revolve on the

following themes

Gendered uses of electricity

Gendered coping and adaptation strategies

Men’s and women’s access and control of energy in the household

Impact of load shedding on gender relations

7.1. Gendered uses of electricity

To find out whether the use of electricity in the household is gendered item 2 was included in the

questionnaire and table 2 below summarises the findings.

Table 2. Uses of electricity in the household by Gender

Men’s uses of Electricity Women’s uses of electricity Driving gadgets (e.g.welding,computers) Entertainment Lighting Reading/studying Doing office work

Cooking Lighting Entertainment Ironing baking

A follow up to the question was made to find out the problems occurring in the household due to load

shedding and the most common responses was that as husband and wife, load shedding leads to tension in

the house over: delayed meals, cold food clothes not ironed.

When asked how load shedding affected their daily life women were more concerned about their failure

to meet their reproductive and community duties in time as well as not getting enough time for rest as some



women reported. They have to be up during the night to prepare meals for the next day, no leisure and family

time as use of alternative sources was time consuming and at times they had to forego church services,

especially on those days that coincided with the days when there will be no electricity as they have to make

sure the ironing is done and the food is prepared.

Men on the other side reported failure to accomplish productive related duties such as: office work that

they carry with them home or failure to study, failure to see news on television or through the internet and

failure to watch their favourite match or sport.

7.2. Gendered coping and adaptations strategies and their implications on gender relations

To map out the implications of the coping strategies to load shedding question 3 was designed and table 3

below summarises the findings.

Table 3. Other coping and adaptation strategies for load shedding by gender

Men’s strategies Women’s strategies

Going out to pubs, clubs Visiting friends

Sleep early without cooking Wait for the power to be back Preparing all meals when there is

electricity Use of flasks and cold eaten foods Go for uncalled for fasting Buying takeaways Cooking only when there is electricity

The question above was followed up in the interview session to find out how the other coping strategies

were impinging on relations at households level and it came out that sometimes there are quarrels whenever

the strategies employed are not convergent such as when children go to bed without eating, “you are seen as

not being a caring mother,’ as one women acknowledges the quarrels that stem from divergent coping and

adaptation strategies. Women also reported that quarrels arise on cold food and untimely meals and when

the clothes the men want to put on are not ironed

7.3. Access and control of energy in the household

To establish men and women’s access and control over energy in urban households question 4 and 5 were

designed .Question 4 required respondents to list down the alternative sources they use in place of electricity

and the following alternative sources were mentioned: Firewood, paraffin stove, generator, candles, gel stove

and rechargeable globes

To ascertain men and women’s access and control over energy related decisions in the household

question 5 required the respondents to answer questions as to who has the responsibility for securing,



financing, deciding on the use and control of the alternative source of power and table 4 below summarises

the findings.

Table 4. Access and control of energy by men and women in the household

Who is responsible for securing the alternative source? (%)

Who is responsible for financing for the alternative source? (%)

Who decides on the use of the alternative source? (%)

Who controls the use of the alternative source of energy? (%)

Men 40 80 60 50 women 50 12 30 40 Both 10 8 10 10 Total 100 100 100 100

Further probing on this question was done to find out the challenges faced because of this arrangement in

the family and it come out that in cases where men provide the finance for the payment and buying of the

alternative fuel they tend to:

Overemphasise on the wise use of the alternative source

Decide on the meal to cook especially that uses less energy (e.g. no beans can be cooked using the

primus stove)

Verbally rebuking spouse, maid and children if he suspects that there was no budgeting on the rate of

use and at times may refuse to provide money for the source if he suspects reckless use of the

alternative source

May refuse to source more firewood if it gets finished

Complain a lot when the spouse asks for money to buy fuel.

7.4. Impact of load shedding on gender relations

To map out the impact of load shedding on gender relations questions 6 was included in the questionnaire to

find out whether husbands and wives’ expectations were convergent or divergent and the problem that arise

due to divergent expectations, and table 5 below summarises the findings respectively.

7.5. Problems arising due to divergent expectations

These expectations were divergent in many of the cases and the following were reported as the problems

that arise due to the divergent expectations.

Men are not prepared to help in the supply of fuel

If they supply fuel they tend to over control its use

Males complain of delayed meals and cold food and quarrels may arise from this.

Men are not quick to provide for the fuel hence no time to rest as the cooking and ironing is done late



Men refuse to cut the wood and make the fire as it is viewed as a women’s department.

Men may come home late leading to quarrels as women feel they are inconvenienced by this practice

No quality family time as the men tend to spend out their time out with friends as the home becomes

boring due to lack of entertainment and women are always busy, taking more time to complete their

duties.

Table 5. what husbands and wives expect from each other when there is no electricity

What husbands expect from their wives What wives expect from their husbands

Have to make sure food is ready in time through improvisation

Provide ironed clothes always

Finding the alternative source(e.g. firewood, gel, petrol)

Gathering and preparing the firewood into manageable size

Connect the generator Buy the alternative source(e.g. fuel for the

generator, matches, gel ) Provide money to buy or pay for the

alternative source Make the fire

8. Discussion

From table 1 it can be inferred that data was collected from heterosexual dual worker households as well as

heterosexual single sex worker household thus making it easier to compare the issue of access to and control

over resources in these different types of households. Findings of the study however, reveal that although

75% of women who participated in this study were engaged in some productive work that gave them some

income that did not warrant them some control and decision making over alternative source of energy as

shown by the higher percentages of respondents who said decision making related to use of alternative

energy sources and their control lies with men (Table4).

Table 2 shows that uses of electricity in the household are gendered. Women use it albeit mostly for their

reproductive gender roles to sustain the family rather than personal activities, while men use it for their own

personal development .For example studying, watching world events like soccer through televisions,

computers and listening to news which is likely to widen men’s horizons in terms of information, current

issues which in turn can be used to dominate women. Few women use electricity for studying and other

developmental work as compared to men. This contradicts with assumptions in existing literature that access

to energy services would increase women’s access to information as revealed in this study that if women

were not using the available electricity to improve their social standing, this could be due to the socio

economic standing of the respondents ,thus calling for further research on the uses of energy according to

socio economic status of women and the need for developmental projects aimed at empowering women to

focus on conscientisation of women on the benefits they can accrue by utilising electricity in the home to

access information not only focussing on fulfilling their reproductive and practical gender needs but should



also aim for meeting their strategic needs which can come with exposure to the outside world linked by

gadgets in the home such as television ,computers and radios that uses electricity.

Women although they have access to the energy sources they seem to having limited control over the

sources (table 4). From the study only 10% of respondents indicated that they were in a shared control of

energy in the household while 40% indicated that control lies with women and 50% admitted that control of

energy use lies with men. Thus contradicting earlier findings in rural set ups whereby women are in control

of energy management at household level as noted by Cecelski (2000) and Skutsch (1995 in Mahat, 2011).

Involving men in the financing (which is a valuable resource) of alternative energy sources in the households

takes the power of control and decision making from the women over the energy sources thus strengthening

patriarchal thinking that men have control over valuable resources leading men to takeover even the

decision making related to energy use in the household. This affirms earlier findings by Hooper-Box et al.

(1998) that men control finances and make and enforce decisions, thereby making poor urban women ,as

compared to their rural counterparts lack decision making and purchasing powers on fuel This shift of events

function to maintain and perpetuate women’s subordinate position and their inability to improve their own

conditions this is likely to hold back sustainable development because gender equality which is a

precondition to sustainable development is unlikely to be achieved unless women’s subordinate positions

change.

Load shedding is reported to be estranging gender relations as quarrels are caused in the home due to

lack of electricity. It can be inferred from table 4 that women expect a shift of roles due to load shedding but

their expectations seem to be divergent to those of men who see it as a women’s prerogative duty to see to it

that practical gender needs of the family are met despite the looming load shedding hence women suffer

harassment and domestic violence in the form of quarrels due to these divergent expectations brought by

load shedding hence there will be no true gender equality, thus holding back the attainment of MDG 3 and

sustainable development. Load shedding seems to be worsening the burden of traditional proscribed roles of

women as the study reveals that men are reluctant and not willing to assist their spouses in the face of load

shedding instead they find this as an opportunity to visit friends and other social places for fun and

entertainment thus revealing that load shedding is increasing men’s involvement with the public sphere

while women remain confined in the private sphere trying to meet their practical needs. This confirms

Annecke (2005) who found that men continue to see helping in this area as a favour they can withdraw at

will.

Load shedding has increased the subordination of women as men are now controlling the domain that

used to be perceived as a female domain. Men are now deciding on how fuel is to be used in the household,

the type of food to cook which was considered a female preserve. These gendered hierarchal power relations

in the household function to maintain and perpetuate women’s subordinate position and their inability to

improve their own functioning capabilities thus disempowering women. It has also widened the gap between

men and women by causing unnecessary conflicts over divergent coping and adaptive strategies. Gender

division of labour seem to have shifted a bit as men are now also involved in securing sources of energy

unlike in rural areas where the task lies entirely on women contradicting earlier findings (Yahaya et al.,



2007; Cecelski, 2000; Skutsh, 1995). This difference could be caused by the fact that in rural and farming

environments where these studies were done fuel wood is for free.

9. Implications for sustainable development

There is consensus among scholars that gender equality is a precondition for sustainable development as it is

a prerequisite to the achievement of all the Millennium development goals (MDGs) (Unterhalter, 2007;

Shumba et al., 2008) and a serious consideration of any discussion of sustainable development is the role of

gender (Ansell, 2000). Women need not to be discriminated when it comes to decision making in household

energy uses as this limits their empowerment, their substantive freedoms, increasing their subordination

thereby buttressing gender inequality in society which in turn is holding back sustainable development.

Equal participation of men and women at household level holds opportunities to open up capabilities of men

and women to work side by side thereby transforming society into a just society, for empowerment starts at

a lower level. Relational empowerment at household level is of paramount importance as it forms a

foundation for collective empowerments in the wider society. To achieve community empowerment for

sustainable development, men and women need to uphold an ethic of gender equality and this should start

with household relational empowerment. Renewed attention in empowerment programs therefore, must

focus and emphasis on equal participation of men and women in household decision making and sharing of

power in relationships .For it is the beginning of empowerment for men and women at household level that is

likely to establish the agency and attitudes for equality that will culminate in sustainable development.

Empowerment leads to high self esteem and a strong sense of self worth hence can enhance the ability of

men and women to help them and to contribute to the world. Greater freedoms according to Sen (2000)

enhance the ability of people to help themselves and also influence the world. This implies that by

maintaining positive relationships, greater freedoms are created and these will enhance men and women’s

ability to be effective and influential. This means that any approach to development should aim to improve

men and women’s freedoms and expand their capabilities by enlarging their freedoms to lead valuable and

flourishing lives Sen in Fukuda-Parr (2011) not as linked to their practical gender needs but also their

strategic gender needs thus bringing about women’s empowerment and this should start at household level.

It must build solidarity, reciprocity and autonomy in access to and control of resources.

10. Recommendations

Expansion of men and women’s capabilities and functioning spaces as it relates to empowerment and

sustainable development should start at household level Empowerment intervention strategies in this sector

should aim at increasing women’s location in relation to men’s decision making on domestic fuel

management Load shedding is limiting women’s freedom more than that of men. Providing energy services

that challenge structural power relations at household level will go a long way in contributing more to the

goal of gender equality leading to greater freedoms as positive relationships are maintained which will in



turn enhance men and women to influence the world which is subsequently going to lead to sustainable

development. Household energy management is one central factor where sustainable development strategies

should not underestimate women’s roles and responsibilities by focussing more on energy users rather than

energy use.

11. Conclusion

Women have practical needs in terms of meeting their daily household energy requirements but they also

have strategic needs in terms of gaining self confidence and independence by having more time and

increased opportunities in the public sphere .Ignoring gender impacts in a public policy such as load

shedding puts women at a disadvantage since women provide more labour and long hours in managing the

household energy system resulting in them being confined more to the private sphere than the public due to

increased workloads, this drains their time and strength to participate in developmental activities It has led

to limited access and control of energy sources by women in households as they now depend upon

relationships of patronage and dependency for alternative sources of energy, thus subordinating them

further, hindering them to have an equal stand point with men, hence I contend that sustainable

development which goes well beyond considerations of material needs to strategic needs and as a process of

expanding freedoms and the reason to value cannot be attained if women’s subordinate position in

households remain unchanged. Load shedding in this study has proved to be a source of ‘unfreedoms’ is

leaving women more trapped in the roles proscribed by patriarchy thus challenges to patriarchy remain

unabashed.

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