ECN-RX--05-070

THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

F.A. de Bruijn

Presented at the ACTS-Sustainable Hydrogen Workshop,

13th October 2004, Nunspeet The Netherlands

FEBRUARI 2005

2 ECN-RX--05-070

ECN-RX--05-070 3

the Hydrogen Economy: possibilities and limitations

Frank de BruijnACTS 13th October 2004

Containing slides supplied by: Kees van der Klein (16,19,32,33,34)Ronald Mallant (3,4,5,12,13,14,25,46, 55-61)

Who wants HydrogenandWhy

?

4 ECN-RX--05-070

US vision on Hydrogen

“…The oil money has been at the foundation of terror in this world…”

“…This is a program that really is a wartime necessity, not a peacetime luxury…”

California Power Authority chairman David Freeman:

EU vision on Hydrogen

Hydrogen as a response to climate change …

Commissioner Wallström's Speech on Hydrogen -bridge to sustainable energy (17/6/2003)

ECN-RX--05-070 5

Why the Dutch want H2…..

Fossil Fuels:how much do we have and where do

they come from?

US vision on Hydrogen

6 ECN-RX--05-070

The World Energy Demand is increasing very fast

Source: IEA Energy Outlook

Distribution of proved oil reserves 2003 (BP Statistical Review 2004)

ECN-RX--05-070 7

Reserves/Production ratio 2003(BP Statistical Review 2004)

Reserves/Production ratio 2003(BP Statistical Review 2004)

In the US visionCoal is the main sourceOf hydrogen

8 ECN-RX--05-070

Climate Change and other effects

EU vision on Hydrogen

Temperature is rising

ECN-RX--05-070 9

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

390

0.E+001.E+052.E+053.E+054.E+05Years before present

CO

2 in

trap

ped

air [

ppm

v]

-12

-9

-6

-3

0

3

6

9

12Te

mp.

Dev

iatio

n [°

C] Carbon dioxide

Temperature

Ice core derived CO2 and Temp data

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

390

0.E+001.E+052.E+053.E+054.E+05Years before present

CO

2 in

trap

ped

air [

ppm

v]

-12

-9

-6

-3

0

3

6

9

12Te

mp.

Dev

iatio

n [°

C]

Carbon dioxideCarbon dioxide, last 1000 yrsTemperature 150

270

390

01000

And the effects are showing…

Source: NASA

Arctic sea ice, 1979 Arctic sea ice, 2003

10 ECN-RX--05-070

Projected Weather & Climate Changes

Higher temperatures:Very likely

Intense hurricanes:Likely

Intense rainfall:Very likely

Source: IMAGE model, MNP-RIVM, 2003

EU’s “2 degrees target”:

Emission industrial countries-/- 40 a 60% in 2025

Development countries: policy toincrease less than b.a.u.

Glo

balG

HG

Em

issi

ons

(GtC

O2

equi

vale

nt)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090

Baseline

Stabilisation 550 ppm equiv

Effect Kyoto

Present 380 ppm equiv

ECN-RX--05-070 11

Paris RotterdamLos Angeles

Urban Air Pollution, the concern of today.

NO2 + NO

NMHC

CO

Soot

Noise

CO2

Smogozone

Damage to lung tissue

Inhibits oxygenuptake

Adverse effect on immune system

Carcinogenicsubstances

+ NO2 + NMHC

Transport: the effect of vehicle emissions

Respiratory problems

NOx emissions per sector, Netherlands 2000

Mln kg

165

103

20

50

3712 15

road transportother transportresidentialelectricity generationindustryagricultureothers

12 ECN-RX--05-070

Targets from NMP 4

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Mt C

O2-

eq/ja

ar

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

year

Red.other GHG'sEnergy savingsrenewableEfficiency improvementCO2-sequestration

Dutch target

business as usual

Other em

issions

• 80-90% NOx• 80-90% SO2• 75-90% NMHC• 85-95% particles• 75-85% NH330 % reduction in

2030*

(150 Mton)

* Present political discussion: why not force 2030 target to 2020 ?

What can we do?

Renew

ableEnergy

Effic

ient

Ener

gyU

se

Clean and Efficient Useof Fossil Fuels

H2And

Fuel Cells

BuildingsIndustriesTransport

WindSolar

Biomass

Supply sideDemand-side

ECN-RX--05-070 13

.

Stationary Power

TransportBiomassHydroWindSolar

Geothermal

Coal

Nuclear

Gas

Oil

CO

2Se

ques

trat

ie

H2: the Transition Fuel ?

Fuel Cells for Transport

1. Lowering of emissions: particles, NOx, CO, CxHy, SOx2. Lowering of fuel use, decreasing CO2 emissions3. Lowering of noise4. Fuel diversification

Ships (10-10000 kW)

City Transport (200 kW)Transport (50 kW)City Transport (2-7 kW)

L Cost Target: $50 / kWe

14 ECN-RX--05-070

The Challenges for Fuel Cells for Mobile Applications

In addition, for systems on gasoline and other liquid fuels: Integrated Fuel ProcessorsCO tolerant fuel cells; High temperature membranes

The technical feasibility of Fuel Cell systems on hydrogen is proven. Remaining technical issues are:

RobustnessVehicles are operated between –30 and + 40 ºC, undergo mechanical and thermal shocks etc.

CostThe cost level of the technology to be replaced is approximately €50/kWe

EfficiencyGasoline and Diesel Hybrids are already 30% more efficient than non-hybrid vehicles.

Fuel Cells for Stationary Applications

• Combined Heat and Power Generation• Decentralised Power Generation• Uninterupted Power Supply / Backup Power

1. Lowering Primary Fuel use, lowering CO2 emissions2. Security of Supply3. Prevent upgrading of electricity infrastructure

Micro CHP(1-5 kW)

Stationary Power (< 250 kW)

J Cost Target: $500 - $1000 / kWe

ECN-RX--05-070 15

Electricity(30 arbitrary

units)

Heat(60 arbitrary

units)

Energy saving by home based CHP with fuel cells

Powerplant(42%)

Homeboiler

(100%)

Traditional, separated generation

100

Natural Gas

Sum: 131 Sum: 100( ) %24131

100131savingsenergy =−

=

71

60

NG/coal

Natural Gas

Energy saving co-generation

Electricity(30%)

Heat(60%)

The Challenges for Fuel Cells for Stationary Applications

Fuel Cell systems on natural Gas will become available. Remaining technical issues are:

Durability: 40,000 hours are needed: PAFC systems approach this targetSOFC and PEMFC systems on natural gas are not even close

Cost: €1000 - €1500 / kWe: PAFC systems will not be able to meet the cost target.PEMFC systems and SOFC systems will meet the stationary cost targetFor larger systems this target will be easier to meet than for 1 kWe systems.

Efficiency:In large applications (2 MW), competing CHP technologies show 43% el.efficiency For 1- 5 kWe systems, 35% - 40% is needed

16 ECN-RX--05-070

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

H2 and Fuel Cells are not Siamese Twins

Hydrogen in Combustion Processes

Internal CombustionHydrogen Engine2004

1-cylinder HydrogenVehicle by Lenoir,1860

Ford Model UHydrogen ICEVehicle2004

Hydrogen ScramJetNasa 2004

Hydrogen Space Shuttle1980

ECN-RX--05-070 17

Fuel Cells powered bycarbon-fuels

Fuel Cell Caron methanol2001

100 kWeSolid Oxide Fuel Cell,On natural gas2001

PEMFCMicro CHPon natural gas1-5 kWe2003

200 kWePhosphoricAcid Fuel Cell,On natural gas1993

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: feedstock diversification

PEMFCPAFC

SOFCMCFC

Hydrogen

SolarWind

MiddleDestillates

Biomass

Natural GasLPG

Liquid Biofuels

Synthesis Gas

methane

Gas-to-Liquids

18 ECN-RX--05-070

Renewable Hydrogen:the Potential in the Netherlands

Policy goal Wind energy:

7500 MW in 2020

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

off shore

onshore

3000 MW

6000 MW

9000 MW

2004: 930 MW

2004: 930 MW 2010: > 1500 MW onshore2020: 6000 MW off shore 7500 MW

(= 45 PJ*)

100 MW NSW120 MW Q7

1500 MW

?

?

⇒ each year 1 new 500 MW off shore wind farm

* Savings fossil

ECN-RX--05-070 19

Policy Goal PhotoVoltaics1500 MWp in 2020

2010: 1 km2

2020: 10 km2

2030: 50 km2

Job estimate based on EPIA/Greenpeace scenario Solar Generation (2001)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 20400

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

installed power# jobs in NL

2020: 1500 MWp

2003: 45 MWp

⇒ Annual growth rate of 30% in next 20 years

MWp

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

2000 2010 2020 2030Year

PJ S

uppl

y

Chemical industry

Co-conversion in coal plants

gasification

Transport

2010 2020 2040 remarks Gas- en chemical industry 5% 10% 30%

Transport 5,75% 10% 30% EU Directive till 2010

Coal agreement 6% 15% 30% Start 2010 (expected)

• Inland cultivation:Noord- + Zuid Holland(100 PJ = 30 x 30 km2 )

•Import:2 tankers met 100.000 chips/working day(100 PJ = 7 mln ton biomassa)

Policy Goal Biomass 350 PJ in 2020

20 ECN-RX--05-070

Elektricity [PJ]

124

6

82

117

Industry, elektr. Industry, natural gas Industry, otherTransport Industry, coal Industry, oil

Residential Others

Fuel [PJ]

370

80

471

86402

338

411

Energy use per sector*

2002: 330 PJ electricity needs 990 PJ fuel

* Energie Verslag Nederland 2003

What if Hydrogen is to be produced fromWind Energy or Photovoltaics

Example: all vehicles will run on Hydrogen

230 PJ480 PJTotal

106 PJ200 PJheavy duty diesel

40 PJ75 PJpassengerdiesel

8 PJ20 PJPassenger LPG

75 PJ185 PJpassengergasoline

Fuel Consumption FCV*

Fuel Consumption ICE 2002

Vehicle type

* Fuel consumption calculated from GM well to wheel study

ECN-RX--05-070 21

Hydrogen supply from Wind Energy and Photovoltaics: 2020

7500 MW Wind energy renders: 70 PJ electricity1500 MW Solar PV renders: 5 PJ electricity

Efficiency electrolyser: max 85% (at present: 75%)

75 PJ electricity renders 63.5 PJ hydrogen

We needed: 230 PJ total (123 PJ passenger cars + 107 PJ Heavy Duty)

Assuming 100% efficiency in distribution and storage

Hydrogen supply from Biomass: 2020

350 PJ Biomass renders: 183 PJ hydrogen

Total supply Renewable Hydrogen: 245 PJ hydrogen

We needed for transport: 230 PJ total

Assuming 100% efficiency in distribution and storage

44 PJ wind + PVelectricity renders: 63.5 PJ hydrogen

22 ECN-RX--05-070

Wind Energy and PhotovoltaicsHow to use this electricity

By using the 75 PJ electricity directly as electricity, we save:170 PJ natural gas

(using 44% as average electricity generation efficiency)

Only when the wind energy supply cannot be absorbed by thegrid (e.g. big windfarms in the night at > 8 Beaufort), hydrogen production is a good alternative over Windfarmmanagement aimed at lower power generation

Via electrolysis, 75 PJ electricity renders 63.5 PJ hydrogenBy steam reforming, we would need 79 PJ natural gasfor generating this hydrogen

CO2 free Hydrogen from Natural gas by Carbon Capture

Main issues• Energy penalty• Cost• Acceptance

ECN-RX--05-070 23

electric

powerPEMFC

electrolyser

Oxygen

Hydrogen: the ideal storage for energy?

WaterAir

PEMFCHydrogen

EfficiencyFuel cell: 50%

Efficiencyelectrolyser: 80%

0.4 MWh1 MWh

Not taking into account distribution losses !

Hydrogen Transport & Distribution*Energy losses as % of the hydrogen energy content

Hydrogen Compression: 200 bar:10% versus 1% for NG800 bar:16% versus 2% for NG

Hydrogen Liquefraction: ≥ 25 %

Energy consumption for Hydrogen compression and liquefraction

HydrogenTube trailers: 20% per 100 km delivery distanceversus ~ 6% for natural gas

Hydrogen Pipeline: 10% per 1000 km pipeline distanceversus ~ 2% for natural gas

Energy consumption of Hydrogen distribution

* B. Eliasson, ABB-Switzerland in Fuel Cell World Proceedings, 2002

24 ECN-RX--05-070

Hydrogen for Transport

Vision 2010 California

The "Vision 2010" for California's Hydrogen Highways is to ensure that by the end of the decade every Californian has access to hydrogen fuel along the State's major highways, with a significant and increasing percentage of that hydrogen produced from clean, renewable sources. This vision for California is real and attainable; however, it will take time so we must plant the seeds now.

Don’t underestimate the retail logistics

World wide number of hydrogen filling stations 2003/2004: 80Number of petrol stations:Netherlands: 3,750 (1/11 km²)Western Europe: 80,000 (1/20 km²)USA: 187,000 (1/50 km²)

IcelandJapan

ECN-RX--05-070 25

Hydrogen for Transport Applications

Local production of hydrogen from natural gas: 75 Nm3/hr= 6 kg H2/hr , would serve 1 hydrogen car per hr

* Image provided by Hexion / Nexus Global

Equivalent of a single service stationReplacing a 107 litres of fuel/yr service station

• Central production, and tube trailer (26.106 m3/yr):- Results in 36 tube trailers/day

(compared to one 30 m3 gasoline truck/day)

• On-site NG-reforming @ 75% efficiency:- Annual NG consumption: about 13.106 m3

- Equivalent to 6500 houses(2000 m3/yr/house)

• On-site electrolysis @ 85% efficiency:- Annual electricity use: about 110.106 kWh- Equivalent to 33.103 houses

(3300 kWh/yr/house)

26 ECN-RX--05-070

Hydrogen Storage for Passenger Vehicles

Consumers Wish ListDriving range: > 600 kmRefuelling time: < 2.5 minutesCost < $333

160.80.6Metal Hydride

62.01.6liquid H2

161.91.3compressed H2700 bar

122.10.8compressed H2350 bar

22.73DoE target

cost$/kWh

gravimetric density

kWh/kg

volumetric density

kWh/l

State of the Art (DoE 2004 Review)

electric

power

700-900 °CC7H14 + O2 +10 H2O ->

4 CO + 17 H2 + 3 CO2

400 °C -> 250°CCO+H2O->CO2+H2

300 °CH2+½O2->H2 O

PEMFC

PROXLTSHTS

After

burner

PEMFCATRFuel

Fuel Cell Systems with Fuel Processors

Exhaust

Air

80-250 °CCO+½O2->CO2

70-90 °CH2+½O2->H2O

Fuel ProcessorIntegration

ECN-RX--05-070 27

Which option is to be preferred?• Hydrogen in Internal Combustion Engines• Gasoline in Fuel Cell vehicles• Hydrogen in Fuel Cell vehicles• Gasoline in ICE hybrid vehicles• Hydrogen from biomass?………………………..

For a comparison which makes sense, a well to wheel assessment is needed

Well to Tank (GM/LBST study)

871.16gasoline

221.91Compressed H2 (700 bar)from Biomass

01.66Compressed H2 (700 bar)from Wind energy

2084.64Compressed H2 (700 bar) from EU-mix electricity

1242.14Liquid H2 from natural gas

1031.87Compressed H2 (700 bar)from natural gas

g CO2/MJfuelMJ/MJFuel Pathway

28 ECN-RX--05-070

Tank to Wheeland Well to Wheel (GM/LBST study)

1.05

1.49

1.54

1.78

2.03

2.44

MJ/km

108

153

133

154

209

211

g CO2/km

Hydrogen ICE HEV

Gasoline FCV HEV

Gasoline ICE HEV

Hydrogen ICE

Hydrogen FCV HEV

Gasoline ICE (2010)

Vehicle

700 bar Hydrogen from Natural Gas

Well to Wheel for Hydrogen FCV HEV(GM/LBST study)

211

0

23

108

218

g CO2/km

Reference ICE 2010

Wind

Biomass

Natural Gas

Electricity EU-mix

Hydrogen Source

ECN-RX--05-070 29

Gasoline Hybrid ICE2004

Gasoline ICE2003

Hydrogen FCV2003

Hydrocarbon FCV2003

0.030.03

0.48NOxHC

CO0.01 0.02

0.0080.0000.036

00

0g/kmg/km

g/km

Vehicle emissions: Tank to Wheel and Well to Wheel

*: hydrogen produced by natural gas reforming

170/211CO2No reliable data 0/80* g/km

0.18104/123

Hydrogen Supply Costs

IEA World Energy Investment Outlook 2003

22-37Compressed Hydrogen from WindVia electrolysis; highest cost for off-shore

52-82Compressed Hydrogen from PVVia electrolysis

14-25Compressed Hydrogen from biomass (poplar plantation)

12-18 1Compressed Hydrogen from NG (incl CO2 capture)

7-9Natural Gas

8-10Gasoline

Supply Cost* $/GJFuel

* Cost of fuel, production, transport and refuelling

30 ECN-RX--05-070

Hydrogen Vehicles:Safety

• Disadvantages of Hydrogen:- High diffusion rates: danger of leaks- High flame propagation speed- Invisible flame (in theory)- Low energy of ignition- Wide ranges of flammability, detonability

• Advantages of Hydrogen:- High diffusion rate, buoyancy, therefore rapid dispersion- Less radiation from flame (as compared to gasoline)- Relatively low volumetric energy content

Ignition of hydrogen powered vehicle versus gasoline vehicle

ECN-RX--05-070 31

≈ 60 M3/min ≈ 5 kg/min ≈ 1 full tank /min!

32 ECN-RX--05-070

ECN-RX--05-070 33

Pressure vessel are intensively tested

Result of a gunfire test

Conclusions

We need to decrease emissions associated with fossil fuel combustionAll options are needed simultaneously: Wind, Solar, Biomass, CO2 capture, Efficiency improvement

Hydrogen offers an enormous potential, but take care how to use it• Hydrogen from Wind and PV is only an option when the electricity

cannot be used directly

• Hydrogen will be produced from fossil fuels and biomass in the coming decades

• Hydrogen is NOT an ideal storage medium of energy

• Hydrogen transport leads to significant losses of energy

34 ECN-RX--05-070

So what should we do?

Fuel Cells onHydrogen and Fuel Processors formobile & stationary nichemarkets

Hydrogen from Fossil fuels and BiomassCO2 sequestration

Renewable Hydrogen

Design and Construction of

An Energy efficient H

ydrogen Infrastructure

Time

Large Scale Introduction of Fuel Cells:Hydrogen from Natural Gas and Biomass

CO

2re

duct

ion

OUR ENERGY SUPPLY AND CLIMATE

ARE TOO IMPORTANT TO BE DICTATED

BY THE SHORT TERM INTERESTS OF

CONSUMERS AND SHARE HOLDERS

ACTION !

ECN-RX--05-070 35

36 ECN-RX--05-070