The History of Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 2

I. Brief History of Motivation

A. Aristotle’s TheoryCauses of behavior: efficient (trigger), final

(purpose), formal (theory), and material (brain)

B. HedonismPursue pleasure and avoid pain

1. Ancient SourcesSocrates, Democritus, and Epicurus:

pleasure is to exceed pain in the long run.

I. Brief History of Motivation

2. Later philosophersHobbes on incentive motivation: approach

pleasing, avoid displeasings timuli.

Locke on choice: small immediate versus large delayed reward.

Bentham on principle of utility: increase/decrease in pleasure determines behavior.

I. Brief History of Motivation

3. Sigmund FreudPleasure principle: pursue pleasure by

sudden decrease in tensionReality principle: circumstances determine

when to attain pleasure.

4. Edward Lee ThorndikeLaw of effect: satisfying consequences

strengthen behavior; dissatisfying consequences weaken behavior.

I. Brief History of Motivation

5. Law of Effect TodayConsequences refer to observables rather

than to subjective states.

6. Current TrendsSelf control: choose delayed rewards.

Impulsiveness: choose immediate reward.

C. Evolution and Motivation1. Charles Darwin

Theory of evolution is based on variation and selection.Principle of variation: values of a particular trait vary in frequency.Principle of selection: environment selects values that aid survival.

2. Herbert SpencerPleasure selects for behaviors that aid survival.Pain selects against behaviors that are detrimental to survival.

3. InstinctsInherited impulses that produce specific pattern of behavior.

4. Current TrendsSmiles and laughs from play help child master social environment.

D. Unconscious Motivation

1. Freuds’ Conscious-Unconscious DistinctionPreconscious: small room containing thought, feelings, sensations.Unconscious: large room containing repressed impulses, instincts.Repression: censor prevents impulses from entering small room.Consciousness: impulses attract eye of consciousness in small room.

2. Motivational Instincts and the UnconsciousInstincts originate in the body and exert pressure with the aim of being

satisfied through interaction with an object.Three main Freudian instincts: sex, death, and ego preservation.

3. Satisfying Unconscious ImpulsesThrough jokes and through manifest and latent dream content.

D. Unconscious Motivation

4. Current TrendsAutomatic processes: behaviors carried out

with little awareness.

E. Internal Sources of Motivation

1. Drive conceptMechanism: Woodworth's idea of how we do something.Drive: stimulus that induced behavior and keeps it going.

2. Psychological NeedsInherent characteristic that indicates a psychological deficit.Primary or viscerogenic: Murray's physiological needs.Secondary or psychogenic: Murray's 22 psychological needs.

3. Current TrendsMore needs postulated, which may be hierarchically arranged.

F. Commonality among Instincts, Drives, and Needs

All refer to internal sources of motivation that demand satisfaction.

G. Environmental Sources of Motivation

Incentives: stimuli that attract or repel an individual.Tolman &Honzik experiment: reward

decreases, nonreward increases maze errors.

H. Environmental and Internal Sources Induce Behavior

Motivation depends on internal and external sources1. Warden’s Incentive-Drive LinkIncentive (water) links with drive (thirst) to

motivate behavior.Increased drive increases electrified grid crossings.Delayed incentive decreases electrified grid

crossings.2. Lewin’s Field Theory

Psychological force: motivation depends on valence of objects in life space, psychological tension, and psychological distance.

II. Brief History of Emotion

Historically, description of emotion shifted from outward to inward movement. A. Emotion as Subjective Feeling

Personal feelings of affect that arise in consciousnessB. Basic Emotions

Early Greeks to Descartes to James considered basic emotions.Cognitive interpretations of stimulus changes determine emotions.

C. Emotion as Impulses for Action and ThoughtAction readiness: impulse to action of emotion-relevant behavior.Motor explosion: nonadaptive response, e.g., jump for joy.

D. Physiological ArousalIt serves as the basis for feelings and action readiness for emotions.

E. Facial ExpressionAs indicator of emotional feelings.As signals used to satisfy social motives.Facial feedback hypothesis: pattern of facial muscles is informationalbasis for emotional feelings.