THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK THREE

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

J. B. Harley and David Woodward, Founding Editors

1Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe

and the Mediterranean

2.1Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and

South Asian Societies

2.2Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies

2.3Cartography in the Traditional African, American,

Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies

3Cartography in the European Renaissance

4Cartography in the European Enlightenment

5Cartography in the Nineteenth Century

6Cartography in the Twentieth Century

THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK THREE

Cartography in the

Traditional African!J Atnerican!J Arctic!J

Australian!J and Pacific Societies

Edited by

DAVID WOODWARDand

G. MALCOLM LEWIS

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO AND LONDON

98-21504CIP

David Woodward is Arthur H. Robinson Professor ofGeography at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Until his retirement, G. Malcolm Lewis was Reader inGeography at the University of Sheffield, England.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London

© 1998 by The University of ChicagoAll rights reserved. Published 1998

Printed in the United States of America

07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 1 2 3 4 5

ISBN: 0-226-90728-7 (cloth)

@ The paper used in this publication meets the minimumrequirements of the American National Standard for

Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for PrintedLibrary Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataCartography in the traditional African, American,Arctic, Australian, and Pacific societies / edited by DavidWoodward and G. Malcolm Lewis

p. cm. -(The history of cartography; v. 2, bk. 3)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN: 0-226-90728-71. Cartography-Africa-History. 2. Cartography­

America-History. 3. Cartography-Arctic regions­History. 4. Cartography-Australia-History.5. Cartography-Pacific Area-History.I. Woodward, David, 1942- . II. Lewis, G. MalcolmIII. Series.GA201.C37 1998912.6-dc21

Editorial work on The History of Cartography is supportedin part by grants from the Division of Research Programs of

the National Endowment for the Humanities and theGeography and Regional Science Program of the NationalScience Foundation, independent federal agencies. For a

complete list of foundations, organizations, and individualswho supported the editorial work, see pages v and vi.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendationsexpressed in The History of Cartography are those of the

authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of theagencies that provided financial support.

Financial Support

Federal Agencies

Division of Preservation and Accessof the National Endowment for the Humanities

Geography and Regional Science Programof the National Science Foundation

Foundations and Institutions

The Gladys Krieble Delmas FoundationThe Gaylord and Dorothy Donnelley Foundation

Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

Rand McNallyThe Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for the History of

Cartography, The Newberry Library

Organizations

Association of Canadian Map Libraries and ArchivesCalifornia Map Society

The Chicago Map SocietyMap Society of British Columbia

The Mercator Society of the Research Libraries,The New York Public Library

Michigan Map SocietyThe New York Map SocietyNorth Caroliniana Society

The Rocky Mountain Map SocietyWestern Association of Map Libraries

Roger S. and Julie BaskesWilliam B. Ginsberg

Arthur and Janet HolzheimerArthur L. Kelly

Richard B. ArkwayClive A. Burden

Rand and Patricia BurnetteMr. and Mrs. Ralph E. Ehrenberg

Johan W. EliotRobert L. Fisher

Joseph and Monica FitzgeraldGerald, F. Fitzgerald, Sr.

Mr. and Mrs. Jenkins GarrettWarren Heckrotte

Cyrus Ala'iSylvia Alexander and Allen D.

BushongW. Graham Arader III

Stanley K. and Patricia L. Arnett IIJohn R. Axe

Frederick and Howard Baron­High Ridge BooksAnibal A. BiglieriJens P. BornholtStephen D. Brink

Stephen A. BrombergJim and Barbara Butler

The Cartophile

Founders

Bernard LiskerDuane F. Marble

Douglas W. MarshallGlen McLaughlin

Benefactors

Francis HerbertRobert A. Highbarger

Jay Y. LeeNorman B. Leventhal

Martayan, Lan, Augustyn, Inc.Barbara Backus McCorkle

In memory of Oscar I. NorwichHarold L. Osher

Patrons

Jo Ann and Richard Casten, Ltd.Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth A.

ChambersTom and Verena Conley

W. N. Davis, Jr.A. Richard Diebold, Jr.

John W. DocktorMr. and Mrs. James R. Donnelley

Michael A. DulkaClinton R. EdwardsBarbara Adele Fine

Richard and Dorothy FitchJohn M. GubbinsFrancis H. Heller

Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth NebenzahlBrian D. QuintenzDavid M. Rumsey

In memory of Roderick S. Webster

George ParkerR. Michael Peterson

William S. ReeseJack L. Ringer

Douglas H. ScheweJoseph E. Schwartzberg

Rodney ShirleyRichard H. SigelClark L. TaberEric W. Wolf

John B. HendersonJ. N. Hood

Edward D. KleinbardNancy R. Klusmeyer

Anne and Larry KnowlesAndrew J. LeRoy

Scott and Judith LoomerCurtis A. Manchester IIIGeorge F. McCleary, Jr.

P. J. ModeJohn T. MoncktonMark MonmonierJose Navarro-Ferre

Elaine and Jerome Nerenberg

Alfred W. NewmanBraham NorwickJudy M. Olson

Theodore W. PalmerMary Pedley

Samuel T. PerkinsKiky Polites

Francesco PronteraGeorge S. Read

Mo ReillyC. D. Reynolds

Rear Admiral G. S. RitchieArthur H. Robinson

Michele AldrichJonathan J. G. AlexanderSeymour H. AmkrautRandy AndersSona AndrewsJames AxtellGwendolyn R. BarckleyJ. BartholomewPhil BartonChristopher BaruthThomas and Linda BeallCathy L. and Wendell K. Beckwith IIJohn Bennet and Deborah HarlanYasha Beresiner, InterCol LondonWinthrop P. BoswellKenneth B. BowserR. W. BremnerWesley A. BrownDavid C. BuisseretMichael BurackCharles A. BurroughsGretchen BurtonKenneth L. CampbellMartin M. CassidyReginald C. ChambersPaul H. ChapmanBarbara Mae ChristyHarold C. ConklinMichael R. C. CoulsonJeremy CramptonJoyce W. CrimRobert F. Dahl, Cartesia SoftwareBrian J. DalsingGerald DanzerLouis DeVorseyRichard DittmanMaynard Weston DowMichael J. DubinGary S. DunbarMrs. Elizabeth F. DunlapOliver C. DunnWilliam G. EarleClark EidePeter M. EnggassEdward B. Espenshade, Jr.Maurizio FavrettoSiegfried FellerLucy A. FellowesClifton F. FergusonBruce FetterNorman Fiering

Thomas F. SanderSinclair Adams Sheers

John D. ShugrueDouglas W. and Elzbieta Sims

Susan D. SlaughterDava Sobel

Margaret C. SowersStephen Stares

Muriel StricklandThomas, Ahngsana, and Sainatee

SuarezAntiques of the Orient Pte. Ltd.,

Michael J. Sweet

Additional support from

John FondersmithTheodore N. FossJohn FryeJohn B. GarverJohn F. C. Glenn, Jr.Bob and Linda GraebnerLinda H. GraffRonald E. GrimPeter J. GuthornIsidro Guzman, Jr.Robert J. HaberJohn M. HackettJ. Scott HamiltonWilliam B. HillMarianne HinckleDaniel P. HopkinsBangbo HuAlice C. HudsonMurray HudsonJ. Andrew HutchinsonTeri JaegerDr. and Mrs. Saul JarchoWendy E. Jepson and Christian

BrannstromNancy A. KandoianMark D. KaplanoffElton R. KerrJay I. KislakLarry B. KramerJohn G. KrisilasSarah KuhnJames P. LacyFran~ois J. LampiettiG. Malcolm LewisBruce LohmanJohn H. LongDee LongenbaughIra S. LourieJack LowellE. Paul MartinVincent G. MazzucchelliCatharine McClellanDarrel and J. P. McDonaldVictoria M. MorseGene A. MoserHeidi J. MuenchMary MurphyCurtis MusselmanHenry A. NorrisDonald J. OrthFrank T. Padberg, Jr.Dick de Pagter

William S. SwinfordNorman]. W. Thrower

J. Thomas TouchtonEdward R. TufteRichard Umansky

Bernard Vinaty, O.P.Rainer Vollmar

Ann Harwell WellsLouis Werner

Rena and Ron Whistance-SmithCliff and Alberta Wood

Mei Xie and Deepak Bhattasali

Richard Pietro PalmieriRobert PavelecMiklos PintherBeverly A. PolingJoseph PoracskyJean M. RayJohn H. RebenackGeoffrey and Mingmei RedmondDennis and Judy ReinhartzJeanne RhodenJohn R. RibeiroWalter W. RistowGeorge and Mary RitzlinRobert RossPierre L. SalesDon SchnabelHelaine SelinMarsha L. SelmerCherie Ann SemansMerle SeveryJoseph SheinDavid C. SheldonRobert ShilkretT. SinnemaBruce N. SpringCarol A. SpringerJack StadlerDavid H. and Deirdre StarnRichard W. SullivanHarold L. SweedAlexander M. TaitRichard J. A. TalbertG. Thomas TanselleJohn and Anne TedeschiRichard F. ThomasRichard M. and Peggy W. UglandCarol UrnessDiane D. VasicaMr. and Mrs. Richard C. VeitSteven James VogelLarry A. VosStephen J. WalshDr. and Mrs. Sherwyn WarrenScott D. WestremJames H. WolfeJohn A. WolterJennifer WoodwardCordell D. K. YeeJeanne and Stephen YoungHis Royal Highness, The Duke

of Cornwall

Contents

Traditional Cartography in Africa

2 Cartographic Content of Rock Art in SouthernAfrica, Tim Maggs 13

The Hunter-Gatherer Art 14The Agriculturist Engravings 17Conclusion 23

3 Indigenous Mapmaking in Intertropical Africa,Thomas ]. Bassett 24

Cosmographic Maps 25Mnemonic Maps 30Solicited Maps 33African Influences on European Mapmaking 38European Influences on African Mapmaking 41Conclusion 48

Traditional Cartography in the Americas

Terrestrial Maps in Rock Art 57Rock Art of Cosmographical and Celestial

Subjects 63Northeast 66Southeast 94Far West 106Great Plains and Canadian Prairies 115Subarctic 135Arctic 154Cartographic Affinities between the Eurasian and

American Arctic and Subarctic Regions 170Concluding Themes 172

6 Mapmaking in the Central Andes,William Gustav Gartner 257

Andean Conceptions of Space and GeographicRelations: Past and Present 258

Rock Art 270A Chronological Perspective on Andean Mapmaking in

the Archaeological Record 271Inka Mapmaking 284Conclusion 297

5 Mesoamerican Cartography, Barbara E. Mundy183

Introduction 183What Is a Mesoamerican Map? 184Historiography 190Mesoamerican Maps and the Spatialization

of Time 191Types of Mesoamerican Maps 204Continuations of Native Mapping after the

Conquest 240Conclusion 247

9

Preface, David Woodward XIX

Introduction, David Woodward andG. Malcolm Lewis 1

Definitions 1Cognitive Cartography 3Performance Cartography 4Material Cartography 5Overlaps and Inconsistencies 5Problems and Issues 7Reversing the Marginalization of Maps

List of Illustrations IX

1

4 Maps, Mapmaking, and Map Use byNative North Americans,G. Malcolm Lewis 51

Precontact, Contact, and Postcontact MapsNative Words for "Map" 52The Importance of Cosmography 53Access and Conservation 54Historiography 55Approach 57

51

7 Indigenous Cartography in Lowland SouthAmerica and the Caribbean,Neil L. Whitehead 301

Theoretical Considerations 302Native Celestial and Cosmological MappingHistorical Reports of Indigenous MapmakingEuropeans' Inclusion of Native InformationConclusion 325

304319

322

VB

Vi11 Contents

Traditional Cartography in Arcticand Subarctic Eurasia

Are There Maps in Melanesia?Melanesian Maps 425Conclusion 442

425

Editors, Authors, and Project Staff 542

14 Maori Cartography and the European Encounter,Phillip Lionel Barton 493

Cultural Attributes with Affinities to Mapping 495European Accounts of Maori Maps and

Mapping 500Extant Maori Maps and Derivatives of

Maori Maps 508Conclusion 530

15 Concluding Remarks, David Woodward andG. Malcolm Lewis 537

Topological Structure 537Secular and Sacred 538Cosmos, Circle, and Center 538Landscape and Event 539Closeness to the Human Lifeworld 540The Way Ahead 541

13 Nautical Cartography and Traditional Navigationin Oceania, Ben Finney 443

Mental Cartography 443The European Penetration of Remote Oceania 444Early Charts Drawn by European Explorers and

Missionaries 446An Outline of Oceanic Navigation and

Cartography 454The Issue of Navigational Accuracy 460Caroline Island Navigation and Cartography 461Piloting by Swell Pattern Disruptions in the Marshall

Islands 475Did Oceanic Navigators Use Navigational Instruments?

485Colonization, Continuity, and Connections 487

543Bibliographical Index

Traditional Cartography in Australia

11 The Pacific Basin: An Introduction,Ben Finney 419

10 Aboriginal Maps and Plans, Peter Sutton 387Major Collections of Aboriginal Maps 387Smaller Scholarly Collections 399Aboriginal Maps in the Land Claims Era:

Nicholson River Land Claim 405Mud Maps and Sand Drawings 405Plans 408Aboriginal Maps: Politics and the Law 413

9 Icons of Country: Topographic Representationsin Classical Aboriginal Traditions,Peter Sutton 353

Introduction 353The Range of Artifacts 354Concepts 360Means and Interpretations 366Rock Paintings and Engravings 374Regional Examples 375Conclusion 384

Traditional Cartography in the Pacific Basin

8 Traditional Cartography in Arctic and SubarcticEurasia, Elena Okladnikova 329

Evidence of Mapping in Prehistory 330Cosmographical and Celestial Maps 332Terrestrial Mapmaking and Maps 338

Historical Accounts of Mapmaking(with Boris Polevoy) 338

Maps on Wood and Bark 340Decorative and Trade Maps 344

Conclusion 348

12 Traditional Cartography in Papua New Guinea,Eric Kline Silverman 423

Social Life, Cosmology, and Politics inMelanesia 423

General Index, Ellen D. Goldlust-Gingrich 579

Illustrationswith Tables and Appendixes

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COLOR PLATES

(Following Page 170)Fight and flightLukasa memory board used during thelast stage of Budye society initiationceremonIesKing Njoya's survey map of BarnumSupplemented manuscript copy of the ca. 1721Catawba map on skin of Indian areas in theSouth Carolina hinterlandNavajo Male Shootingway, "The Skies,"before 1933Quapaw painted bison hide showing the routefollowed by Quapaw warriors to confrontenemies, mid-eighteenth centuryPainted Pawnee celestial chart on tannedantelope skin or deerskinIkmallik, accompanied by Tiagashu, extendinga map for Captain John Ross

(Following Page 394)Page 1 of the Codex Xolotl, ca. 1542Venus as the morning star in the Codex BorgiaMapa de Santa CruzLienzo of PetlacalaCosmic fertility mapped by Bia of theTukanoKoryak dancing coat"X-ray" image of saltwater turtle, westernArnhemLand, ca. 1884Water holes at Jila Japingka and Pajpara withparallel sand hills, 1987Sacred Places at Milmindjarr'Djarrakpi landscapePankalangu Ceremonies at Yamunturnga,1987Various toas, ca. 1904Map of the Goromuru (Gurrumuru)River areaDetail of the Port of Macassar by Munggeraui(Munggurrawuy)Three mountains of the Iatmul mai ritual,representing the three totemic regions ofthe world

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Hand sketch of the south part of the Middle(South) Island by Mantell, ca. 1848-52

FIGURES

Reference map of southern AfricaPortion of Bamboo Mountain panelRock surface as context 16Painting with trees and ovals 16Rock art distribution in southern Africa18Engraving from Mahakane, northern Cape18Classic Zulu homestead 19Engraving of Zulu homestead from Erskine19KwaZulu-Natal stone settlement ruinsKwaZulu-Natal rock engraving 20Line drawing of KwaZulu-Natal rockengraving (fig. 2.10) 20Natural surface of rock as topography 21Line drawing of the natural surface of rock astopography (fig. 2.12) 21Meandering pattern of lines across threeboulders 22Line drawing of meandering pattern of linesacross three boulders (fig. 2.14) 22Lydenburg district agriculturist engraving22Rock engraving reflects topographicpreference 23Reference map of intertropical AfricaDogon aduno kine rock painting 26Dogon rock painting showing cardinaldirections 26Kongo cosmogram shown in a ceramic stelefrom a village cemetery in Lamba Teye,Democratic Republic of Congo 27Map of the mythic waters drawn by Bozoelders (Mali) 28Tigrean circle map and wind rose collected byAntoine Thomas d'Abbadie 29Tabwa woman with Butwa scarification on herback 30

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Tabwa ancestral figure showing mulalamboline and V-shaped pattern 31Lukala wall map from Budye initiationceremony 32Translation of the lukasa in plate 2 33Sultan Bello's map of the Niger River's course34Sabatele's map of the main caravan routes inEast Africa 37Explanation of Sabatele's map (fig. 3.12) 37Reference map for figures 3.12 and 3.13 38Depuis's "A Map of Wangara" 39Map of a Tuareg transhumance zone made byKili Kilu ag Najim and modified by EdmondBernus 40Woman drawing a map in the sand 41King Njoya's route map between his farm andFumban (1906) 42King Njoya's map of his kingdom presented toBritish authorities in 1916 44King Njoya of Barnum (or his son, SultanSeidou) 45Royal tapestry of the king's palace at Fumban46Map of Ethiopia attributed to "the camp ofRas Makonnen," 1899 47Reference map of North America 58Drawing of a rock painting in Baja California61Petroglyph from the lower White River Valley,Lincoln County, Nevada 62Part of a petroglyph panel on Mohave Rockon the lower Colorado River, Arizona 62Interpretation of Mohave Rock petroglyph(fig. 4.4) 63Map Rock petroglyph, southwestern Idaho64Speculative interpretation of Map Rock 65Petroglyph panel showing hunters, animals,and enclosure 66Star panel in Largo Canyon, New Mexico67Reconstruction of Aikon Aushabuc's gesturalmap 69Reconstruction of a Virginia Algonquiancosmography 70Virginia Algonquians (Powhatans) modeling acosmographical map in 1607 70Virginia (1612), by John Smith 711608 manuscript map, possibly a transcript ofPowhatan's map made on the ground of areasto the west and north of Chesapeake Bay72Contemporary transcript of a probable Indian

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Illustrations

map reconstructing the eastern extent ofPequot country before 1637 73Map delimiting an area of the southern coastof what is now Massachusetts that Metacom(King Philip) was willing to sell to thePlymouth colonists 74Redrawing of the map of the land King Philipwas willing to sell to the Plymouth colonists(fig. 4.16) 74Map of the Susquehanna River and itspotential significance in Iroquois trade towardChesapeake Bay 75Mapped distances and journey times on theSusquehanna River route 76A probable Indian map of parts of four majorbut separate drainage systems, 1696 or 169778Pictograph A showing Oshcabawis and otherChippewa chiefs 80Pictograph E showing Kaizheosh and his bandfrom Lac Vieux Desert, Michigan andWisconsin 81Geographical interpretation of Red Sky'sbirchbark migration scroll 83Possibly the oldest extant map on birchbark85Map on birchbark of the Rangeley Lakesregion, Maine 86Drawing of the pictographic content of akikaigon with a linear spatial structure 86Copy of a Chippewa painting on a blazed tree,1767 87An early example of a line engravingcontaining an Indian map 88Five Nations war belt 90Five Nations peace belt 90Possible profile of part of the coast of Maine91Map on skin, with Indian characteristics, ofthe Wabash and adjacent valleys, ca. 177592Interpretive redrawing of the ca. 1775 map onskin (fig. 4.32) 93Reconstruction of a 1762 Delawarecosmographical map on skin of former,current, and afterlife habitats 93Map of Florida and the Gulf Coast, ca. 154496Manuscript copy, ca. 1694, of a map byLawrence van den Bosh, possibly based on amap brought east by Shawnees 97Contemporary manuscript transcript ofLamhatty's map 98Supplemented manuscript copy of a ca. 1723

Illustrations Xl

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Chickasaw map on skin of Indian areas insoutheastern North America 100Distance decay and distortion on a Chickasawmap, ca. 1723 (fig. 4.38) 101Supplemented manuscript copy of an Alabamamap 102Supplemented manuscript copy of aChickasaw map 104Concentric cross-in-circle motif interconnectedgrid engraving on a prehistoric shell cup105Corn Tassel's map 107The celestial component of a Navajosandpainting 109Drawing of a Navajo sandpainting, "TheSky," by Yellow Singer (Sam Chief), 1910-18110Interpretation of "The Sky" (fig. 4.45) 110Father Sky, incorporating constellations andstars, and Mother Earth in a Navajo wovenrug, before 1930 111Redrawing of a ground painting of thecelestial world made by Manuel Lacuso, aDiegueno Indian, ca. 1900 112Moose antler supposedly etched with a recordof a journey, perhaps 1805-6 115Map made by Kohklux and his two wives ofhis journey across the Coast Mountains andYukon plateau, 1869 116Detail of the south-central section of figure4.50 117Map of Indian territories to the east of the upperSacramento River, California, by Ishi 118Pictographic message representing a voyage ofHowling Wolf 119Sketch from the first page of Howling Wolf'sledger, ca. 1880 120Sketch from the second page of HowlingWolf's ledger, ca. 1880 121Amos Bad Heart Bull's map of the setting ofthe Black Hills conference of 26 September1876 122Amos Bad Heart Bull's partly pictographicmap of the Black Hills, South Dakota, and thesurrounding plains 123Detail from a map painted by Sitting Rabbitof the Missouri River in North Dakota,1906-7 124Contemporary manuscript copy of Indian mapmade in 1602 shortly after first contact withEuropeans 127Engraved copy of a map of the Coteau desPrairies based on an Indian map on skin128

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Map of the upper Mississippi Valley, in largepart copied from a Wah paa Koo ta Siouxmap, ca. 1833 130Ki 00 cus's map of the prairies and RockyMountain piedmont in what are now northernMontana and southern Alberta 131Ac ko mok ki's map of the upper Missouri andupper Saskatchewan Rivers and their sourcesin the Rocky Mountains, 1802 133Detail from Gero-Schunu-Wy-Ha's map ofthe central and northern Great Plains, 1825134Another detail from Gero-Schunu-Wy-Ha'smap, showing events on the Missouri River134Interpretation of the hydrography of Gero­Schunu-Wy-Ha's map of the central andnorthern Great Plains 135Non-Chi-Ning-Ga's map of the migration ofhis Indian ancestors, 1837 136Interpretation of the hydrography of Non-Chi-Ning-Ga's map 137Painting of Domenique drawing a map onbirchbark, 1861 138Montagnais chief Domenique explaining hismap on birchbark to Naskapis, 1861 138Enhanced map on animal parchment of anextensive area west of Hudson Bay, ca. 1760140Redrawing of a map of Hudson Bay (fig. 4.71)141Cosmographical design on Beaver Indiandrumhead 141Scapula used for divination 142Bitten patterns on birchbark, some interpretedas maps of trails 143Map of what is now mainly southernManitoba based on Cree maps 144Indian sources for figure 4.76 145York Factory Indian's map of the area betweenthe lower Nelson and lower Churchill Rivers147Jimmy Anderson and Curly Head's map of thelakes and rivers west of Hudson Bay 148Forest-tundra boundaries from Indian maps ofthe northern interior 149Meatonabee and Idotlyazee's map of anextensive area of mainland Canada northwestof Hudson Bay 150Redrawing of Meatonabee and Idotlyazee'smap (fig. 4.81) 151Map of an extensive area of mainland Canadanorthwest of Hudson Bay 152Contemporary transcript of Andrew's map

xu Illustrations

Detail of Atototl from the Codex Mendoza199Common geographic pictographs inMesoamerican manuscripts 200Common representations of architecture inMesoamerican manuscripts 201Hieroglyphic place-name of Xilotepec 201Crocodilian earth monster 201The Lienzo of Zacatepec 1 202Detail of a ritual measuring from the CodexVienna 204Cuauhtinchan in the Historia tolteca-chichimeca 206Reference map of Cuauhtinchan lands 207Reference .map of the Valley of Mexico207Map of Codex Xolotl boundary hieroglyphs208Reference map of Mixtec region 209Detail of the place-name of Zacatepec fromthe Lienzo of Zacatepec 1 209Reference map of Maya region 210The map of the province of Mani, 1596211Relacion geografica map of Teozacoalco212Comparison of the Teozacoalco region and theRelacion geografica map of Teozacoalco213Relacion geografica map of Amoltepec, 1580214Pre-Hispanic map in the Codex Nuttall216Drawing of landscape elements after theCodex Nuttall 217Map of the Apoala Valley 217Mapa de Sigtienza 219Comparison of place-names in the left side ofthe Mapa de Sigiienza with a modern map ofthe same region 220Two pages of the Codex Boturini 221Copy of the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan 2 222Humboldt Fragment 2 223Drawing after the Plano en papel de maguey224Map of Don Miguel Damian's properties226One folio of the Primeros memoriales 227Folio of the Primeros memoriales with glosses227Aztec military map from the Codex Florentine228Diagram of the Mesoamerican cosmos 229Map of the cosmos in the Codex Fejervary-Mayer, ca. 1400-1521 230

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of the seven-day canoe route from LakeAthabasca to the Thelon River, NorthwestTerritories, 1892 153Chief Windigo's map of Lake Nipigon,Ontario 154The linework on Windigo's map of LakeNipigon related to that on a modern map155Tom Pipes's index map for his survey ofCharlton Island during its sixth winter as abeaver preserve 156Two charts of the same coast 158Illigliak's map of the Melville Peninsula andBaffin Island, Northwest Territories 160Plan of activities at Cape Fullerton harbor, byMeliki, an Igiulik, ca. 1898 161Meliki's map of musk ox hunting betweenChesterfield Inlet and Repulse Bay, ca. 1898162Detail from Teseuke's map of animal resourcesand hunting activities on both sides of RoesWelcome Sound, 1898 163Wetalltok's map of his former home, theBelcher Islands in Hudson Bay 164Modern, Inuit, and Indian representations ofthe Hudson Bay coastline 165Unknown Inuit's (probably Caribou Eskimo)chart of the northwest coast of Hudson Bay,pre-1821 166Map of part of the west coast of Alaskaengraved on a walrus tusk cribbage board167Ammassalik bas-relief carving on woodenboard of an outline of part of the eastGreenland coast, 1884-85 168Three-dimensional Ammassalik Eskimocoastal map of parts of the fjord coast of eastGreenland, carved in wood 169Three-dimensional Ammassalik Eskimo mapof islands off the fjord coast of east Greenland,carved in wood 169Map of the Arctic Bay area (Cape Dorset,1964) 170Kiowa monthly calendar 174Pictograph for June 1891 from Kiowamonthly calendar on buckskin 174Four types of networks illustrated by Indianmaps 178Reference map of Mesoamerica 184Cosmographic stela at Izapa 185Plano en papel de maguey 186Mapa de Metlatoyuca 188Map in the Codex KingsboroughTenochtitlan in the Codex MendozaThe Cortes map of Tenochtitlan, 1524

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6.19

Explanatory diagrams of the Codex Fejervary-Mayer 231Maya cosmographical map in the CodexMadrid 233Maya tripod plate 235Drawing of Maya tripod plate (fig. 5.43)235Cosmographical map from the Codex Rios236Sarcophagus lid of Pacal 237The Tizoc Stone 238Drawing of the Tizoc Stone 238Constellations of the Primeros memoriales239Boundary map of Atlatlahuacan, Morelos242Land grant map of Zolipa, Veracruz 243Relaci6n geografica map of Tetliztaca, 1580246Reference map of the central Andean region258Cultural chronology for the central Andeanregion 259Topography and space 260The quartered circle and the apparentmovement of the Milky Way 261The Milky Way's apparent seasonal rotation261The graphic structuring of Andean spatialthought 262The radial organization of Andean landscapes263Interpretation of Q'ero agriculturallandholdings 263The organization of Andean landholdings intoparallel strips 264The organization of Andean landholdings as agrid 264Map of the shore of Lake Titicaca, Puno, Peru265Spatial organization and ceramic decorativebands on Quinua pottery 266Q'ero pallay textile portraying mountains267Explanation of the Q'ero pallay (fig. 6.13)267Q'ero pallay with inti motifs 268Qheswa pallay textile from Pisac, Peru268Explanation of the Qheswa pallay (fig. 6.16)269Landholding amulet from the department ofLa Paz, Bolivia 269Chhiutas in the Pacariqtambo churchyard andplaza 270

6.206.21

6.226.236.24

6.25

6.26

6.27

6.28

6.29

6.30

6.316.32

6.33

6.34

6.35

6.366.376.386.39

6.406.416.42

6.436.44

6.45

6.46

6.47

6.486.49

6.50

6.51

Petroglyph from Salta, Argentina 271Drawing and interpretation of the TelloObelisk from the Old Temple complex ofChavin de Huantar, 600-500 B.C. 272Paracas polychrome mantle 274Paracas spirit map on a carved gourd 275Paracas house model from the caverns atCerro Colorado, Paracas Peninsula 275Ray center geoglyph from the Nazca Pampa276Nasca cosmogram of the hydrologic cycle,lomas hills, and the heavens 277Nasca ceramic chieftain vessel, south coast ofPeru 278Ceramic Moche landscape vessel with Andeanfox 279Ceramic Moche landscape vessel showinghouse and shield 279Ceramic Moche house compound model, ViruValley 280Aymara conceptions of space 281Interpretation of the Bennett Stela as acosmogram 281Tiwanaku house model, 500-300 B.C.

282Maqueta of the temple upper court atMoquegua, Peru 282Proposed Tiwanaku survey instruments283Silver diopters found at TiwanakuProposed Chimu survey instrumentsThe Inka ceque system 286Inka mapping rite drawn by Felipe GuamanPoma de Ayala, ca. 1615 287The Sayhuite Stone 288The Q'inku (Kenko) Stone 289Inka road system drawn by Felipe GuamanPoma de Ayala 290Khipu shown with "carta" placard 291Khipu from the Ica Valley, Peru, ca. 1500292Khipu official with khipu and abacal maizetablet (yupana) drawn by Felipe GuamanPoma de Ayala 293The khipu as a map of the Pacasmayo Valley294The house of Manco Capac drawn by Juan deSanta Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamayhua,1613 295The temple of Coricancha, 1613 296The symbolism of the wall at Coricancha(fig. 6.48) 297Map of the Inka empire drawn by FelipeGuaman Poma de Ayala 298The pontifical world drawn by Felipe Guaman

XIV Illustrations

348

335335

World tree on Evenk shaman costumeTree of life carved on a sleigh boardNerchinsk Evenk tyngirin 335Interpretation of Koryak dancing coat(plate 14) 336Dolgan shaman drum 336Drawing of Ket shaman drum 337Sami shaman "magic" drum 337The universe drawn for ethnographers byOrochi, 1929 338Interpretation of the Oroch map of theuniverse (fig. 8.12) 339Set of Chukchi map boards 341Chukchi map boards joined together 343Mansi pictographs on board, probably latenineteenth century 344Yukagir message on birchbark 344Yukagir birchbark message map of grouptraveling on river 344Yukagir birchbark map showing rivers andlodgings 345Topographic drawing on hewn wood 345Copies of Khant drawings carved on birchtrees 346Sel'kup drawing of river and fish trap, 1901346Bear festival ritual vessel 347Painting on paper of a decorated paddle blade,1945 347Drawing of ritual canoe bench designSealskin map? 349Reference map of Australia 352Drawing of an Aboriginal skin rug fromCondah, Victoria, ca. 1872 355Sketch plan of Aboriginal stone arrangements,Great Victoria Desert 356Early rock art representation of Almudj 357Sand sculpture, northeast Arnhem Land, 1976358Honey Ant Dreaming, 1983 362Wet-season bark hut (single men's house),mid-1970s 367Schema of water holes at Jila Japingka andPajpara (plate 16) 367Conception of the World with Sky, 1941368Star Plan, 1941 369Toa (waymarker) indicating the sitePalkarakara, ca. 1904 370Orion and the Pleiades, 1948 370Squid and Turtle Dreamings, 1972 372Schema of Sacred Places at Milmindjarr'(plate 17) 373

9.129.139.14

8.22

9.109.11

8.238.24

9.49.5

9.9

8.258.269.19.2

9.8

9.69.7

9.3

8.208.21

8.19

8.178.18

8.148.158.16

8.13

8.98.108.118.12

8.58.68.78.8

305

313

304304

334

Poma de Ayala 299Reference map of lowland South America andthe Caribbean 302The star path (Milky Way)The boa and the PleiadesThe Pleiades 305Mythic boa, northwestern AmazoniaConstellations of Barasana astronomers306The Barasana cosmos drawn by a Barasanashaman 307The night sky of the Tukano, drawn by aTukano Indian for Theodor Koch-Grunberg308The hexagonal prism that links the earth andsky 308The longhouse identified as Orion 309Map of a vision quest drawn by Yeba, aTukano shaman 310Routes between divinity and humanity drawnby Yeba 311The view from the house of Pamuri-mahsedrawn by Yeba 312Hobahi, land of the WaraoWarao telluric lore 313The rock of Nyi, Piraparana River, Colombia314Mapping ecological usages 315Profile of the Warao universe 315The roundhouse as cosmological map 316The Amazon basin as ancestral anaconda,drawn by Barreto of the Tatuyo 316The world of the Kayap6 317Ideal village layout drawn by Chief Sao Jose317Cemi as immanent landscape 318Chart of the cosmos carved on ceremonialduho 318The basket as cartographic icon 319Lidana: Map of an ideal Baniwa village320Historical-cultural map made by the Ye'cuana321Mapa de la Provincia de los Aruacas, ca. 1560323Map of Guiana prepared for Walter Ralegh,ca. 1599 325Reference map of the Eurasian Arctic andSubarctic 328Petroglyph from Karelia 332Labyrinth patterns from the sepulcher of Esino333Shaman headdresses

7.147.157.16

7.177.187.197.20

8.28.3

7.237.24

7.257.26

8.1

7.27

7.217.22

7.13

7.28

7.12

7.29

8.4

7.107.11

7.9

7.8

7.7

7.1

7.27.37.47.57.6

Illustrations xv

409410

9.15

9.16

9.17

9.18

9.19

9.209.21

9.22

9.23

9.249.25

9.269.2710.110.210.310.4

10.5

10.610.710.8

10.9

10.10

10.11

10.12

10.13

10.14

10.15

10.16

10.17

10.18

Schema of Djarrakpi landscape (plate 18)374Reference map of Djarrakpi area, northeastArnhem Land 375Panaramitee style engraving, Yunta, SouthAustralia 375Clan variants of the Yirritja moiety diamonddesign type, northeast Arnhem Land 376Three distinct mythic episodes in a singleImage 378Schema for figure 9.19 378Reference map of sites referred to in figures9.19 and 9.20 379Schematic representation of Muranji rock holearea 380"Western" conventional portrayal of the areashown in figure 9.22 380The site-path framework 381Tingarri (ancestral men) at Lake McDonald(MacDonald), 1979 382Lake Gregory toa, ca. 1904 385Toa types 385Aborigines making crayon drawings 388Jaliarna area, Central Australia 388Rivers of Kariara country 390My rockhole Worolea = Nimdji bore n. ofhere 391The Fitzroy River, in northern WesternAustralia 391Lake Polgu and Milgari Creek 392A day's hunt 393Bird Minma [Woman] and the Two MenMalgaru and Jaul, by Billy 394One sheet of large multisection map, drawn byvarious men 395Composite map of a region in south-centralAustralia 396Reference map for figures 10.9 and 10.10396Kokatja man's drawing of the country south ofBalgo in Western Australia, ca. 1953 397Tindale's interpretation of Kokatja man'sdrawing (fig. 10.12) 397Aboriginal map of Gumadir (Goomadeer)River area by Manggudja 398Interpretation of Aboriginal map of GumadirRiver area (fig. 10.14) 399Aboriginal map of Margulidjban and environs:Some of the main sites, by Dubungu 400Interpretation of Aboriginal map ofMargulidjban and environs (fig. 10.16)401Map of Anmatyerre country, 1988 402

10.19

10.2010.21

10.22

10.23

10.24

10.25

10.2610.2710.2810.2910.30

10.31

10.32

10.33

10.34

11.1

11.2

11.3

12.1

12.2

12.3

12.4

12.512.6

12.7

12.8

Reference map of the Goromuru River area403Map of Arnhem Bay 404Reference map of northeast Arnhem Bay,based on Australian topographic survey maps405Map of beach camps at Yirrkala by WandjukMarika, 1970 406Relationships between residential groups ofbeach camps shown in figure 10.22 byWandjuk Marika, 1970 406Map of the Murrinh-patha countryside byNym Pandak (Bunduk), 1959 407Map of Red Kangaroo Dreaming country,Nicholson River area, Northern Territory408Plan of native encampmentSamuel de Pury's vineyardPlan of camp 411Corroboree (ceremony) 411Stone arrangement representing a Macassanhouse with eight rooms at Wurrawurrawoi412Stone arrangement representing a Macassanprau at Wurrawurrawoi 412Identification of parts of Macassan prau (fig.10.31) 413Map of Yalangbara by Mawalan Marika[Mauwalan] 414Bandaiyan: The body of Australia, corpusaustralis 415Oceania, showing geographic divisions ofMelanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia and ofNear Oceania and Remote Oceania 418Main migration sequence of the settlement ofRemote Oceania 420Oceanic expansion of the Austronesians421Reference map of Papua New Guinea andsurrounding region 424Eastern Iatmul man holding a tsagi-mboe inTambunum village 429Central and western Iatmul kirugu (knottedcord) 429Wopkaimin trophy arrays of animal bones430Trobriand shield design 432Indigenous exegesis of the Trobriand shielddesign (fig. 12.5) 432Trobriand shield design: X-ray interpretationand cosmological-geographic code 433Examples of Mejprat signs depicting the worn'su (tunnel system) 435

XVI

12.912.1012.1112.12

12.13

12.14

12.15

12.16

12.17

12.18

12.1913.113.213.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

13.713.8

13.913.10

13.11

13.12

13.1313.14

13.15

13.16

13.17

13.1813.1913.2013.21

Yupno man drawing the "world" 436The Yupno's local universe 436Yupno maps drawn by male elders 437Yupno maps drawn by men who had visitedthe coast 43 7Yupno maps drawn by men who haveextensive experience working on plantationsand living in cities 438Yupno maps drawn by unschooled children439Reference map for figures 12.11, 12.12, 12.13,and 12.14 439Chambri man's map of villages withoutconsideration of geographic location 440Chambri man's map of villages and hamletsincorporating geographic location 440Chambri man's map of Chambri villages andIatmul rivals 441Stages of the Umeda ida ritual 441"Tupaia's chart" (Cook version) 446"Tupaia's chart" (Forster version) 447Identified islands on Cook's version of"Tupaia's chart" and their grouping byarchipelago 448Modern map of the region covered by Tupaia'schart 449Father Paul Klein's 1696 map of CarolineIslands 452Cantova's chart of the Caroline Islands ofMicronesia 454The Caroline Islands 455Kotzebue's chart of the Ratak and Ralikchains of the Marshall Islands 456The Marshall Islands 457Sailing toward a star low on the horizon458Compensating for current and leeway whencourse setting and steering by horizon stars458Thirty-two-point Cook Islands wind rose459Carolinian star compass 462Southern Cross star positions as seen lookingsouth from the Caroline Islands 463"Star path" compass from Woleai Atoll,Caroline Islands 464Carolinian star compass shown with unequallyspaced points 465Star courses (wofalu) from Woleai Atoll466Southern Cross and triggerfish 467Two linked triggerfish 468The "great triggerfish" 469Overlapping triggerfish diagram 470

13.22

13.23

13.24

13.25

13.26

13.27

13.2813.29

13.30

13.3113.32

13.3313.34

13.3514.1

14.214.3

14.414.514.6

14.7

14.8

14.9

14.10

14.11

14.1214.1314.14

14.15

Illustrations

Gladwin's model of etak dead reckoning471Etak reckoning between Satawal and WestFayu 472Etak diagram of a voyage assuming a straighthorizon 473Judging distance by sailing time in the etaksystem 474Dead reckoning when tacking directly upwind475Sensing an island by reflected counterswells477Swells refracting around an island 477Marshallese categories of swell refraction andintersection around an island 478Mattang: A Marshallese stick chart forteaching principles of swell refraction andintersection 480Example of a mattang 481Meddo: A Marshallese stick chart showingislands and swell patterns in one section of anisland chain 482Example of a meddo 483Rebbelib: A Marshallese stick chart thatrepresents the islands of one or both chains484Example of a rebbelib 484Diagram showing how unmarked fishinggrounds are located at sea 496Names of the compass points 497Southern section of the plan of the Ihurauablock, 1860? 499Reference map of New Zealand 502Map of Chatham Islands, 1841 504Map of New Zealand drawn by Tuki, 1793506Features and symbols on Tuki's map (fig. 14.6)507Modern map showing locations from Tuki'smap (fig. 14.6) 507Copy by Henry Stokes Tiffen of a nativesketch of Lakes Wairarapa and Onoke, 1843509Reference map of Lake Wairarapa and LakeOnoke area 509Sketch map of Ruamahanga River, LakesWairarapa and Onoke, and environs, 1843510"Native Sketch of Chathams," 1843 511Reference map of Chatham Island 511Maori sketch of Lake Rotokakahi, 1859512Map drawn by unknown Te Arawa Maori,1870 512

Illustrations

14.16 Location of Te Kooti and taua ambush on31 July 1870 513

14.17 1894 lithograph of a sketch of the Middle[South] Island reduced from original Maorisketch made for Edmund Storr Halswell, 1841or 1842 514

14.18 Sketch of the Middle [South] Island, ca.1900-1910, reduced from original Maorisketch made for Edmund Storr Halswell,November 1841 515

14.19 "Outline of the Harbours Taiari andRakituma, Drawn by Tiihawaiki, 1843"516

14.20 "Outline of Part of North Coast of Foveaux'sStraits, Drawn by Tiihawaiki, 1843" 516

14.21 Second "Outline of Part of North Coast ofFoveaux's Straits, Drawn by Tiihawaiki, 1843"517

14.22 "Outline of Part of the East Coast of Stewart'sId

., Drawn by Tuhawaiki, 1843" 51714.23 Reference map of the east coast of Stewart

Island 51714.24 "Map of Lakes in the Interior of Middle [South]

Island from a Drawing by Huruhuru" 51814.25 Reference map of Waitaki and Clutha

drainage 51814.26 "The Southern Districts of New Zealand,

from the Admiralty Chart of 1838, withAdditions and Corrections by EdwardShortland" 519

14.27 Map of Lakes Wakatipu, Wanaka, andHawea, 1844 520

14.28 Three map segments of the Waitaki River andlakes at its source, 1848, from page 36 ofMantell's sketchbook 520

14.29 Two map segments of the Waitaki River andlakes at its source, 1848, from page 37 ofMantell's sketchbook 521

14.30 One map segment of the Waitaki River, 1848,from page 38 of Mantell's sketchbook 521

14.31 Explanation of Te Ware Korari's six mapsegments 522

14.32 Diagram of Te Ware Korari's six mapsegments 522

14.33 Maori plan of Rakaia and Ashburton Riverheadwaters, ca. 1862 524

XVll

14.34 Reference map of headwaters of Waimakariri,Rakaia, and Ashburton Rivers 524

14.35 Plan of route from Canterbury to the westcoast via Browning Pass, 1865 525

14.36 Maori map of Motutapu and RangitotoIslands, 1845 526

14.37 Interpretation of Ngatai's map (fig. 14.36)526

14.38 "Copy of Sketch Made by Ropoama te One,"1861 527

14.39 Maori map of Rotorua lakes and Ngati Pikiaolands, ca. 1877-95 528

14.40 Translation of features on map of Ngati Pikiaoland (fig. 14.39) 529

14.41 Place-names, boundary, and tracks on map ofNgati Pikiao land (fig. 14.39) 530

TABLES

1.1 Categories of representations of non-Westernspatial thought and expression 3

4.1 Summary of stages in the development ofnative North American cartography 175

5.1 General correlations between map types,media, and origin 196

5.2 Formats of Mesoamerican maps 1965.3 Relative frequency or survival rates of map

types 1965.4 Year bearers and colors associated with

cardinal directions, Central Mexico and Maya203

14.1 Maori words with possible cartographicconnotations 494

ApPENDIXES

5.1 Census of important Mesoamerican maps(grouped by map type) 248

5.2 Landscape painting in pre-ColumbianMesoamerica 256

10.1 South Australian Museum crayon drawingscollection 415

13.1 Documented stick charts in museumcollections, made before 1940 489

14.1 Chronological list of early extant Maori mapsand derivatives of Maori maps 533