TheHeartandScienceofTeaching

TheHeartandScienceofTeachingTransformativeApplicationsThatIntegrateAcademicandSocial-EmotionalLearning

C.BOBBIHANSEN

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataNames:Hansen,C.Bobbi,author.

Title:Theheartandscienceofteaching:powerfulapplicationstolinkacademicandsocial-emotionallearning,K–12/C.BobbiHansen.

Description:NewYork,NY:TeachersCollegePress,[2019]|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.|

Identifiers:LCCN2018038806(print)|LCCN2018040359(ebook)|ISBN9780807777497(ebook)|ISBN9780807759516(pbk.)|ISBN9780807777497(ebk.)Subjects:LCSH:Affectiveeducation.|Sociallearning.|Academicachievement—Psychologicalaspects.|Emotionsandcognition.|Studentteachers—Trainingof.

Classification:LCCLB1072(ebook)|LCCLB1072H382019(print)|DDC370.15/34—dc23LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2018038806

ISBN978-0-80775951-6(paper)ISBN978-0-80777749-7(ebook)

Thisbookisdedicatedtomylove,David,whoisextraordinaryandtheHeartofmylife!Withoutyourinspiration,thisbookwouldneverhavecometobe.

And,tomytwochildren,RandyandHolly,fromwhomIhavelearnedsomuchasIwatchedyougrowintoamazing,heart-centeredhumans!

And,tomysister,Karin,withwhomIsharemagicalgenes!

Youalllightupmylife!

Contents

Acknowledgments

IntroductionEvidence-BasedInstructionTheHeartofTeaching:Social–EmotionalFactorsofLearning

PARTI:  THEHEARTOFTEACHING

1.  Social–EmotionalLearningHowMuchDoYouKnowAboutSocial–EmotionalLearning?TheWhat:TheTimeHasComeforSocial-EmotionalLearningTheWhy:JustHowImportantIstheTeacher?TheHow:ConnectingSELtoStandards-basedCurriculumTheWhere:ResourcesforSocial–EmotionalLearning

2.  Cooperative/CollaborativeLearningTheWhat:TenetsofCooperativeLearningTheWhy:BenefitsofCooperative/CollaborativeLearningTheHow:CooperativeLearningSupportsSocial–EmotionalGrowthTheWhere:ResourcesforCooperative/CollaborativeLearning

3.  TeachersasChangemakersTheWhat:HowServiceBuildsSocialandEmotionalSkillsTheWhy:Evidence-BasedOutcomesTheHow:InstitutingaCultureofServiceTheWhere:ResourcesforChangemakingandServiceLearning

4.  CreatingEmotionallySafeClassroomsTheWhat:RestorativeJustice

TheWhy:BrainResearchSupportforRestorativePracticesTheHow:BuildingStudentRelationshipsThrough?RestorativePracticesTheWhere:ResourcesforCreatingRestorativePractices

PARTII:  THESCIENCEOFTEACHING

5.  BrainScience101:WhatTeachersNeedtoKnowTheWhat:WhattheBrainCanTellUsTheWhy:TheExpandingRoleofCognitiveScienceinClassroom

PracticeTheHow:BrainyTeachingTheWhere:ResourcesforBrainyTeaching

6.  Evidence-BasedInstructionTheWhat:Evidence-basedTeachingStrategiesTheWhy:Where’stheEvidence?TheHow:TeachingSmarterTheWhere:ResourcesforEvidence-basedTeachingStrategies

PARTIII:  TOOLSFORTHE21stCENTURY

7.  Project-BasedLearningTheWhat:Project-BasedLearningforthe21stCenturyTheWhy:ThePowerofProject-BasedLearningTheHow:ClassroomIntegrationofProject-BasedLearningTheWhere:ResourcesforProject-BasedLearning

8.  TheDigitalRevolutioninEducationTheWhat:BlendedLearningPedagogiesTheWhy:WhatistheEvidenceforDigitalLearning?TheHow:EmployingDigitalToolsintheClassroomTheWhere:ResourcesforDigitalLearning

Conclusion

RegardingtheHeartofTeachingRegardingtheScienceofTeachingRegardingYourAbilitytoMakeaDifference

References

Index

AbouttheAuthor

Acknowledgements

Iamgratefultoallwhohelpedbringthisbooktolife.This includes theveryfinestaffatTeachersCollegePress,beginningwith

ReginaWard,consultingsenioracquisitionseditor.Iamsupremelygratefulforherperceptionsandsupportofmyvisionforthisbook;sheisapleasuretoworkwith and a constant source of optimism. Also I thank Lori Tate, seniorproduction editor, whose professionalism and leadership helped oversee andguide the book to the final stages, and Kathy Caveney, who copyedited themanuscript and whose astute, meticulous eye helped get the text in the formneededforpublication.Andtoallotherswhoassistedintheprocess,knowthatIverymuchappreciatetheintegralroleyouplayedintheproductionofthisbook.

Next, I would like to acknowledge the dozens of researchers and writerswhoseworkhas beenmentioned in this book.Thankyou for thewisdomyouhavesharedwithusallonyourowneducationaljourney.

I would next like to acknowledge David, my love and life partner. Youinspiredmetopursuemydream(andalsotowritesimplyandfromtheheart).Excellentadvice,indeed.

Finally,thankyoutoallthestudentsIhaveevertaught.MayyouallknowthatyouhavetaughtmemoreaboutteachingthananybookIcouldhaveread.

Introduction

In the field of education, the phrase “art and science of teaching” is quitefamiliar.Overthelast4decadestherehavebeenmanybooksandarticleswrittenwithvariationsofthattitle(e.g.,Caputi,2010;Elton,2007;Galbraith&Jones,2006;Giordano,1975;Marzano,2007).Ineachofthesetheactofteachinghasbeen examined through the joint lenses of science and natural ability.That is,researchers have investigated what effective teachers do and also the inborntalent,ornaturalartistry,ateacherbringstotheclassroom.Thequestionposedisusually something like this: “Are good teachers born ormade?” This book isboth similar to anddifferent from these others. It is similar in that there is anemerging science of teaching that points to particular evidence-based teachingpractices that have been found to strongly affect student learning. It is alsodifferentbecausetheanalogyofteacher-as-artist isnolongerjustifiableforthe21st century.There now exists an abundance of scientific evidence to supportrelationship-based teaching’s positive effect on academic achievement. Thisresearch is not well-known to the average educator—and it needs to be! NotsinceAspyandRoebuck’s(1977)best-sellingandheavilycitedbookKidsDon’tLearn fromPeople TheyDon’t Like has there been such a concerted effort toattend to the overwhelmingbodyof evidence that has clearly revealed that anemotionally supportive classroom environment makes a positive difference instudent learning. This difference is achieved by a teacher’s unflinchingcommitmenttoaddressingcriticalsocial–emotionalfactorsintheclassroom.

The pages you are about to read blend the latest research in education,neuroscience, and cognitive psychology into a dynamic and vibrant ensemblethat explores the multidimensional connections between evidence-basedinstructional strategies and the essential social–emotional factors that enhancelearningforallstudents.

EVIDENCE-BASEDINSTRUCTION

In2001theNoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB)wasimplementedintheUnitedStates. The major focus of NCLB was to close student achievement gaps byprovidingallchildrenwithafair,equal,andsignificantopportunitytoobtaina

high-quality education. The four components of the legislation were:accountability,flexibility,parentoptions,andresearch-basededucation.Thislastarea,research-basededucation,servedasawake-upcallastherewasagrowingconsensus among educators and legislators that bringing scientifically basedresearch into our classrooms was long overdue. Under NCLB, the termscientificallybasedresearch referred to research that involved“theapplicationof rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain reliable and validknowledgerelevanttoeducationactivitiesandprograms”(NoChildLeftBehindAct[NCLB],2001).

This revolution in educational practices that began in the early part of the21stcenturymightbecomparedtowhathappenedinmedicinealmostacenturyago.Whenthe“greatinfluenza,”commonlyknownasthe“fluof1918,”brokeout in theUnitedStates, JohnsHopkinsUniversity turned theexistingmedicalmodel upside down by insisting that only proven medicine be practiced,medicinethatwasbasedonthescientificmethodofresearch.

Similarly, in education the decade that followed the passage of NCLBwitnessed unparalleled activity in universities and research centers throughoutthe United States intent on identifying exactly which classroom and teachingpracticesweredeemedtobemosteffective.Inclassroomsalloverthenationwearecurrentlyseeingtheresultsofthoseefforts—programsandteachingpracticesthatarepredicatedon“scientificallybasedresearch.”RobertSlavin,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchandReforminEducationatJohnsHopkinsUniversity,makesthisassertionregardingtheuseofevidence-basedteachingstrategies:

Theconsequencesofthisshifttoevidence-basedreformwillbeprofoundimmediatelyandevenmoreprofound over time, as larger numbers of schools and districts come to embrace evidence-basedreformandasmoreprovenprogramsarecreatedanddisseminated.(Slavin,2014,p.1)

THEHEARTOFTEACHING:SOCIAL–EMOTIONALFACTORSOFLEARNING

Theresearchliteraturesupportingsocial–emotionallearning(SEL)isstrongandgettingmoresoasschoolsturntheircollectiveattentiontowardsstudents’needs.For example, Davidson, Khmelkov, & Lickona (2010) examined studiesanalyzing social and emotional learning factors for over 200,000 students inkindergarten through high school. They concluded that participantsdemonstrated significantly improved academic performance as compared tocontrols.Their findingsadd to theexpandingempiricalevidence regarding thepositiveimpactofSELprograms.AccordingtoareportfortheCollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning(CASEL)donebyCivicEnterprises

withPeterD.HartResearchAssociates,“Fortoolong,SELhasbeenthemissingpiece in the educational puzzle…. As a result, many students are developingonly some of the skills to ensure all students graduate high school ready forcollege,career,andlife”(Bridgeland,Bruce,&Hariharan,2013,p.12).

InPartIofthisbook,“TheHeartofTeaching,”Iwilladdressthesecriticalsocial–emotionalpractices.InChapter1youwillgainaclearerunderstandingofthe components of SEL and the strong evidence that supports these practices,andinChapters2,3,and4youwill learnspecificsystemsforintegratingSELinto your daily routines with cooperative/collaborative learning (Chapter 2),changemaking/servicelearning(Chapter3)andrestorativepractices(Chapter4).

InPartIIyouwilldiveinto“TheScienceofTeaching”andexaminethesepractices. Chapter 5 will introduce you to advances in neuroscience and howtheyintimatelyconnecttoyourclassroompractice.Chapter6willhighlightthespecific,evidence-basedinstructionalstrategiesfoundtobeeffectiveatallgradelevelsandallsubjectareas.

Finally,inPartIIIIwillconsider“Toolsforthe21stCentury,”specifically,project-basedlearning(Chapter7)anddigitaltechnologies(Chapter8).

Eachchapterisstructuredinthefollowingway:(1)TheWhat,(2)TheWhy,(3)TheHow,and(4)TheWhere.“TheWhat”sectionofeachchapterincludesafull description of the particular heart or science-centered topic presented. In“The Why” section I outline the research support for the approach and theconnection to both student learning and social–emotional growth. “TheHow”sectionoffersteacherspracticalclassroomapplicationsthatwilllinktoacademiccontent and studentwell-being.Finally, “TheWhere” section lists resources—websites, books and articles, and videos—where additional informationregardingthetopicmaybeexplored.

And so, the challenge remains for 21st-century educators: Will teachers,administrators, policymakers, and the public support the integration of theseresearch-informed practices into both instruction and critical social–emotionalrealms?Thelearningandwell-beingoffuturegenerationsofstudentsrestontheanswer.

PartI

THEHEARTOFTEACHING

Educatingthemindwithouteducatingtheheartisnoeducationatall.

—Aristotle

CHAPTER1

Social–EmotionalLearning

Teachingisanemotionalprofessionandbeingastudentisanemotionaljourney.

—GlennWhitmanandIanKelleher,2016

How do you want to be as a teacher? This question, or more precisely avariation of it,was posed by a newly appointedNationalTeacher of theYearsomeyearsagoinWashington,DC.RegrettablyIdonotremembertheteacher’sname,butheropeningremarksmadeaprofoundimpressiononmethatdayandhave stayedwithme ever since. This honoredTeacher of theYear began hernationallytelevisedacceptancespeechbyexplainingthatonthefirstdayofeachnew school year, she asks her students this question:How do youwant to bewhenyougrowup?Not,mindyou,whatdoyouwanttobewhenyougrowup,but how? She then went on to articulate to the audience her thoughtfullyconstructed philosophy of education, one that placed the development of herstudents’characterattheverycenterofherteaching.

Sincethattime,Ihavecometoappreciatethewisdomcloakedinthatsimplequestionandhaveadaptedittofitmyworkeducatingfutureteachers.AndsoIroutinely ask a version of this same question tomy teacher candidates at thebeginningofeachnewterm:Howdoyouwanttobeasateacher?

Aswebeginthis journeytogetherexaminingtheresearchandpracticethatcenterson theheartandscienceof teaching, Ipose this samequestion toyou,myreaders:Howdoyouwanttobeasateacher?

In this chapter I try to give you a deeper understanding of the criticalimportancefortheinclusionofrelationship-basedteachingandlearningandhowthat may impact students’ social–emotional learning (SEL). Not only dosignificant societal arguments exist for this paradigm shift, there now exists asubstantialresearchbasefortheconnectionbetweenSELandstudentlearning.IwillpresentstrongargumentsfortheinclusionofSELfactorsalongwithaclearand straightforward framework that teachers can use to operationalize theseconceptsintheirownclassroom.

HOWMUCHDOYOUKNOWABOUTSOCIAL–EMOTIONALLEARNING?

For over a century, educators have deemed IQ (intelligence quotient) to be aconsiderable factor contributing to scholastic achievement. Today EQ(emotionalquotient)isseentobeas,orpossiblyevenmore,importantthantheage-oldIQ.Youareinvitedtotakethissimplequiz(adaptedfromRosenzweig,2017) to testyourpersonalknowledgeaboutSELandseewhyit isgainingsomuch attention in today’s classrooms.Answers and explanations are providedimmediatelyafterward.

1. Whichofthefollowingarestrategiesthatschoolsusetopromotecomprehensivesocial–emotionallearning?

ChangingschoolclimatethroughareaslikedisciplineandfamilyengagementUsingdirectinstructionofresearch-basedsocial–emotionallearningcurriculumIncorporatingsocial–emotionallearningapproachesintotraditionalclassroomworkAlloftheabove

2. TrueorFalse:Mostteachersarecomingtoclassroomsfromteacherpreparationandotherpreserviceprogramsthatplaceastrongemphasisonsocial–emotionallearning.

TrueFalse

3. Whatisagrowthmindset?

ThebeliefthatusingthesameinstructionalapproachforallstudentswillincreasestudentachievementThebeliefthattalentsandintellectualcapabilitiescanstrengthenthrougheffortandstrategyThebeliefthatstudentachievementwillimprovebyofferingdifferentiatedinstructiontoallstudentsThebeliefthattalentsandintellectualcapabilitiesareinherentandunchangeable

4. WhatpercentageofK–12teacherssaytheywantmoreprofessionaldevelopmentrelatedtotheconceptofstudentgrowthmindset?

25%50%65%85%

5. TrueorFalse:Asof2016,just3statescurrentlyhavestatewidesocial–emotionallearningstandardsthatspanallgradelevels.

TrueFalse

6. Whatdoyouthinkwouldhappentostudentswhowereclassifiedas“highrisk”fordroppingoutofschool,butwhoalsodemonstratedstrongsocial–emotionalcompetencies?

Theywouldbemorelikelytoenrollinpostsecondaryinstitutionsthantheirlow-riskpeersTheywouldhavelowerratesofabsenteeismthantheirlow-riskpeersTheywouldperformjustaswellastheirlow-riskpeersonstateassessmentsTheywouldfacesimilarratesofdisciplinaryactionastheirlow-riskpeers

7. Accordingtoteachersandschool-basedadministrators,whatisthemostimportantfactorinraisingstudentachievement?

StudentengagementandmotivationParentalsupportandengagementSchoolclimateTeachingquality

8. Accordingtoteachersandschool-basedadministrators,whatisthebiggestchallengetheyfaceinengagingandmotivatingstudents?

LackofparentalsupportInadequatetimeandresourcesAccountabilitymeasuresandadministrationpoliciesChallengesstudentsfaceoutsideofschool

Answers

1.Alloftheabove

LearnMore:Districts that have committed to all three of the strategies, (e.g.,Oakland[CA]UnifiedSchoolDistrict),sayweavingsocial–emotionallearningstrategies into everyday classroom practices can be the most challenging asteachersarelesslikelyto“buyintoit”whenstrategiesarestilldeveloping.

2.False

LearnMore:AccordingtoarecentsurveyofU.S.teacher-preparationprogramsbyresearchersattheUniversityofBritishColumbia,mostteachersarecomingtoclassroomsfromschoolsofeducationandotherpreserviceprogramsthatdidlittle to address social–emotional learning, with few of these programsaddressingsuchissuesinmandatorycoursework.

3. The belief that talents and intellectual capabilities can strengthen througheffortandstrategy.

LearnMore:According toCarolDweck (2008), a Stanford psychologistwhoauthored, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, our beliefs can haveprofoundimpactonnearlyeveryaspectofourlives.

4.85%

Learn More: According to a nationwide survey conducted by the EducationWeek Research Center, while 85% of teachers said they wanted moreprofessional development in the area, 77% said they were familiar or veryfamiliarwithgrowthmindset.

5.True

Learn More: Illinois, West Virginia, and Kansas are the only states thatcurrently have state social–emotional learning standards that span all gradelevels.

6.Theywouldperformjustaswellastheirlow-riskpeersonstateassessments

LearnMore:Forexample,thisistrueofWashoeCounty(NV)SchoolDistrict,whichhascommittedtoimplementingcomprehensivesocial-emotionallearningpractices for students in elementary, middle, and high schools and allowingresearchersfromtheAmericanInstitutesforResearchtomeasuretheirresults.

7.Studentengagementandmotivation

LearnMore: According to a 2016 EducationWeek Research Center survey,87%ofrespondentsconsideredstudentengagementandmotivationtobe“veryimportant.”Thiswasfollowedbyteachingquality(81%),schoolclimate(68%),andparentalsupportandengagement(62%).

8.Lackofparentalsupport

LearnMore: According to a 2014 EducationWeek Research Center survey,25%ofteachersandschool-basedadministratorscitedalackofparentalsupportas the most common obstacle to engaging and motivating students. This wasfollowedby student apathy and lackof intrinsicmotivation (24%), inadequatetime and resources (22%), and accountability pressures and administrationpolicies(20%).

THEWHAT:THETIMEHASCOMEFORSOCIAL–EMOTIONALLEARNING

Nowwith thebackgroundknowledgegainedfromthequiz, let’sexploresomeofthebasicsregardingsocial–emotionallearning.Accordingtotheorganizationthat has furthered our current understanding of SEL, the Collaborative forAcademic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), social and emotionallearning (SEL) is defined as “the process through which children and adultsacquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary tounderstandandmanageemotions,setandachievepositivegoals,feelandshowempathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and makeresponsibledecisions”(CASEL,n.d.).

Aquestionmayemerge inone’smindat thispoint: IfSEL is suchavitalskill set for all people,what is the source of this current understanding of theneedforsocial–emotionallearning?TheideaisasoldasPlato,butbroadpublicawarenessmayhavesprungfromabest-sellingpublicationinthe1990s,DanielGoleman’s groundbreaking book Emotional Intelligence (1995). Goleman iscredited with coining the much-used term emotional quotient (EQ), whichfocused the nation’s attentionon the essential role that one’s emotional healthplays in their accomplishments throughout their entire lives. Goleman evenassertedthatone’sEQmaybemoreimportantthanone’sIQasapredictorofaproductivelife.

Goleman’swork coincidedwith the development of SEL programming in

theNewHaven(CT)PublicSchools in the late1980sbyRogerWeisbergandTimothyShriver,knownastheK–12NewHavenSocialDevelopmentprogram.Weisberg then worked with Maurice Elias to identify components of studentemotional competence. In 1994 the Collaborative for Academic, Social, andEmotionalLearning(CASEL)wasformedbyeducatorsandresearchers,andin1997 members of this group published Promoting Social and EmotionalLearning:GuidelinesforEducators(Eliasetal.,1997).

Aswefastforwardtothecurrenttimeperiod,SELnowencompassesthefullarray of personal and interpersonal skills and attitudes that students need forsuccess in school,work, and life.Many educationalwriters and organizationshave now fully embraced the tenents of SEL and sought to further both theresearch base and the public’s grasp of its importance. While there is somevariety in terminology regarding what constitutes social and emotional well-being,mostexpertswouldgenerallyagreeoncertainelements.Theseelementsthatmake up the social–emotional spectrum have been variously identified asnoncognitive skills (Duckworth & Yeager, 2015; Dweck, Walton, & Cohen,2014), life skills (Botvin & Griffin, 2004), or 21st-century skills (NationalResearchCouncil,2010).However,centralamongthesedivergentterminologiesis a convergence on the importance of the twin skills of interpersonal andintrapersonalawareness(Gardner,1993).

We will now discuss some of these critical proficiencies and theirrelationship to the social and emotional well-being of students. They areunderstanding self,understandingandgettingalongwithothers,understandingsocial situations, and making ethical choices. See Figure 1.1 for a visualrepresentationoftheseproficiencies.

UnderstandingSelf.Perhapsthemostessentialcharacteristicofemotionally

stablehumanbeingsistheabilitytounderstandtheirownmotivationsanddrivesor,touseamoreinformalphrase,toknowwhatmakesthemtick.Perhapsevenmore important is theability tounderstandhow to return tobalancewhen lifethrows them a curve. This understanding is key to being able to live life in aforward-moving,balancedmanner.

Figure1.1.ProficienciesforSocialandEmotionalWell-Being

UnderstandingandGettingAlongwithOthers.Closely tied toone’sownself-understandingistheabilitytotransferthatknowledgetoothers.Howdoesthat happen?Mostly it occurswhen a person iswilling to see andbe seen byothersthroughactsofsharing,listening,cooperating,andtakinginandactingontheneedsofothers.

UnderstandingSocialSituations.Theprevioustwoareasofunderstanding

selfandunderstandingothersdonotoccurinavacuum;theyarepartandparcelofthesocialstructureofone’sfamily,community,andsociety.Thosewhoexcelinthisareaunderstandtheperspectivesofothers,whileatthesametimeareabletoactwithinthenormsoftheircommunity.Theabilitytoempathizewithothersiscriticaltothiselement.

Makingethicalchoices.Choosingtoactatalltimesforthecommongoodis

whatthiselementisallabout,anditiskey!Afterall,eventhievesmightbeabletogetalongwithoneanother.Thedecisiontoactwithasocialconscienceistheresponsibilityofeachofus.

THEWHY:JUSTHOWIMPORTANTISTHETEACHER?

Inaword,profoundly!Manyteachersdonotfullycomprehendtheimmenserolethat theyplay in the social and emotional aswell as cognitivegrowthof their

students.Yet the truth is that justabouteveryonecannamea teacherwhohasmadeasignificantimpactonhisorherlife.

Iwillshareapersonalstoryheretoemphasizethepoint.AfewyearsagoIwasleadingaprofessionaldevelopmentworkshopforK–12principalsinabig-cityschooldistrict.Theparticipantswereseatedatmanyroundtablesinalargeroom at the conference center.When Iwas ready to begin, I had a hard timegetting these talkative principals to quiet their social conversations with oneanother.Then, fromsomewhere in thebackof the room, Iheard thisquestionabovethedin,“AreyouMrs.Hansen?”Atthatpointmanyoftheconversationsceased and heads turned to see who had asked the question. I replied with asimple“Yes.”Andthenthespeakerstoodupandsaid,“Youweremy4th-gradeteacher!And I even remember something you taught us.”Now the roomwaspin-dropquiet.Thisprincipalcontinued,“Youtoldusthatwecouldbeanythingwe wanted to be if we worked hard. And here I am, a principal.” The roomeruptedincheers.EventhoughIfeltquiteancient,Ialsofeltextremelyhumble,asatthatmomentIfullycomprehendedhowteachers’effectsontheirstudentsmaycontinueonandonintothefuture.Doesn’teveryteacher,ultimately,wanttohavethathonoredplaceintheirstudents’futurelives?

So,what exactly do students remember about teachers? It is generally nothowwell they taught subjectmatter.Studies as far back as the1980s confirmthat students best remember teachers who they perceived cared about them(Goodlad, 1984, 1990; Goodlad, Soder, & Sirotnik, 1990; Noddings, 1984).Moreover, these investigationshaveconsistentlyrevealed thatperceivedcaringby one’s teacher(s) is a very powerful force and is able to dramatically affectstudentmotivationandschoolretention(Frymier&Thompson,1992;McArthur,2005), achievement (Shann, 1999), and improved classroom behavior(Hasenauer&Herrmann,1996;Lindmark,Marshall,Riley,&Strey,1996).

AsGoleman’sgroundbreakingconceptofemotionalquotient(EQ)spawnedmanyschoolprogramsdesignedtoattendtosocial–emotionallearning(SEL),aconcurrent need arose to investigate the efficacy of these newly conceivedprograms.Thequestionon the tablewaswhetherSELwasapassing fador iftherewassolidevidenceforhowsocial–emotionalfactorsaffectnotonlystudentwell-beingbutalsostudentlearning.LetusnowbrieflyexaminetherobustbodyofevidenceforSELwiththegoalthatteacherreadersmaybefullycomfortabledevoting classroom time and attention toward the building of an emotionallyhealthyenvironmentforstudents.

This conversation begins with Arthur Combs, a preeminent researcher,humanisticeducator,andpsychologistwho,inthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,promoted ideas about teaching that appeared to be way ahead of the times.

DuringthateraAmericaneducationwascharacterizedmorebythestructureoftheclassroomandnotsomuchbythesocialoremotionalculture.Hisresearchlegacy, conducted over many years at various universities, validated theimmenseimportanceofteachers’beliefsystemsandpointedtofiveareasthatsetapart effective teachers from those whowere less so. I am going share thesefindingswithyouherebecause,currently,therehasbeensuchapreponderanceofemphasisonwhatteachersdothatwemayhaveforgottenjusthowimportantteachers’ownbeliefsystemsaretotheirstudents’personalgrowthandlearning.ThebeliefsystemsthatCombs’sresearchvalidatedtobepresent in“good,”oreffective,teachersarethefollowing:

1. Empathicqualities.Goodteachersarephenomenologicallyoriented.Theyarekeenlyawareoftheperceptionsofotherpeopleandusethisunderstandingastheprimaryframeofreferenceforguidingtheirownbehavior.

2. Positiveself-concept.Goodteachersseethemselvesinessentiallypositiveways.

3. Beliefsaboutotherpeople.Goodteacherscharacteristicallyseeotherpeopleinpositivewaysasable,trustworthy,friendly,andsoon.

4. Open,facilitatingpurposes.Thepurposesofgoodteachersareprimarilybroad,facilitating,andprocessoriented.

5. Authenticity.Goodteachersareessentiallyself-revealingandgenuine.(Combs,1978,p.558)

NextletusmovetothepresenttimeandexaminerecentstudiesthatvalidateandextendCombs’soriginalfindings.Inarecentresearchreport,TheEvidenceBaseforHowWeLearn:SupportingStudents’Social,Emotional,andAcademicDevelopment (National Commission on Social, Emotional, and AcademicDevelopment,2017),acoalitionofprominentscientistsandscholarsweretaskedwithseekingthescientificbasisofhowpeoplelearn.Toaperson,theseeminentindividuals affirm the interrelatedness of the role of the teacher in the social,emotional, and academic development of students. Melor (2017) quotesStephanieJones,anauthorofthereportandaprofessoratHarvardUniversity:“The evidence should move us beyond debate as to whether schools shouldaddress students’ social andemotional learning tohowschools caneffectivelyintegratesocial,emotional,andacademicdevelopmentintotheirdailywork.”

Moreover, Davidson, Khmelkov, and Lickona (2010) conducted a meta-analysis of numerous other studies examining social and emotional learningfactors. All combined, their investigations included data from over 200,000

students inkindergarten throughhigh school.Theyconcluded thatparticipantsdemonstrated significantly improved academic performance as compared tocontrols. Their findings were key and added to the now substantial empiricalevidenceregardingthepositive impactonstudentsby teacherswhohavetheseaforementioned belief systems and intentionally use them in creatingemotionally safe learning environmentswhere principles ofSEL are explicitlymodeledandtaught.

Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger (2011) found thatstudents who receive SEL instruction have academic achievement scores anaverageof11percentilepointshigher than studentswhodidnotparticipate inSELprograms.Takeamomentandletthatastoundingstatistictakehold.

Likewise, other researchers have similarly documented the importance ofcaring teacher–student and student–student relationships in fostering students’commitmenttoschoolandinpromotingacademicsuccess(e.g.Blum&Libbey,2004;Hamre&Pianta, 2006;Hawkins,Smith,&Catalano, 2004; Jennings&Greenberg,2009).

Another way to promote caring teacher–student relationships is throughlistening. Carl Rogers, a pioneer in advancing the importance of empathy,promoted the notion of “empathic listening.” According to Rogers (1969),empathiclistening,alsovariouslytermedactivelisteningandreflectivelistening,isamannerofvalidatingtoaspeakerthatyouhavefullyunderstoodwhattheyare saying. This feeling of being heard oftentimes enhances mutualunderstandingandtrustbetweenindividuals.

Salem(2003)identifiesfivebenefitsofempathiclistening:(1)buildingtrustand respect between individuals; (2) enabling disputants to release theiremotions; (3) reducing tensions; (4) encouraging bringing information to thesurface; (5) creating a safe environment that is conducive to collaborativeproblem solving. While teachers may intuitively comprehend these benefits,assimilatingthemintoclassroompracticetakestime.However,Pomeroy(1999)wouldsaythatthisexpenditureoftimeisworthwhilebasedonhisexaminationof students’ perceptionsof teacher caring inhigh school settings.Specifically,studentsinthisstudyperceiveddialogueasacentralfactorleadingtoperceivedteacher caring. In other words, “If my teacher really listens to me, then myteachercaresaboutme.”

THEHOW:CONNECTNGSELTOSTANDARDS-BASEDCURRICULUM

Reflecting upon these social–emotional practices youmay be feeling that you

nowneedtocreatespaceforyetanotherelementinyourcurriculum.However,these practices are supported by recent U.S. standards-based curriculuminitiatives–standards that aim to promote students’ social-emotionaldevelopmentaswellastheiracademicgrowth.

Moreover, as much as student learning is a worthy goal, there isconsiderablymorethatisatstake.And,asmoststatedepartmentsofeducationhave recognized these high stakes, they have embedded language addressingsocial–emotional learning into their state curriculum standards. Figure 1.2picturesateacherengagedintypicalstandards-basedinstruction.

IntegratingSELintoCommonCoreMathStandards

Social–emotional learning and mathematics may not, at first, appear to becompatibleareasof thecurriculum.However,whenone looksat theCommonCoreStandardsforMathematicalPractice(seetheEightMathematicalPracticesin Chapter 5), specific social-emotional skills such as perseverance,argumentation, and optimism are apparent. Here are a couple of specificexamples:

CommonCoreMathPracticeStandard1:Studentsmake senseofproblems

andpersevereinsolvingthem.Corresponding SEL Proficiencies: Understanding self, understanding and

getting along with others (as in collaborative problem solving),understandingsocialsituations(howtoworkwithothers).

Common Core Math Practice Standard 3: When constructing viablearguments, students justify their conclusions, communicate them to others,andrespondtotheargumentsofothers.

CorrespondingSELProficiencies:Understandingsocialsituationsandmakingethical choices are infusedwithin this standard as respectingothersmeansthe ability to listen carefully and accurately toothers’ pointsofviews andalso being able to respect diverse points of view while engaging inmathematicalargumentation.

Figure1.2.IntegratingSELintoDailyLessons

IntegratingSELintoCommonCoreEnglishLanguageArtsStandards

TheCommonCoreEnglishLanguageArtsStandardsdonotexplicitly refer to“social-emotional skills.” However, there aremanyways that these two areasintersect.

CommonCoreEnglishLanguageArtsStandard:RL.3.3Describecharacters

inastory(e.g., their traits,motivations,orfeelings)andexplainhowtheiractionscontributetothesequenceofevents.

CorrespondingSELProficiencies:When readersdescribe thecharacters in astory theyareasked tounderstandsocial situationsandalso tomake theseconnectionstoself,especiallywhenthestoryrevolvesaroundthethemesofgetting alongwith others andmaking ethical choices. Therefore, the SELproficiencies of:understanding self, understanding and getting alongwithothers, understanding social situations, and making ethical choices areimplicitlyembeddedwithinthisELAstandard.

Common Core English Language Arts Standard: SL.1 Prepare for andparticipate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborationswithdiversepartners,buildingonothers’ideasandexpressingtheirownclearly

andpersuasively.Corresponding SEL Proficiencies: Clearly it can be seen that the SEL

proficiencies of understanding self, understanding and getting along withothers, andunderstandingsocial situationsarekey tobeingableengage inconversationswithdiversegroups.TheSELproficiencyofmaking ethicalchoicesalsocomesintoplaywithneedtouserespectfullanguage,toneanddemeanorwhenworkingwithothers.

IntegratingSELintoNextGenerationScienceStandards(NGSS)

Asinmathematics,onemightthinkthatthedisciplineofsciencemaynotbeawelcome environment for social–emotional skill development. However, theopposite is true. The NGSS standards, like the Common Core Standards forMathematics include practices (or the doing of science) as well as the morecommon, content standards. Many of these eight Science and EngineeringPractices (SEPs) (see Chapter 5 for a more complete description) have clearimplicationsforsocial–emotionallearning.Herearejustafewexamples:

NGSSPracticeStandard7:Engaginginargumentfromevidence.Corresponding SEL Proficiencies: Anytime a person is engaging in

argumentation,thesocialskillsofunderstandingsocialsituationscomeintoplay.Onemustbeabletoshareone’sownpointofviewinawaythatdoesnotdisrespectothers.Andtodothat,onealsoneedstounderstandselfandhaveahealthyviewofself inordertobeabletoarticulateanargumentorcounter-argument to others. Therefore, the SEL proficiencies of:understandingselfandunderstandingsocialsituationsareembeddedwithinthisNGSSpracticestandard.

NGSS Practice Standard 8: Obtaining, evaluating, and communicatinginformation.

Corresponding SEL Proficiencies: In any situation that involvescommunication with others, social–emotional skills of understanding andgettingalongwithothersareneeded.

IntegratingSELintoSocialStudiesStandards

Perhapsthecontentareateachersmosteasilyassociatewiththeskillsofsocial–emotional learning is social studies. Through the four domains of Civics,Economics,Geography,andHistorytherecentCollege,Career,andCivicLife

(C3) Framework for Social Studies(www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/c3/C3-Framework-for-Social-Studies.pdf)examines issues insocial studies through the lensesof individualsand their relationships with one another—both past and present. Perhaps thestrongestcaseforthelinksbetweensocialstudiesandsocial–emotionallearningcomefromaquotefromtheC3documentitself:

Readinessforcollege,career,andciviclifeisasmuchabouttheexperiencesstudentshaveasitisabout learning any particular set of concepts or tools. Thus, the learning environments thatteachers create are critical to student success. Students will flourish to the extent that theirindependentandcollaborativeeffortsareguided,supported,andhonored.(p.19)

It may be safe to conclude that each one of the social–emotionalproficiencies (i.e., understanding self, understanding and getting along withothers, understanding social situations, andmaking ethical choices) arewoveninto the very fabric of all social studies standards and lessons through topicsstarting in the primary grades such as families and local communities, thenprogressing tomiddle and high school curriculumwith the study of state andnationalhistories,andworldpeoples,issuesandevents.

MoreThatNeedstoBeDone

While social–emotional learning is, indeed, on the educational radar, there ismuchmorethatneedstobedone.ThissentimentiswellarticulatedbyJenniferBuffettandTimothyShriver(2013):“Ifwechoosetoact,togetherwecanhelpteachersbecomeevenbetterteachersandstudentsreachtheirfullestpotentials”(p.3).

The next chapters provide ways to embed SEL throughout the entirecurriculum, learn evidence-based pedagogies to reinforce these goals, andsupportworkinhelpingthestudentstonotonlysucceedbutthriveinschool,intheircommunities“asleaders,dreamers,entrepreneurs,andcitizens”(Buffett&Shriver, 2013, p. 3). Moreover, succeeding chapters will also consider theparticularsocial–emotionalneedsofat-riskanddiversepopulationsofstudents.As Vygotsky (1962) asserted with his social–cultural theory, humandevelopmentishighlyinfluencedbyourculturalenvironments.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

This section,which occurs in each chapter, showcases thoughts, feelings, andactions of practicing teachers as they have worked to integrate each of the

chaptertopicsintotheirinstructionalpraxis.Theseeducatorswereallenrolledincoursesleadingtoamaster’sdegreeinCurriculumandTeaching.Herearesomeoftheirthoughtsregardingtheimportanceofsocial–emotionallearning.

Ihaveundergoneahugemind-shiftinmyroleasaneducator.Iseemyrolenowasdevelopingtalent.Eachchildhasuniquegiftsandtalentsandit’smyjobto“unlockthatpotential.”(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Approximately20%ofthestudentsatourschoolhada504planorIEP.Therefore,itwasaprioritytorecognizetheimportanceofSEL.EveryyeareachclassroomhadavisitfromtheschoolOT.Shespentabout30minutestalkingaboutthezonesofregulation[www.social-thinking.com/eLearning/Webinar-Zones-of-Regulation],whattheyare,howtorecognizewhereyouare,andhowtogetyourselfbackto“green”whennecessary.Wedidn’tdothisonlyforourneuro-diversestudents,butrecognizedthatthesestrategieswerebeneficialtoallstudents.Weactivelyencouragedkidstorecognizewhentheywereoutsidethegreenzoneandtopracticeself-careasneeded.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Itissoimportantforteacherstorememberthatourstudents,justaseveryperson,aremultifacetedbeings.Theycomeintoourclassroomwithmanyoftheirownexperienceswithschool,anditiscrucialforteacherstocreateanenvironmentinwhichtheyfeelsafesothatlearningmaytakeplace.(Teacher,middleschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORSOCIAL–EMOTIONALLEARNING

Additional information regarding social–emotional learning may be exploredthroughthefollowingresources,whichincludewebsites,booksandarticles,andvideos.

Websites

Because of the current awareness of the importance of SEL, the Internet nowaboundswithresourcesforeducatorsandparents.Forteacherswishingtolearnmore,Iwouldadvisestartingwiththefollowingtwosites:

The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)

(www.casel.org).

According to their mission statement, this is “the world’s leadingorganization advancing one of the most important fields in education indecades: the practice of promoting integrated academic, social, andemotionallearningforallchildreninpreschoolthroughhighschool.”Onceonthesite,youmaylink tobooks,articles,videos,andresearchstudies inthefollowingcategories(casel.org/categories):AcademicIntegration,After-School, Assessment, College and Career Readiness, Elementary School,Financing, Impact and Evidence, Implementation, Meta-analysis, MiddleSchools, Pedagogy and Teaching Practices, Policy, Preschool, Programs,School-Family Partnerships, Schoolwide Approaches, SEL Overview,ServiceLearning,Standards,Teachers.

TheGreaterGoodScienceCenter(greatergood.berkeley.edu/).Thiswebsiteblendsthefieldsofpsychology,sociology,andneuroscienceofwell-being,tohighlightboththeresearchandpracticeof“skillsthatfosterathriving,resilient,andcompassionatesociety.”Onemaysignuponthesitetoreceiveafreee-newsletter.

Books/Articles

Christensen, S. L., & Reschly, A. L. (2010). The handbook of school–familypartnershipsforpromotingsocialcompetence.NewYork,NY:Routledge.

Durlak, J.A.,Domitrovich, C. E.,Weissberg, R. P.,&Gullotta, T. P. (Eds.).(2015).Handbookofsocialandemotionallearning:Researchandpractice.NewYork,NY:GuilfordPress.

Elias,M.J.,Ferrito,J.J.,&Moceri,D.C.(2016).Theothersideofthereportcard: Assessing students’ social, emotional, and character development.NewburyPark,CA:CorwinPress.

Kusche, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2006). Brain development and social–emotional learning:An introduction for educators. InM. J. Elias&H.A.Arnold(Eds.),Theeducator’sguidetoemotionalintelligenceandacademicachievement: Social–emotional learning in the classroom (pp. 15–34).ThousandOaks,CA:CorwinPress.

Wagenheim, J., (2016). There is nothing soft about these skills.EdMagazine(Winter 2016).Retrieved fromwww.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/16/01/theres-nothing-soft-about-these-skills

Weissberg,R.P.,&Cascarino,J.(2013).Academiclearning+social–emotionallearning=nationalpriority.PhiDeltaKappan,95(2),8–13.

Zins, J. E.,Weissberg, R. P.,Wang,M. C., &Walberg, H. J (Eds.). (2004).Buildingacademicsuccessonsocialandemotionallearning:Whatdoesthe

researchsay?NewYork,NY:TeachersCollegePress.

Videos

CommitteeforChildren.(2016,August1).Social–emotional learning:What isSEL and why it matters [Video file]. Retrieved fromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=ikehX9o1JbI

Edutopia. (2013,May14).Five keys to social and emotional learning success[Videofile].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=DqNn9qWoO1M

PBSNewsHour. (2015,July16).Kindergartenerswithgoodsocialskills turninto successful adults, study finds [Television series episode]. Retrievedfrom www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/kindergarteners-good-social-skills-turn-successful-adults-study-finds/

CHAPTER2

Cooperative/CollaborativeLearning

Relationshipsmatterforlearning.

LindaDarling-Hammond,1997

Cooperation,orgettingalongwithothers, isattheverytheheartoflivingandcouldbeconsideredthesingleessentialelementinallsocietiesand,indeed,allsocialencounters.Who,youmightask,couldpossiblybeagainstcooperation?WhencooperativelearningwasfirstintroducedinU.S.schoolsinthe1980s,theanswer to that question was—almost everyone! To put it mildly, cooperativelearningwasaveryunwelcomereform.Teachers,parents,legislators,andevenstudentsthemselvesbelievedthisnewesteducational“fad”tobedownrightunfitforschools.ThereasonswhyareobvioustoanyonewhoattendedK–12schoolsprior to the mid-1980s. Classrooms were very much teacher-dominated andbeingastudentwasdefinitelyasoloact.Teachersdidmostofthetalking,anditwasthestudent’sjobtodothelisteningand(hopefully)learning.Itwasintothiseducational culture that cooperative learning was first introduced. Massivepublic backlash resulted as this reform challenged the way classrooms hadalwaysbeentaught.

This reaction, however, led to cooperative learning being one of themostinvestigatedteachingstrategiesofalltime,and,asaresultoftheoverwhelmingevidenceinitsfavor,utilizedinsomeforminthemajorityofU.S.classrooms.Infact,accordingtotwoofthebiggestnamesassociatedwithcooperativelearning,David and Roger Johnson (n.d.), “Cooperative learning is presently used inschools and universities in every part of theworld, in every subject area, andwitheveryage student. It isdifficult to finda texton instructionalmethods, ateacher’s journal, or instructional materials that do not discuss cooperativelearning.”

Figure2.1.CooperativeLearning

THEWHAT:TENETSOFCOOPERATIVELEARNING

At itsmost basic level, cooperative learning involves the use of groups in theclassroomsostudentsmaywork together toextend theirownandeachother’slearning. Figure 2.1 illustrates cooperative learning as two students researchgeographicallocations.Groupsizemayvaryaccordingtotheneedsofthetask,with small groups—twos and threes—affording more individual engagement,and fours, fives, and sixes allowing formore ideas to be brought forth. It hasbeen found that groups larger than six or seven members can result innonengagementbehaviorsbysomemembers(Johnson&Johnson,2009).

Becausetherewassuchastrongandnegativeinitialreactiontocooperativelearning,thelast4decadeshaveseenagreatdealofreflectingastohowbesttostructure an effective collaborative learning environment. Everything wasexamined,fromwhatkindsoftaskswerebesttousetohowtoassignstudentstogroups and encourage accountability. Johnson and Johnson (1999), who wereinstrumental in the advancement of cooperative learning, identified essentialcomponentsofthecooperativeprocess:individualaccountability,structuresthatpromoteface-to-faceinteraction,socialskills,andgroupprocessingskills.Let’stakeacloserlookateachofthese:

Individualaccountability.Whenstudentshavehadabadexperiencedoing

agroupproject,theymayremembertimeswhentheydidalloftheworkandotherstudentshitchhiked,orcamealongfortheride,withoutcontributingtothewhole.Forthisreason,itisimperativeforteacherstoensurethateachstudentisaccountableforspecifictasksleadingtothecompletionoftheactivity.Structuresthatpromoteface-to-faceinteraction.Sinceamajorgoalofcooperativelearningisthe“gettingalongwithothers”factor,itservesstudentsbestifstudentsinteractwithoneanotherinauthenticcommunicationandproblemsolving.Socialskills.Socialskillsarethecenterpieceofsocial–emotionallearning.Cooperativelearningtechniquesusedintheclassroompaydividendslongaftertheschoolyearsareover.Thesocialskillslearnedduringcooperativelearningtransfertoeveryfacetofwork-andhomelife.Groupprocessingskills.Thethinkinginvolvedincooperativelearningreliesonthe“twoheadsarebetterthanone”logic.Clearly,thesocialskillslearnedwithinagroupwhilesolvingaproblemtogetherareworththeirweightingold.

THEWHY:BENEFITSOFCOOPERATIVE/COLLABORATIVELEARNING

Thetermcollaborativelearninghasemergedingeneralusageasasynonymforcooperative learning. While some might posit a distinction, the followingsections will use the combined term cooperative/collaborative learning whenaddressingthisclassroomstructure.

Theadvantagesofcooperative/collaborativelearning(calledsociallearningin its earliest iterations) date back to seminal educational thinkers like JohnDewey(1938)andLevVygotsky(1978).Eachoftheseresearchersbelievedthattherewasanessentialsocialaspecttolearning.Dewey,forexample,positedthatstudentswouldlearnmoreaboutthemselvesandabouttheworldiftheyworkedtogether rather than by themselves. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory ofCognitive Development placed importance on social and cultural aspects ofdevelopment and asserted that internalization, or the taking in of knowledge,occursbestinasocialcontext.

Perhapsdueinparttothemanyyearsofstrongresistance,therenowexistsabundant evidence that supports cooperative/collaborative learning in 21st-century classrooms. In fact, compared to traditional instructional methods,research suggests that students engaged in cooperative/collaborative learninghave higher achievement gains, retain information longer, and have reduced

dropout rates (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000; Oakley, Felder, Brent, &Elhajj,2004;Springer,Stanne,&Donovan,1999;Terenzini,Cabrera,Colbeck,Parente,&Bjorklund,2001).

More pertinent to our discussion of social–emotional learning, researchershavealsoconcludedthatcooperative/collaborativelearningpromoteskeysocialskills such as positive feelings toward peers and social interaction (Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck, & Fantuzzo, 2006; Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Thus manyresearchersbelievethatthesinglemostimportantfactorforschoolimprovementis the creating of this collaborative culture in every classroom (Little, 1993;McLaughlin, 1997; Newmann &Wehlage, 1995; Rosenholtz, 1989). JohnsonandJohnson(n.d.)sayitevenmorestrongly:“Howstudentsinteractwitheachanother is a neglected aspect of instruction.Much training time is devoted tohelpingteachersarrangeappropriateinteractionsbetweenstudentsandmaterials… but how students should interact with one another is relatively ignored. Itshouldnotbe.”

Andjustmention jigsawteaching toteachersandtheywillnodtheirheadsknowingly!“Oneofthegreatestadvancementsinteachingandmostsuccessfulexamples of applied social psychology originated in the 1970s with ElliotAronson’s jigsaw classroom,” states a student blog at Penn State University(2016). The brilliance of Aronson was not just the creation of a cooperativelearningstrategythathelpedstudentslearncontent,butalsothestructuringofitso that cooperation andnot competitionwas the distinguishing factor.As in ajigsaw puzzle where each piece is essential for the ultimate solution, eachstudent in the jigsawgroup becomes essential to othermembers’ learning andthus indispensable.Because the jigsawgroups are set upby the teacher in themostheterogeneousmannerpossible(i.e.,diverseabilities,cultures,languages)studentsbecomeawarethattheywillneedtorelyuponeachother(andthusgetalong) inorder to learnall segmentsof theparticularcontent.See“Jigsaw” inthe next section for information on how to integrate this strategy into yourclassroompractices.

THEHOW:COOPERATIVELEARNINGSUPPORTSSOCIAL–EMOTIONALGROWTH

AsIhavepointedout,justaboutallU.S.classroomsnowutilizesomeformofcooperative learning. In thissection Iwill focusoncollaborativestructures fortheclassroomthataugmentsocial–emotionallearning.

StructuringGroupsforCollaborativeWork

While there are many ways a teacher may structure the classroom forcollaborative work, the two most often used methods may be categorized asshort-termgroupsandlong-termgroups.Short-termgroupsaretemporary,withlittle or no time spent on assigning people to groups, getting into groups, orassigning roles.They last one sessionor less andareused to ensure cognitiveprocessingandengagementinlearning.

Long-term groups, by contrast, are formed by the instructor and staytogether foranextendedperiodof time (weeksoreven theentire semester) toengagecollaborativelyonabroadertaskorproject.

Short-termGroups.Someinformalshort-termgroupactivitiesincludethefollowing (adapted from the Illinois Center for Innovation in Teaching andLearning,UniversityofIllinois):

Think-Pair-Share.Studentsaregivenaprompt(aquestion,problem,visual,andsoon),andaskedtothinkaboutthepromptindividuallyandjotdownideas.Studentsthenformpairs,talkabouttheirresponses,andformulateajointresponse.Somepairsarecalledupontosummarizetheirdiscussionfortheclass.Turn-to-Your-NeighborDiscussion.Studentsturntoastudentseatednearthemandbrainstormanswerstoaquestionordiscussasolutiontoaproblem.Callonstudentsforanswers.Asktheclassforashowofhandsofwhoagreesordisagreeswithananswer.Figure2.2showsanexampleofthisactivity.10:2Breakuplongerteacherlecturesinto10minutechunksfollowedby2-minutebreaksforstudentstoformpairsandtrytoparaphrase,inwritingorbriefdiscourse,whattheteacherhasjustcommunicated.Small-groupHomeworkCheck.Havestudentsdotheirhomeworkindividuallyoutsideofclass.Duringclassonthedaytheassignmentisdue,havestudentsformgroupsandthencomparetheiranswerstotheassignment.Thestudentsineachgroupmustagreeonanswersandturninagroupsolutionalongwiththeirindividualwork.

Someshort-termgroupactivitiesrequireabitmorestructureandplanning.Theseincludethefollowing:

Figure2.2.Turn-to-Your-NeighborDiscussion

Jigsaw.Thisstructureisusefulwhenatopicorproblemiscomplexandinvolvesmultipleperspectives.Studentsareplacedinidentifiedjigsawgroupswherethereisdiversityamongabilities,cultures,andethnicities.Ithasbeenfoundthata4–6persongroupisideal.Eachgroupmembertakesresponsibilityforonepartofthelearning.Individualswiththesamepart,butassignedtodifferentgroups,meetwithlikestudentsfromtheothergroups(toform“expert”groups)inordertobesupportedintheirlearning.Afterprovidingassistanceandscaffoldingtotheexpertgroupsandbeingassuredthateachindividualunderstandsandisabletocommunicatetheirtopictotheiroriginaljigsawteam,theteacherasksallstudentstorejointheiroriginaljigsawteamandteachtheirparttothemembers(Aronson,Stephan,Stikes,Blaney,&Snapp,1978).Round-Robin.Theteachergivesaprompttotheclass.Thenmembersofthegrouptaketurnsrecordingaresponsetothepromptonasinglepieceofpaperpassedfromonemembertothenextforaspecifiedamountoftime.Eachgroup’sresponsesarethensharedwiththerestoftheclass.

Thisisaneffectivestrategytoaccommodatestudentswithspecialneeds,studentsforwhomEnglishisnottheirfirstlanguage,orstudentswhoaremoreintroverted,asitallowsthemtoremainanonymouswhileenjoyingthesharingofideasfromtheirgroup.GroupResponse.Problemsorissuesareidentifiedbytheinstructor.Eachgroupproposessolutionstotheseproblemsorissues.SeeFigure2.3foranexampleofstudentsworkingcollaborativelyonasolutiontoaproblem.

Figure2.3.GroupResponse

Long-termGroupsorTeams.Somespecificsuggestionsforgettingstartedwithorganizinglong-termgroupprojectsincludethefollowing:

Developacleardescriptionofthetasksathandandwhatyouexpectfromtheteamandfromeachmemberoftheteam.(SpecificsuggestionsfortheseprotocolsmaybefoundinChapter7onproject-basedlearning.)Helptheteamsestablishatimeline,andsubmitprogressreportsontheirlearningandhowtheyareworkingasateam.Establishclearandfairguidelinesforhowtheteamprojectwillbegraded.(Adaptedfromcitl.illinois.edu/citl-101/teaching-

learning/resources/teaching-strategies/group-learning)

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Herearesomethoughtsbyteacherslikeyouregardinghowtheyworktoengagetheirstudentsthroughgroupwork.

OneofthestrategiesthatIuseinmyclassiscollaborativelearning.Iallowmystudentstoworkingroupsonlabsandassignments.Oftentimes,Iwillchoosesupportivelearninggroupsinwhichstudentscantrulycollaboratewithoneanothertounderstandthematerial.(Teacher,highschool)

Thispastyear,Itaughtalessononbuildingbridges.ThiswasalessonfromaseriesofscienceprofessionaldevelopmentclassesIattended.Theprofessionaldevelopmentallowedtheteachersattendingtoexperiencethelessonsasourstudentswould,sowhenitcametimetoteachmyclass,Ialreadyhadanideaofwhattheywouldencounter.Thelessonwasanenormoussuccess!Studentsworkedincollaborativeteamstodesignabridge,experimentwithit,makechangesbasedonthetypesofbridgeswelearnedabout(beam,suspension,arch),andtesttheirbridgesagainstothersintheclass.Theroomwasfullofengagedstudentsusingrichvocabulary,workingcollaboratively,encouragingeachother,andexperiencingaprocessoftrialanderror.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORCOOPERATIVE/COLLABORATIVELEARNING

Additionalinformationregardingcooperative/collaborativelearningisprovidedinthefollowingresources:

Websites

ManyU.S. universities sponsor cooperative-learning/group-workwebsites thatarticulate research and practical ideas for utilizing these practices in theK–16classroom.Followingisalistingoffiveofthemostnotableones.

ABLConnect,HarvardUniversity(ablconnect.harvard.edu).Databaseofarticles,

projects, and othermaterials on active learning. An example of an article

from this site isGroup & Cooperative Learning; Students as ClassroomLeaders.

Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan(www.crlt.umich.edu/tstrategies/tsgwcl). This page showcases cooperativelearning resources that include information about cooperative learning andhowtodesigneffectivesmallgroupactivitiesfortheclassroom.

CenterforTeaching,VanderbiltUniversity(cft.vanderbilt.edu).OnthissitefortheCenter forTeaching atVanderbiltUniversity, readerswill find articlesrelated to cooperative/collaborative learning such as the following:Settingup and Facilitating Group Work: Using Cooperative Learning GroupsEffectively(Brame&Biel,2015).

Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning, Harvard University (bok-center.harvard.edu/group-work). An informative article on how to set upgrouplearningexperiencescanbefoundonthissite.

Books/Articles

Barron,B.,&Darling-Hammond,L.(2008).Teachingformeaningfullearning:A review of research on inquiry-based and cooperative learning [Bookexcerpt]. Retrieved frombackend.edutopia.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/edutopia-teaching-for-meaningful-learning.pdf

Center for Teaching and Learning. Stanford University. (1999, Winter).Cooperative learning: Working in small groups. Speaking of TeachingNewsletter (Stanford UniversityNewsletter on Teaching), 10(2), 1–4.Retrieved from teachingcommons.stanford.edu/resources/teaching-resources/speaking-teaching-newsletter-archive

Clowes, G. (2011). The essential 5: A starting point for Kagan CooperativeLearning. Retrieved fromwww.kaganonline.com/free_articles/research_and_rationale/330/The-Essential-5-A-Starting-Point-for-Kagan-Cooperative-Learning

Videos

Edutopia. (2012, December 5). Cooperative learning builds deeperunderstanding [Video file]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-WEwv_qobpU

Teachings in Education. (2017, October 5). Cooperative learning model:Strategies& examples:Why cooperative learning? [Video file].Retrieved

fromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=cnkKHL_dyGE

CHAPTER3

TeachersasChangemakers

I wish adults would understand that students have innovative, mind-boggling ideas, and thatstudentscanputthoseideasintoaction.Theycanmaketheworldabetterplace.

James,Tennesseehighschoolstudent

AsnotedinChapter1,teacherscananddochangelives.Thischapterwillapplytheteacher-as-changemakermodelandlookatthemyriadofwaysthatteacherspromote not only the academic development of students but also thedevelopment of their character. In fact, from the very inception of publicschoolingintheUnitedStates,charactereducationhasbeenunderstoodtobeofthehighestpriority.Lickona (1991)put it thisway:“Charactereducation isasold as education itself.Down through history, in countries all over theworld,educationhashadtwogreatgoals: tohelpyoungpeoplebecomesmart,and tohelpthembecomegood”(p.6).Historically,educatorshavegenerallyacceptedthis civic trust and, in ways large and small, endeavored to impart to theirstudentsfoundationaldispositionscentraltobeingagoodcitizenbothinschoolandinsocietyatlarge.

Efforts topreparestudentsforuniversityacademicdemandsaresometimesat odds with what is termed nonacademic education (Owings, 2016). As anation, we do not appear to prioritize the social, emotional, and characterdevelopmentofourstudents,butmerelyassumeitistakingplace“somewhere.”Andyetweexpectstudentstoexhibitgoodcharacteronadailybasis.

THEWHAT:HOWSERVICEBUILDSSOCIALANDEMOTIONALSKILLS

Inordertonurtureresponsiblecitizens,educatorsneedtoprovidestudentswithopportunitiestocare,toengage,andtotakeactionintheircommunity—inotherwords, to make a difference. The daily avalanche of negative news storiescascadingdownonstudentstodaybringsinitswakeasenseofhopelessnessandhelplessness.Perhapsitmaybeconsideredasocietalimperativetooffertoday’s

studentssomesemblanceoffeelingempowered.Therearethosewhoinsistthatservice learningcanfill thatvoid.AsBittman(2016)puts it,“Service learninggiveskids an authentic educational experiencewhile teachingempathy.That’saboutasimportantasitgets.Throughservicelearning,studentsgetachancetocontributetotheircommunitiesanddiscoverthatwhethertheyare7or17,theycanmakeadifference.”

Service learning is a teachingpedagogy that integrates community service(the service) with academic study (the learning) to encourage communityengagement,enrichlearning,andstrengthencommunities(NationalCommissionon ServiceLearning, 2002; Terry & Bohnenberger, 2003). “From the earlyhistoryofNativeAmericanpeoplestomodernsociety,serviceandvolunteerismhas longbeenhonoredasacommunalethic thathascontributedgreatly to thebenefit of our democratic society” (Los Angeles County Office of Education,2004,p.1).

Inservicelearning,studentsareguidedtocollaborativelyseekoutauthentic,community-basedproblemsandthenengagewithoneanother tofindsolutionsbyapplying the skills and standards-basedcontent they learn in school (Celio,Durlak,&Dymnicki,2011).Itshouldbenotedthatservicelearningdiffersfromwhatisusuallytermedcommunityservice,inthatitcombinescivicactionwithacademic learning that isdirectly tied to standards-based instruction.Also, thecommunityproblem that students identifymaybeone that is foundwithin thelocalcommunityoralargerone—theircity,state,nation,oreventheplanet.

Regarding what constitutes civic action, it has been defined as “activeparticipation in thepublic lifeofacommunity inan informed,committed,andconstructivemanner,withafocusonthecommongood.”(Gottlieb&Robinson,2006, p.16).When teachers recognize their students asagents of change, theycan foster compassion and offer opportunities that not only teach fundamentalskillsandconcepts,butalso result inhelpingbuild the innercharacterof theirstudents—inotherwords, support them ingrowingup feeling theycananddomakeadifferenceintheworld.However,tocultivatethisempowermentforourlearners, the students must feel a personal connection to the project.Collaboration, then, is thewatchwordso thatstudentsand thecommunitymaywork together in seeking solutions. The role of teacher becomes even morecritical as teachersengage in the followingprocesses: (1) facilitatingauthenticandarticulatedlearninggoalsbetweenstudentsandthecommunity,respondingtogenuinecommunityneeds;(2)creatingopportunitiesfordecisionmakingforstudents;and(3)includingafinalreflectionattheconclusionsothatteacherandstudents may explore the impact on the self and the community (NationalCommissiononServiceLearning,2002).

EssentialElementsofQualityServiceLearning

Those who have employed service learning for many years have come tounderstandhowtoconstructqualityexperiencesfortheirstudents.Sixessentialelements for high-quality service learning have been gleaned from K–12teachers and showcased on the website for the National ServiceLearningCooperative (1999). Service learning projects (1) have clear educational goalsthat require the application of concepts, content, and skills from the academicdisciplinesandinvolvestudentsinconstructingtheirownknowledge;(2)engagestudentsinchallengingcognitiveanddevelopmentaltasks;(3)useassessmenttoenhancestudentlearningandtodocumentandevaluatehowwelltheyhavemetstandards; (4) meet genuine community needs, and have significantconsequences; (5) allow students to have a voice in selecting, designing,implementing,andevaluatingtheirserviceproject;(6)requirestudentstoreflectbefore,during,andafterservice.

Withthesecomponentsofhigh-qualityservicelearninginmind,howdoesateacher embark on a service learning project?According toCampusCompact(compact.org), a national coalition of colleges and universities with a goal ofeducatingstudentsforcivicandsocialresponsibility,allprojectsshouldfollowthePARCmodel,asequenceoffourdistinctphases.

1. Preparation.Haveyourstudentsidentifyandinvestigateaneedorproblemeitherwithinyourlocalcommunityoronethatislargerinscope,perhapsanationalissue.Thisphaseinvolvesyourposingquestionstoyourstudents,facilitatingstudents’researchtoanswerthesequestions,andthenbrainstormingpossiblesolutions.Fromthere,youwillleadyourstudentstoplanandpreparetoperformanactionthatwillmeettheidentifiedneed.

2. Action.Actionisthenplannedbyyourstudents,underyourguidance,totrytoalleviatetheproblem.Therearethreetypesofactionsforserviceprojects:(1)thosethatinvolvestudentsbeingoutoftheclassroom,asinavisittoanassistedlivingcentertoteachresidentshowtouseemailonthecomputer;(2)thosethatareaccomplishedwithintheclassroom,asinrecordingstoriestosendtochildrenwhomaybehospitalized;and(3)thosethatareadvocacy-based,asinwritinglettersintheclassroomtobesenttoelectedrepresentativesinsupportofsomesocialissue.

3. Reflection.Agoodservicelearningprojectalwaysincludesanopportunityforteacherandstudentstoreflectonwhathashappened.Dependingontheagelevelofthestudents,thesecanbeoralorwritten.Awritten

reflection,evenonedonebyaprimary-agestudentisusuallymoreimpactfulaseachstudentprocessestheexperienceandsharestheirowntransformationwhiledeepeningtheirconnectiontotheissueandtootherpeople.

4. Celebration.Finally,itisimportanttoplansomesortofacelebration,sothatstudentscanfeelthatwonderfulsenseofmakingapositivedifferenceintheworld.Thiscelebrationmaybeprivate,withintheclassroom,ormorepublicwithintheschoolorevenwithparentsandcommunitymemberspresent.

In order for service learning to maximize effectiveness among itsparticipants, studentsmust be involved in leadership positionswhere they candirect theproject themselves insteadofallowing the teacher tomakeallof thedecisions(Morgan&Streb,2001).Studentsoftenviewprogramsinwhichtheydonothavevoiceandownershipasawasteoftime,andmayevenresenthavingtobeinvolved.Datafromafive-statesurveyofhighschoolstudentsinservicelearningfoundthatwhenstudentswereempoweredwithavoiceintheirproject,service learning effectively addressed some of the symptoms of civicdisengagement that commonly plague young Americans (Morgan & Streb,2001). Service learning has great potential for developing politically active,contributingcitizens,butitmustbeappliedcorrectlytoachievethoseoutcomes.

Changemaking:ServiceLearning2.0

Changemaking has emerged as a 21st-century form of service learning.Changemaking isaphilosophy thatengages learners inmakingadifference insociety by developing empathy, character, and emotional intelligence. BillDraper, founder of the worldwide organization Ashoka: Innovators for thePublic,believesthateverypersoncanbecomeachangemaker.Healsocautions,“You can’t be a changemaker by reading a book. This is the ultimate bicycleride. You have to do it. We have to teach empathy as we do literacy” (inRajadyaksha,2013).Thisdeliberateneedtoteachandsupportthedevelopmentof empathy in our youth is why Draper encourages teachers to makechangemaking prominent in the curriculum. His latest effort is to supportchangemaker schools around theglobewhere teachersutilize students’ naturaldesiretowanttomaketheworldabetterplace.

Many factors have influenced this evolution from service learning tochangemaking. However, onemain dynamic considers the role of communitymembersthemselves.Tooofteninservicelearning,teachersandstudentswould

embark upon action in the community without ensuring that communitymembers were not simply passive recipients of the goodwill of others. Thisviewpoint has been seen to create an inequality among the givers and thereceivers. In changemaking, the prevailing philosophy is one of reciprocitywhere both groups benefit from the experience. Celio, Durlak, and Dymnicki(2011)caution teachers toactively involvekeycommunitymembers tohaveasayinwhattheymayormaynotneed.

Oneelementaryschoolestablishedaschoolwidemissionofservicethroughchangemaking with their motto “We all can make a difference.” Each yearstudentsdiscussoptionsfortheirgradelevelandthenworkincollaborationwiththecommunityas theydesign theiressentialquestionandplan for theproject.Here are some wonderful examples of essential questions and products fromgradesK–12:

GradeK:AllAboutKindergarten.Whatinformationwouldhelpapreschoolerfeelcomfortableaboutgoingtokindergarten?Product:PresentationtopreschoolersinthecommunityGrade1:HelpingaCommunityHelper.Howcanwehelpourcommunityhelpers?Product:Friendlyletterstopoliceofficers,firefighters,lettercarriers,eitherexpressingappreciationoraskinghowtheycanbehelpfulGrade2:WeatherSafetyTipsCalendar.Howcouldwehelppeopleinourcommunityplanforextremeweatherconditions?Product:CalendartodistributetocommunityGrade3:CompostingWaste.Howcanwemakeourschoolgardenservemorepeople?Product:HarvestFairwithgiftsofproducetolocalsheltersGrade4:HumaneAnimalTreatment.Howcanweallbecomemoreawareofhowtotreatanimalsmorehumanely?Product:CreateawebcastTVcommercialGrade5:EveryoneCanDoMath!Howcanwehelpyoungerstudentsnotbeafraidofmath?Product:Createanafter-schooltutoringprogramforyoungerstudentsusinggamestoteachmathconceptsGrades6–8:StoppingBullying.Whatcaneachofusdotostopbullying?Product:CreateanantibullyingworkshoptopresenttoallclassesintheschoolGrades9–12:TheArtsAreLife-Enhancing.Howmayweaddbeautytothelivesofothers?Product:Developanartprogramatthelocalseniorcenter,children’shospital,ordomesticviolenceshelter

THEWHY:EVIDENCE-BASEDOUTCOMES

Studiesbyprominent researchers (Celioetal.,2011;Melchior&Bailis,2002;Perry & Katula, 2001) have demonstrated students’ SEL growth as well asacademic growth from being involved in projects that address authenticcommunityneeds.Whilebeneficial toallparticipatingstudents, there isreasonto believe that service learning’s civic impact may be greatest among lowerincome, minority, and at-risk youth (Melchior, 1999; Scales, Benson,Roehlkepartain, Sesma, & van Dulmen, 2006). Service learning can be animportant first step in breaking down some of the barriers that often existbetweenschoolandthecommunitiesofthesestudents(Waterman,2014).

Moreover, this instructional pedagogy has also demonstrated ability toimprove academic performance and reduce achievement gaps, again mostnotablyamong low-incomeand/ormarginalizedyouth (Scalesetal.,2006). Itshands-onnatureallowsservicelearningtoprovideagreaterdepthofinformationprocessing and impact on learning than less active methods such as directinstruction (Scales et al., 2006). A longitudinal 2004 study noted that servicelearninghad its biggest impactwhen employed in secondary schools. It foundthat students who started volunteering in grades 7–9 had significantly highergrade point averages (GPAs) in high school than those who had nevervolunteered (Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2004). Meanwhile, middle schoolstudents experiencing agreater connection to their community through servicelearningwerefoundtobethreetimesmorelikelytohaveaB+orhigheraverageonceinhighschool(Scalesetal.,2006).Aseparatestudyofhighschoolservicelearners indicated that inaddition toan improvement inGPA,service learninghelpedincreasepoliticalknowledge,schoolattendance,andconfidenceinpublicspeaking (Billig, 2002). Additional research concurred that students whoparticipatedinservicelearningwerelesslikelytobeabsentfromschool,spentmore hours doing homework, and were more engaged in schoolwork (Billig,2002;Melchior&Bailis,2002;Santmire,Giraud,&Grosskopf,1999).Overall,the data and observations surrounding service learning are extremelyencouraging.Aprominentmeta-analysisof62studiesinvolving11,837studentsindicated that studentsparticipating in service learningprogramsdemonstratedimproved attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civicengagement,socialskills,andacademicperformance(Celioetal.,2011).

While service learning has a robust research base, the evidence forchangemakingisjustnowemerging.AccordingtoaYouthVenturestudyintwoschooldistricts in2016–2017, therewas a60% increase inpositive classroomenvironmentsasreportedbyteachersinvolvedinchangemakeractivities(Thekk,2017). Moreover, teachers who perceived that changemaking educationpositively impacted their students’ academic performance increased from the

presurvey level of 52.6% to 94.7% in the postsurvey. That is a remarkableincrease!Onemiddleschoolteachersummeditupnicely:“Iseestudentsmoreengagedintheirlearningandworkingtogether,helpingeachother,andlearningfromeachother.Theyfeelempoweredtohavetheirvoicesheard.Theyhavefeltempathy for otherswho are not as fortunate as them, and this hasmade themwanttomakeadifferenceintheworld”(Thekk,2017).Inspiteofthefactthattheresearchonchangemakingisevolving,thereiseveryreasontobelievethatitwillbeasstrongas,orevenstrongerthan,thatwhichexistsforservicelearning.

THEHOW:INSTITUTINGACULTUREOFSERVICE

Today, a tour ofAmerica’s service learning/changemaking school siteswouldfind students working with older citizens, younger children, and communityagencies, as well as on behalf of the environment. These programs have ledstudents to build nature trails, establish museum displays, improve hospitalenvironments,createantidrugcampaigns,establishphilanthropicorganizations,andmuchmore(Billig,2002).

Around the United States, there have been numerous other examples ofeffectiveprojectswhereengagement ishighandstudentsknowthat theirworkservesahigherpurposethanjustalettergrade.In2013thePhiladelphia-basedSustainability Workshop (now Workshop School) was designing educationalexperiences that required real-worldproblem solving.That year, students builthigh-efficiency modular homes to send to developing nations after naturaldisasters.Whiledevelopingstudents’character,theseprojectsinfusedstandards-basedcontentandskillsbyengaginginrigorouscyclesofproblemsolvingasthestudentscreatedprototypesandwrotetechnicalreportsusingtheircollaborativeresearch and concepts gained from their teachers.The school’s focuswas lessabout enacting actual solutions and more about the processes that studentsengaged with in their problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, andinnovation(GeorgeLucasEducationalFoundation,2017).

Moreover, many programs have shown that service learning can have apositiveimpactevenwithintheschoolcommunity.In2009studentsatDeerfield(IL)HighSchool learnedwhileproviding free child care in auniquedaycareprogram on their campus. Students were able to apply theory learned fromdifferent child development classes during their daily supervision of youngchildren (George Lucas Educational Foundation, 2017). At Montpelier (VT)HighSchool in2015biology studentsused their botany skills togrowgreens,whichwereservedatthecafeteriasaladbar.Studentsbecamemorelikelytoeathealthyas theyhada realownership in thegrowingof the food itself (George

LucasEducationalFoundation,2017).Caringfor theenvironmentandservice learningseemtobenaturallygood

partners. In2004,WetlandWatchersgrew intoanationally recognizedservicelearninginitiativeinLouisiana,wherestudentsactedasconservationistsfortheregion’swetlands.Again, the learning of standards-based contentwas infusedintoallexperiencesasstudentsneededtobecomesubjectmatterexperts in theenvironmental needs of the state’s ecosystems (George Lucas EducationalFoundation,2017).Additionally,in2007MembersofCentralMiddleSchoolinAnchorage,AK,formedAlaskaYouthforEnvironmentalAction,andacquiredmorethan5,000signaturesfromfellowAlaskanyouthinsupportofcombatingclimate change. Student leaders from the group even traveled toWashington,DC, to meet with one of Alaska’s senators and express their concern. Thissustained action by the students helped to influence the senator in introducingenvironmental legislation in Congress (George Lucas Educational Foundation,2017).

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Here are some ways fellow teachers have incorporated the pedagogy ofchangemaking/servicelearningintotheirclassrooms.

Atfirst,Iadmit,IwasskepticalaboutchangemakingandhowIcouldsingle-handedlyimplementchangemakingintomyclassroom.Butthethingis,changemakingisn’tsomethingyoudoonyourown,norisitsomethingthathastobebigenoughto“changetheworld.”Changemakingissimplymakingadifference(smallorlarge)intheworldandempoweringstudentstolearnaboutthemselvesandtheenvironmentaroundthem.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Changemakingandproject-basedlearningcanhelpallstudentsthrive,especiallythosewhodonotfitintothetraditionalmold;itprovidesallstudentswithendlesspossibilities.Ithinkaproblemthatmanystudentsandadultsfeel,isthattheymaybetooyoungorinexperiencedtosolveissues,butkidsareshowingusthecontrary.Ifteachersgavestudentsthetoolsandthefreedomtoexploreandcomeupwithinnovatingideasratherthansuppressingtheirthoughts,amazingthingscouldhappen.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Applyingchangemakingintothecurriculum,suchasproblem-basedlearning,hassomanybenefitstoastudentandtheteacher.Thestudent

learning,hassomanybenefitstoastudentandtheteacher.Thestudentismoreengagedbecausetheyarenotjustlearningananswerbutactuallyfindingproblemsandtakingownershipofthesolutions;andengagementishalfthebattle.Throwinganswersatstudentsjustweighthemdownlikegianttextbooksintheirbackpacks.Iwanttouseeducationasameanstoreducelimitationsandletthestudentsfly!(Teacher,elementaryschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORCHANGEMAKINGANDSERVICELEARNING

Becauseofthemorecontemporarynatureofchangemakingandservicelearning,additionalresourceshavebeencuratedforthebusyteacherandmaybefoundinthefollowingmaterials.

Websites

Ashoka (www.ashoka.org/en). This organization builds and cultivates acommunityofchangeleaderswhoseethattheworldnowrequireseveryonetobeachangemaker.

GeneratorSchoolNetwork(gsn.nylc.org).Thisisanonlinecommunityofmorethan 5,000 youth and adult members who have discovered how they canchangetheworldthroughservicelearning.TheGSNistheleadingresourcefor fast and easy sharing, professional development, and networking inservicelearning.

International Association for Research on ServiceLearning & CommunityEngagement (www.researchslce.org/about-us/). Founded in 2005,IARSLCE’smission is“Topromote thedevelopmentanddisseminationofresearchonservicelearningandcommunityengagementinternationallyandacrossalllevelsoftheeducationsystem.”

Service Learning Web Resources(www.goodcharacter.com/SERVICE/webresources.html). A page ofresourcesandwebsitesdevotedtoserviceopportunitiesforall.

Books/Articles

Cox, J. (n.d.). Service learning teaching strategies. Retrieved fromwww.teachhub.com/servicelearning-teaching-strategiesThisarticlehighlightsseveraleffectiveprojectsforaspiringservicelearning

educators toconsider, ranging fromhelping theelderly to students startingtheirownbusinessesforcharity.

EducationWorld. (2011). Service learning/community service.Retrieved fromwww.educationworld.com/a_curr/strategy/strategy027.shtml

George Lucas Educational Foundation. (2017). Service learning [Blog].Retrievedfromwww.edutopia.org/blogs/tag/servicelearningThis blog provides detailed articles highlighting the latest innovations inservice learning, discussion boards where educators can share ideas onvariousservicelearningtopics,andvideosfromactualservicelearningsitestoshowwhatsuccessfulprogramslooklike.

Learn and Serve: America’s National ServiceLearning Clearinghouse. (2009).K–12 servicelearning project planning toolkit. Retrieved fromwww.ffa.org/sitecollectiondocuments/lts_servicelearningtoolkit.pdf

Prensky,M.(2016).Educationtobetter theirworld.NewYork,NY:TeachersCollegePress.

Wade, R. C. (Ed.). (2000). Building bridges: Connecting classroom andcommunity through servicelearning in social studies (NCCS Bulletin No.97).Washington,DC:NationalCouncilfortheSocialStudies.

Waterman,A.S.(2014).Servicelearning:Applicationsfromtheresearch.NewYork,NY:Rutledge.

Videos

CREC.(2017,March2).Achangemakingjourney[Videofile].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=lPw3zvEn_FU&feature=youtu.be

CHAPTER4

CreatingEmotionallySafeClassrooms

I’vecometothefrighteningconclusionthatIamthedecisiveelementintheclassroom.It’smypersonal approach that creates the climate. It’smy dailymood thatmakes the weather. As ateacher,Ipossesstremendouspowertomakeastudent’slifemiserableorjoyous.Icanbeatooloftortureoraninstrumentofinspiration.Icanhumiliateorhumor,hurtorheal.Inallsituationsit ismy response that decideswhether a crisiswill be escalatedor de-escalated and a studenthumanizedorde-humanized.

HaimGinott,1972

Theseoft-quotedwordsbytherenownedpsychologistHaimGinotthavegivenpause to teachers everywhere as they ponder the immense responsibility theyholdinthecreatingofanemotionallyhealthyandsafeclassroomenvironment.Ginott’swords still resonate in our 21st-century classrooms. It is a given thatteachersmakecountlessdailymanagementanddisciplinarydecisions,someofwhich may have a lasting impact on students’ future social–emotionaldevelopment.Whetheryouareabeginningteacherseekingassistancewiththissomewhatproblematiccomponentofteachingoranexperiencedteacherlookingto add to your repertoire of workable classroom management strategies, thischapteronrestorativepracticeswillhopefullymoveyoutowardyourgoal.

Examiningclassroommanagement through the lensof restorativepracticesemphasizesthebuildingofrelationshipswithstudentsandhavingthemshareinthe responsibility of creating and maintaining a positive and safe classroomcommunity. Figure 4.1 depicts students connecting hands as an illustration ofrelationship-building.

Figure4.1.RestorativePractices

THEWHAT:RESTORATIVEJUSTICE

Restorative practices, as they are being applied to 21st-century classrooms,emerged from the larger paradigm known as restorative justice. According toHowardZehr,arecognizedfoundingfatherofthismovement,restorativejusticeintends to provide our society with alternatives to more punitivemeasures ofpunishmentforthethosewhoareinvolvedinwrongdoing.Whetherutilizedbyschools, families, communities, or prisons, persons harmed and thoseresponsible for that harm are brought together in a safe space with a goal ofpromotingdialogue,accountability,andastrongersenseofcommunity(Davis,2014).AccordingtoZehr(2014),restorativejusticeisbasedonthreepremises:

1. Harmsandneeds.Boththeoffenderandtheoffendedmustbeabletostatetheirneedsandanyharmstheybelieveweredonetothem.

2. Obligation(toputright).Theremustbeamediatedprocessthathelpstheaccusedbegintorightthewrongthatwascommitted.

3. Engagement(ofstakeholders).Adialoguemustensuewithallparties—

victim,offender,and,attimes,thefullcommunity—inordertoresolveissuesandhaveeveryonebeabletomoveforward.(p.21)

RestorativePracticesinSchools

Intheclassroom,restorativepracticeshelpstudentsownwhattheydid,makeitrightforthosehurtoraffected,andinvolvetheclassroomcommunityinhelpingboththevictimandtheoffender.Thesepracticesacknowledgethatthosewhodowrong need healing as well. Too often in classroom discipline situations weresort to thepunishment,orconsequence, first.Thiscustomcanbeseen in theseeminglybenignpracticeof requiringa student tomoveacardupordowna“consequencechart”posted in theclassroomandwitnessedbyallof theotherstudents. Even though this common discipline strategy may not generatepermanentemotionalharm,mostteacherswillattesttothefactthatthesamefewstudentsintheclassaretheoneswhogenerallyreceivethisconsequence.Anditdoesevokeabitoftheoldduncecapstigma.Perhapsitistimetochangecourseandmove in the direction of having students fully grasp the ideals ofmakingamendsandalsohavingtheirneedsmetatthesametime.

Theneed toreconsiderourcurrentmodelsofclassroomdiscipline,evenatthenationallevel,wasvoicedbyformerU.S.DepartmentofEducationSecretaryArneDuncan (2014)who asserted, “The need to re-think and redesign schooldiscipline practices is long overdue. Too many schools resort too quickly toexclusionarydiscipline,evenforminormisbehaviors.”

Adopting a restorative approach strongly supports teaching and practicingthe skills of relational literacy. A fundamental principle of the restorativeapproach is that relationships are central to learning and development. In arestorative school, all adults model this principle in their interactions withstudents and with each other by focusing on how they act in relationships,address problems,manage discipline, and resolve conflict.When teachers relyongenuinecuriosity,empathy,andcaring,wehelpstudents learnandimproverelationalskills,whilealsoimprovingtheirconnectionwithusandtoschoolingeneral.School,then,becomesasafeplaceandsomewheretheywanttobe.Noone ismore associatedwith the power of empathy to connect humans one toanother than the renowned psychologist, Carl Rogers (1969), who said thatempathy is“theattitudeof standing in theother’s shoes,ofviewing theworldthrough the student’s eyes, [which] is almost unheard of in a classroom” (p.112).

ExamplesofSchool-basedRestorativePrograms

More and more school districts are instituting whole-district restorativepractices.This trendmaybe especially true for largeurbandistrictswith theiraccompanyingissuesofstudentdiscipline,safety,andwell-being.Theworkoftwodistrictswillbehighlightedinthissection.

Oakland (CA) Unified School District (OUSD) has fully integrated

restorative justice practices into their schools. On their website(www.ousd.org/restorativejustice) they describe restorative practices in thefollowing way: “In OUSD, Restorative Justice (RJ) is a set of principles andpractices inspired by indigenous values used to build community, respond toharm/conflict and provide individual circles of support for students.” Thedistrict’s program is intended to help create learning environments where allstudentscanthriveandisbasedonthefollowingthree-tieredmodel:

Tier1:CommunityBuilding(Prevention/Relate)Tier2:RestorativeProcesses(Intervention/Repair)Tier3:SupportedRe-Entry(Individualized/Re-Integrate)

Additionally, they have integrated other complementary systems into theirschools such as Positive Behavioral Supports, African American MaleAchievement,andSocialEmotionalLearning.In2014theyconductedastudytoreviewtheeffectsthatrestorativejusticehashadontheirschoolsinthedistrict.Since2011theyhavetrainedover1,000staffinrestorativepractices,includinglaw enforcement, and seen a decrease in suspensions by half(www.ousd.org/Page/12592).

Ypsilanti (MI)HighSchool’s restorative justiceprogramengages students

in peer mediation in a conflict resolution center. These interventions aredesignedtohelpstudentsthemselvesresolvepeerconflictsbeforetheyturnintobiggerissues.Forconflictsthathavealreadyhappened,likeafight,allstudentsinvolved,aswellastheirpeers,participateina“restorativecircle,”whichallowsthestudentwhohascausedtheharmtoheartheviewsofpeers(seetheirwebsiteatwww.ycschools.us).

THEWHY:BRAINRESEARCHSUPPORTFORRESTORATIVEPRACTICES

Whenwe assess the research support for restorativepractices,weneed topay

particular attention to the word practices. Restorative practices are made ofvarious interconnecting components. For this chapter, we will limit ourdiscussion to three of these elements: (1) building empathy, (2) building agrowthmindset,and,(3)buildingcommunity.

BuildingEmpathy

There currently exists a large body of evidence in the neurosciences showingthatattention,motivation,andlearningaredrivenandguidedbyemotion.(SeeChapter 5 for more information regarding neuroscience and learning.) Theseconcepts apply not only to academics but also to learning new patterns ofbehavior.Empathyisoneofthosebehaviorsthatcanbelearned(seeexamplesofwaystoteachempathyviarestorativecirclesinthenextsection)andmayalsoaddresspeer-to-peerdifficulties,amajorconcernforchildrenandyoungpeople(Cowie, 2000; Gordon&Grant, 1997). Furthermore, research has shown thatteenagerswhoaremore empathetic do amuchbetter jobof embracing failureandturningitintoopportunitiesforlearning(Uche,2010).

BuildingaGrowthMindset

Along with the building of empathy, restorative practices also contribute tostudents’ believing themselves to be capable learners.CarolDweck, a notableresearcher at Stanford University, has brought the concept of mindset toeducators.Mindsetscanbecharacterizedasbeliefsystemsthatindividualshavedevelopedfromtheirpersonallifeexperiences.Whenconsideringmindsetsthatarerelatedto learningcapacity,Dweck(2016)asserts that thesebeliefsystemsmay be classified into either a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. A fixedmindset demonstrates the idea that traits such as intelligence are fixed at birthand thus are unchangeable. The growth mindset refers to the belief that allattributes are changeable with effort and experience (Kawinkamolroj,Triwaranyu,&Thongthew,2015).

Dweck (2016) argues that instilling a growth mindset in learners is whatparents, teachers,andstudents themselvesshouldstrive for. Inarticlesandherbook Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (2008), Dweck’s discoursecenters on research that indicates people with a growth mindset embracechallenges, persevere through setbacks, and learn from criticism. Furthermore,mistakesarenotseenbytheseachieversassomethingthatneedstobeavoided;instead, one who employs a growth mindset will see the crucial role thatmistakesplayasanenhancedlearningopportunity.AccordingtoWhitmanand

Kelleher (2016),Dweck’s research“suggestsmindset isoftenclassifiedasoneofthemostcriticalnoncognitiveskillsthatstudentsmustcultivatetomeettheirpotentialaslearnersandasindividuals”(p.42).

Finally,Dweckhasempoweredthenation’sstudentsandteachersalikewiththepopularizationofasimplethree-letterword—yet.Onemaynothavelearnedsomething, but she encourages folks to add the word yet to the end of thesentence: “Youhaven’t learned ityet.”Moreover, this notion of “yet” is fullysupportedbyresearchintheneurosciences,asyouwillreadaboutinChapter5.Brainplasticity,orthecapacityofthebraintoconstantlychangeasitformsnewpathways,enablesallofustolearnthingsthatweonceconsideredtoodifficult.Thisknowledgeregardingbrainplasticitycanbeapowerfulmotivatorifsharedwith students as it gives themhope that theywill be able to learn if they justkeeptrying.Itisnowonder,then,thatteacherseverywherearechoosingtobringthetenetsofgrowthmindsetintotheirdailylessons.

BuildingCommunity

As stated above, the building of relationships is fundamental to restorativeclassroom practices. “Everything to do with restorative justice is based onrelationshipsand theneed,when thingsgowrong, tomend relationships—andbeforethingsgowrongtostressrelationshipssoincidentsdon’toccur,”statedanadministrator with the Waterloo Region District School Board in Ontario,Canada.(Porter,2007).Portergoesontociteabundantresearchfortheefficacyofrestorativepracticessituatedinschoolsallaroundtheglobe.Forexample,arecent study of five primary and secondary schools in New Zealanddemonstrated that “restorative methods helped build respectful relationships,dealwithdisciplinaryproblemsandreducesuspensions”(Porter,2007).

THEHOW:BUILDINGSTUDENTRELATIONSHIPSTHROUGHRESTORATIVEPRACTICES

Inconsidering,again,theessentialquestionofthisbook,Howdoyouwanttobeas a teacher?, teachers who are curious will find literally dozens of ways toimplement restorative practices into their classrooms. We will now examinesomeofthemoreeffectiveones.

RestorativeCircles/ClassroomMeetings

Beforeateacherisabletoimplementanycurriculum,itisessentialtofirstbuild

relationshipsandtrustwiththestudents.Restorativecircles—variouslyknownascircle talk or classroom meetings—describe a particular classroom discussionroutine that helps create an inclusive, relationship-focused classroom.Discussions by individuals arranged in a circle are not new to the restorativepracticemovement. In fact, some believe these “talking circles” have evolvedfrom the traditions of the Indigenous Peoples of North America, which were“based upon equality between participants and the principle of sharing powerwitheachotherinsteadofhavingpoweroveroneanother”(Currie&Kaminski,2009).SeeFigure4.2foranexampleofacirclemeeting.

In her book Class Meetings: Building Leadership, Problem-Solving andDecision-Making Skills in the Respectful Classroom (2001), Donna Stylesoutlinesseveralkeycomponentsthatmakeclassmeetingsuniqueandeffective:

StudentsareaskedtositinacircleeitherontherugorontheirchairsTeachersholdmeetingsonaregularbasissothatthemeetingformatbecomesroutineforstudents.Teachersmodelaspecificformatforstudentstofollow.Studentshaveavoiceinwhatissharedinthemeetingsandmayeventaketurnsleadingthematacertainpoint.Thecontentofthemeetingsmayalternateamonggivingandreceivingcompliments,bringingupproblemsandsharingsolutions,and/orofferingsuggestionsforclassroomlearnings.

Stylesaffirmsthatintegratingclassmeetingsintonormalclassroomroutinescanbedonequiteeasilyif,rightatthebeginningoftheyear,teacherstaketimetoinstructstudentshowtointeractwithoneanotherinthesediscussioncircles.Someofthesebehaviorsincludetheteachingandrehearsingwithstudentsoftheways to offer encouragement to others (i.e.,What does encouragement soundlikeinourclassroom?Whatdoesitlooklike?)Afterseveraltrialmeetings,withthe teacher leading and modeling the process, students can serve as leaders,themselves, and take turns as the discussion leader during the school year.(Adaptedfromwww.educationworld.com/a_curr/profdev/profdev012.shtml)

Figure4.2.RestorativeCircles

SettingUpMorningMeetings.Someclassroommeetingshaveevolvedintomorningmeetingsandoccuratthebeginningofeachschoolday.Inadditiontoall of the other benefits of classroom meetings, morning meetings have theaddedopportunityofestablishingapositiveclassroomatmospherebycatchingstudents right at the start of the school day. Teachers have considered thesemorning meetings to be essential to getting each day off to a good start.AccordingtotheResponsiveClassroomModel(www.responsiveclassroom.org)morningmeetingshavefourkeycomponents:

1. Greeting.Thegreetingtimeisthe“Hello,I’mgladtoseeyou”portionofthemorningmeeting.Notonlydoesthegreetingwelcomeeachchildintotheclassroomeachday,thispracticealsoteachescriticalsocialskillsthatarenecessarytonavigatelife.

2. Sharing.Thesharingcomponentisestablishedforeveryonetohaveavenuetoshareanyimportantinformationthatishappeningintheirlives,forexample,thebirthofanewbaby,theacquisitionofapet,orthemilitarydeploymentofaparent.Teachershavefoundthatthetimegivenovertostudent-sharing,whiletakinguppreciousclassroomminutes,isworthitsweightingoldasitoftentimesinformsthemofcriticalinformationaboutthechild’sneedsthatotherwisemightnotbeknown,andfostersempathyandconnectionamongstudents.

3. Activity.Theactivityismeanttoengagestudentsinteambuilding,problemsolving,orcommunicationwhileitalsobuildsstudents’SELskills.

4. Morningmessage.Themorningmessageistheteacher’sopportunitytosettheagendafortheday.Themessageisusuallyreadbystudents,butitmayalsobestatedorallybytheteacher.(www.responsiveclassroom.org/what-is-morning-meeting/)

One comment attesting to the power of morning meetings to createemotionally safe classrooms was made by Maurice Sykes, former DeputySuperintendentfortheDistrictofColumbiaschoolsystem:“MorningMeetingisasilentbulldozerinthefieldofschoolreform”(Kriete,2011).

MorningMeetingPrompts.Teacherscananddocreatemanyvariationsfor

the steps of the morning meeting and, while doing so, are able to also addconnectionstothecorecurriculumthroughmoreacademicprompts.Hereareafewadaptationsthatmayworkinavarietyofgrade-levelsettings.

Greeting.Studentsmaysay“goodmorning_______”astheypersonalizethegreetingtothenextpersoninthecircle.Studentsmaycountby5sor10sastheysay“goodmorning”aroundthecircle.Studentsmaysay“goodmorning”insignlanguageoradifferentlanguage.Studentsmayshakehands,orhigh-fiveeachotheraroundthecircle.Sharing.Studentsmay“checkin”withsomethingpersonalintheirlives.Studentsmaysharesomethingtheyobservedonthewaytoschool.Studentsmayrespondwithsomethingtheyhaveseenathome,inthecommunity,onTV,orinabookthatcamefromanothercountry.Studentsmayrespondwithsomethingthattakesenergytouse.Studentsmayrespondwithnoticingakinddeedthattheyhavewitnessed.Activity.Studentsmaytakeamomenttointerviewanotherstudentandthensharewiththegroupsomethingnewtheyhavelearnedabouttheirclassmate.Studentsmayplayagameandsay,“Ispysomeonewhogotanewpuppy,”andtherestofthestudentsgetthreetriestoguesswhichoftheirpeersfitsthatstatement.Studentsmayplay“Standupifyou_____”inwhichtheywouldcompletethepromptwithaphrasetheychoose(e.g.,“liketoplaybaseball”);then,allthechildrenwhoagreewiththestatementwillstandup;thenthenextchildrepeatstheprompt,“Standupifyou_____,”andfillsinadifferentpreference.Studentsmaypassaround(ortoss)anobjecttoseehowmanytimestheycandoitwithout

someonedroppingit;thentheystartalloveragainandtrytobeattheirrecord;forolderstudentsyoumayaddmoreobjects(liketennisballs)tomakeitmorechallenging;thegoal,asthestudentssoonrealize,isoneofcooperationratherthancompetition.Studentsmayplaceacoloreddotontheirforeheadandseeiftheyareabletofindotherswiththesamecolor(teachersneedtohave3”5differentcolorsavailable).MorningMessage.Whiletheteacherusuallysharessomehighlightsoftheday’sactivities,itcanalsobeamomenttohavestudentsrelaxand“gearup”(asinpretendingtowindup)theirbraintostartthedaywithfullbrainpower.

ClassroomMeetingsforSecondaryClassrooms

Whilemanyoftheideasaboveseemmoreapplicabletoelementaryclassrooms,teachers in middle and high school classrooms have also begun to see thebenefitsforschedulingregulartimesforallstudentstocometogetherinacircle-discussion format. Secondary students, perhaps even more than elementarystudents, are sociallyawareandwant tobe likedand respectedby theirpeers.Therefore, having a routine of classroom meetings (maybe not daily as inelementary classrooms) has been shown to have a positive effect on studentlearningandthecreationofanemotionallysafeclassroomenvironment.

Theactivitiesandquestionswould,ofcourse,bechosentofit theneedsofolder students (e.g., sharing opinions regarding a social or political issue;problem solving regarding a conflict, either related to the class or one that isentrenched in society; brainstorming a project; discussing social media andsafetyconcerns)andtherewouldbemoreopportunitiesforstudent-initiatedandstudent-led discussion formats. In fact, some school districts have begun torequireclassroommeetingsinallclassrooms.Forexample,onthewebsiteoftheBrowardCounty(FL)PublicSchools(n.d.),researchsupportfortheefficacyofclassroommeetingsand ideas for teachers isprominentlydisplayed.“Researchindicates class meetings can enhance relationships, increase effectivecommunicationandproblemsolving,whilefacilitatingapositive,caringschoolclimateforlearning.Classmeetingsareanongoingpreventionandinterventiontool designed to enhance students’ social and ethical development, whileincreasing school, teacher and peer connectedness”(www.browardschools.com/Page/41477).

Onceyouhaveintroducedtheconceptofclassroommeetingsandgoneoverrespectgroundrules,youcanuse thesenoncontent-relatedquestionprompts togetconversationsstartedforsecondarystudents.Andremember,oneoftherules

for classroom meetings is that anyone can choose to “pass” as the questionsrevolve around the circle. This rule of passing allows all to feel safe and incharge of whether or not they choose to speak during a particular round ofquestions.

Whatis/areyourfavoriteortop3favorites:actor,musicstyle,musician,animals,songs,movies,books,thingsyouown,foods,phrases,memories?Why?Whatareyourtop3peopleyourespectandwhy?Adviceyouwereevergiven?Thingsyouwanttodoinyourlife?Ifyouhadsuperpowers,whatwouldtheybe?Whatcouldourschooldotoimprove?Whatissomethingthatyouthinkteensunderstand,butadultsdonot?Ifyoucouldgoanywhereintheworld,wherewouldyougoandwhy?Cankindnessbecool?Whyorwhynot?

RespectAgreements

Anotherwaytoimplementrestorativejusticewouldbeinthecreationofrespectagreements.Inthisstrategy,everyoneisaskedtobrainstormwhatrespectlookslike, sounds like, and feels like in their classroombetween student and teacherandalsobetweenstudentandstudent.Theagreementsarepostedinaprominentplace in theclassroomand,whenevercalledfor, theentireclasswoulddiscussconsequenceshouldsomeonenotabidebytheagreements.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Here are someways other teachers have incorporated principles of restorativepracticesintotheirclassrooms.

Iwanttoincorporatethegrowthmindsetintomyteachingstrategiesthroughouttheyear,buttostart,Ialsowanttocreateamini-lessonatthebeginningoftheyearthatintroducestheideathatintelligenceisfluidandnotfixed.Iplantobringgrowthmindsetintomyclassroomsothatallstudentsfeelthatsuccessisattainablewithhardworkandeffort.(Teacher,highschool)

The“yetsensibility”referstothechangeinourthinking.Oftentimeswehearstudentssay,“Ican’tdoit”(yet).Ifweteachourstudentsthisword“yet”thentheyarelesslikelytofeeldefeatedorlikeafailure.Rather,

“yet”thentheyarelesslikelytofeeldefeatedorlikeafailure.Rather,theywilldevelopperseveranceandunderstandthattheycanjusttryagain.Whatagreatoutlookonlifeandapositiveapproachtoattemptingtotackleachallengingtask.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Mylastsitedidaprofessionaldevelopmentdayonthepotentialnegativeeffectsofpraise,andhowtousepraiseappropriatelytoencourageandempowerourstudentswhilefosteringagrowthmindset.Ifstudentsbelievethatgrowthisalwayspossible,theyaremorelikelytoperseverewhenfacedwithacademicchallenge.Ifastudentispraisedintobelievingthattheyare“smart”whatdoesthatmeanforthemwhentheyarefacedwithadifficulttask?(Teacher,elementaryschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORCREATINGRESTORATIVEPRACTICES

Resolving tocreaterestorativepractices inclassroomsrequiressomereflectionandadvanceplanning.Fortunately, therearearangeofvaluableresources thatwillhelpeducatorslearnmoreaboutthesubjectanddevelopaplanthatfitstheirobjectives.Here are a few from restorative justice practitioners and advocatesthatofferinsight:

Websites

RestorativeSolutions(www.restorativesolutions.us).Alistofresourcesincludesnotonlybooksandreportsbutalsoguidesandmanuals for actually implementing restorative justice practices into theschool.

SchoolTurnaroundLearningCommunity(www.schoolturnaroundsup-port.org).Thissiteoffersaguidethatteachesrestorativejusticeskills,suchasconflictresolution and critical thinking, that help prepare students for college andcareers. It gives models that can be implemented, such as peacemakingcircles, peer juries, mediation, and conferencing, in order to respond toconflictintheschoolcommunity.

Books/Articles

Advancement Project. (2014). Restorative justice: Fostering healthyrelationships & promoting positive discipline in schools. Retrieved from

schottfoundation.org/restorative-practicesYou’ll findmany different examples of restorative practices in this guidefrom the National Opportunity to Learn Campaign. In addition, the guideprovidesimplementationtipsandstrategies,aswellasexamplesfromschooldistricts

Ashley, J., & Burke, K. (n.d.). Implementing restorative justice: A guide forschools. Retrieved fromwww.sccgov.org/sites/pdo/ppw/SESAP/Documents/SCHOOL%20RJP%20GUIDEBOOOK.pdfProduced by the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, thiscomprehensiveguidefocusesonwaysthatschoolscanintegraterestorativejustice practices at their school. The guide looks at challenges toimplementation,definesthesubject,andprovidesthreeapproachestousingrestorativejusticeinschool.

Davis, F. E. (2014, September 26). 8 tips for schools interested in restorativejustice [Blog post]. Retrieved fromwww.edutopia.org/blog/restorativejustice-tips-for-schools-fania-davis

Davis, V. (2014). Social entrepreneurship: 7 ways to empower studentchangemakers [Blog post]. Retrieved fromwww.edutopia.org/blog/empowering-student-changemakers-vicki-davis

Flannery,M.E.(2014).NEAandpartnerspromoterestorativejusticeinschools.Retrieved from neatoday.org/2014/03/24/nea-and-partners-promote-restorativejustice-in-schools/

San Francisco Unified School District. (n.d.). Restorative practices: Whole-school implementation guide. Retrieved fromwww.healthiersf.org/RestorativePractices/Resources/documents/SFUSD%20Whole%20School%20Implementation%20Guide%20final.pdf.The San Francisco Unified School District uses restorative practicesthroughout the district. This guide provides a framework for planning,implementing, and using restorative practices across a school or district.There are many useful insights into the unique considerations ofimplementingaprogram.

Smith, J. A. (2012, March 6). Can restorative justice keep schools safe?Retrieved fromgreatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/can_restorative_justice_keep_schools_safe

Videos

Dweck, C. (2014, November). The power of believing that you can improve(TED Talks) [Video file]. Retrieved fromwww.ted.com/talks/carol_dweck_the_power_of_believing_that_you_can_improve

“CarolDweckresearches‘growthmindset’—theideathatwecangrowourbrain’s capacity to learn and to solve problems. In this talk, she describestwowaystothinkaboutaproblemthat’sslightlytoohardforyoutosolve.Areyounotsmartenoughtosolveit…orhaveyoujustnotsolvedityet?”

EelRiverDATA.(2014,June3).Changetheworld:EverysenioratFortunaHighSchoolischangingtheworld.Nowit’syourturn.#ChangetheWorld[Videofile]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFG51sLjkOM&feature=youtu.be

PartII

THESCIENCEOFTEACHING

CHAPTER5

BrainScience101

WhatTeachersNeedtoKnow

Teachersarebrainchangersastheyaretaskedwithchangingstudents’brainseverysingleday.

DavidSousa,2008

DavidSousa(2008)hasbestoweduponteachersthetitle“brainchangers.”Whata powerful and accurate term as we truly do have the capacity to changestudents’brainseverysingleday!Ifyouarethinkingthatthisclaimmaybeabitexaggerated,considerthatrecentstudiesontheintricateworkingsofthehumanbrainarehelpingus tocomprehend thinkingprocesses thathavemystifiedourpredecessors. What’s more, this new information is not just for scientists.Twenty-first centurymedia sources (newspapers, television, the Internet) havenow shared this wealth of informationwith the general public. Based on thisemerging science of learning, educators and cognitive scientists alike havebeguntosuggestthatmodelsofinstructionusedineducationforthepast100+yearsneedtobemodifiedand, insomecases, radicallychanged, if theyare tooperateinharmonywithwhatwenowknowabouthowthebrainlearns.

This chapter will present the new science of learning informed byneuroscientists and cognitive psychologists. We will examine some of thenewest researchon thehumanbrainanddiscusshowthat research impacts theday-to-daylearningandteachinginyourclassroom.

To begin this discussion, in the early part of the 21st century, agroundbreakingbook,HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,Experience,andSchool(Bransford,Brown&Cocking,2000) rocked theeducationalworld.Thisbookintendedtomakeknowncurrentresearchonthehumanbrainandthentranslatethisknowledge intopractical termsforeducators.Threeoverarchingprinciplesweresynthesized:

1. Importanceofpriorknowledge.Studentscometotheclassroomwith

preconceptionsabouthowtheworldworks.Iftheirinitialunderstandingisnotengaged,theymayfailtograspthenewconceptsandinformation,ortheymaylearnthemforthepurposesofatest,butreverttotheirpreconceptionsoutsidetheclassroom.

2. Importanceofconceptualunderstanding.Inordertodevelopcompetenceinanareaofinquiry,studentsmust(a)haveadeepfoundationoffactualknowledge,(b)understandfactsandideasinthecontextofaconceptualframework,and(c)organizeknowledgeinwaysthatfacilitateretrievalandapplication.

3. Importanceofmetacognition.Ametacognitiveapproachtoinstruction(orhavingstudentsreflectupontheirownthinkingprocesses)canhelpstudentstakecontroloftheirownlearningbydefininglearninggoalsandmonitoringtheirprogressinachievingthem.(pp.1–2)

Beforegoingmoredeeplyintohowtheseprinciplesmaybeappliedtoyourclassroominstruction,letusfirstexaminethebrainitself.

THEWHAT:WHATTHEBRAINCANTELLUS

“Thehumanbrain isoneof themostelegantandcomplicatedstructures in theentireuniverse”(Hansen,Buczynski,&Puckett,2015,p.261).Yetwiththeallof thenewadvances in theneurosciences,we still donotunderstandall of itshiddenmysteries,andpossiblyneverwill.However,muchinformationhasbeenaccumulated that has aided educators to do theirworkmore effectively. Let’snowlookatwhatiscurrentlyknownaboutthebrain.

TheU.S.Congressdeclaredthe1990sTheDecadeoftheBrain.Theintentwas to leverage as many scientific resources as was possible toward theunderstandingof thismysterious“three-pounduniverse,”as thebrainhasbeencalled.Sincethattime,knowledgeoftheinnerworkingsofthehumanbrainhastakenofflike,well,rocketscience.Theexplosioninourcurrentcomprehensionoccurredmainly fromadvances in technology that have allowed scientists andphysicians toviewa living,humanbrainatwork.Oneof these technologies ismagneticresonanceimaging(MRI),whichusesstrongmagneticfieldsandradiowaves to form images of the body. In addition to conventionalMRI,wehavefunctional MRI (fMRI). This advancement has enabled neuroscientists toexaminethebrainwhileapersonisengagedinactual thinking.ThisfMRIhasyieldedthecritical information thathumansstoreexperiences inmanypartsofthebrain.Apersonisn’tjustavisuallearneroranauditorylearner.Rather,weall use all of our available senses to learn. Another of these technologies is

computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans, which take images of slicesthrough the brain by beamingX-rays at the head frommany different angles.Still another technology is the positron emission tomography (PET) scans,whichtakeimagesofradioactivemarkersinthebrain.Moreover,evenasthesetechnologies are revealing much of the brain’s workings, more powerfultechnologiesarebeingdevelopedbyscientistsintheunendingquesttouncovermoreandmoreofthebrain’ssecrets.

What are these secrets? Let’s begin the discussion by talking about thenumberofcells,orneurons,inthehumanbrain.Neuroscientistshavecalculatedthat number to be somewhere between 68–100 billion (Azevedo et al., 2009).Howeverlargethatnumbermaybe,thefullstoryisevenmoreastounding.Eachneuron has the capacity to connectwith 1,000–100,000 other brain cells. Thisfunction makes the possible connections in the brain about 100 trillion, anastronomicalnumbertobesure,andatleast1,000timesthenumberofstarsinourgalaxy(Goldman,2010).

Thesebillionsofneurons that compose thebraincontain threemainparts:the soma or cell body; the dendrite branches; and the axon, or the tail of thebraincell.Figure5.1showsavisualdiagramofthepartsofabraincell.

CellCommunication

Cell communication is at the heart of thinking.When stimulated by incominginformation, brain cells fire starting with receptors on each dendrite, thencontinuing through thecellbody, andout through theaxon.During this stage,communication is electrical in nature. However, once the electrical signalreaches theendof theaxon, it stopsandachemical reaction takesplace.Thischemicalprocessisfacilitatedthroughtheactionofneurotransmitterswhosejobit is to release chemicals from the tip of the axon and allow the signal tocontinue,ornottocontinueasthecasemaybe.Ifallowed,thesignaljumpsoveramicroscopicspacecalledasynapseandtheprocess(andthinking)continues.Itisimportanttonotethatbraincellsdonotactuallytouchoneanother.Thesignalmustjumpoverthesynapticjuncture.

Figure5.1.PartsofaBrainCell

Theactivityworks somewhat like akeyanda lock.Theneurotransmitters(chemicals)areactingasakeylookingfortherightlock(connection)inthenextsetofdendrites. If theneurotransmitters are, indeed, the correctkey, theywill“unlock” thenext dendrite allowing the information to continueon itsway. Ifnot, thenthesignal ishaltedandthebrainattempts tofindadifferentpathway(orsetofdendrites)withwhichtoconnect.Thisactivityhasbeencomparedtosupermarketcheck-outlanes.Whenthreelanesareopen,itislikethreereceptorsbeing available on the receiving dendrite. These receiving dendrites (like newcheck-out lanes) won’t fire unless there is a significant amount of pressure,meaninglotsofneurotransmittersarebeingejected.Likeasupermarketthathasmany customers, new lanes (dendrites) open up to receive the incoming data.Andifyoustillhavemoreinformationcomingin,andallofthe(supermarket)lanesarefull,thebrainmaygrowanentirelynewbudonthedendrite,likeanewwingaddedontothesupermarket(Sousa,2008).

EducationalInsightsfromNeuroscience

Neuroscience is not simply theoretical knowledge; it can greatly inform yourteachingpractices.Forexample,thepreviousexplanationoftheinnerworkingsofthebrainhasbeenprovidedtounderscorethreesignificantpoints:First,eachofyourlearnersisequippedwithbillionsofneuronsofbrainpower(Azevedoetal., 2009).What thismeans is that each learner hasmore than enough neural“hardware”togetthejobdone.Second,eachofyourlearnerscontinuouslyaddsnewconnections(dendrites)throughtheexperiencestheyencounter(Wilson&Conyers, 2013). Therefore, themore experienceswe provide for students, themore their brains will grow. The term for this process is neuroplasticity, theability of the brain to change and grownewdendrites throughout one’s entirelife. The human brain has a very high level of plasticity, but its growth anddevelopment are most potent during the years that children are in school.Schools and teachers should feel both empowered and responsible for thisopportunitytogreatlyinfluencetheformationofaperson.Thatwindowisagiftthat we must take advantage of and be conscious of while we educate ourstudents(Whitman&Kelleher,2016).Finally,eachlearner’sbrainisdifferent.Neurodiversity is an expression that has been proposed to replace the termlearningdisabled.Quite simply, itmeans that allbrainsaredifferent.Humanshave thousands of differences in the way we begin and adapt to life on theplanet.Therefore, itshouldbenosurprise that learners learnindifferentways.Theolddistinctionthateducatorshaveplacedbetween“normal”and“learning-disabled”brains isgivingway to abroader conception that thedifferencesweseeinlearnersareactuallyquitenormal.Infact,insightsfromneuropsychologyseemtoindicatethateveryonecouldbeconsideredtobelearning-disabled(andleaning-abled)tosomedegree(Immordino-Yang,2007).

THEWHY:THEEXPANDINGROLEOFCOGNITIVESCIENCEINCLASSROOMPRACTICE

Thosewhotranslate informationfromtheneuroscientists toclassroompracticearecalledcognitivescientistsorcognitivepsychologists.Inthissectionwewilldiscussprinciplesthathelpusbetterunderstandstudentlearning.

Even as the immense capacities of the brain have been set forth in theprecedingsection,sowemustnowexamineanotheraspectofthebrain,thebaneof teachers everywhere—forgetting.There is not a teacher alivewhodoes notstruggle against student forgetting. In fact, itwould appear to be the case thathumansmayforgetmorethanwelearn.And, inaveryrealsense, thismaybetrue.Cognitivepsychologistshavetheorizedthattheactofforgettingmustservea useful function as each brain has set up many hurdles to move incoming

information first from awareness, next to short-term memory (or workingmemory),andfinallytolong-termstorage.

Using our own learning experiences as a guide, we all know that it isdifficult to remember a large amount of incoming information. This fact offorgetting has been confirmed by cognitive scientistswho believe these limitshelp us function (survive) by not becoming overwhelmed with tremendousamountsofnewdatatoprocess(Cowan,2005).Isthere,then,awaytoassistthebrain to minimize forgetting and to maximize long-term memory for ourstudents?Cognitivepsychologistssayyes,andadvocate threegeneral teachingpractices:(1)usingtargetedsensoryinput,(2)increasingthemeaningfulnessofinput,and(3)increasingpositiveemotionalresponsetoinput.

UsingTargetedSensoryInput

Onewaythatteachersmayinfluencelong-termmemoryinlearnersisbybeingmore intentional as to students’ sensory input channels. The three mostcommonly employed in classrooms are auditory, visual, and touch/movement(kinesthetic).Wearetaughtearlyinourcareerstoteachtoastudent’sdominantlearning style in order to effectively differentiate instruction for each learner.However, Whitman and Kelleher (2016) address this misconception: “Allstudentslearnbestwhentaughtinavarietyofmodalities”(p.28).Andinfact,aswearelearningfromfMRIs,deliveringinstructioninavarietyofmodesallowsthebraintostorethelearninginnotjustone,butmanyareasofthebrain.Thisawareness is especially important, as even today, teacher talk still appears todominatemostclassroomsastheprimarysensoryinputchannel.

MakeInputMeaningful

Cognitive scientists havenoted that thebrainusespersonalmeaning as a lenswithwhich todecidewhich information tokeepordiscard. Information that ispersonally meaningful for the learner is handled differently and more likelyremembered longer (Sousa, 2017). Therefore, teachers are encouraged to settheirsightsonthebuildingof theirstudents’ long-termmemoriesbydesigninglearningactivitiesthatevokepersonalmeaning.

Listening to a lecture may not be inherently meaningful to students.However, helping students better process the content has been found to helpthem discover meaning (Wang, Pascarella, Nelson Laird, & Ribera, 2015).Creatingopportunities forsimplepeer-to-peerdiscussions,writing in reflectivejournals, or creating graphic organizers are ways that you may assist your

studentsinfindingconnectionsandthusmakingthelearningmoremeaningfultothem.

Research also points to student choice as a factor in making the learningmoremeaningful (Hardiman, 2003). Therefore, adding even simple choices toassignmentsmay increase students’ ability to create personalmeaning.Choicemayalsobeafactor incognitionas itallowslearners tocreateaddedpersonalmeaninginthetask(Walsh&Gluck,2015).

ActivateEmotions

Neuroscientistsalsohaveinformededucatorsregardingthenotionthatlearninghas an emotional component. Strong emotions make learning memorable(Whitman & Kelleher, 2016). Figure 5.2 portrays the emotional aspect oflearning.Immordino-Yang(2007)stressed,“Idon’tliketothinkofemotionandcognition as separate things. There’s thinking.And thinking has an emotionalaspect,andithasacognitiveaspect”(p.66).Researchershavestateditthisway:Emotion drives attention and attention drives memory (Sylwester, 1994). Inotherwords,wecannotrememberthatwhichwearenotpayingattentionto.Andthebrainsofour learnersdopayattentionto thatwhichactivelyengages themandisaccompaniedbystrongpositiveemotions.

Hillman(1997)assertsthatnoveltyplaysaverybigroleinthebrain’sabilityto store information. In fact,LeDoux (2003)went even further and noted thatwhen humans experience a novel or surprising event, the brain goes onheightened alert and releases specific neurotransmitters that in turn create anemotionalresponsefortheindividual.Mostteachersinherentlyknowthis truthand continually work to infuse novelty into their lessons to help studentsrememberlongerandlearnbetter.

THEHOW:BRAINYTEACHING

Asthe21stcenturyhasbroughtforthmoreandmoreinformationregardinghowthebraindevelopsandlearns,educatorshavebeenbusyputtingthisknowledgeto use with what have been termed brain-compatible or brainbased teachingstrategies.Teachers,likewise,begantonoticeincreasedstudentengagementandlearningwhenusingthesestrategies.Let’snowexaminesomegeneralcategoriesofbrainbasedteaching:learningthroughnarrative,learningthroughexperience,andlearningthroughvisuals.

Figure5.2.LearningInvolvesanEmotionalComponent

LearningThroughNarrative

Using narrative (or story) to deliver content can positively affect studentretention. “When that new information, whether from algebra or history, ispresented in the familiar narrative form, the memory structure facilitates thebrain’s retention of that information” (Willis, 2017, p. 1). Using narrativeemploysall threeoftheaforementionedprocesses—itengagesouremotions, itmakes learning more meaningful, and the story activates our visual imagery.Figure5.3modelshownarrativestoriesmayengagelearners’emotions.

Language Arts.We see examples of using narrative to teach even as far

backasancientGreecewherepoems,liketheIliad,wereusedasteachingtoolsforstudentstolearnhistory,geography,andscience.

Figure5.3.LearningContentThroughNarrative

History.Everyteacherofhistoryunderstandsthepowerofhistoricalfiction.AndLongfellow’s famouspoem,“PaulRevere’sRide,” isaveritablestaple inthe U.S. History classroom. State-level Departments of Education regularlypublishcorelistsofliteraturebookstousetoteachsocialstudies.However,youalsomay find suitable listson the Internet.Onone such site,Goodwin (2018)lists book titles for various grade bands. Here are some of her selections forelementary,middle,andhighschool:

ElementaryGrades

Chang’sPaperPony byEleanorCoerr:This story is aboutChang,who is thesonofChinese immigrants living inSanFrancisco during the 1850sGoldRush.

Come Morning (Adventures in Time) by Leslie Davis Guccione: Set in theAmericanCivilWarperiod,thisbookisaboutaboyandhisfatherhelpingslavesescapeviatherouteknownasthe“UndergroundRailroad.”

MiddleSchool

Mara,DaughteroftheNilebyEloiseJarvisMcGraw:ThisstorytakesplaceinancientEgyptandrecountsafictionalizedtaleofQueenHatshepsut’srule.

EsperanzaRisingbyPamMunozRyan:SetinMexicointhe1930s,thisstoryisabouta13-year-oldgirl andher immigration to theUnitedStateswithherparentsduringtheGreatDepression.

ChainsbyLaurieHalseAnderson:Isabel,a13-year-oldgirllivinginNewYork,

helpsthepatriotsduringtheRevolutionaryWar.

HighSchool

AMad,WickedFollybySharonBiggs:This story is set inLondonduring theEdwardianeraandshowsthechallengesforwomenatthattime.

Uprising by Margaret Peterson Haddix: One of the deadliest work-relatedtragedies to happen in the United States, the Triangle Shirtwaist FactoryFire,isrecountedfromtheperspectiveoftwogirls,onerichandonepoor.

FlygirlbySherriL.Smith:ThisisabeautifulstoryofIdaMaeJones,ayoungBlackwomaninthe1940swhowantedtojointheWomenAirforceServicePilotsduringWorldWarII.

Science. Each year the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)

publishes a list of Outstanding Trade Books for Teaching K–12 Science(http://www.nsta.org/publications/ostb/).Now,withtheintroductionoftheNextGenerationScienceStandards (NGSS), there is a concerted effort to showcasegenderequityandpersonsofcolorinthedoingofscience.Someofthesetitlesinclude:

Elementary

AdaTwist,ScientistbyAndreaBeatyandDavidRobertsIggyPeck,ArchitectbyAndreaBeatyandDavidRobertsRosieRevere,EngineerbyAndreaBeatyandDavidRoberts

MiddleSchool

AdaByronLovelaceandtheThinkingMachinebyLaurieWallmarkTheFantasticFerrisWheelbyKraft,Salerno,andHoltMagnificentMindsbyPendredNoyce

Figure5.4.ExperientialLearning

HighSchool

TheOctopusScientistsbySyMontgomeryFoodEngineering:FromConcepttoConsumerbyMichaelBurganHomeAddress:ISSbyJamesBuckley,Jr.

Mathematics.Eveninmathematics,teachersareshownwhyitisimportant

touseproblems thatare lesscontrived (i.e., theubiquitousstoryproblem)andmoreauthentic.Examplescould includecraftinganarrativecontext fora real-worldproblemthatneedssolvingviamathematicalthinking.

LearningThroughExperience

The idea of learning through experience sounds almost self-evident becausehumans undergo innumerable experiences on any given day. However,classroom learning is generally second-hand—listening or watching someoneelse—andnotthroughdirectexperience.Nevertheless,experientiallearning,orlearning by doing, is one of themost powerful avenues for the brain to storeinformation for long-term retrieval. (Figure 5.4 showcases an example of

experiential learning.) And to do this, humans need experiences. Educatorsdatingback toDewey(1916)have longadvocatedforschools to includemoreexperiential learning in the curriculum. Following are just a few ideas that fitnicelyintovarioussubjectareas.

Language Arts. Students may create plays that teach a concept. For

example,ifyouareteachingsubject–verbagreementasagrammarlesson,havestudentsactoutthe“shakingofhands”whenthesubjectandtheverbagree,andno handshakewhen the subject and the verb do not agree. For older students,theymayworkina“publishinghouse”andwriteadifferentendingforasharedpieceofliteratureandthenactouttheirnovelending.

HistoryandSocialStudies.More thananyother contentdiscipline, social

studies lends itself particularly well to experiential learning. Teachers maychooseamongmock trials, simulations,andhistoricalplays toengagestudentsin immersingthemselves in the livedexperiencesofothers.Thefollowingwillserve as examples of creative and conceptually deep experiential learningexperiences.

1.MocktrialsForolderstudents:

TheAztecPeopleoftheStateofMexicov.HernanCortes.ThroughamocktrialstudentswilldecidewhetherornotCortesandhismenwereguiltyofstealingthelandsoftheAztecpeople.ThePapalStatesofRomev.Galileo.-StudentswillactouttheopposingsidesofthePapalStatesofRomeandGalileotodeterminetheguiltorinnocenceofGalileofortheactoftreasonbyadvocatingandteachingtheoriesaboutplanetsandstarsthatdestroytheauthorityofbiblicallaw.RobinHood.Studentsexaminewhetherornotitisillegaltostealfromtherichtogivetothepoor.

Foryoungerstudents:Goldilocksv.theThreeBears.Goldilocksisputontrialforbreakingandenteringthehomeofthethreebearsandperformingactsofvandalism.JackandtheBeanstalk.StudentswilltakeopposingsidesofJackandtheGianttodecidetheguiltorinnocenceofJackforstealingthegoldenharpandthehenthatlaysgoldeneggs.

Figure5.5.NGSSScienceandEngineeringPractices

Source: National Research Council. (2011). A framework for K–12 science education: Practices,crosscutting concepts, and core ideas.Committee onConceptualFramework for theNewK–12ScienceEducationStandards

2.SimulationsImmigration1880.AsenatecommitteeisthesettingforthissimulationwheresenatorshearthetestimonyofimmigrantswhohaverecentlyarrivedintheUnitedStatesandmustdecidetheirfate.ThereWasanOldWomanWhoLivedinaShoe.TheproblemsoffindingsuitablehousingforafamilywithchildrenisconsideredataCityHallmeeting.

3.HistoricalplaysTheGreatTeaParty.StudentsbecometheSonsofLibertyandsetinmotiontheactionsbefore,during,andaftertheBostonTeaParty.TheGoldRush.Throughcreativedrama,studentsimprovisedialoguethatdepictsthe49ersandthereasonstheydecidetocometoCaliforniaandthedifficultiestheyencounter.TheSit-in.StudentsreenactscenesfromtheCivilRightsmovementinthe1950sand1960s.

Science Examples. The new Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)

support the experiential learning of scientific inquiry. Every one of the eightScience and Engineering Practices (SEPs) (see Figure 5.5) require active

engagementbystudents.Examplesofclassroomscienceactivitiesfortheeightpracticesmightinclude:

Askingquestions(forscience)anddefiningproblems(forengineering).Havestudentsinteractwithrealsciencephenomenaandaskquestionsaboutwhattheywonderabouttheparticularphenomenon(e.g.,PatternsinDailyWeather(primarygrades);ElNino(middleschool);ClimateChange(highschool)Developingandusingmodels.Havestudentscreateamodelofabraincell;engineeranenvironmentallyandculturallysensitivemodeltocontainanddecreasethesizeofthePacificGarbagePatch;usevisualandmathematicalmodelstosolvewavemeasurementproblems;orcreateamodelofasportshelmetthatcanprotectthebrain.Planningandcarryingoutinvestigations.Havestudentsactivelyengageinauthenticscientificinvestigationsthatyieldreal(andsometimes“messy”)dataratherthanusinga“confirmationlab,”inwhichstudentsfollowaprescribedlessoninordertoobtaintheresultsthattheteacher(ortextbook)hasinmind.Analyzingandinterpretingdata.Havestudentsanalyzedatasetsthatareobtainedfromtheinvestigationsandexperiencevariationinfindingsfromonetoanothersothattheyareallowedtoexperiencedatavarianceintherealworld.Usingmathematicsandcomputationalthinking.Havestudentsutilizethethinkingskillsofmathematicsandcomputerscienceandapplythemtoscientificproblems.AsWing(2006)asserts,“Computationalthinkingisafundamentalskillforeveryone,notjustforcomputerscientists”(p.33).Whenstudentsareaskedtoapplycomputationalthinkingtoauthenticscientificissues,theynaturallylearntoemploythefollowingprocesses:

UsingabstractionsandpatternrecognitiontorepresenttheprobleminnewanddifferentwaysLogicallyorganizingandanalyzingdataBreakingtheproblemdownintosmallerpartsApproachingtheproblemusingprogrammaticthinkingtechniquessuchasiteration,symbolicrepresentation,andlogicaloperationsReformulatingtheproblemintoaseriesoforderedsteps(algorithmicthinking)Identifying,analyzing,andimplementingpossiblesolutionswiththegoalofachievingthemostefficientandeffectivecombinationofstepsandresources

Generalizingthisproblem-solvingprocesstoawidevarietyofproblems(k12cs.org/computational-thinking/)

Constructingexplanations(forscience)anddesigningsolutions(forengineering).Havestudentsengageintheexperientialdesigningofsolutionstoreal-worldproblems.Engaginginargumentfromevidence.Havestudentsdebatetheirfindingswithotherstudentsorgroupsofstudentsasrealscientistsdoatascientificseminar.Havethemexplaintheevidencesetsthatledtotheclaimstheyaremaking.OnewaytoaccomplishthistaskistohavestudentsengageinaworksessioninwhichtheyuseaClaim/Evidence/Reasoning(CER)template.(SeeFigure5.6foraCERtemplate.)Obtaining,evaluating,andcommunicatinginformation.Havestudentscreateblogsorpodcaststocommunicatefindingsfromtheirscientificinvestigations.(SeeChapter8forinformationonbloggingandpodcasting.)

Figure5.6.ClaimEvidenceReasoning(CER)Template

Figure5.7.EightCommonCoreMathematicalPractices

Source: CommonCore State Standards forMathematics (CCSSM).Washington, DC:NGA&CCSSO.(Seewww.corestandards.org/Math/Practice/)

MathematicsExamples.LiketheNGSSScienceandEngineeringPractices

intheprevioussection,thenewCommonCoreStateStandardsinMathematics(TheNationalGovernorsAssociation[NGA]andtheCouncilChiefStateSchoolOfficers[CCSSO])supporttheexperientiallearningofmathematicalreasoning.Many of the eightMathematical Practices (see Figure 5.7) lend themselves toactiveengagementbystudents.

Makesenseofproblemsandpersevereinsolvingthem.Alongwithtextbookexamplesofproblemsolving,createsometimeinyourweek’sschedule(perhaps“ProblemSolvingWednesdays”)tohavestudentsengageinauthentic,real-worldmathematicalproblems.Reasonabstractlyandquantitatively.Havestudentspracticedoingmentalmathproblemsfromtimetotimeinplaceofworksheets.Constructviableargumentsandcritiquethereasoningofothers.Havestudentsengageinmathematicaldiscoursewheretheytackleaproblemthatperhapshasmanypossiblesolutions.Havestudentteamstaketurnsmakingavalidargumentforthesolutiontheyfound.Modelwithmathematics.Havestudentscreatemodelsfromtherealworldtoshowcasetheirdatasets.Perhapstheycouldconstructgraphsortablestorepresenttheirsolutions.

Figure5.8.ThePowerofVisualLearning

Useappropriatetoolsstrategically.Havestudentsexplaininwritingthespecificproblemsolvingstrategiestheyusedtosolvetheproblemoftheday.Attendtoprecision:Havestudentsbrainstormsituationswhentheyneedtobeveryprecisewithmathcomputationascomparedtosituationswhenanestimatewouldbeappropriate.

LearningThroughVisuals

Thislastarea,learningthroughvisuals,doesnotcomeasasurprisetoteachersas, on a daily basis, they observe the power of visuals to enhance studentlearning.AccordingtoJudyWillis(2011),engagingstudentsthroughvisualsiscritically important. She even suggests the power of having students usedifferent colors when taking notes and making each color mean somethingdifferent.Forexample,greenmayhighlightkeyconcepts,whilebluepoints tospecificexamples.

Weareawareoftheoldadage,“apictureisworthathousandwords.”Let’slook at someways teachersmay augment lessons throughvisuals. (Figure 5.8depictstoolstoreinforcevisuallearning.)

LanguageArts.Teachersknowthepowerofpicturestoconveyinformation

in both fiction and informational texts. However, you may not be aware that

whenhumansusevisualimagery,braincentersforvisionareactivatedasifoneis lookingat apicture.So, ifyoudonothave realpictures toenhancestudentlearning, you may ask students to “picture in their heads” some concept orinformationthatyouwantthemtoremember.

SocialStudiesandHistory.Whilegraphicorganizersmaybeusedwithall

subjects,socialstudies,inparticular,presentsmanyopportunities.Studentsmayuse timelines (both self-drawn and digital) for placing events, characters, andhistorical happenings in a sequential format. Mind maps are wonderful forgrouping concepts around a specific topic. Venn diagrams are powerful forshowcasing similarities and differences between two constructs. Andmatricesmaybeused to show the likenesses anddifferencesof several concepts on anarrayofcharacteristics.

Science.Notebooking, or the use of science notebooks, has become quite

popular in the classrooms since the integration of NGSS. In these notebooks,teachersinstructstudentstowriteanddraworillustratetheresultsofscientificinvestigations. These self-drawn visuals (particularly when colors are used)enhancestudentlearning.

Mathematics.Allmathcouldbeconsideredvisualinnature.Teacherswho

arenowfullyintegratingtheCommonCoreStateStandardsinMathematicsarenot only having their students compute numerical answers to mathematicalproblems, they are also having them draw, diagram, and illustrate theirmathematicalsolutions.Thenstudentssharethesediagramswithoneanotherastheyprovideevidencefortheiranswers.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Here are some thoughts from practicing teachers regarding the integration ofneuroscienceintoclassroompractice.

Yesterday,wehadalongmeetinginmyschoolwherewereviewedstudentcases,particularlythestudentswhohavepresenteddifficultiesorchallenges.Studentshadvaryingbackgroundsthatalsowerediscussedaspossiblecausesofthedifficulties/challenges(e.g.,familyenvironment).Insomecases,however,thestudentswereidentifiedassimplynotbeinginterestedorothersuchlabels.ThoughIhaven’tbeenfullyabletoprocessordeveloptheidea,Ihavebeenwonderinghow

fullyabletoprocessordeveloptheidea,Ihavebeenwonderinghowperhapsthatmeetingcouldhavebeendifferentusingabrainbasedapproach.Certainly,viewingthestudentsandtheirbrainsas“in-development”couldhavehelpedtoavoidcertainstigmas.(Teacher,highschool)

Ihaveheard(andboughtinto)thebrainmythsthatweareeitherright-brainedorleft-brained,thatweonlyuse10%ofourbrain,andthatweareabletomultitask.Allfalse.Itisfascinatingtounderstandwhatisactuallyoccurringinourbrainsasweworkandaswelearnandgrow,andIdobelievethatthisissomethingthateveryone,especiallyourstudents,shouldunderstand.(Teacher,highschool)

ThefirstthingthatIthoughtafterreadingthetextsandwatchingthevideosiswhyintheworldwasIneverpresentedsomeofthisinformationwhilelearningtobeateacher.Ifeelthatsomuchtimeandeffortisspentinotherthings,butnoneontheconceptofhowthestudentsactuallylearnandhowallofourbrainsfunction.(Teacher,middleschool)

Personally,IteachAPPhysicswhichcanbeanextremelystressfulclassforstudents,whoarehighlypressuredtosucceedindifficultclasses.Thepressurestudentsputonthemselvesisprobablyoneofthebiggesthurdlestoovercome.Ifallteachersknewmoreaboutthebrainandhowstudents’brainsdevelop,wecoulddomoretoprovidehealthystressorsforourstudents.Wecouldusewhatweknowaboutthebraintohelpstudentsbecomebetterlearners.(Teacher,highschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORBRAINYTEACHING

Inthischapterwehaveexaminedrecentresearchonthehumanbrainandhowthatinformationmayimpactyourclassroominstruction.Additionalinformationregardinglearningandthebraincanbefoundinthefollowingresources:

Websites

BrainbasedLearning(www.brainbasedlearning.net).Teacherswill findmanyarticlesandclassroomresources inorder to teachwithunderstandingofhowthebrainworks.

Brainbased Learning: Resources on Learning and the Brain

(www.edutopia.org/article/brainbased-learning-resources).This collection on the main Edutopia website hosts articles, videos, andother links for exploring the connection between education andneuroscience.

Books/Articles

Immordino-Yang,M.H.,&Damasio,A. (2007).We feel, thereforewe learn:The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind,Brain,andEducation,1(1),3–10.

Sprenger,M.(2018).Howtoteachsostudentsremember(2nded.).Alexandria,VA:ASCD.

Whitman,G.,&Kellaher,I.(2016).Neuroteach:Brainscienceandthefutureofeducation.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield.

Wolfe,P. (2010).Brainmatters:Translating research into classroompractice(2nded.).Alexandria,VA:ASCD.

Videos

Blakemore,S.-J.(2012,June).Themysteriousworkingsoftheadolescentbrain(TED Talks) [Video file]. Retrieved fromwww.ted.com/talks/sarah_jayne_blakemore_the_mysterious_workings_of_the_adolescent_brain#t-51427“Whydoteenagersseemsomuchmoreimpulsive,somuchlessself-awarethangrown-ups?CognitiveneuroscientistSarah-JayneBlakemorecomparesthe prefrontal cortex in adolescents to that of adults, to show us howtypicallyteenagebehavioriscausedbythegrowinganddevelopingbrain.”

Grainger, C. (Producer), & Yellin, P. B. (Speaker). (n.d.).Mind, brain, andeducation [Video file]. In K. Fischer, M. H. Immordino-Yang, & M. H.Schneps (Course developers), Neuroscience and the classroom: Makingconnections: A course for K–12 teachers. Retrieved fromwww.learner.org/courses/neuroscience/common_includes/si_flowplayer.html?pid=2373“Paul B. Yellin, Associate Professor at New York University School ofMedicineandDirectoroftheYellinCenterforMind,Brain,andEducation,talks about the need for an equal partnership among neuroscientists,teachers,andclinicians.Hisgoalistocreatealanguageandvocabularythatenableeveryonetodiscusshowdifferentbrainsworkdifferently.”

Grandin,T. (2010,February).Theworldneedsallkindsofminds(TEDTalks)

[Video file]. Retrieved fromwww.ted.com/talks/temple_grandin_the_world_needs_all_kinds_of_minds“Temple Grandin, diagnosed with autism as a child, talks about how hermindworks—sharingherabilityto“thinkinpictures,”whichhelpshersolveproblems that neurotypical brainsmightmiss.Shemakes the case that theworldneedspeopleontheautismspectrum:visualthinkers,patternthinkers,verbalthinkers,andallkindsofsmartgeekykids.”

HarvardEducation.(2014,October8).Beyondwit&grit:HowardGardner’s‘8for 8’ [Video file]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnqWZdcC8AEThisvideopresentsHowardGardner’s ideasoneffectiveuseofone’swits(MultipleIntelligences)andgrit(courageandresolve;strengthofcharacter;perseverance)tobeagood,responsibleperson.

McElheny,T.(Producer),&Immordino-Yang,M.H.(Speaker).(n.d.).Emotionandcognition:Aneuroscientist’sperspective[Videofile].InK.Fischer,M.H. Immordino-Yang,&M.H.Schneps (Coursedevelopers),Neuroscienceand the classroom: Making connections: A course for K–12 teachers.Retrieved from www.learner.org/courses/neuroscience/text/text.html?dis=U&num=02&sec=06“After attending a presentation on the inseparable connection betweenemotionandcognitionbyDr.MaryHelenImmordino-Yang, teachersfromtheSacredHeartPreparatorySchool inAtherton,CA,and thesurroundingareadiscusstheimplicationsforunderstandinglearningintheirclassrooms.”

Merzenich, M. (2004, February).Growing evidence of brain plasticity (TEDTalks) [Video file]. Retrieved fromwww.ted.com/talks/michael_merzenich_on_the_elastic_brain?language=en“NeuroscientistMichaelMerzenichlooksatoneofthesecretsofthebrain’sincrediblepower:itsabilitytoactivelyre-wireitself.He’sresearchingwaysto harness the brain’s plasticity to enhance our skills and recover lostfunction.”

CHAPTER6

Evidence-BasedInstruction

Techniques and instructional strategies have nearly as much influence on learning as studentaptitude.

JamesStronge,2002

Indiscussingevidence-basedinstruction,wemustfirstturnourattentiontotheNoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB)thatwasimplementedintheUnitedStatesin2001. The major focus of NCLB was to close student achievement gaps byprovidingallchildrenafair,equal,andsignificantopportunitytoobtainahigh-qualityeducation.The fourcomponentsof the legislationwere:accountability,flexibility,parentoptions,andresearch-basedinstruction.Theintentofthislastarea, research-based instruction, pressed teachers to employ instructionalstrategiesthatwereshowntobeeffectivebyscientificallybasedresearchwhichencompassed“theapplicationof rigorous, systematic andobjectiveproceduresto obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities andprograms”(NCLB,2001).

The revolution in educational practices that began in the early part of the21stcenturymightbecomparedtowhathappenedinmedicinealmostacenturyago. During the outbreak of the “great influenza” in 1918, Johns HopkinsUniversityturnedtheexistingmedicalmodelupside-downbyinsistingthatonlyproven medicine—that which was based on scientific research—be practiced.Moving forward in time, in 1962, a second and similar revolution inmodernmedicinetookplace.TheKefauver-HarrisDrugActrequiredthatdrugssoldinthe U.S. be proven safe and effective through high-quality randomizedexperiments.According toSlavin(2017),“In2015,educationfinallyhadwhatmay be its own Kefauver-Harris moment. This was the passage by the U.S.Congress of theEvery Student SucceedsAct (ESSA),which contains specificdefinitionsofstrong,moderate,andpromisinglevelsofevidence.”

Therefore,startingwithNCLBin2001andcontinuingin2015withESSA,we now have considerablemomentum for the employment of evidence-based

teachingpracticesineveryclassroom.Notonlydoesthelegislationpointusinthatdirection,wenowalsohavetheknowledgebasefromwhichtoproceed.Infact, foroveradecade theUnitedStateshaswitnessedunparalleledactivity inuniversitiesandresearchcenters intentonidentifyingthoseclassroomteachingpractices deemed to be most effective for student learning. In spite of thisfocused energy, however, there has been only moderate translation of thesepracticesintotoday’sclassrooms.Clearly,ESSAhasthepotentialofusheringinaneweraregardingevidence-basedpractices inour21st-centuryclassrooms—teaching practices that are predicated on “scientifically based research.” Thischapterwillhighlightspecificinstructionalpracticesthathavebeenfoundtobeeffectiveateverygradelevelandwithallsubjectareas.

THEWHAT:EVIDENCE-BASEDTEACHINGSTRATEGIES

In some ways we teachers function much like CEOs in the corporate sector.Evenasthereareconstraintsuponus—districtpolicies,contentstandards,stateandlocalassessments—wehavealmostuniversalcontroloverhowwechoosetoteach.Sincewedohavethisprofessionalautonomy,thequestionremains,Whywouldn’twechoosetouseinstructionalpracticesthatresearchhasshowntimeandagaintobehighlyeffectiveforstudentlearning?

Theanswertothisquestionmaybethattheteachersthemselveshavebeenlargely excluded from the academic conversations regarding these practices.RobertSlavin,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchandReforminEducationatJohnsHopkinsUniversity, has been one of a number of researchers intent onputting this critical information into the hands of practicing teachers. Slavin(2014)asserts,“Theconsequencesofthisshifttoevidence-basedreformwillbeprofoundimmediatelyandevenmoreprofoundovertime,aslargernumbersofschools and districts come to embrace evidence-based reform and as moreprovenprogramsarecreatedanddisseminated.”TheLearningPolicy Institute,foundedbyLindaDarling-Hammond,alsostrives tomove research topracticeamongteachers,leaders,andpolicymakers.

However, some educational researchers are alerting the field to a need totaketheparticularstudentpopulationsandcontextsintoaccountwhendecidingon the situation-specific merits of evidence-based teaching strategies, and toexplore specific benefits for some students of productive strategieswith lowereffectsizesforbroadstudentpopulations.YongZhao(2018)adviseseducatorsagainst blindly trusting that high-effect strategies will help every student.Instead,hesuggeststheyalsoexaminecautionarystudiesthatdemonstratehowparticular lauded strategiesmay have negative impactswith some students, or

evenconsidersomelow-effectstudiesthathavehigheffectswithcertainstudentpopulations. He offers specific examples and advises against a “panacea”approach. “If information of both positive and negative effects of a policy,teaching strategy, or instructional program is known,… it is more likely thatrational people will make the effort to weigh the positive effects against thenegativeeffectsbeforemakingadecision”(p.123).

Marzano’sNine

Acloserlookatidentifyingtheseinstructionalpracticesshowsthatmanyagreethat there have been two researchers that have had the greatest impact on thefield.ThefirstwasateamofresearchersfromtheMid-ContinentResearchforEducationandLearning(McREL)whoidentifiedninecategoriesofinstructionalstrategiesthataremostlikelytoimprovestudentachievement.Thesestrategieswere first published in the bookClassroom InstructionThatWorks byRobertMarzano,DebraPickering,andJanePollock(2001).Theyare:

1. Identifyingsimilaritiesanddifferences.Howitems,events,processes,orconceptsaresimilaranddifferentbasedoncharacteristics

2. Summarizingandnote-taking.Identifyingwhatismostimportantaboutthelearningandrestatingthatknowledgeintheirownwords

3. Reinforcingeffortandprovidingrecognition.Takingnoteoftheeffortthestudenthasmadeandacknowledgingthataccomplishmentforthestudent

4. Homeworkandpractice.Providingstudentswithopportunitiestodeepenunderstandingofcontentandskillsthroughcontinuedpractice

5. Nonlinguisticrepresentations.Visual,tactile,andkinestheticmodesoflearning

6. Cooperativelearning.Theabilitytolearnandworkingroups7. Settingobjectivesandprovidingfeedback.Creatinglearningtargetsand

givingfeedbackthatistimelyandspecific8. Generatingandtestinghypotheses.Creatingandtestingpossibleclaims

andprovidingevidenceforthoseclaims9. Cues,questions,andadvanceorganizers.Providingstudentswitha

structuredframeworkwithwhichtoprocessnewcontent.(pp.13–111).

Hattie’sVisibleLearning

The second notable researcher is John Hattie, who examined an astonishingnumber of different studies—146,142 to be exact—seeking common attributes

that were positively associated with student learning. In his oft-cited book,Visible Learning for Teachers (2008), Hattie identified the following highlyeffectiveteachingpractices,listedinorderfromhighesttolowest.

1. Reciprocalteaching.Reciprocalteaching,firstproposedbyPalincsarandBrown(1984),callsforstudentstotaketurns“beingtheteacher”and,insmallgroupswiththeirpeers,applythesamemetacognitivestrategiesjustmodeledbytheteacher—questioning,clarifying,summarizing,andpredicting.

2. Feedback.Almosteveryteacherisawareofthecriticalimportanceoffeedbacktolearners.Studiesnowshowthatthemoreimmediateandspecificthefeedback,thegreaterthelearningforstudents.

3. Metacognitivestrategies.Aswasmentionedinthepreviouschapterontheroleofcognitivescienceinlearning,metacognitivestrategies(self-verbalizationandself-questioning)werecitedinthebook,HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,ExperienceandSchool(Bransfordetal.,2000)asbeingoneofthetopthreemostessentialpracticesofsuccessfullearners.Mostofthetimethesestrategiesareperformedsilentlywithineachlearner’sbrain.However,teacherswhointentionallymakeinternalthinkingpracticesmoreexplicitfortheirstudentsincreaselearning.

4. Highteacherexpectations.Noquestion—allteacherswantalloftheirstudentstosucceed!However,studieshavefoundthatintheclassroomtherearesubtleteacherbehaviorsthat,ineffect,communicate,“MyteacherdoesnotthinkIamsmart.”Thissilentcommunicationmayoccurwhenweconsistentlycallonwhatresearchershavetermed“themagnificentseven,”agroupofaboutsevenstudentswhoarecalleduponinclassaboutfivetimesmorefrequentlythanotherstudents.

5. Challenginggoals.Closelyrelatedtohighteacherexpectationsisthesettingofchallenginggoalsforstudentlearningandthenprovidingthenecessaryscaffoldstoensurestudentsuccess.(p.162)

THEWHY:WHERE’STHEEVIDENCE?

Beforeexamining the largebodyofevidence identifyingspecificcategoriesofresearch-informed instructional strategies, we must first define a statisticalpractice termedeffectsize.According toMarzanoetal. (2001),“aneffectsizeexpressestheincreaseordecreaseinachievementoftheexperimentalgroup(thegroup of students who are exposed to a specific instructional technique) instandarddeviationunits”(p.4). In thefieldofstatisticsaneffectsizeofabout

0.20 is very small. That means that the effect on student learning by theexperimental intervention (in this case the particular teaching strategy) is veryweak.Aneffectsizeof0.50isconsideredmediumandaneffectsizeof0.80islarge. An effect size of over 1.0 is rare and is considered very large (Cohen,1988).

When Classroom Instruction That Works by Marzano et al. was firstpublished in 2001, there was an immediate impact on the field. Twoexplanationsmayhaveaccountedfor thisenthusiasm.First, thesecategoriesofinstructional strategieswere not new,whichmeant that teacherswere alreadyfamiliarwiththem.And,second,theyseemedto“ringtrue,”whichistosaythatteachers’ own tacit understanding regarding what worked in their ownclassrooms seemed to confirmwhat the researchwas showing.Whatwas notunderstood,however,wasjusthowmuchmorepowerfulthesestrategieswereinsupporting student learning gains over other oft-used classroom teachingstrategies.

Let’snowlookmorecloselyatthespecificeffectsizesforbothsetsofbestpractice teaching strategies. Please note that since three of the evidence-basedstrategiesonHattie’s listoverlapwith thoseofMarzano’s (i.e., feedback,highteacher expectations, challenging goals), we will only examine the two thatHattie (2008) has added to this conversation: reciprocal teaching andmetacognitivestrategies.

1. Identifyingsimilaritiesanddifferences(effectsize=1.61).Thiscategoryofteachingstrategiesmaybedubbed“theKing”ofallinstructionalstrategiesduetoitseffectsizeof1.61.Remember,aneffectsizeof1.0isconsideredlargeandquiterareinresearchstudies.Itissafetoassumethatassistinglearnerstolocatesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenandamongconceptsgreatlyenhancestheirabilitytolearn.

2. Summarizingandnotetaking(effectsize=1.0).Ifcomparingandcontrastinginformationcouldbeconsidered“theKing”ofteachingstrategies,thensurely,withaneffectsizeof1.0(again,quiterare)summarizingcouldbeconsidered“theQueen.”Whenstudentsarerequiredtosummarizecontentusingtheirownwords,theinformationbecomesmoredeeplyunderstoodandismoreeasilyremembered.Theoperativephrasehereisintheirownwords.

3. Reinforcingeffortandprovidingrecognition(effectsize=0.80).Studentsoftenmisstheconnectionbetweeneffortandlearning.Thosewithafixedmindsetbelievetheirbasicqualities,liketheirintelligenceortalent,aresimplyfixedtraitsandcannotbechanged.AswasmentionedinChapter

4,researchbyDweckindicatesthatstudentswhoadoptagrowthmindset,abeliefthatdedicationandhardworkareatthecoreoflearningratherthaninnateability,canachieveathigherrates.Dweck(2016)hasalsosuggestedthatthereisapowerinthewordyet,asin“Youhaven’tlearnedityet.”

4. Homeworkandpractice(effectsize=0.77).Noonewoulddisputetherelationshipofpracticetolearning,asinthesaying“Practicemakesperfect.”However,aslightlyalteredviewofthatphrasemaybeneeded:“Onlyperfectpracticemakesperfect.”Theimplicationforteachersisthecriticalneedforsustainedformativeassessmentmeasuresbytheteacherwhilestudentsareinthebeginninglearningphases.Thedataontheeffectivenessofhomework,however,appearstobemixed.Researchershavestatedthatpurposefulhomework,whichallowsforstudentstohavesomelevelofreal-lifeapplicationoftheirlearning,canbepowerful(Cooper,Robinson,&Patall,2006).

5. Nonlinguisticrepresentations(effectsize=0.75).Thesaying“Apictureisworthathousandwords”isfamiliartoeveryone.Nowweseethatitactuallymaybetrue.Withrecentadvancesinthecognitivesciences(seeChapter5),weareawarethatknowledgeisstoredinbothlinguisticandvisualformats—withthevisual,notsurprisingly,accountingforthepreponderanceoflearninginhumans.Teachersnowcanbeawareofthesefindingsandintentionallyactivatethesepowerfulvisuallearningchannelswithourstudents.

6. Cooperativelearning(effectsize=0.73).InChapter2itwasnotedthatcooperativelearningwasanessentialclassroomcomponentforthesocialandemotionalgrowthofourstudents.Now,theresearchisclearthatthisfamiliarteachingstrategyisalsostronglycorrelatedwithenhancedstudentachievement.

7. Metacognitivestrategies(effectsize=0.67).Studentswhoareabletoidentifythethinkingprocessestheyusewhentheytackleaproblemortaskofanykindaremorelikelytobeabletoemploythosesameprocesseswhentheyundertakenewproblems/tasksinthefuture.

8. Settingobjectivesandprovidingfeedback(effectsize=0.61).Thisareahasatwo-partprocess.First,goalsettingtendstobeapowerfulmotivatorforstudentlearning.Then,thereceivingofregular,immediate,andspecificfeedbackbyone’steacherhasbeendemonstratedbyresearchstudiesashavingapositiveimpactonlearningoutcomes.

9. Generatingandtestinghypotheses(effectsize=0.61).Ahypothesisisanideaaboutwhysomethinghappensthewaythatitdoes(Schmitz,2016).

Whenteachersengagestudentsinmakingpredictionsaboutwhattheythinkwillhappen,students’learningincreasesastheytrytoreachaconclusion.

10. Cues,questions,andadvanceorganizers(effectsize=0.59).Thereisnodoubtaskingquestionsisthemostusedclassroomteachingstrategy.Infact,researchershavestudiedhowmanyquestionsateacherasksinanyonedayandtheanswermaysurpriseyou.Teachersask,onaverage,about300questionsaday(Vogler,2008).Thiseffectsizeof0.59confirmsthatquestioningdoeshelpstudentslearn.However,thetypesofquestions(lowerorhigherlevelsofthinkingrequired)andthemanagementstructures(howmuchtimeisgivenforstudentstoanswer)alsoimpactstudentachievement.

11. Reciprocalteaching(effectsize=0.55).Reciprocalteaching,aformofpeertutoring,isaninstructionalpracticethathasstudentstakingturnsbeingthe“teacher.”FirstdevelopedbyPalincsarandBrown(1984),reciprocalteachingwasfoundtopromoteself-regulatedlearninginstudents.

THEHOW:TEACHINGSMARTER

Thissectionofthechapteristitled“TeachingSmarter”asitrelatesbacktotheessentialquestion thatwasposedat thebeginningof thischapter:SinceCEO-teachershaveachoiceas towhat instructional strategies theyemploy to teachspecific content,Whywouldn’t they choose to use instructional practices thatresearchhasshowntimeandagaintobehighlyeffectiveforstudent learning?Andinsodoingtheycanchoosetoteachsmarter.Wewillnowexaminewaysthatyoumightmakeuseoftheseevidence-based(“smarter”)teachingstrategiesinyourownclassroom.

IdentifyingSimilaritiesandDifferences

Almost everything we teach is able to lend itself to the compare/contraststrategy.What can students compare? They can compare characters in books,different time periods, different elements in the periodic table, differenttransportation systems, different forms of governments, different minerals,differentanimals,andthelistgoesonandon.Teachersmaybeunawarethatthisseemingly simplistic thinking construct can be so very powerful for learning.Make a goal to add one compare/contrast activity or discussion to your classeveryday.Thisstrategycanbecombinedwithanotherevidence-basedstrategy

—theuseofagraphicorganizer(e.g.,Venndiagram,T-chart)—togiveittwicethepower.

Regardingcomparisonstrategies,thecreationofanalogyisnotasoftenusedasothermorefamiliarformats.However,thecreationofanalogiesisapowerfulmemory boost to the learner due to its novelty and use of imagery, especiallywhenastudent,andnottheteacher,isthecreator.Whenintroducinganalogiestostudents,Ihaveoftenusedthisprompt,“Howisourclassroomlikeabowlofsalad?” Reflect on this question yourself for a moment. What kinds ofcomparisonscometomind?Perhaps,youmightconjureupthoughtslikethese:becausetheybotharecomposedofmanyingredients,addingtotherichnesstothewhole;becausetheybotharebetterifyoudressthemupabit;becausetheybotharegoodforyou.

Thefollowingbrainanalogiesconjuredupbypracticingteacherswhotookacourse on neuroscience and education show how analogy can push one’sthinking.Thebrainislike...

“…acar.Likeabrain,acarneedscertainthingstohappenforittostart,suchasanelectricalsystem.Whenyouturnthekey,itsendsanelectricchargethroughthewiresdowntothestarter.Abrainhasneuronsthatsendelectricalsignalsfromneurontoneuron.Ifoneneurondoesnotsendtheelectricalsignal,thenthebrainwillnotworkright,justlikeifacarisnotwiredright,thenthecarwillnotstart.”

“…acomplexsystemoftrailsinanationalpark.Aswiththebrain,themoreyouwalkatrail,thesharperorclearerthepathbecomes.”

“…thethreebranchesoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.Thebrainitselfiscomposedoffourdifferentparts:thecerebrum,thecerebellum,thelimbicsystem,andthebrainstem.Thelegislativebranchisthecerebrumwhichisresponsibleforreasoningandplanning.Thejudicialbranchisthecerebellumwhichisresponsibleforbalancewithinthebody.Theexecutivebranchisthelimbicsystemwhichcontrolspastexperiences,theemotionalcenter,andthecreationofnewmemories.”

SummarizingandNote-taking

Havingstudentssummarizecontentintheirownwordsactslikeasuperheroforretention. In fact, you may even invoke the superhero du jour, and let thestudentshaveabitoffunwithsummarization.Onelargehighschooldistrictsaw

adramaticincreaseinstudentachievementwhentheyinstitutedwhattheycalledthe “10:2 strategy” in every classroom. Under this directive, teachers wereencouragedtolectureforonly10minutesatatime.Then,forthefollowingtwominutes,studentswereencouragedtosharewithpeersorwriteasummary,oraparaphrase,ofwhattheythoughttheteacherhadjustsaid.Thismethodprovedtopromotefarbettercomprehensionduetothefactthatstudentshadtoanalyzethe information todeterminewhatwas important andwhatwasnot important,andthenrestateitintheirownwords.

ReinforcingEffortandProvidingRecognition

Showingtheconnectionbetweeneffortandachievementhelpsstudentsseetheimportance of effort and allows them to change their beliefs to emphasize itmore. Note that recognition is more effective if it is contingent on achievingsomespecifiedstandard.Hereareacoupleofstrategiesforthis:

Sharestoriesaboutpeoplewhosucceededbynotgivingup.“Pause,Prompt,Praise.”Ifastudentisstruggling,pausetodiscusstheproblem,thenpromptwithspecificsuggestionstohelpthestudentimprove.Ifthestudent’sperformanceimprovesasaresult,offerpraise.Butremembertopraiseeffortandnotability.

HomeworkandPractice

Homeworkisoneofthoseschool-relatedelementstowhicheveryonecanrelate.Furthermore, it is generallynotwelcomedby students, not then, andnotnow.However, the question remains: Is there value for student learning that comesfrom doing homework, or is it just a practice that has been part of schoolinggeneration after generation, and now may be out of sync with 21st-centuryeducationalgoals?So,let’sexploretheeffectivenessofhomework:Doesithelpstudentsretain learning?Practiceskills?Thinkmorecritically?Theanswers tothesequestionsandotherslikethemhavenotbeeneasytoconcludeduetotwofactors:(1)thewidevarianceofhomeworkassignments,and(2)theagelevelofstudents.

The Education Endowment Foundation in the United Kingdom (see theirwebsiteateducationendowmentfoundation.org.uk)has recentlyamassedoneofthemostrobustcollectionsofresearchontheeffectsofhomeworkanywhereintheworld.First,wewilllookatsomegeneralfindingsandthenwewillexaminethe research for younger and older student populations. Generally, homework

appears tobemost effectivewhen it is assignedwithapurpose that is readilyevidenttothestudents.Furthermore,theevidencesuggeststhattobeeffective,oncehomeworkhasbeen turned in to the teacher, it should receive thoughtfulfeedbacksothatthestudents’learningisfurthered.

EffectsforElementarySchoolStudents.(1)Overall,homeworkinprimary

schools does not appear to lead to large increases in learning. (2) Effectivehomework is associatedwith greater parental involvement and support (whichsuggests that assignments for classrooms with English language learners mayrequiresensitivityinhomeworkdesign).(3)Thebroaderevidencebasesuggeststhatshort,focusedtasksoractivitiesthatrelatedirectlytowhatisbeingtaughtand are built upon in school are likely to bemore effective than regular dailyhomework.

Figure6.1.ExamplesofGraphicOrganizers

EffectsforSecondaryStudents.(1)Onaverage,theimpactofhomeworkonlearningisconsistentlypositive(leadingto,onaverage,fivemonths’additionalprogress).However, beneath this average there is awidevariation inpotentialimpact,suggestingthathowhomeworkissetislikelytobeveryimportant.(2)Evidence also suggests that how homework relates to learning during normalschool time is important. In the most effective examples homework was anintegralpartoflearning,ratherthananadd-on.(3)Studiesimplythatthereisan

optimumamountofhomeworkof1–2hoursperschoolday(slightlylongerforolder pupils), with effects diminishing as the time that students spend onhomeworkincreases.

NonlinguisticRepresentations

Overthelastdecade,teachershaveembracedthiscategorymorethananyoftheothers.And,whatisanaddedbonus,havingstudentsusevisualrepresentationsof learning has been proven by cognitive scientists to stimulate and increasebrainactivity.Teacherscananddouseawidevarietyofgraphicorganizers tosupport student learning (e.g.,mindmaps, flowcharts,matrices,T-charts, andVenndiagrams).SeeFigure6.1forexamplesofvariousgraphicorganizers.

Teachersmay also employ some other ways to increase the visual and/orkinesthetic processing of information by (1) incorporating words and imagesusingartormodeling to represent relationships, (2)usingphysicalmodelsandphysical movement to represent information, and (3) drawing the myriadsystems,fromorganictocosmic,thatstudentslearnaboutinscience.

Figure6.2.CollaborativeLearning

Cooperative/CollaborativeLearning

In addition to the importance of this form of learning for social–emotionaldevelopmentasdiscussedinPartIofthisbook,collaborativelearninghas,overthe last3decades,beenwidelystudiedandproveneffective inhavingadirect

and positive impact on overall student achievement. Figure 6.2 depicts adictionary page opened to collaboration.As amatter of fact, aswas stated inChapter2,cooperativelearningisthesinglemostinvestigatedteachingstrategyofalltime.Whileemployingcooperativelearning,teachersmaydooneorallofthefollowing:

Groupstudentsaccordingtofactorssuchascommoninterestsorexperiences.Varygroupsizesaccordingtothetaskorgoal.Forexample,apairisthestrongestgroupsizeforstudentengagement,foritisnearlyimpossibleforstudentsnottopayattentionwhenanotherpersonistalkingdirectlytothem.Additionally,adyadprovidesthegreatestamountofemotionalsafetyforstudentsasonlyoneotherpeerwillheartheirresponse.Focusonpositiveinterdependence,socialskills,face-to-faceinteraction,andindividualandgroupaccountability.

Figure6.3.TheImportanceofFeedback

SettingObjectivesandProvidingFeedback

Teachers need to provide students with a direction. That is one of the mostimportantroleswehaveasfacilitatorsofstudentlearning.Objectivesshouldbevery clear so that each student understands the task at hand and should beadaptabletoindividuallearningneeds.Ithasbeensaid,intheworldofteachingandcoaching, that thereisnosuchthingas toomuchfeedback.Addedtothat,the feedback needs to be specific and timely. Figure 6.3 displays a visual forFeedback.Teachersmaydooneofthefollowing:

Setacoregoalforaunit,andthenencouragestudentstopersonalizethat

goalbyidentifyingareasofinteresttothem.Promptslike,“Iwonder…”and“Iwanttoknowmoreabout…”getstudentsthinkingabouttheirinterestsandactivelyinvolvedinthegoal-settingprocess.Createinterimgoalstobreakbigprojectsintomanageablechunkswithspecificgoalsandcheckpoints.Usecontractstooutlinethespecificgoalsthatstudentsmustattainandthegradetheywillreceiveiftheymeetthosegoals.Makesurefeedbackiscorrectiveinnature;tellstudentshowtheydidinrelationtodemonstrationofspecificlevelsofknowledge,understanding,andaccomplishment.Rubricsareagreatwaytodothis.

GeneratingandTestingHypotheses

Proposingahypothesis isnot justforscienceclass!Researchshowsthatwhenlearnersmakeaprediction,theirbraingoesintoanimmediatestateofwantingtofindout.Teachersmayaskstudentstodooneofthefollowing:

Predictwhatwouldhappenifanaspectofafamiliarsystem,suchasthegovernmentortransportation,werechanged.Buildsomethingusinglimitedresources.Thistaskgeneratesquestionsandhypothesesaboutwhatmayormaynotwork.

Cues,Questions,andAdvancedOrganizers

Asstatedpreviously,teachersask,onaverage,about300questionsaday.Itmaybehardtobelievethatsomanyquestionsarebeingaskedofourstudents.Yet,thoughtfulquestionsareapowerfullearningtoolforstudentsandhelpthemusewhattheyalreadyknowtoenhancewhattheyareabouttolearn.Teachersmaydooneofthefollowing:

Pausebrieflyafteraskingaquestiontogivestudentstimetoanswerwithmoredepth.Thispausing,termedwait-time,wasfirstproposedbyRowe(1974)backinthe1970s.However,intoday’sclassroomswiththeemphasisongettingthroughasmanystandardsaspossible,manyteachersstillwaitlessthanonesecondfromthetimetheyaskaquestionuntiltheycallonastudentforananswer.Researchsuggeststhatextendingthatpauseamere3–5secondslongerleadstomoreandricherstudentdiscourse(Swift&Gooding,1983).Varythetypeofquestion.Eachoftherecentcontentreforms(i.e.,

CommonCoreStateStandards(CCSS),NextGenerationScienceStandards(NGSS),andCollege,Career,andCivicLife(C3)FrameworkforSocialStudiesStateStandards)havecalledformoreemphasisoncriticalthinkingandlessonrotememorization.WhetherateacherusestheclassicquestioninghierarchyofBloom’sTaxonomy(1956)orthemorerecentstructure,Webb’sDepthofKnowledge(1997),studentsarebeingaskedtoproblem-solve,usejudgementskills,setlongtermgoals,andmodeltheirmetacognition.Onenewerquestioningstrategyrequiresstudentstomakeaclaim,supporttheclaimwithsolidevidence(fromthetextorfromdatacollectedbyaninvestigation),and,finally,sharetheirreasoningbehindtheclaim.ManyteachersfindthatstudentsusingaCER(Claim,Evidence,Reasoning)formatgenerateanswersthataremoreconceptuallydeep.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Here are somewaysother teachers have found to use these research-informedpracticesintheirdailylessons.

Ourrolethen,asteachers,shouldbenotonlytoteachstrategies,buttoteachstudentshowtoreflectonthem.Didthatstrategywork?Ifso,why?Ifnot,whynot?Isthereadifferentstrategythatismoreeffective?Canyoutweakthecurrentstrategytobemoreeffective?Allofthesetypesofquestionshappeninaninstantinourbrains,anditisourroletobethe‘mentors’forourstudentstohelpthemanswerthesequestionsastheylearntousestrategies.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Someoftheevidence-basedteachingstrategiesthatIcurrentlyuseare:lessongoals,show&tell,andcheckingforunderstanding.ThestrategiesthatIwanttoincorporatemoreofareprovidingmorefeedbacktomystudents,andstudentsworkingtogether.Igatheralotofdataonmystudents’understandingformyselfinordertobetterteachthem,butIrarelysharethatdataandgooveritwiththem.Ialsowanttobuildmorecollaborationtime/projectsintomylessons.Collaborationteachesthemsomanymoreskillsinahands-onexperiencethanateachercanbyshowingthem.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Knowingthatweneedtobeactivelyexperiencingsomethinginordertohaveourbrainschangeisimportantinformationforanyteacher.IthinkbacktoallthetimesImemorizedinformationforteststhroughoutmy

backtoallthetimesImemorizedinformationforteststhroughoutmyschoolyearsandeventhen,IknewthatIwouldn’trememberthatinformationlongterm,butitgotmeanAonassignments.NowthatIknowthisiscalledpassiveexperience,andthatitdoesn’tchangethebrain,IcanmakesureIdon’trelyonthistypeofteachingalone.IknowitmustbepairedwithactivelearningsothestudentscantrulyunderstandwhatIamteaching.(Teacher,highschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFOREVIDENCE-BASEDTEACHINGSTRATEGIES

Additional information regarding evidence-based teaching strategies can befoundinthefollowingresources:

Websites

ArchiveEducation(archive.education.jhu.edu/research/crre/index.html).Thewebsite is produced by theCenter forResearch andReform at JohnsHopkinsUniversityandoffersawiderangeofresourcesforeducatorsonthetopicofEvidence-basedEducation.

Graphic Organizers (www.teachervision.com/lesson-planning/graphic-organizer).Teacher Vision showcases many useable graphic organizers for differentcontentareas.

Books/Articles

Hattie,J.(2012).Visiblelearningforteachers:Maximizingimpactonlearning.London,UnitedKingdom:Routledge.

Marzano, R. (2017). The new art and science of teaching. Bloomington, IN:SolutionTree.

Zhao,Y. (2018).Whatworksmay hurt: Side effects in education.NewYork,NY:TeachersCollegePress.

Videos

Clark, B. (2012, December 13). Introduction: Marzano’s nine strategies foreffectiveinstruction[Videofile].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=yGqfA5MaFCk

Clark, B. (2013, January 8). The first three Marzano strategies [Video file].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=aryPsMgJjnc&t=853s

Clark,B. (2013, January8).The second threeMarzanostrategies [Video file].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=9vKbC4P6pUo

Clark, B. (2013, January 8). The third three Marzano strategies [Video file].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=rsfKD6PnEa0

PartIII

TOOLSFORTHE21stCENTURY

CHAPTER7

Project-BasedLearning

Whenyougoforajobinterview,theydon’taskyouwhatyourreportcardlookslike;theyaskyoutoshowthemwhatprojectsyou’veworkedon.

TomWhitby,2017,formerteacher

Toomanystudents—especiallythosefurthestfromopportunity—areunpreparedforthemoderneconomyandthechallengesofthe21stcentury.

TheBuckInstitute,2018

Enthusiasm for project-based learning (PBL) is sweeping the nation’sclassrooms.Butthereisacaution.Youmayrememberdoingprojectswhenyouwere in school, typicallyat theendofaunitof study.Thesekindsofprojectswereusuallydesignatedenrichmentandsought toextendandenhance thereallearning offered by the textbook. Today, with PBL, the project is the reallearning!Andwhathascometobeknownasreallearninghasevolvedaswell.Today’sprojectsareinfusedwiththeskillsandunderstandingsneededforlivingandworkingintoday’sworld.

Lifeinthe21stcenturyiscomplexatbest,andperhapsabitoverwhelmingtoavastmajorityof thepopulation.Somehaveattributed thesefeelings to theincreasedrateatwhichknowledgeisgrowing.BuckminsterFuller,therenownedinventor,identifiedwhatbecameknownastheknowledgedoublingcurve,orthetimeittookcivilizationtodoubleallthatwasknownintheworld.Hetheorizedthat human knowledge doubled about every 100 years leading up to 1900.According to today’s experts, however, the doubling of knowledge will soonapproachevery12hours(Shilling,2013).Juststopforamomentandreflectonthat astounding statistic. This phenomenal birth rate of new knowledge hastriggered a plaintive call for educational systems to undergo radicaltransformationsso that today’s learnersmayreceive thekindofeducation thatwill prepare them for life in these extremely fast-moving times. One suchorganization is the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (www.p21.org), a

coalitionofeducators,businesspartners,andstateeducationalorganizations. Itwas oneof the first to propose a new, 21st-century set of skills neededby allstudents.Theseskills,ofcourse,includetheonesformerlyknownasthe“threeRs”: reading, (w)riting and (a)rithmetic. Added to those, however, wereLearningandInnovationSkills,LifeandCareerSkills,andInformation,Media,andTechnologicalSkills.

One of the areas, Learning and Innovation Skills, has been exceptionallywell-receivedbyeducatorsastheyseektopreparestudentstobelifeandcareerready. These skills are collectively known as the “4Cs”: critical thinking,communication, collaboration, and creativity (Partnership for 21st CenturyLearning, 2007). As these skills were beginning to be widely dispersed ineducational circles as well as the media, school districts began to embrace ateachingpedagogythatappearedtoconnectallfourofthesemasterskillareas—project-basedlearning.

Let’s examine, for a moment, how the 4Cs might, almost seamlessly, beintegratedintoPBL.CommunicationisinherentinPBLasitrequiresstudentstoshare thoughts, questions, and ideas with others in order to create solutions.Likewise, collaboration goes hand in hand with the former as students worktogetheronprojectstowardthecompletionofspecificlearninggoals.Inschoolprojects decades ago, most students did their own projects (or at least weresupposed to, as in the case of science fair projects). But now, throughcollaboration,individualstudentsareprovidedtheopportunitytocontributetheirspecifictalents,expertise,andintelligencetotheteam’sprogress.Thisfeelingofcontributingtothewholeofthegroupallowseachstudenttofeelincludedandimportant, and thus nurtures the crucial psychological need for belongingness.Next,wecometocriticalthinking,whichoccupiesanintegralaspectofproject-oriented learningexperiences—thesolvingofaproblemor task innovelwayswhilemaking authentic connections across various content areas—just like inthe world beyond school. Lastly, in PBL creativity has a place to shine. Theessential task in PBL is for the team to create a product or solution that is asinnovativeasitisrelevant.Therearepowerfulsynergisticeffectsforemployingthemetaskills of the 4Cs—communication, collaboration, critical thinking andcreativity—so that today’s students will learn to navigate and solve the real-worldproblemsofthe21stcentury.

Figure7.1.StudentsInvolvedinProject-basedLearning

THEWHAT:PROJECT-BASEDLEARNINGFORTHE21STCENTURY

Project-basedLearningcanbedefinedinmanyways,but,initssimplestform,itisrecognizedasateachingmodelthatestablisheslearninggoalsaroundprojects.Figure 7.1 portrays two students fully engaged in a digital project. Theseprojects,inturn,givestudentsachancetoworkforanextendedperiodoftimeexploringandrespondingtoauthentic,real-worldchallenges.AccordingtoJohnDewey (1916), investigating real-life problems and ways to solve them andteaching content relevant to student’s lives is a highly beneficial method ofteaching. Dewey, along with Kilpatrick (1918), advocated for experientiallearning,theideathatstudentslearnthroughexperience.ThecurrentiterationofPBL is also a learning-by-doing model, but now it is imbued with the skillseveryonewillneedtonotonlysurvivebutalsothriveinthe21stcentury.

Project-based learning is highly constructivist in nature as, at the core, itallows learners to be the makers of meaning and thus add to the creation ofknowledge (i.e., a new way to solve a problem). Even though students are

occupied creating knowledge, there is a definite structure to all PBL units.Larmer, Mergendoller, & Boss (2015) assert that there are three definingelementstoawell-designedPBLunit:(1)achallengingproblem,(2)sustainedinquiry, and (3) student voice and choice. TheBuck Institute, an organizationdedicated to creating, gathering, and sharing high-quality PBL instructionalpractices and products, goes even further and defines a gold standard for allprojects.Theeightelementsofthisstandardincludethefollowing:

1. Keyknowledge,understanding,andsuccessskills.Theprojectisfocusedonstudentlearninggoals,includingstandards-basedcontentandskillssuchascriticalthinking/problemsolving,collaboration,andself-management.

2. Challengingproblemorquestion.Theprojectisframedbyameaningfulproblemtosolveoraquestiontoanswer,attheappropriatelevelofchallenge.

3. Sustainedinquiry.Studentsengageinarigorous,extendedprocessofaskingquestions,findingresources,andapplyinginformation.

4. Authenticity.Theprojectfeaturesreal-worldcontext,tasksandtools,qualitystandards,orimpact,orspeakstostudents’personalconcerns,interests,andissuesintheirlives.

5. Studentvoiceandchoice.Studentsmakesomedecisionsabouttheproject,includinghowtheyworkandwhattheycreate.

6. Reflection.Studentsandteachersreflectonlearning,theeffectivenessoftheirinquiryandprojectactivities,thequalityofstudentwork,obstaclesandhowtoovercomethem.

7. Critiqueandrevision.Studentsgive,receive,andusefeedbacktoimprovetheirprocessandproducts.

8. Publicproduct.Studentsmaketheirprojectworkpublicbyexplaining,displayingand/orpresentingittopeoplebeyondtheclassroom.(www.bie.org/blog/gold_standard_pbl_essential_project_design_elements)

Moreover, project-based learning is an idealway to create a constructivistclassroomandmakeitmorestudentcentered.Havingtheclassworkasagroupandcollaboratewithoneanotherputsthelearningintostudents’hands.Studentsare actively doing the learning in PBL, thereby supporting the constructivisttheory that students learn best when they solve problems on their own asopposedtohavingteachersdirecteveryaspectofthelearning.

ItmayalsobenotedthatinaPBLclassroom,classroommanagementmaybemoreeasilyfacilitated.SettingupaspecificPBLtableintheclassroomcan

givestudentsadesignatedplaceintheclassroomwheretheycangotoworkontheirprojectwhenever theyhave thefree timetodoso.Forexample, let’ssaysomestudentshavefinishedworkingonanassignment.TheycangotothePBLtable and silently do researchon their project insteadof, perhaps, engaging inlessproductiveendeavors.Figure7.2isanexampleawindmillprojectthatcouldsoengagelearnerswhohavefinishedaclassroomassignment.

Figure7.2.LearningThroughProjects

THEWHY:THEPOWEROFPROJECT-BASEDLEARNING

Educational researchers from around the world have repeated and powerfullyvalidated the efficacy of PBL. We will now examine some of these studies.Recently, Hall and Miro (2016) demonstrated that project-based learning cangreatlyimprovestudentlearning,problemsolving,andanalyticalthinkingskillsforalllearners.Notonlyhavestudentsinvolvedinproject-basedlearningshowna deeper understanding of subject-matter (Blumenfeld et al., 1991), but theyhave also outperformed students in non-project-based classes on standardizedtesting (Geieretal.,2008). Ina study inBritain, three timesasmanystudentsinvolved in a project-based learning program achieved the highestmarks on anationwideexam,versusthestudentsenrolledinamoretraditional,non-project-based school setting (Bell, 2010). The benefits of project-based science werealsofoundtobesimilarforbothmaleandfemalestudents,studentsfromvariousracial and ethnic backgrounds (Harris et al., 2015), and for students in moreunderserved and urban environments (Geier et al., 2008). This is important

because women, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans areextremelyunderrepresentedinfieldswherecollaborationonprojectsdominatestheworkaday environment—science and engineering fields. Furthermore, in areview of research on project-based instruction in kindergarten through 12th-gradeclassrooms,Holm(2011)foundthatPBLhelpsstudentsdevelopproblem-solving strategies and transfer skills to new situations. Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008) also posit that PBL,when implemented correctly, results instudent gains in factual learning, as well as student improvements in criticalthinking and problem-solving ability. “In fact, a growing body of researchsuggeststhatstudentslearnmoredeeplyandperformbetteroncomplextasksiftheyhavetheopportunitytoengageinmore“authentic”learning—projectsandactivities that require them to employ subject knowledge to solve real-worldproblems”(p.12).

THEHOW:CLASSROOMINTEGRATIONOFPROJECT-BASEDLEARNING

Many teachers, when asked how they feel about project-based learning, thinkthat they must abandon their regular, standards-based curriculum in favor oflettingthestudentslearnontheirownonatopicoftheirchoice.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.PBLactuallyhasthepotentialofenliveningtheregularcurriculumbyinjectingreal-worldauthenticityintosometimesotherwisesterilecontent.However,PBLdoesn’t justhappen.MichaelStone,anAlbertEinsteinDistinguished Educator Fellow and former high school teacher, offers fiverecommendations for teachers to follow to make your project successful(Schwartz,2016).

1. Makeexplicitconnectionstostandards.Eventhoughcurriculumstandardsarenowevolvingtoinclude21st-centuryskillsets,theyarestillthecentralfocusofclassroominstructionintoday’sschools.Therefore,teacherswhowanttoincorporatePBLintotheirinstructionalrepertoireneedtobeawarethatwithoutclearconnectionstothecurriculum,timespentonaprojectmaybeseenastangentialandonlyappropriateforenrichmentpurposes.

2. Createclearexpectations.SincePBLhasbeendescribedbysomeas“purposelymessy,”studentsfigureouttheprocessalongtheway,manyteachershavefoundthathavingclearguidelinesregardingthefinalproductisbothhelpfulandnecessarytolearningoutcomes.Whenallthestudentsintheteamunderstandtheirrolesandtherequirementsforthe

finishedproduct,thentheycanbefreedtodothecollaborativeproblemsolvingnecessary.

3. Assessprocesses.Aswasmadeclearearlier,oneofthemostpowerfulaspectsofPBListhat,alongsidelearningstandards-basedcontent,studentsareabletoexercisecritical21st-centuryskills—collaboration,communication,criticalthinking,andcreativity.Sincetheseprocessskillsareintegraltotheproject,teachersshouldhavesomewayofassessingthemwithstudents.Themannerbywhichthisisdonemayincludeteacher-createdrubrics,or,inmanycases,studentsthemselvescanparticipateinformulatingstandardsfor“goodteamwork”againstwhichtheywillbejudged.

4. Designscaffolds.IfyouhavetaughtaPBLunitbefore,youmayknowwheretroublespotsmayoccurforyourstudents.Knowingthisbeforehandandhavingaplanofactioncangoalongwaytowardthesuccessoftheentireproject.Oneareathatsometimesgetsawayfromstudentsisthelong-termduedates.Therefore,youmightwishtoconstructaseriesofduedatesforeachsectionoftheproject,andspecifywhoisresponsibleforeachcomponent.Additionally,Stonesuggestsseveralmorestructuredmeasurestoscaffoldstudents:

Createstations.Thisscaffoldallowstheteachertoidentifywhichaspectoraspectsofaparticularcontentstandardmaybethemostdifficultforlearners,andtoplanappropriateactivitiesforstudentstopracticethese,individuallyorwithapartner.Designaworkshop.Ateachermayseethatastudentgroupmayneedalittlemoreinformationorhelpanddesignateacher-directedworkshoptothatend.Assignfocusgroups.Afocusgroupisabitliketheworkshop,onlylessinformationintense.Somegroupsmayneedjustaquickhelpwithasmallaspectoftheirproject.

5. Transferownership.Stoneremindsusthattheultimatepurposeoftheprojectis“toputstudentsinapositionwheretheyaresolvingauthenticproblems,nottocheckabox”(Schwartz,2016).Therefore,teachersmustbeever-vigilanttokeepthefocusonstudentaccountabilityandstudentownershipwhileatthesametimeprovidingsupportwhenthesituationarises.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachersHerearesomewaysyourpeers

havebroughttherichnessofPBLintotheir21st-centuryclassrooms.

InorderforaPBLprojecttobeconnectedtotherealworld,itmustaddressanauthenticproblemthatprofessionalsinthedisciplinewouldencounterintheirresearchorjobs.Thisgivesstudentstheopportunitytoreachanaudienceandissueoutsideoftheclassroom,andmostissuesthatexistbeyondtheschoolwallsaregreaterandmorecomplexinscopeandimpact.Asaresult,studentsmustbeinnovativeincreatingsolutionstooraddressingtheseproblems.(Teacher,highschool)

Myschoolisfortunatetohavestudentsfrommanydifferentcultural,ethnic,andsocioeconomicbackgrounds.Thediversityamongthestudentpopulationatmyschoolallowsstudentstoimmersethemselveswithpeoplefromdifferentbackgrounds,whileatthesametimebuildingfriendshipswithclassmatesfromdifferentcultures,races,genders,andreligions.Thisdiversitybenefitsstudentsastheylearnfromdifferentperspectiveswhentheycollaborateonideasandcreativityduringgroupprojects.(Teacher,highschool)

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORPROJECT-BASEDLEARNING

Additional information regarding project-based learning can be found in thefollowingresources:WebsitesBuckInstituteforEducation(www.bie.org).Thisisthepremiersiteforproject-basedlearning,includingdefinitions,researchsupport,andhundredsofresourcesandtemplatesfor teachers tousetoengagestudentswithPBL.Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education

(www.ciese.org/materials/k12/).ThiswebsitespecializesinSTEMprojectsforelementary,middle,andhighschool.

Edutopia(www.edutopia.org).This is a comprehensive education site funded by the George LucasFoundation.Thissitehousesarticles,researchandvideosonPBLaswellasmanyotherinnovativeresources.

GlobalSchoolNet(www.gsn.org).Funded, in part, by the U.S. Department of Education, this website hostsprojectideasaswellasPBLtutorialsforteachers.

STEM MI Champions: Leading Project-Based Learning(www.leadingpbl.org/w/page/24328306/PBL%20Gallery).

This is awebsitewithmany teacher-created elementary,middle, and highschoolprojects.

TheVirtualSchoolhouse(www.virtualschoolhouse.net)Theprojectsonthissite(www.virtualschoolhouse.net/projects.htm) represent a variety of projectsclassifiedbygradelevels.

Books/ArticlesCooper,R.,&Murphy,E.(2016).Hackingprojectbasedlearning:10easystepstoPBLandinquiryintheclassroom.[Columbus,OH]:Times10Publications.

Gray, A. (2016). The 10 skills you need to thrive in the fourth industrialrevolution.Retrievedfromwww.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-10-skills-you-need-to-thrive-in-the-fourth-industrial-revolution/

Larmer,J.,Mergendoller,J.,&Boss,S.(2015).Settingthestandardforproject-basedlearning.Alexandria,VA:ASCD.

VideosCommonSense.(n.d.).Whatarethe4Cs?[Videofile].Retrievedfromwww.commonsense.org/education/asset/watch-learn/introduction-to-the-4-csTheCommonSenseEducationwebsitesharesabriefdescriptionofthe4Csofthe21stcentury:collaboration,communication,criticalthinking,andcreativity.

CHAPTER8

TheDigitalRevolutioninEducation

Bookswillbeobsolete in thepublic schools.Scholarswillbe instructed through theeye. It ispossibletoteacheverybranchofhumanknowledgewithmotionpicture.Ourschoolsystemwillbecompletelychangedinsideoftenyears.

ThomasEdison,1913

Clearly, Thomas Edison’s lofty prediction did not happen in the decadefollowing his proclamation (quoted in Smith, 1913). Nor didmoving picturescause our school systems to radically change in the eight succeeding decades.However,thislong-awaitedreformhas,perhaps,finallycometopass.And,likeEdison’svision, this revolution involvesanew,disrupting technology—in thiscase, the Internet, which allows learners entry into a whole universe ofknowledge24/7.

Aswe start this final chapter, one that focuses on the 21st-century digitalrevolution,let’stakeamomenttoreviewtheessentialquestionthatwasposedatthebeginningofChapter1:Howdoyouwanttobeasateacher?Certainly,oneof your answerswould have to be “a teacherwho is able to use 21st-centurylearningtools.”And,consideringthosetools,moreandmoreofthemaredigitalin nature. Incorporating these digital tools into the classroom maximizesstudents’ opportunities to learn both school-based content and also how toaccess,criticallyanalyze,anduseinformationintheworldoutsideofschool.

THEWHAT:BLENDEDLEARNINGPEDAGOGIES

So,doesthedigitalrevolutionmaketeachersandteachingobsolete?Absolutelynot!Teachersareneedednow,morethanever,toguidetheirlearnersthroughanoverwhelming array of digital options to facilitate their mastery of key 21st-centuryknowledgesetsandskills.Todothiswearegoingtoexploretheideaofblended learning, or thecombiningofonline learningopportunitieswithmoretraditional classroom instruction. Figure 8.1 shows students engaged in ablendedlearningclassroomassignment.

Figure8.1.BlendedLearninginDigitalClassroomEnvironments

In a blended learning classroom, students are able to employ 21st-centuryskills as they think, communicate, create, and collaboratewith learners on theothersideoftheclassroom—ortheothersideoftheplanet.Moreover,theyareabletoaccessknowledgewheneverandwherevertheyneedit,givingthemmorecontrolovertheirownlearning.

It is an educational maxim that students learn in different ways. Somerequiremultipleformsofpracticebeforetheymasteratopic,somerequiremorevisuals,someareassistedbyEnglishtranslations,andstillothersneedalloftheabove. Technology supports all of these needs and so much more.Differentiationandblendedlearningaremadeforeachotherasstudentsmaybeprovidedwithaccesstoalimitlessarrayofresourcestomeettheirindividualizedlearningrequirements.

And,nottobeoverlooked,digitaltoolsarealsoabletoprovidelearnerswithinstant feedback. Marcella Bullmaster-Day, Associate Director of the LanderCenterforEducationalResearchatTouroCollege,sharesthatbyusingblendedlearningintheclassroom,teachersareableto“guidedifferentiatedinstruction;

offer students constructive immediate feedback and guidance as to how toimprove; and group students for further instruction and practice” (quoted inVanderArk,2011).

Directinstructionisstillcritical,asstudentsneedteacherstohelporganizeandguidelearningexperiences.However,intoday’sclassroomlearningmaybea continuous process when students are provided with access to limitlessresources.Bullmaster-Daycallsattentiontothisphenomenonwiththefollowingcomment, “When students have some control over the sequence of lessons ortopicswithin lessons; theamountof time theyspendoneach lesson;and theiraccesstolearningsupportslikepracticeexercisesorworkedexamples,learningis enhanced” (quoted inVanderArk, 2011).Blended learning is a remarkableclassroom innovation as it allows an opportunity for deeper interaction withconceptsattheappropriatelevelforeachlearner.

Teacher facilitation, however, is key to effective use of blended learning.“Toomuchemphasisonsmallskillsandminutiaewillhaveyoufeelinglikeyouaredrowning in apps, digital content, and25 individual student learningpathsandlessonplans”(Shorr&Kinsey,2014).TeachersstillneedtobetheCEOoftheir classroomandmake the crucial decisions regardingwhat and howmuchtechnologyiseffectiveforeachlearningexperience.

Technology can be used effectively in flipped classrooms, a prominentexample of blended learning. Many teachers believe the flipped classroommodelmerelyrequiresteacherstocreatevideosforstudentstowatchandlearnfromwhentheyareoutsideoftheclassroom.Itmayincludethat.However,theflipped classroommodel is somuchmore.According to Sams andBergmann(2013),“Flippedlearningisnotabouthowtousevideos(forwatchingathome)inyourlessons.It’sabouthowtobestuseyourin-classtimewithstudents”(p.13). They argue that students most need their teacher’s full attention as theystrugglewith thepracticingofnewly learnedconcepts.Typically, thispracticetimeisnotdoneintheclassroom,butis,instead,assignedashomework.Inthismore traditionalmodel,parentsare theoneswhoare left tohelp theirchildrenwithmaterialthatisnotfullyunderstood.

However, when we engage digital technologies to provide the initialpresentationforfoundationalconcepts,oftenwithengagingvisualsandsound,ateacher is freed in classroom time to “deliver targeted instruction to studentsone-on-oneorinsmallgroups,helpthosewhostruggle,andchallengethosewhohavemasteredthecontent”(Sams&Bergmann,2013,p.16).

Theoriginalformatfortheflippedclassroommaybetweakedbyincludingaspects of what the Center for Applied Special Technology, known better asCAST(www.cast.org),referstoastheUniversalDesignforLearning(UDL),a

frameworkforinstructionaldeliverybasedonbrainresearch,whichhasshownthatindividualsprocessinformationinvaryingways(Rao&Meo,2016).Underthisinclusionarymodel,teachersplanmultiplewaystopresentconcepts,aswellas multiple ways of having students process the learning and/or ways ofdemonstrating the learning. Clearly, not all students learn from any oneparticular teaching strategy—not from lectures, not from groupwork, and notfromwatchingvideos.Inordertoaccommodateeachlearner,ateachermayaltertheflippedmodelbyallowingstudentssomelevelofchoiceinwaystheywouldliketoengagewiththeinitialinstructionandalsobydeciding,withthem,wherein the instructional cycle would be the best place for students to have theteacher’sone-to-oneassistance.For thosewhowould like to learnmoreaboutwhat is involved in flipping your classroom, the Flipped Learning GlobalInitiative (flglobal.org/community-home) is a good place to start and providesteachers with a professional learning community that has resources andinformationthatwillassistinimplementingthismodel.

THEWHY:WHATISTHEEVIDENCEFORDIGITALLEARNING?

Technology-enhanced instructionhasbeen shown topromote student learning.There is a caution,however, in reading the research literatureas theremaybetoo many variables confounding the findings (e.g., the amount of time beingused for digital instruction, the amount of student-initiated problem solving,issues of access to digital devices both at school and at home). Nevertheless,therearesomepromisingfindingsrelativetostudentlearninggainswithdigitalresources. For example, Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, and Jones (2009)foundpromisingresults inasizeablenumberofstudies thatcomparedblendedlearning with more traditional face-to-face conditions. Likewise, Shachar andNeumann(2003)noticed increasedeffects forstudentachievementandstudentsatisfactioninfavorofblendedlearning.Finally,Delgado,Wardlow,McKnight,and O’Malley (2015) assert that “numerous studies report that 1:1 computingenvironments can lead to significantly higher scores on reading and mathachievement tests and overall grade point averages,” and “students in 1:1computing environments exhibited increased academic achievement, improvedengagement,researchskills,andcollaborationskills”(p.409).

While digital technologieswill continue to grow in number and evolve inform,so,too,willtheneedforresearcherstopersistindeterminingtheeffectofthese new technological instructional strategies. Educators will still be taskedwiththeresponsibilityofequippingstudentswithessentialskillsto“1)discernand identify credible information; 2) have the ability to master the Common

CoreStateStandards;and3)gain theskills inorder tobepreparedforcollegeand/oracareer”(Delgadoetal.,2015,p.410).Digitallearningisheretostay!

THEHOW:EMPLOYINGDIGITALTOOLSINTHECLASSROOM

Becausedigitaltechnologiesarethe“newkidsontheblock,”teachersmaynothavebeenable,asyet,tobuildalargecollectionofuseableideas.Therefore,inthis section content-specific lesson ideas are provided for teachers at both theelementaryandsecondarygradelevels.

Blogging:WritingforaRealAudience

Ablog(orweblog)allowsstudents’writingtobesharedwithanaudiencethatisboth real-life and authentic. In the early days of the Internet, blogs wereprimarily an avenue for folks to share ideas and opinions on topics ofmutualinterest. However, teachers soon discovered that students’ interest in andmotivationforwritinggreatlyincreasedwhentheyweregiventheopportunitytoblogandthuswriteforarealaudience.Today,K–12teachershavefoundalargeassortment of uses for blogging. For example, an article on the eLearningwebsite,“HowtoUseBlogsintheClassroom,”liststhefollowing:

Teacherscanuseblogstopublishassignments,resources,andkeepstudentsandevenparentsuptodateonclassevents,duedates,andcontentbeingcovered.Teacherscanuseblogstohelpstudentsmastercontentandimprovetheirwritingskills.Studentscanuseblogstopublishtheirwritingandeducateothersonaparticulartopic.(Pappas,2013)

If teachers have never used blogging in their classroom or are cautiousregardingonline safety,Pappas’svery informativearticlealsodelves intohowteachersmayintroduceblogging(andtherelatedissuesofInternetsafety)toallstudents and, especially for thosewho are younger, their parents as well. Forthose who need a step-by-step introduction to blogging, Pappas has insertedseveralvideosintothebodyofthearticle.

Therearesomeplatforms thathavebeendesignedespecially foreducatorsandhavesafetyfeaturesbuiltrightintotheapplication.ThetwomainonesareEdublog.com and Kidblog.com. Both allow teachers to design and managecustomized classroom blogging sites and even allow photos and videos to be

uploaded. The following are content-based ideas for using blogging in theclassroom:

Elementary science. After reading about various human and animal body

systems,studentswillcreateablogpostdescribingoneofthebodysystems(e.g., digestive, nervous, muscular) and why that system is critical to thefunctioningofthewholeorganism.

Elementaryscience.Essentialquestionforstudents:“Asenvironmental-ists,howcanweconvinceotherstoprotectourplanet?”Studentswillberesponsiblefor researching andpresentingononehabitat anduse theSeesawappandturn on the recording feature to enable students to present their findings.TheymayalsousethebloggingfeaturewithintheSeesawappwithwhichtosharetheirreportwithaglobalaudience.

Elementaryscience.Studentsusetextualevidencefromtheirtextbookorotherinformationsourcestocreateablogtoanswerapromptaboutthedifferentstatesofmatter.Studentswillalsogivefeedbacktotwoclassmates’blogs.Aprompt in this instance might be, “The three states of matter that weredescribedinthetextbookare…”

Elementary social studies.Have studentswrite an opinion essay to respond tothe followingprompt: “In thisunityouhave learnedabout threepathwaysthat connect communities across North America—the Oregon Trail, theTranscontinental Railroad, and Route 66. In your opinion, which of thesepathwaysdidthemosttoconnectpeopleandplaces?”Supportyouropiniononthistopicwithevidencefromthetext.Alsorespondtotheblogsoftwoofyourclassmates.

HighschoolEnglishlanguagearts.AftercarefulreadingoftheplayRomeoandJulietbyWilliamShakespeare,studentspostentriestoablogfollowingeachsignificanteventintheplay.

High school science.Environmentalproject:Students investigateoneway thathumansarenegativelyimpactingtheenvironmentandcreateawebsitethatpresents the ecological information, as well as the information about theimpact. Then students create a public service announcement (PSA) toincludeontheirwebsiteandwriteapersuasiveblogaboutasolutiontotheproblemlinkedtotheirwebsite.

Podcasting:ThePowerofEncouragingStudentVoice

Aswithblogging,podcastingallowsforstudentstopresentideas,projects,and

debates to an audience of real people—other peers, parents, or the public atlarge.Podcastingmayhaveanadvantageforstudentswhoarereluctanttowriteat all. Thesemay be studentswho are English language learners orwhomayhave special needs.Whatever the reason for their reticence for writing,manyteachers have noticed that these same students are first in linewhen they aregivenachance topresent their ideasorally.Thefollowingare lesson ideas forusingpodcastingintheclassroom:

ElementaryEnglishlanguagearts.Haveeachstudentcreateapodcastbytelling

theaudiencewhattheylearnedaboutanimalsinthewildorfarmanimals.Elementarymath.“MathTreasureHunt”:Studentgroupsof3–4areeachgivena

“treasurenumber” that theykeep secret from theothergroups.Asa team,the studentswork together tobrainstormdifferent clues about thenumber.Notecardsareprovided for students to record their clue ideas.The teachercirculates around the classroom and prompts students to think of differentways to get to the number or different ways to make the number. Note:Especiallyearlyon,itwouldbehelpfultoprovidesomesentenceframestoget students started. Examples include: “It is _____more than_______.”“Start at____ and add_____more.” “It has____tens and ____ones.” “It isequal to ____=____.” Students can also create more elaborate clues like“Find the square root of ____, then divide it by _____and multiply thesquareofthatanswerby____.”

Highschoolchemistry.Havestudentsworkinpairstoresearchoneelementontheperiodictableandrecordapodcastforotherstolearnaboutthehistoryandusesormisusesofthatelement.

Highschoolbiology.Studentswilluselaptopsandtheirnotebookstowriteoutatranscriptfortheirownpodcast,discussingoneofthefollowingtopics:(1)process of evolution for population to increase until they reach carryingcapacity and the heritable genetic variation from mutations and sexualreproduction;(2)specieswithafavorabletraithaveatendencytoincreaseinproportion to species without that trait due to principles of statistics andprobability;(3)changesinenvironmentalconditionsmaybeduetoincreasesinspecies,ordiminishmentorextinctionofotherspecies.

High school math. Students will research a topic in mathematics (e.g., thePythagoreantheorem)andlocatespecificinformation,suchaswhocameupwiththetopic,whythetopicisimportanttomathematics,andoneexampleof the topic in the realworld.Studentsalso listen to theirgroupmembers’podcastsandcommentonthem.Thecommentsmustbeaboutthetopicand

include things such as one surprising fact andone thing they learnedwithfocusonthereal-worldapplication.

High school English language arts. “Take a Stand”: Students are askedquestions regarding different environmental issues (e.g., organic vs.traditionalfarmingpractices, treatmentofanimals,pesticides,housingnearSuperfundsites,airpollution,waterpollution)andwillthentakeastandorstatetheirposition,andcomposeandrecordapersuasiveargument.

HighschoolU.S.history.Haveeachstudentcreateapodcaston thecharacter,role, and significant contribution of a historical figure from theAmericanRevolution,orfromanotherperiodofU.S.history.

EmployingGoogle’sSuiteofToolsintheClassroom

Google has become the de facto go-to for all things information. In fact, thewordGoogleisrecognizedasaverb,asin“IamgoingtoGooglethisorthat.”Googlehasnowbranchedoutintotheworldofwritingandorganization(thinkGoogleDocs)andhasevencreatedtoolsaimedateducators.GoogleClassroom,whichcanbeaccessedbyteachers,schools,oranyonewithaGoogleaccount,isone such tool and offers teachers an entire suite of classroom applications tomakelife(andteaching)easier tomanage.Asawhole,GoogleClassroomisahelpful way to consolidate all classroom work online. Following are someexamplesofwaysthatteachersmayutilizeGoogle’swholesuiteoftools.

GoogleFormshelpteacherscreateexitslips,surveys,andquizzesandshare

themwithstudentsonline.

AllgradesEnglish languagearts.Studentswillbeable touseclosereadingtocomprehend, summarize, and interpret information text and text structurewhileutilizingtechnologytocreateandcommunicatewithothers.

Elementarymath.Ingroupsoffour,studentswilluseGoogleFormstocreatea3-questionmultiplechoicesurveyandrecordresponses.

GoogleSlidesallowsteacherstocreate,edit,andcollaboratewithotherson

presentationsfromanydevice.

AllgradesEnglish languagearts.After readinga fictional story, studentswillwrite fivediary entries from theperspectiveofoneof themain charactersandciteexamplesandpagenumbersfromthenovelasevidence.Usingtheir

diary entries, students will then create a slide presentation from the first-personperspectiveofthatcharacter.

Elementary math. Students will work in preassigned groups to create a wordproblemrequiringtheuseofaddingandsubtractingdecimalsbycreatingaslidetorepresenttheirproblem.

Highschoolchemistry.Studentswillcreateaslidethatrepresentsanelementontheperiodictable.

GoogleDrawings allows teachersandstudents tocollaborateonline in the

creationofflowchartsmindmaps,conceptmaps,andothertypesofdiagrams.

Elementary social studies. Studentswill review different aspects ofCaliforniahistory to create a detailed “slide” on Google Drawings to be added to aclass-createdproject—aCaliforniahistorytimeline.Thisslidecouldincludeimages,drawings,wordart,andsoon.

Google Earth and Google Maps for Education are wonderful tools for

teachers and students alike. While Google Earth provides 3-D imagery byoffering an array of panoramic photographs formany cities, towns, and otherplacesaroundtheworld,GoogleMapsforEducationprovidesresourcestohelpteachersandstudentsexplore,create,andcollaboratewithmappingtools.

Social Studies Educators can employGoogle Earth to assist students in doing

researchaboutspecificlocationsontheplanet.Elementary science. The teacher will project Google Earth at the front of the

classroom so students can all view together. Using the Voyager forEducation option, the teacher will launch the “Math and Architecture:Circular Structures” journey. Looking at both bird’s eye view and streetview,theclasswilltraveltovariouslocationslookingforshapestheyknow.UsingaThink-Pair-Sharestrategy,studentswillexplainwhattheyseewhilepracticing academic vocabulary. After the virtual field trip is over, theteacherwill typeintheaddressoftheschooltoshowstudentsabird’seyeviewofwheretheyare.Again,theywilllookforshapes.

Upper elementary, middle, high school science. Students useGoogle Earth toresearch their community watershed to discover where their water comesfromandcollaborativelycreateaGoogleslideshowtracingwaterfromtheirhomefaucet,slantwell,aquifer,andthewatercycle.

Google Voyager is a collection of map-based stories written by GoogleEarth partners and can take students on tours or teach them topics like travel,culture,nature,andhistory.

Elementary science. Students will learn about things they can do to reduce

globalwarming and protect the earth by taking a virtual field trip to visitsiteswherethereisseriousplantextinction.TheywillworkingroupsoffourtocreateavideoandpostittoYouTube,withtheirideasofwhattheycoulddotohelpreversetheprocess.

Google Sheets is a spreadsheet tool that allows teachers and students to

create,edit,andcollaborateusingdata.

Highschoolphysics.StudentstestvariationstodeterminewhataffectstheperiodofapendulumbycollectingdataandrecordingitonGoogleSheets.

DigitalApp-iness

Itwouldbe impossible to quantify themanydigital applications, or apps, thathavebeendevelopedforstudentlearning.Followingarejustasmallfractionthatmay be useful to teachers. At the end of this chapter additional websites thatfeatureclassroomtoolshavebeenadded.AlloftheappsbelowcanbefoundatReadWriteThink (readwritethink.org). Figure 8.2 shows students using digitalapplications.

Figure8.2.StudentsUsingDigitalApplications

ComicCreatorletsstudentsdesigntheirowncomicstrips.

Elementaryscience.Studentswillcreateacomicstripdescribinghowfossilsaremadeusingthisapp.

Highschoolbiology.Studentswillcreateacomicstrip thatwillallowthemtodemonstrateunderstandingoftheflowofinformationfromDNAtospecificcharacteristics.

Highschoolbiology.Studentswillcreateacomicstripof1–3framesconveyingconsequences ofmicroplastic ocean pollution using an ocean organism asthecentralcharacter.

Venn Diagram allows users to compare and contrast information in a

visuallyappealingway.

Elementarysocialstudies.Studentswillusetheapptocreateacomparisonandcontrastdiagramontwofamousinventors.

Shadow Puppet allows students to create a visual presentation using

shadowstopresenttheirfictionand/orinformationtextessays.

Elementaryscience.Studentsusethisapptocreateanartprojecttodemonstrate

thestagesofthelifecycleofabutterflyandthenworktogetherinteamstomake a videousing their artwork and theirwords to teach the lifecycle toothers.

Postcard Creator encourages student writing and creativity in a postcard

format.

HighschoolEnglishlanguagearts.AftersignificanteventsinthenovelToKillaMockingbirdbyHarperLee,studentswillcreatepostcardswritingasoneof the characters in the novel to another character in response to topicsprovided.

Bio Cube Creator helps students to identify, summarize, and shorten key

ideas.

High school history. In groups, students research a topic using the NationalHistory Day theme, Conflict and Compromise in History, and create apresentation.

Timelineallowsstudentstocreateagraphicalrepresentationofaneventor

processbydisplayingitemssequentiallyalongaline.

High school chemistry. Highlight examples of the chemistry of the Earth andhow it has changed throughout the history of the Earth. Introduce thegeologictimescale,andhavestudentsusethisapptoorganizethedataandresearchtheEarth’schemistryduringeachepoch.

AFewThoughtsfromPracticingTeachers

Herearesomewaysotherteachershavebeguntointegrateblendedlearningintoaportionofeachschoolday.

Withtechnologytherearesomanywaysforstudentstoshowtheirlearning.Theycandraw,makeslideshows,videorecordings,comics,posters,speeches,andmanymore.Evenwithinthosecategoriesstudentsareabletousedifferentformats,forexamplePrezi,Googleslides,

areabletousedifferentformats,forexamplePrezi,Googleslides,PowerPoint.Allowingstudentsthesekindsofoptions,pairedwithcontentthatpiquestheirinterest,motivatesthemtoactuallywanttolearn.(Teacher,middleschool)

OnewaythatIusetechnologytosupportmydifferentiationwithspellingwordsisbyhavingthreedifferentlevelsofspellinglists;eachlistworksonthesamespellingconceptfortheweekbutthedifficultylevelofthewordchangesbasedonwhatthestudentneeds.WhenitcomestothetestthestudentstakeonFriday,I’verecordedmyselfgivingthetestandaddedalinkintotheGoogleFormthatthestudentsusetocompletethetest.Nowallthestudentscantaketheirdifferentiatedspellingtestatthesametime.Thestudentsarealsoabletorewindthevideotolistentothewordsagainiftheydidn’thearitthefirsttimearound.Thestudentscanworkthroughitattheirownpace,notfeelrushed,andbeabletoputmoreeffortintoit.WiththeuseofGoogleClassroom,mystudentsareabletoeasilycommunicatewiththeirpeersonline;creategroup/pairedassignmentsandeasilyturnintheirassignments.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

Weliveinadigitalworldwherecomputerprogramsunderlieeverythingfrombusiness,marketing,aviation,science,andmedicine,havingcodingskillscanbeverybeneficialtostudentsinanyfieldtheyadventureinto….Ifweareseriousaboutpreparingstudentsforthe21st-centuryworldthencodingshouldnotbeignored.OnethingthatIlikeaboutincorporatingcodingintotheclassroomisthatitpromotesalgorithmicthinking—alsocalledcomputationalthinking.(Teacher,highschool)

IneverthoughtaboutcodinginEnglishlanguageartsbecauseIviewedcodingasaprogramminglessonaimedatmathandscience.Inowknowthatit’snotjustusefulforthosetwosubjectsbutacrossthecurriculum.Studentscanusecodingtocreategameversionsofanovel(aclassicoranoriginalthattheywrote).Codingcanalsoteachstudentstheimportanceofreadingandproofreadingtheirworkbecauseonemisplacedsemicoloncanbringtheirgametoanend.

THEWHERE:RESOURCESFORDIGITALLEARNING

Technologyresourcesforteachersgrowexponentiallyeveryyearandnowmaybe found everywhere—so much so that teachers can easily becomeoverwhelmed. I recommend using the following resources for additionalinformationregardingdigitallearningtoolsforclassrooms:

Websites

ExplainEverything(explaineverything.com).Students create presentations that help them reflect on information bysharingtheirknowledgeusingclipartandwhiteboardfeatures.

GoogleClassroom(classroom.google.com).Googleisinvestingheavilyineducationalapplicationsfortoday’steachers.Now, instead of using physical worksheets, work can be scanned anduploaded onto the Google Classroom platform. Students may use anapplicationcalledNotabilitytotypeordrawontoadocument,thensubmititonlinewhentheyaredone.

KhanAcademy(www.khanacademy.org).Thiswebsiteprovidesonlinelessonsinallcontentdisciplines.Teacherscanmonitorhowmanylessonsstudentshavecompletedandtracktheirprogressaswell.

KidBlog(kidblog.org/home/).Thisblogplatformisawayforstudentstosharetheirworkwithothers.Abloghelpsclassesconsolidatestudentworksothatitiseasytoshare.

Books/Articles

Feldmann,A.(2016,February24).5appstotransformteachingandpersonalizelearning [Blog post]. Retrieved from www.edutopia.org/blog/apps-transform-teaching-personalize-learning-ann-feldmannThisblogpostprovideseducatorswitha listofresourcesforwholegroup,guided practice, independent practice and reflection in the blendedclassroom.

Marcinek, A. (2012, April 24). Six examples of iPad integration in the 1:1classroom [Blog post]. Retrieved from www.edutopia.org/blog/ipad-integration-classroom-andrew-marcinekThis blog post provides secondary teachers with content examples frommath,historyandworldlanguagesforusingtheiPadintheclassroomin1:1format.

Miller, A. (2012, October 12). Blended learning: Strategies for engagement

[Blog post]. Retrieved from www.edutopia.org/blog/blended-learning-engagement-strategies-andrew-millerThisblogpostdiscussestheclassroomenvironmentthatateacherneedstoset up in order to effectively engage students in blended learningexperiences.

Shorr,J.,&Kinsey,M.(2014,September17).Blendedlearninginthemix:Theproactive teacher [Blog post]. Retrieved fromwww.edutopia.org/blog/blended-learning-proactive-teacher-megan-kinsey

Vander Ark, T. (2011, December 23). Blended learning:What research says.Retrieved from www.gettingsmart.com/2011/12/blended-learning-what-research-says/

vinbuzz. (2012, February 16). So you’re thinking of blogging?: Blogging 101[Blog post]. Retrieved from vlnbuzz.wordpress.com/2012/02/16/so-youre-thinking-of-bloggingThis is a blog post from the Vancouver Learning Network (BritishColumbia,Canada)abouthowtogetstartedwithblogging.

Videos

TEDx Talks. (2014, May 6). Blended learning and the future of education:MoniqueMarkoffatTEDxIthacaCollege(TEDTalks)[Videofile].Retrievedfromwww.youtube.com/watch?v=Mb2d8E1dZjYMarkoff speaks about blended learning, what it is about, and how to usetechnologytoimplement21stcenturyskills.

Weller, K. (2014, November 12). Blended learning: Working with one iPad[Video file]. Retrieved from www.edutopia.org/blog/blended-learning-working-one-ipad

Conclusion

IhopethatreadershavefeltarenewedsenseoftheirpowerasCEO-teachersontheir journey through these chapters. Day in and day out, teachers makehundreds of decisions. And it is precisely these decisions that can have aprofoundimpactonthelivesofthestudentsweteach.Weknowthistobetrueas eachoneof us is able to recall a teacherwhose influencewas felt in somesignificantwayinourownlives!

Iamremindedofananalogy,thatofacommercialonSaturdaymorningTV.Clearly, networks are able to charge advertisers large amounts of money fortheseads—upwardsof$100,000forjusta30-secondcommercial.Andallofthismoney is spent by advertisers hoping to influence the minds and hearts ofchildren.Atthatscalejustponderforamomentyourworthasyouareaffordedtheprivilege—duetoyourstate’sgrantingyoualicensetoteach—toinfluencetheminds and hearts of your students for approximately 170 days each year!Doesthatgiveyousomeideaoftheimpactyouhaveonyourstudents?

REGARDINGTHEHEARTOFTEACHING

AswehavelearnedinthechaptersinPartI,yourinfluenceisdependentonthequality of relationships in your classroom—your relationship to each of yourstudents and also their sense of community and trust with one another. Thefollowingquotefromateacherexquisitelyhighlightsthispoint.

Ihavebeenremindedthatnurtureissomuchmoreinfluentialthanwecouldhaveeverimagined,athome,intheclassroom,anywherereally.Itjustbroughtaboutageneralawarenessthatsomuchofwhatwedointheschoolenvironmentinfluencesourlearnersandhelpsthemtoreachtheirfullpotentialashumanbeings.Letuskeepthat,always,attheforefrontofourthoughtsaseducators!(Teacher,highschool)

REGARDINGTHESCIENCEOFTEACHING

Thebrain,themasterpieceofcreation,isalmostunknowntous.

NicolausSteno,1669

Yes, it does appear that there are some mysteries that the brain will foreverwithholdfromourunderstanding.However,wenowareabletoreject, inlargepart,theassertionNicolasStenomademorethanthreecenturiesago.Inthe21stcentury, as information unfolds almost daily about the inner workings of thehuman brain, neuroscientists and cognitive psychologists are able to jointogether in informing educators how to best stimulate the twin processes oflearningandthinkinginstudents.Forexample,wehavediscoveredtheamazingneuroplasticityofthebrainandhowstudents’brainsarechangeddailybywhatteachersdointheclassroom.Wenowunderstandourpartinsupportingstudentsas they grow “stronger, happier, more motivated, more resilient, and achievehigher” (Whitman&Kelleher, 2016).Throughout school (and, in fact,we arenow learning, throughout our entire lives) brains continue to grow newconnections between neurons as we learn new things and experience newexperiences.Thisideaisimpresseduponusinapowerfulwaybythefollowingteacher’scomment:

Iworkinadistrictthatplacesanenormousemphasison“studentachievement.”Afteryearsofhavingteachersdiscussvariousinterventionstrategies,orcurriculum,never,notonce,hasthe“scienceoflearning”beenuttered.Theconceptofneuroplasticity,thatthedeliberatemanagementthroughthewaysweteach,assess,structurethesocialandemotionalneedsofourstudentsmakesahugedifferenceinhelpingthemlearn.WhereonceIwasledtobelievethatmyrealmofinfluenceonstudentswaslimitedtostrategiesandcurriculum,Inowhaveanewfoundsenseofhopeandenthusiasm.(Teacher,elementaryschool)

REGARDINGYOURABILITYTOMAKEADIFFERENCE

Finally, as an educator, you are able to transform the influence you have onstudent learning through attending to the heart and science of learning.Ultimately, it isyourheartandyourunderstandingof theseprinciples thatwillfashiontheimpactthatyoudesire.

How do youwant to be as a teacher?Like all of us, youwant tomake agenuinedifference—and,indeed,youdo!

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Index

Thepagereferencesinthisindexcorrespondtotheprinteditionofthisbook.Pleaseusethesearchfunctionofyoure-readertolocatethetopicsandtermslistedherein.

ABLConnect,HarvardUniversity(website),31Achievement

caringteachersand,14impactofproject-basedlearning(PBL)on,105–106impactofsocial-emotionallearning(SEL)on,16importanceofstudentengagementandmotivation,9,11instructionalpracticestoimprovestudent,84–95

AdaByronLovelaceandtheThinkingMachine(Wallmark),70AdaTwist,Scientist(Beaty&Roberts),70AdvancementProject,56Advanceorganizers,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,95AlaskaYouthforEnvironmentalAction,40AmericanInstitutesforResearch,11Apps,120–121ArchiveEducation(website),97Aristotle,5Aronson,Elliot,27,29Artandscienceofteaching

conceptof,1andevidence-basedinstruction,2heartofteaching.SeeHeartofteachingscienceofteaching.SeeScienceofteaching

Ashley,J.,56Ashoka(website),36–38,42Aspy,D.,1,14At-riskstudents

andchangemaking/servicelearning,38–39impactofsocial-emotionalcompetencies,9,10–11

Authenticity,ofteachers,15Azevedo,F.A.C.,63,65

Bailis,L.N.,38,39Bakia,M.,113Barron,B.,32,106Beaty,Andrea,70Beliefsystems,ofteachers,15–17Bell,S.,105Benson,P.L.,38

Benson,P.L.,38Bergmann,J.,112–113BeyondWit&Grit(video),81Biel,R.,32Biggs,Sharon,70Billig,S.H.,38–39Bing,C.H.,69BioCubeCreator(app),121Bittman,E.,34Bjorkland,S.A.,27Blakemore,S.-J.,80Blaney,N.,27,29BlendedLearning(Weller),124BlendedLearningandtheFutureofEducation(TEDTalksvideo),124Blendedlearningpedagogies,110–124

apps,120–121blogging,114–116digitaltoolsinclassroom,114–122evidencefordigitallearning,113–114flippedclassroommodel,112–113GoogleClassroom,117–119,122natureof,110–113podcasting,116–117resourcesfor,123–124thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,121–122

Blogging,114–116defined,114inelementaryclassrooms,115–116insecondaryclassrooms,116

Bloom,B.S.,95Bloom’sTaxonomy,95Blum,R.,16Blumenfeld,P.C.,105–106Bohnenberger,J.E.,34Boss,S.,103–104,109Botvin,G.J.,12Brain-basedLearning(website),79Brain-basedLearning:ResourcesonLearningandtheBrain(website),79Brain-compatible/brain-basedteachingstrategies,68–79BrainMatters(Wolfe),80Brainplasticity,49,65,81Brainscience,3,61–81

cellcommunication,63–64educationalinsightsfrom,65imagingmethods,62–63,66methodsforusingineducation,68–79reasonsforuseineducation,65–67resourcesforbrainyteaching,79–81andrestorativepractices,48,49roleineducation,61–65thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,78–79

thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,78–79andUniversalDesignforLearning(UDL)framework,113

Brame,C.J.,32Bransford,J.D.,61–62,85–86Brent,R.,27Bridgeland,J.,3BrowardCounty(FL)PublicSchools,54Brown,A.L.,61–62,85–86,88Bruce,M.,3BuckInstituteforEducation(website),101,108Buckley,James,Jr.,71Buczynski,S.,62Buffett,Jennifer,20BuildingAcademicSuccessonSocialandEmotionalLearning(Zinsetal.),23BuildingBridges(Wade),43Bullmaster-Day,Marcella,111–112Burgan,Michael,71Burke,K.,56

Cabrera,A.F.,27CampusCompact,35–36Caputi,L.,1Caringteachers,14–15,16Carvalho,L.R.B.,63,65Cascarino,J.,23CASEL(CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning),3,11–13,22CAST(CenterforAppliedSpecialTechnology),113Catalano,R.F.,16Celio,C.L.,34,37,38,39CenterforAppliedSpecialTechnology(CAST),113CenterforInnovationinScienceandMathematicsEducation(website),108CenterforResearchandReforminEducation,JohnsHopkinsUniversity,2,83,97CenterforResearchonLearningandTeaching,UniversityofMichigan(website),31–32CenterforTeaching,VanderbiltUniversity(website),32CenterforTeachingandLearning,StanfordUniversity,32CentralMiddleSchool(Anchorage,AK),40CER(Claim/Evidence/Reasoning)template,75,95Chains(Anderson),70ChangemakingJourney,A(video),43Changemaking/servicelearning,33–43

inbuildingsocialandemotionalskills,33–38essentialelementsofqualityservicelearning,35–36evidence-basedoutcomesfor,38–39examplesof,36–38,39–40instituting,39–41resourcesfor,41–43servicelearning,defined,34andstudentsasagentsofchange,34–35thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,41

ChangetheWorld(video),57Chang’sPaperPony(Coerr),69Charactereducation,33.SeealsoChangemaking/servicelearningChristensen,S.L.,22Circletalk/classroommeetings,50–53

forelementaryclassrooms,50–53morningmeetings,50–53forsecondaryclassrooms,53–54

Civicaction.SeeChangemaking/servicelearningCivicEnterprises,3Claim/Evidence/Reasoning(CER)template,75,95Clark,B.,97ClassMeetings(Styles),50–51ClassroomInstructionThatWorks(Marzanoetal.),84–85,86–88Classroommanagement.SeealsoRestorativepracticescaringteachersand,14Classroommeetings,50–54Clay-Chambers,J.,105–106Clowes,G.,32Cocking,R.R.,61–62,85–86Coerr,Eleanor,69Cognitivedevelopment,socialandculturalaspectsof,26Cognitivepsychology,66–67Cohen,G.,12Cohen,J.,86Colbeck,C.L.,27Collaboration.SeealsoCooperative/collaborativelearninginFrameworkfor21stCenturyLearning,102

natureof,102CollaborativeforAcademic,Social,andEmotionalLearning(CASEL),3,11–13,22Collaborativelearning.SeeCooperative/collaborativelearningCollege,Career,andCivicLife(C3)

FrameworkforSocialStudies,20,95Combs,ArthurW.,15–16ComeMorning(AdventuresinTime)(Guccione),69ComicCreator(app),120CommitteeforChildren,23CommonCoreStateStandards(CCSS),95,114

EnglishLanguageArts,18–19Mathematics,17–18,76–77,78

CommonSense,109Communication

inFrameworkfor21stCenturyLearning,102natureof,102

Community,inrestorativepractices,49,50–55Communityservice.SeeChangemaking/servicelearningComparisonstrategies,toimprovestudent

achievement,84,87,89–90Computationalthinking,74–75,122Computerizedaxialtomography(CAT)scans,63Conceptualunderstanding,importanceof,62Consequencecharts,46Conyers,M.,65Cooper,H.,87

Cooper,R.,109Cooperative/collaborativelearning,24–32

achievementand,85,88,93benefitsof,26–27,30–31,85,88,93natureofcooperation,24resourcesfor,31–32structuringgroupsforcollaborativework,27–30tenetsof,25–26thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,30–31

CooperativeLearningBuildsDeeperUnderstanding(video),32CooperativeLearningModel(video),32CouncilofChiefStateSchoolOfficers(CCSSO),76–77Cowan,N.,48,66Cowie,H.,48Cox,J.,42Creativity

inFrameworkfor21stCenturyLearning,102natureof,102

CREC,43Criticalthinking

inFrameworkfor21stCenturyLearning,102natureof,102

Cues,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,95Currie,S.,50

Damasio,A.,80D’Angelo,C.M.,105–106Darling-Hammond,Linda,24,32,83,106Davidson,M.,3,16Davis,F.E.,45,56Davis,V.,56DeBarger,A.H.,105–106DecadeoftheBrain,The(U.S.Congress),62–63Deerfield(IL)HighSchool,40Delgado,A.J.,113–114DerekBokCenterforTeachingandLearning,HarvardUniversity(website),32Dewey,John,26,71–72,103Digitallearning.SeeBlendedlearningpedagogiesDomitrovich,C.E.,22Donovan,S.,27Draper,Bill,36–37Duckworth,A.L.,12Duncan,Arne,46Durlak,J.A.,16,22,34,37,38,39Dweck,CarolS.,10,12,48–49,57,87Dymnicki,A.B.,16,34,37,38,39

Edison,Thomas,110Edublog.com(website),115–116EducationEndowmentFoundation(UnitedKingdom),91

EducationEndowmentFoundation(UnitedKingdom),91EducationtoBetterTheirWorld(Prensky),42EducationWeekResearchCenter,10,11EducationWorld,42Edutopia(website),23,32,79,109EelRiverDATA,57Effectsize,86–88eLearning(website),21,114–115Elementaryschoolstudents

appsand,120–121bloggingby,115–116andchangemaking/servicelearning,37–38effectofhomeworkandpracticeonachievement,91experientiallearning,72GoogleClassroomand,118–119,122andnarrative/storytelling,69,70podcastingby,117restorativepracticesand,47,50–53,57

Elhajj,I.,27Elias,MauriceJ.,12,22Elton,L.,1Emotionalaspectoflearning,67EmotionalIntelligence(Goleman),11–12Emotionallysafeclassrooms.SeeRestorativepracticesEmotionalquotient(EQ),11–12,14–15EmotionandCognition(video),81Empathicqualities

empathiclistening,16natureof,13inrestorativepractices,46,48Rogerson,16,46ofteachers,15

Englishlanguageartsappsand,121bloggingin,116codingand,122CommonCoreStateStandards(CCSS),18–19experientiallearningin,72GoogleFormsin,118GoogleSlidesand,118integratingSELwithstandards,18–19narrative/storytellingin,69podcastingin,117visuallearningin,77–78

EQ(emotionalquotient),8EsperanzaRising(Ryan),70Ethicalchoices,13EveryStudentSucceedsAct(ESSA),82–83Evidence-basedinstruction,82–97

brainscienceroleineducation,61–65andchangemaking/servicelearning,38–39effectsizeasevidencein,86–88

effectsizeasevidencein,86–88implementationof,2andmedicalmodel,2,82natureof,83–84resourcesfor,97andrestorativepractice,48–49teachingstrategiesin,84–95thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,96

EvidenceBaseforHowWeLearn,The(NationalCommissiononSocial,Emotional,andAcademicDevelopment),15–16

Experientiallearning,71–77,103.SeealsoProject-basedlearning(PBL)ExplainEverything(website),123

Face-to-faceinteraction,incooperative/collaborativelearning,26FantasticFerrisWheel,The(Kraftetal.),70Fantuzzo,J.W.,27Farfel,J.M.,63,65Feedback,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,94Felder,R.M.,27Feldman,A.,123Ferretti,R.E.L.,63,65Ferrito,J.J.,22Fishman,B.,105–106FiveKeystoSocialandEmotionalLearningSuccess(video),23Fixedmindset,48–49Flannery,M.E.,56Flippedclassroommodel,112–113FlippedLearningGlobalInitiative(website),113Fluepidemic(1918),2,82Flygirl(Smith),70FoodEngineering(Burgan),71Forgetting,664Cs,102,109Frameworkfor21stCenturyLearning,102Frymier,A.B.,14Fuller,Buckminster,101–102FunctionalMRI(fMRI),62–63,66

Galbraith,M.W.,1Gallagher,L.P.,105–106Gardner,Howard,12,81Geier,R.,105–106GeneratorSchoolNetwork(website),42GeorgeLucasEducationalFoundation,40,42,109Ginott,HaimG.,44Ginsburg-Block,M.D.,27Giordano,G.,1Giraud,G.,39GlobalSchoolNet(website),109Gluck,K.A.,67Goals

importanceofchallenging,86

importanceofchallenging,86asinstructionalstrategy,86,94

Goldman,B.,63Goleman,Daniel,11–12,14–15Gooding,C.T.,95Goodlad,J.I.,14Goodwin,B.,69GoogleClassroom,117–119,123

componentsof,117–119inelementaryclassrooms,118–119,122natureof,117–118insecondaryclassrooms,118–119,122

GoogleDocs,117GoogleDrawings,118GoogleEarth,118–119GoogleForms,118GoogleMaps,118–119GoogleSheets,119GoogleSlides,118,122GoogleVoyager,119Gordon,J.,48Gottlieb,K.,34Grainger,C.,80Grandin,T.,80–81Grant,W.,48Graphicorganizers,67,78,84,87–88,92–93GraphicOrganizers(website),97Gray,A.,109GreaterGoodScienceCenter,The(website),22Greatinfluenza(1918),2,82Greenberg,M.T.,16,22–23Griffin,K.W.,12Grinberg,L.T.,63,65Grosskopf,K.,39Groupprocessingskills,incooperative/collaborativelearning,26GroupResponseactivity,30GrowingEvidenceofBrainPlasticity(TEDTalksvideo),81Growthmindset

importanceof,48–49,87natureof,8,10professionaldevelopmentand,9,10

Guccione,LeslieDavis,69Gullotta,T.P.,22Guzdial,M.,105

HackingProjectBasedLearning(Cooper&Murphy),109Haddix,MargaretPeterson,70Hall,A.,105Hamre,B.K.,16

HandbookofSchool-FamilyPartnershipsforPromotingSocialCompetence(Christensen&Reschly),22HandbookofSocialandEmotionalLearning(Durlaketal.),22Hansen,B.,62Hardiman,M.M.,67Hariharan,A.,3Harris,C.J.,105–106HarvardEducation,81HarvardUniversity

ABLConnect(website),31DerekBokCenterforTeachingandLearning(website),32

Hasenauer,S.,14Hattie,John,85–86,97Hawkins,J.D.,16Heartofteaching.SeealsoSocial-emotionallearning(SEL)natureof,3,125Herculano-Houzel,S.,63,65Herrmann,M.,14Highschool.SeeSecondaryschoolstudentsHillman,J.,67Historicalplays,73Holm,M.,106HomeAddress(Buckley),71Homeworkandpractice

toimprovestudentachievement,84,87,91–92Small-groupHomeworkCheckactivity,28

HowPeopleLearn(Bransfordetal.),61–62,85HowtoTeachSoStudentsRemember(Sprenger),80Hypothesisgenerationandtesting,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,94–95

IggyPeck,Architect(Beaty&Roberts),70Illinois,statewidesocial-emotionallearning(SEL)standards,10Immordino-Yang,M.H.,65,67,80,81ImplementingRestorativeJustice(Ashley&Burke),56Individualaccountability,incooperative/collaborativelearning,25–26Instructionalstrategiestoimproveachievement,84–95

challenginggoals,86,94comparisons,84,87,89–90cooperative/collaborativelearning,85,88,93cues,questions,andadvanceorganizers,85,88,95feedback,85,88,94highteacherexpectations,85–86homeworkandpractice,84,87,91–92hypothesisgenerationandtesting,85,88,94–95metacognitivestrategies,61–62,85,86,88nonlinguisticrepresentations,84,87–88,92–93reciprocalteaching,85,86,88reinforcingeffort/providingrecognition,84,87,90–91settingobjectivesandprovidingfeedback,85,88,94summarizingandnote-taking,84,87,90

InternationalAssociationforResearchinService-Learning&CommunityEngagement(website),42

Internet.SeeBlendedlearningpedagogiesInterpersonalawareness,12,26.SeealsoSocial-emotionallearning(SEL)Intrapersonalawareness,12,15.SeealsoSocial-emotionallearning(SEL)IQ(intelligencequotient),8,12

Jennings,P.A.,16Jigsawteaching/jigsawclassroom,27,28–29JohnsHopkinsUniversity,2,82,83,97Johnson,DavidW.,24–27Johnson,RogerT.,24–27Jones,K.,113Jones,M.S.,1Jones,Stephanie,16Journalwriting,67

Kaminski,J.,50Kansas,statewidesocial-emotionallearning(SEL)standards,10Katula,M.,38Kawinkamolroj,M.,48Kelleher,Ian,7,49,65,66,67,80,126Kennedy,C.A.,105–106KhanAcademy(website),123Khmelkov,V.,3,16Kidbog.com(website),115–116,123KidsDon’tLearnfromPeopleTheyDon’tLike(Aspy&Roebuck),1,14Kielsmeir,J.C.,38Kilpatrick,W.,103KindergartnerswithGoodSocialSkillsTurnintoSuccessfulAdults(video),23Kinsey,M.,112,124Knowledgedoublingcurve(Fuller),101–102Krajcik,J.S.,105–106Kriete,R.,52Kusche,C.A.,22–23

Languagearts.SeeEnglishlanguageartsLarmer,J.,103–104,109LearnandServeClearinghouse,42Learningdisabled,asterm,65LearningPolicyInstitute,83LeDoux,J.E.,67Lee,Harper,121Leite,R.E.P.,63,65Libbey,H.,16Lickona,T.,3,16,33Lifeskills,12.SeealsoSocial-emotionallearning(SEL)Lindmark,T.,14Listeningskills,16Little,J.W.,27Longfellow,HenryWadsworth,69Long-termgroups/teams,28,30Long-termmemory,66,67LosAngelesCountyOfficeofEducation,34

LosAngelesCountyOfficeofEducation,34

Mad,WickedFolly,A(Biggs),70Magneticresonanceimaging(MRI),62–63MagnificentMinds(Noyce),70Mara,DaughteroftheNile(McGraw),70Marcinek,A.,123–124Marshall,J.,14Marx,R.W.,105–106Marzano,RobertJ.,1,84–85,86–88,97Mathematics

CommonCoreStateStandards(CCSS),17–18,76–77,78experientiallearningin,76–77GoogleFormsin,118GoogleSlidesand,118integratingSELwithstandards,17–18narrative/storytellingin,71podcastingin,116–117project-basedlearning(PBL)in,108visuallearningin,78

McArthur,R.C.,14McElheny,T.,81McGraw,EloiseJarvis,70McKnight,K.,113–114McLaughlin,M.W.,27Means,B.,113Medicalmodel,2,82Melchior,A.,38,39Melor,M.,16Memory,66,67Meo,G.,113Mergendoller,J.,103–104,109Merzenich,Michael,81Metacognitivestrategies,61–62,85,86,88Mid-ContinentResearchforEducationandLearning(McREL),84–85Middleschool.SeeSecondaryschoolstudentsMiller,A.,124Mind,Brain,andEducation(video),80Mindset(Dweck),10,48–49Miro,D.,105Moceri,D.C.,22Mock-trials,72Montgomery,Sy,71Montpelier(VT)HighSchool,40Morgan,W.,36Morningmeetings,50–53Motivationofstudents,caringteachersand,14Murphy,E.,109Murphy,R.,113MysteriousWorkingsoftheAdolescentBrain(TEDTalksvideo),80

Narrative/storytelling,68–71NationalCommissiononService-Learning,34–35NationalCommissiononSocial,Emotional,andAcademicDevelopment,15–16NationalGovernorsAssociation(NGA),76–77NationalResearchCouncil,12,73NationalScienceTeachersAssociation(NSTA),70–71NationalService-LearningCooperative,35NationalTeacheroftheYear,7Neal,M.,38NelsonLaird,T.F.,67Neumann,Y.,113Neurodiversity,65Neuroplasticity,49,65,81Neuroscience.SeeBrainscienceNeuroteach(Whitman&Kelleher),80NewArtandScienceofTeaching,The(Marzano),97NewHaven(CT)PublicSchools,K-12NewHavenSocialDevelopmentprogram,12Newmann,F.M.,27NewZealand,49NextGenerationScienceStandards(NGSS),70,95

andexperientialleaning,73,74–75integratingSELwith,19

NoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB),2,82–83Noddings,N.,14Nonacademiceducation,33.SeealsoChangemaking/servicelearningNoncognitiveskills,12.Seealso

Social-emotionallearning(SEL)Nonlinguisticrepresentations,toimprovestudentachievement,84,87–88,92–93

Notebooking,78Notetaking,toimprovestudentachievement,84,87,90Noyce,Pendred,70

Oakland(CA)UnifiedSchoolDistrict,10,47Oakley,B.,27Objectivesetting,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,94OctopusScientist,The(Montgomery),71O’Malley,K.,113–114OtherSideoftheReportCard,The(Eliasetal.),22Owings,L.,33Ownershiptransfer,andproject-basedlearning(PBL),107

Palincsar,A.,85,88,105“Panacea”approach,84Pappas,C.,114–115PARCmodel,35–36Parentalsupport,importanceof,9,11Parente,J.M.,27Partnershipfor21CenturyLearning(website),102Pascarella,E.T.,67Patall,E.A.,87

Patall,E.A.,87“PaulRevere’sRide”(Longfellos),69PBL.SeeProject-basedlearning(PBL)PBSNewsHour,23Peer-to-peerdiscussions,28,67PennStateUniversity,27Penuel,W.R.,105–106Perry,J.,38Personalmeaning,importanceinlearning,66–67PeterD.HartResearchAssociates,3Pianta,R.C.,16Pickering,Debra,84–85,86–88Plato,11Podcasting,116–117Pollock,JaneE.,84–85,86–88Pomeroy,E.,17Porter,A.J.,49Positiveself-concept,ofteachers,15Positronemissiontomography(PET)scans,63PostcardCreator(app),121PowerofBelievingThatYouCanImprove(TEDTalksvideo),57Prensky,M.,42Prezi,122Primaryschool.SeeElementaryschoolstudentsPriorknowledge,importanceof,62Professionaldevelopment,andgrowthmindset,9,10Project-basedlearning(PBL),101–109

classroomintegrationof,106–108definingelementsof,103–104and4Cs,102,109natureof,101,103–105popularityof,101–102powerof,105–106resourcesfor,108–109andstudentachievement,105–106thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,41,108

PromotingSocialandEmotionalLearning(Eliasetal.),12Puckett,K.,62Purposefulhomework,87

Questions,toimprovestudentachievement,85,88,95

Rajadhyaksha,M.,37Rao,K.,113ReadWriteThink(website),120–121Reciprocalteachingstrategy,85,86,88Recognition,toimprovestudentachievement,84,87,90–91Reflectivejournals,67Reinforcingeffort,toimprovestudentachievement,84,87,90–91Relationalliteracy,46Reschly,A.L.,22

Reschly,A.L.,22Respectagreements,54ResponsiveClassroomModel,51–52RestorativeJustice(AdvancementProject),56Restorativepractices,44–57

brainresearchsupportfor,48–49resourcesfor,55–57restorativejusticeasbasisfor,45,47inschools,46,47,50–55,57thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,55

RestorativePractices(SanFranciscoUnifiedSchoolDistrict),57RestorativeSolutions(website),56Retentioninschool

caringteachersand,14andcooperative/collaborativelearning,26–27

Ribera,A.K.,67Riley,S.,14Roberts,David,70Robinson,G.,34Robinson,J.C.,87Roebuck,F.,1,14Roehlkepartain,E.C.,38Rogers,Carl,16,46Rohrbeck,C.A.,27Rosenholtz,S.J.,27Rosenzweig,D.,8RosieRevere,Engineer(Beaty&Roberts),70Round-Robinactivity,29Rowe,M.B.,95Ryan,PamMunoz,70

Salem,R.,16–17Sams,A.,112–113SanFrancisco(CA)UnifiedSchoolDistrict,57Santmire,T.E.,39Scaffolding,andproject-basedlearning(PBL),107Scales,P.C.,38Schellinger,K.B.,16Schmitz,T.,88SchoolTurnaroundLearningCommunity(website),56Schwartz,K.,106–107Science

appsand,120–121bloggingin,115,116experientiallearningin,73,74–75GoogleEarthand,118–119GoogleMapsand,118–119GoogleSheetsand,119GoogleSlidesand,118GoogleVoyagerand,119integratingSELwithstandards,19

integratingSELwithstandards,19narrative/storytellingin,70–71NextGenerationScienceStandards(NGSS),19,70,73,74–75,95podcastingin,116project-basedlearning(PBL)in,105–106,108ScienceandEngineeringPractices(SEP),19,73,74–76visuallearningin,78

Scienceofteaching,3,126.SeealsoBrainscience;Evidence-basedinstructionScientificallybasedresearch,82.SeealsoEvidence-basedinstructionSecondaryschoolstudentsappsand,120–121bloggingby,116andchangemaking/servicelearning,38,40effectofhomeworkandpracticeonachievement,92experientiallearning,72GoogleClassroomand,118–119,122andnarrative/storytelling,70–71podcastingby,116–117restorativepracticesand,47,53–54,57

SEL.SeeSocial-emotionallearning(SEL)Self-understanding,12Sensoryinput,importanceof,66Servicelearning.SeeChangemaking/servicelearningService-Learning(Waterman),43ServiceLearningWebResources(website),42Sesma,A.,Jr.,38SettingtheStandardforProject-BasedLearning(Larmeretal.),103–104,109Shachar,M.,113ShadowPuppet(app),121Shann,M.H.,14Shilling,D.R.,101Shorr,J.,112,124Short-termgroups,28–30

GroupResponseactivity,30Jigsaw,27,28–29Round-Robinactivity,29Small-groupHomeworkCheckactivity,2810:2activity,28,90Think-Pair-Shareactivity,28Turn-to-Your-NeighborDiscussion,28

Short-term(working)memory,66Shriver,Timothy,12,20Simulations,73Sirotnik,K.A.,14Slavin,RobertE.,2,83Small-groupHomeworkCheckactivity,28Smith,B.H.,16Smith,F.J.,110Smith,J.A.,57Smith,SherriL.,70Snapp,M.,27,29Social-emotionallearning(SEL)

bodyofevidencefor,15–17

andchangemaking.SeeChangemaking/servicelearningconnectingtostandards-basedcurriculum,9,10,17–21andcooperative/collaborativelearning.SeeCooperative/collaborativelearningdefined,11andemotionallysafeclassrooms.SeeRestorativepracticesimportanceof,11–13,21keyproficiencies,12–13natureof,3,8–11resourcesfor,21–23strategiestopromote,8,10teacherrolein,13–17,21thoughtsfrompracticingteachers,21

Social-EmotionalLearning(video),23Sociallearning.SeeCooperative/collaborativelearningSocialsituations,13Socialskills,incooperative/collaborativelearning,26Socialstudiesandhistory

appsand,121bloggingin,115–116College,Career,andCivicLife(C3)FrameworkforSocialStudies,20,95experientiallearningin,72–73GoogleDrawingsand,118GoogleEarthand,118–119GoogleMapsand,118–119integratingSELwithstandards,20narrative/storytellingin,69–70podcastingin,117visuallearningin,78

SocioculturalTheoryofCognitiveDevelopment(Vygotsky),26Soder,R.,14Soloway,E.,105–106Sousa,David,61,64,66–67Sprenger,M.,80Springer,L.,27Standards-basedcurriculum

andproject-basedlearning(PBL),106social-emotionallearning(SEL)and,9,10,17–21stateswithsocial-emotionallearningstandards,9,10

StanfordUniversity,CenterforTeachingandLearning,32Stanne,M.B.,26–27Stanne,M.E.,27STEMMIChampions(website),109Steno,Nicolas,126Stephan,C.,27,29Stikes,J.,27,29Stone,Michael,106–107Storytelling/narrative,68–71Streb,M.,36Strey,E.,14Stronge,JamesH.,82Studentchoice,importanceof,66–67

Styles,Donna,50–51Summarizing,toimprovestudentachievement,84,87,90SustainabilityWorkshop/WorkshopSchool(Philadelphia),40Swift,J.N.,95Sykes,Maurice,52Sylwester,R.,67

Taylor,R.D.,16Teacherexpectations

asinstructionalstrategy,85–86forproject-basedlearning(PBL),106–107

Teacherpreparation,forsocial-emotionallearning(SEL),8,10Teachers

abilitytomakeadifference,126–127andbeliefsystems,15–17andblendedlearningpedagogies,121–122andbrainscience,61,78–79andcaring,14–15,16andchangemaking/servicelearning,41andcooperative/collaborativelearning,30–31andevidence-basedstrategies,96andheartofteaching,3,125andproject-basedlearning(PBL),41,108andrestorativepractices,55andscienceofteaching,3,126andsocial-emotionallearning(SEL),13–17,21

TeachingforMeaningfulLearning(Barron&Darling-Hammond),32TeachingsinEducation,3210:2activity,28,90Terenzini,P.T.,27Terry,A.W.,34Thekk,V.,39Think-Pair-Shareactivity,28ThompsonC.A.,14Thongthew,S.,48Timeline(app),121ToKillaMockingbird(Lee),121Toyama,Y.,113Triwaranyu,C.,48Turn-to-Your-NeighborDiscussion,2821-centuryskills,12.SeealsoBlendedlearningpedagogies;Project-basedlearning(PBL);Social-

emotionallearning(SEL)Uche,U.,48UnitedKingdom,91U.S.Congress,62UniversalDesignforLearning(UDL)framework,113UniversityofBritishColumbia,10UniversityofMichigan,CenterforResearchonLearningandTeaching(website),31–32Uprising(Haddix),70

VanderArk,T.,112,124VanderbiltUniversity,CenterforTeaching(website),32vanDulman,M.,38VennDiagram(app),120–121VirtualSchoolhouse,The(website),109VisibleLearningforTeachers(Hattie),85–86,97Visuallearning,77–78,92–93Vogler,K.E.,88Vygotsky,LevS.,20,26

Wade,R.C.,43Wagenheim,J.,23Wait-time,95Walberg,H.J.,23Wallmark,Laurie,70Walsh,M.M.,67Walton,G.,12Wang,J.,67Wang,M.C.,23Wardlow,L.,113–114WashoeCounty(NV)SchoolDistrict,10–11WaterlooRegionDistrictSchoolBoard(Ontario,Canada),49Waterman,A.S.,38,43Webb’sDepthofKnowledge,95Wehlage,G.G.,27Weisberg,Roger,12Weissberg,R.P.,16,22,23Weller,K.,124WestVirginia,statewidesocial-emotionallearning(SEL)standards,10WetlandWatchers,40WhatArethe4Cs?(video),109WhatWorksMayHurt(Zhao),97Whitby,Tom,101Whitman,Glenn,7,49,65,66,67,80,126Willis,Judy,68,77Wilson,D.,65Wing,J.M.,74Wolfe,P.,80WorldNeedsAllKindsofMinds,The(TEDTalksvideo),80–81

Yeager,D.S.,12Yellin,PaulB.,80Ypsilanti(MI)HighSchool,47

Zehr,Howard,45Zhao,Yong,84,97Zins,J.E.,23

Zins,J.E.,23Zonesofregulation,21

AbouttheAuthor

C. Bobbi Hansen is an associate professor in the School of Leadership andEducationSciences at theUniversity of SanDiego,where she has twice beennamedUniversity Professor, the highest academic honor bestowed university-wide atUSD.With over 30 years of experience in the field of education as ateacher, a curriculumdirector, anda teacher educator,Dr.Hansen’spassion isfocusedonfindingsolutions toclassroomteaching-learningchallenges throughthe intersection of emerging research in the neurosciences, evidenced-basedpedagogies, and socially and emotionally situated learning practices. Herexpertise in this area has earned her numerous invitations to present at state,national,andinternationalvenuesalongwithmorethan30publicationsandthecoauthoringoftwotextbooks.