The Future Role of GIS Education in Creating Critical Spatial Thinkers

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The future role of GIS education in creating criticalspatial thinkers

Article in Journal of Geography in Higher Education · February 2016

Impact Factor: 1.16 · DOI: 10.1080/03098265.2016.1144729

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Nick Bearman

University of Liverpool

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Isabel André

University of Lisbon


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Herculano Cachinho

University of Lisbon


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Michael Demers

New Mexico State University


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Journal of Geography in Higher Education

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The future role of GIS education in creating criticalspatial thinkers

Nick Bearman, Nick Jones, Isabel André, Herculano Alberto Cachinho &Michael DeMers

To cite this article: Nick Bearman, Nick Jones, Isabel André, Herculano Alberto Cachinho &Michael DeMers (2016): The future role of GIS education in creating critical spatial thinkers,

Journal of Geography in Higher Education

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JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY IN HIGHER EDUCATION, 2016

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.1144729

The future role of GIS education in creating critical spatial

thinkers

Nick Bearmana, Nick Jonesb, Isabel Andréc, Herculano Alberto Cachinhoc andMichael DeMersd

aDepartment of Geography and Planning, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK; bFaculty of Environmentand Technology, Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of the West ofEngland, Bristol, UK; cInstitute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal;dDepartment of Geography, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA

Introduction

Providing students with critical spatial thinking skills, abilities and knowledge is a key

aspect o any geography degree (Whyatt, Clark, & Davies, 2011), and employers look or

an understanding o and ability to debate multiscalar issues rom the global to the local

in all graduates (Swyngedouw, 1992). Te presence o critical spatial thinking skills in

geography is important because it helps students to be able to access and make sense o

(geo)inormation (Gryl, Jekel, & Donert, 2010) in order to understand the complexities o

many o the spatial problems that ace our world today (e.g. understanding o rapid world

transormations, or instance, or the tensions in Mediterranean region; it is not “good people

against bad people”, there is not an “axis o evil”). Geography is a science that emphasizes

interconnections and inter-scaling, both in geography as a whole (e.g. Allen & Massey,

1995; Hardwick & Holtgrieve, 1996) and within specific disciplines; or example, transport

(Hay, 1977), geomorphology (Cantón et al., 2011) and economics (Dicken, 1986). Tese

are vital concepts and there is a need to ocus on this both in the research we do as well as

the material we teach (Del Casino, 2004; Moseley, 2009).

ABSTRACT

Teaching of critical spatial thinking in higher education empowersgraduates to effectively engage with spatial data. Geographicinformation systems (GIS) and science are taught to undergraduatesacross many disciplines; we evaluate how this contributes to criticalspatial thinking. The discipline of GIS covers the whole process ofspatial decision-making, but GIS modules often ignore the contextsetting of spatial problems, and just cover the technical aspects of howto use GIS software. We outline how some existing GIS practicals couldbe improved to focus on the development of critical spatial thinkingskills, competences and abilities that are valuable to graduates.

KEYWORDS

Critical spatial thinking;geography; GIS teaching;education

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received 24 April 2015Accepted 30 September 2015

CONTACT Nick Bearman [email protected]

OPEN ACCESS

© 2016 The Author(s). Published by Taylor & Francis.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289355304_Education_for_Spatial_Citizenship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289355304_Education_for_Spatial_Citizenship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228501030_A_Review_of_Runoff_Generation_and_Soil_Erosion_Across_Scales_in_Semiarid_South-eastern_Spain?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228501030_A_Review_of_Runoff_Generation_and_Soil_Erosion_Across_Scales_in_Semiarid_South-eastern_Spain?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39730456_Beyond_Knee-Jerk_Environmental_Thinking_Teaching_Geographic_Perspectives_on_Conservation_Preservation_and_the_Hetch_Hetchy_Valley_Controversy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39730456_Beyond_Knee-Jerk_Environmental_Thinking_Teaching_Geographic_Perspectives_on_Conservation_Preservation_and_the_Hetch_Hetchy_Valley_Controversy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==mailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/39730456_Beyond_Knee-Jerk_Environmental_Thinking_Teaching_Geographic_Perspectives_on_Conservation_Preservation_and_the_Hetch_Hetchy_Valley_Controversy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289355304_Education_for_Spatial_Citizenship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228501030_A_Review_of_Runoff_Generation_and_Soil_Erosion_Across_Scales_in_Semiarid_South-eastern_Spain?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/http://www.tandfonline.com/mailto:[email protected]


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2 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

Tese interconnections are equally relevant to geographic inormation systems (GIS)

as well as geography, particularly when considering GIS in the light o the recent develop-

ments o the digital earth (Goodchild, 2008) and the development o quantitative geography

(Longley, 2000). Geobrowsers (such as Google Earth) have developed a new type o GIS,

making spatial data available to a much wider range o people than beore. Goodchild (2008)

describes how geobrowsers have been developed, taking an approach that looked at whatcould be done technically, rather than ocusing on meeting the needs o the planned user

community. Whilst this has made spatial data easier to access, it could also be argued that

the advent o geobrowsers has reduced the level o spatial literacy among those who use

spatial data, endangering these skills o critical spatial thinking. Te increased availability

o geodata has opened up the potential o applying GIS and geocomputation techniques

to a wide variety o areas, but a lack o sufficient geospatial skills and low levels o spatial

literacy have severely inhibited this in the UK (ESRC, 2013). Klein and Laurin (2005) testiy

how the railties o spatial literacy in Quebec have affected the social relevance o geography,

particularly at the level o people’s identity and the training o citizens with territorial con-

sciousness. Tat is why several authors including National Research Council (NRC, 2006),

Goodchild and Janelle (2010), Jarvis (2011), Favier (2011) and Goodchild (2011, 2014)

emphasize the need or the ocus on critical GIScience, even with all o the developments

that have occurred since the early 1990s, because GIS is about how we use the technology

to answer these spatial questions, as well as being about the technology itsel.

Geography degrees are in an ideal position to provide this spatial literacy training, o

which GIS can orm a key component. Geography is the knowledge and understanding o

spatial phenomena and processes as well as the meaning o spatial units rom the global

scale to the microlocal (Jackson, 2006; National Research Council [NRC], 1997). GIS can

integrate the various scales related to phenomena, processes and meanings. Many differentmodules o a geography degree look at very specialized domains (e.g. housing, mobility,

territorial cohesion, hydrology, fluvial geomorphology, etc.), but there are relatively ew that

can be used to teach students the links between these different areas. Both the theoretical

ramework as well as the GIS itsel are tools that can be used to gain understanding o the

links between different elements. Geography as a subject is a good setting or GIS because

it provides the basis or establishing these interconnections (Kemp, Goodchild, & Dodson,

1992). However, we have limited understanding about how individual students develop

their own conceptual understanding, with different students having different approaches

(Madsen & Rump, 2012).

Unortunately, GIS modules can oen spend more time on developing the technical

skills associated with using ArcGIS,1 QGIS2 or any other piece o GIS soware, rather than

developing the theoretical understanding o spatial problems, the science behind this (i.e.

Geographic Inormation Science) and the useulness o spatial data (see able 1 rom Sui,

1995). As a result o this ocus on the technical skills, GIS courses can attract the more

technologically able due to the heavy reliance on computer technology. As a result, this

reliance on computer literacy results in those amiliar with computers progressing with

GIS more easily than those who are not. Tis current situation is likely to be a result o

the act that previously GIS used to be limited by the technology available, i.e. computer

processing limitations, data storage limits, etc. Tereore, the ocus was on “how can we getthe technology to do what we want?” rather than “what do we want the technology to do?”

Tis ocused the teaching on technical competence rather than critical spatial thinking.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220449180_The_academic_success_of_GIS_in_geography_Problems_and_prospects?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220449180_The_academic_success_of_GIS_in_geography_Problems_and_prospects?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241123485_Spatial_Thinking_and_the_GIS_User_Interface?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241123485_Spatial_Thinking_and_the_GIS_User_Interface?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265280745_Thinking_Geographically?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265280745_Thinking_Geographically?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233200293_Considerations_of_How_to_Study_Learning_Processes_when_Students_use_GIS_as_an_Instrument_for_Developing_Spatial_Thinking_Skills?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233200293_Considerations_of_How_to_Study_Learning_Processes_when_Students_use_GIS_as_an_Instrument_for_Developing_Spatial_Thinking_Skills?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233200293_Considerations_of_How_to_Study_Learning_Processes_when_Students_use_GIS_as_an_Instrument_for_Developing_Spatial_Thinking_Skills?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220449180_The_academic_success_of_GIS_in_geography_Problems_and_prospects?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265280745_Thinking_Geographically?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241123485_Spatial_Thinking_and_the_GIS_User_Interface?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228639793_The_use_cases_of_digital_earth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


5/17

JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3

Now these restrictions are ewer because o the developments in technology, allowing us

to ocus on the “what” question rather than the “how”.

Tis emphasis on the technology rather than the spatial data is also compounded by

the act that most o the basic cartographic courses in universities across the world have

been replaced by GIS courses (Kessler & Slocum, 2011), and as Srivastava and ait (2012,

p. 528) put it, “maps are no longer necessarily created by experts, but instead by soware”,

highlighting the ocus on I skills rather than spatial literacy. Cartographic courses typically

covered a range o aspects on critical spatial thinking as well as map design, and i these

have been replaced by GIS courses that do not cover critical spatial thinking or map design(Field, 2014), then students will not be taught the skills they need to be able to critically

interpret maps and spatial data.

Table 1. GIS teaching topics from a variety of attendees at INLT writing retreat.

aTopic from author (NJ) experience.bTopic from author (NB) experience.

Topic descriptionGIS integrated within

wider module? GIS analysis?

Tropical rainforest deforestation of Amazon/Peru: pattern links toprocess multiply across scale to give varied interpretation

No No

Construction of the Mathora Relief road across the R. Yamona, Vrin-

davan, India. Clash of ideas about “development”, local vs. regional,heritage conservation, religion and social class/caste

No No

Health outcomes as a measure of physical and social capital No NoThe power of maps literature (Haneyl Woods). Critical recording of

politics of map making. Have use version with students looking at OSMaps/Google Maps, etc.

No No

Introducing geog class where students recorded experience of a recentearthquake and plotted results on overlay of geology

Yes No

Flood hazard risk in and around Aberystwyth and how this impacts onCeredigion County Council Planning Policy

Yes Unsure

Regeneration of Dublin Docklands area: political (big politics and local/community politics), economic, social and environmental issues

No No

Local/tourist experience of city of Birmingham as a global city andthrough different parts of the city

No No

Deer use of landscape and impact on conservation habitats and rarespecies. How far does each impact spread? How does each speciesand/or range effect each user?

Yes No

Flooding in Exeter and Chichester: causative primary and secondaryfactors, downstream influences, application and critique of LIS floodmodel, some links between flood model and GIS

Yes Yes

Teaching development issues by researching a problem space and itsaccess – i.e. the space of health. Recognizing that health involvesgender, water, growth, etc. Can be at individual scale, village,regional, national, global, etc. Identifying the useful scale of analysis,temporal content and appropriate lens

No No

Census data – correlations at different scales, understanding interac-tions and explanations

No No

Compare different representations of the same space in the arts, or inthe literature and try to explain the differences or commonalities

No No

Analyse the possible environmental impacts of changes to a NationalPark, and of the increase in traffic to the area due to greater access.This requires them to consider the interactions of people, soil, water,animals, plants and air (and pollution) within the existing preservewhich is an active volcanic zone that also experiences periodic andoften devastating fires and volcanic uplift and sulphur venting

No No

Production of a Flood Risk Management Plan, using GIS to carry outhydrological analysisa

Yes Yes

Site selection of paint factory, using GISb No Yes

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220040660_Analysis_of_Thematic_Maps_Published_in_Two_Geographical_Journals_in_the_Twentieth_Century?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220040660_Analysis_of_Thematic_Maps_Published_in_Two_Geographical_Journals_in_the_Twentieth_Century?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220040660_Analysis_of_Thematic_Maps_Published_in_Two_Geographical_Journals_in_the_Twentieth_Century?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


6/17

4 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

Even with the liing in restrictions the developments in technology allow us, the per-

ception o GIS being a technical subject still lingers, and anecdotal evidence shows that I

skills are still important in being able to effectively use GIS and progress efficiently througha course (Appleton, 2012, personal communication; Bearman, Munday, & McAvoy, 2015;

McLennan & Gibbs, 2008). Tis may also be the case because academic staff who have been

using GIS or a number o years are still ocused on GIS rom a “technology first” point o view, potentially because that is where their experience or skill set is, or because o the act

that changing their teaching material would take significant time and effort. When designing

a GIS curriculum, it is oen the case that some o the theoretical aspects are dropped in

avour o the practical technical sessions. Tis is common in courses at college and university

levels across the UK, the USA, Portugal and in many other teaching settings (Sui, 1995).

In our (the authors’) experience, GIS modules can oen be very problem specific or

problem ocused. For example, in many GIS practical sessions, the student is oen given

a data-set and given instructions on how to use the GIS to process the data to get the final

analysis output. Tis approach develops the student’s ability to use the sofware in question,

but it is debatable whether this approach adds much to their knowledge about the types

o question that a GIS can answer, or how to apply the tools available to other data-sets.

Tere is also the risk o developing a “cookbook” type approach to the practicals, where

students just ollow the instructions without understanding what they mean (Pye, 2014,

personal communication). In our experience, relatively ew modules look at the whole

problem-solving process, i.e. problem identification, data finding, data loading, GIS analysis,

GIS output evaluation and GIS output presentation. One o the reasons or this is likely to

be because just teaching the GIS analysis and GIS output evaluation is much easier than

completing the whole problem-solving process. Additionally, it can be difficult to achieve

the breadth o the whole process and the depth o GIS analysis required or the modulein the time available. Also, because the universities have never been able to surpass the

paradigm based on a technical rationale, disciplines tend to be organized on the basis o

content and teaching is invariably centred on the transmission o knowledge rather than on

questioning and problem-solving (Cachinho, 2006). Additionally, timetabling limitations

can oen result in a disconnection between the lecture content and the lab setting within

a GIS course (Read, 2010). Tis can limit the links between critical spatial thinking and

technical GIS use, limiting the development o critical spatial thinking interconnections

the students can make in geographical learning.

The critical spatial thinker

During the last decade, spatial thinking has attracted the attention o many researchers in

geography and other disciplines. Bednarz and Lee (2011) bind this new interest in spatial

thinking to the publication o Learning to Tink Spatially rom the NRC (2006) Committee

on Spatial Tinking. Regardless o the influence that this study may have had, the truth is

that in the ollowing years, several authors sought to identiy and assess the components o

spatial thinking and the skills and abilities o critical spatial thinkers (Bednarz & Lee, 2011;

Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2007; Golledge, Marsh, & Battersby, 2008; Goodchild & Janelle,

2010; Janelle & Goodchild, 2009; Kim & Bednarz, 2013; Kuhn, 2012; Lee & Bednarz, 2009, 2012). In general, or these scholars, a critical spatial thinker should master the ollowing

key set o abilities and skills:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276373991_Teaching_GIS_outside_of_geography_a_case_study_in_the_School_of_International_Development_University_of_East_Anglia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276373991_Teaching_GIS_outside_of_geography_a_case_study_in_the_School_of_International_Development_University_of_East_Anglia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276373991_Teaching_GIS_outside_of_geography_a_case_study_in_the_School_of_International_Development_University_of_East_Anglia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228410556_Has_the_computing_competence_of_first_year_university_students_increased_during_the_last_decade?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228410556_Has_the_computing_competence_of_first_year_university_students_increased_during_the_last_decade?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255643198_Spatial_Thinking_by_Young_Children_Neurologic_Evidence_for_Early_Development_and_Educability?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255643198_Spatial_Thinking_by_Young_Children_Neurologic_Evidence_for_Early_Development_and_Educability?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255643198_Spatial_Thinking_by_Young_Children_Neurologic_Evidence_for_Early_Development_and_Educability?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5N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c5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240540149_A_Pedagogic_Framework_to_Link_GIS_to_the_Intellectual_Core_of_Geography?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228410556_Has_the_computing_competence_of_first_year_university_students_increased_during_the_last_decade?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233437595_Effect_of_GIS_Learning_on_Spatial_Thinking?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262405385_Core_concepts_of_spatial_information_for_transdisciplinary_research?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262405385_Core_concepts_of_spatial_information_for_transdisciplinary_research?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262405385_Core_concepts_of_spatial_information_for_transdisciplinary_research?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263686457_Development_of_critical_spatial_thinking_through_GIS_learning?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226224677_Location_across_Disciplines_Reflections_on_the_CSISS_Experience?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44584606_Toward_critical_spatial_thinking_in_the_social_sciences_and_humanities_GeoJournal?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44584606_Toward_critical_spatial_thinking_in_the_social_sciences_and_humanities_GeoJournal?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225303182_Matching_Geospatial_Concepts_with_Geographic_Educational_Needs?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255643198_Spatial_Thinking_by_Young_Children_Neurologic_Evidence_for_Early_Development_and_Educability?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251714226_The_components_of_spatial_thinking_Empirical_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276373991_Teaching_GIS_outside_of_geography_a_case_study_in_the_School_of_International_Development_University_of_East_Anglia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


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• Understand the effect o scale and the role o assumptions in the use o spatial data.

• Appreciate the difficulties o inerences in multidimensional data.

• Understand the implications o problems and uncertainty with spatial data.

• Apply geostatistical theory in the use o interpolation o spatio-temporal data.

Tese defined abilities and skills provide a oundation or this article to consider how GIS

education can begin to develop the critical spatial thinkers o the twenty-first century. Tis

was best recognized by Goodchild and Janelle (2010, p. 10) as they suggest “it is evident that

students should be trained to the standards o a critical spatial thinker”. Tis is a challenging

endeavour that needs to be taken by and integrated into GIS education. Te first step is to

construct a clear picture o the concept o, and characteristics o, the critical spatial thinker.

A workshop was organized by the International Network or Learning and eaching (INL)

in Geography, held in Box Hill, Surrey, UK, at the end o August 2014 on the theme o

Geography in Higher Education. Te workshop was attended by the authors and provided

the opportunity to gather data rom the 30 international participants on their experiences o

and view on critical spatial thinking. A world cae ormat (Brown, Isaacs, & Te World CaeCommunity, 2005) was adopted to collect the data over 1 h, during which participants circu-

lated and visited tables ocused on different questions; in the case o this article, these were:

• What are the key characteristics o a critical spatial thinker?

• What teaching examples do you use critical spatial thinking skills in?

Te academics involved in the discussions all had links with geography, but not neces-

sarily with teaching GIS or researching GIS. Tis section o the paper makes use o answers

to the first question, while the next section (Summary o Current GIS Provision) discusses

answers to the second part o the question.Te results o the world cae discussion indicate that the ideal critical spatial thinker

would be someone who can critically examine and understand spatial issues in regard to

three areas: (i) spatial data, (ii) spatial processing and analysis (including modelling) and

(iii) spatial outputs and communication. Tese three areas are outlined below.

Critical thinking about spatial data comprises a number o key abilities. Firstly, the

critical spatial thinker should be able to locate, filter and extract the correct data to address

spatial problems. Secondly, the critical spatial thinker should understand and recognize any

limitations with spatio-temporal scales and assumptions in spatial data. Tirdly, the critical

spatial thinker needs to develop the ability to integrate different types o spatial data, both

in terms o spatial and temporal scales. A crucial component o the critical spatial thinkershould be not in mastering each o the abilities, but in the ability to apply each o them in

an appropriate manner when solving a spatial problem. Tis ability to select the correct data

links to the next skill-set o the critical spatial thinker which is in the analysis o the data.

Once the student has selected suitable data, through the consideration o the skills

described above, the next stage in the process is the spatial analysis and processing o data,

which requires another set o critical spatial thinking skills. Tese skills are themed around

understanding the meaning o the spatial data used and developing understanding beyond

the basic level o that offered by the data. Tese include:

• ability to identiy, evaluate and justiy the methods o spatial analysis used;• capacity to reason spatially and understand the processes and effects o inter-scaling,

rom local to global;


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6 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

• consider the links between physical and human processes;

• capability to move beyond Euclidean space to model phenomenological types o spaces,

or example: time-space and mental-maps;

• awareness o causal dynamics, conscious o system processes, interactions and trends;

and

• able to see and understand the interconnections between the different types o actorsand realms: physical/human; culture/nature; society/space; and local/global.

Each o these different abilities identified through the discussions is particularly impor-

tant in the deence o the methods o analysis and processing o data by a critical spatial

thinker. Tis helps the user understand the impact that their use o this data has on the

analysis they are completing. Te final skill-set needed rom the critical spatial thinker is

in the next stage o the process o solving the problem. So ar, the critical spatial thinkers

have selected appropriate data or the problem they are solving and carried out suitable

analysis on that data; the final step in this process is to generate relevant and useul outputs.

Critical spatial thinkers have to consider the outputs created through the process o usingspatial data and analysis to solve problems. Te critical spatial thinker needs to understand

both the conceptual and technical aspects o the role o scale in maps as well as appreciating

that there are multiple perspectives o viewing the same data. As Kim, Bednarz and Kim

(2012), Bunch and Lloyd (2006) and Liben (2006), among others, point out, the map as a

orm o spatial representation is one o the most important communication tools o geog-

raphy. Tereore, the critical spatial thinker will need to be able to visualize data in more

than one way, through understanding the audience to which output is targeted. Additionally,

a desire to represent spatial inormation in innovative, exciting and inormative ways or

range o perspectives will be crucial to ensure the uture o development o new techniques

o presenting data. Lastly, the critical spatial thinker should be to look at any outputs and

be able to provide a critique o the strengths and weaknesses (Monmonier, 1996). Once

the critical spatial thinker is able to consider each o these different aspects, they can create

outputs to achieve the aims and objectives o the task.

A number o existing definitions o a “critical spatial thinker” do exist, including the

University Consortium or Geographic Inormation Science, Body o Knowledge (UCGIS

BoK) (DiBiase et al., 2006) which has been adopted by the Association o American

Geographers as a set o standard requirements in addition to those discussed earlier. Tere

is a section o the UCGIS BoK on conceptual oundations, which are analogous to the

definition o a critical spatial thinker that was discussed above. However, there is still asignificant bias to the technical skill set o GIS compared to the non-technical issues o

critical spatial thinking (DeMers, 2009). Tereore, we have outlined the skills we believe

are necessary, which supplement those discussed elsewhere.

Moving from current GIS thinking to critical spatial thinking

Te previous section outlined the skills that a critical spatial thinker should develop, based

on the literature and our discussions at the INL liquid cae event. Tis section moves on

to consider how much critical spatial thinking skills are already taught to geography under-

graduate students, and then discuss areas where there is the potential or improvements

to be made.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232939049_Using_Intended_Learning_Objectives_to_Assess_Curriculum_Materials_the_UCGIS_Body_of_Knowledge?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232939049_Using_Intended_Learning_Objectives_to_Assess_Curriculum_Materials_the_UCGIS_Body_of_Knowledge?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232939049_Using_Intended_Learning_Objectives_to_Assess_Curriculum_Materials_the_UCGIS_Body_of_Knowledge?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


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ypically, in many universities, GIS is taught as a compulsory part o a wider studyskills module in the first year. Aer that, it is taught in a dedicated module, usually as an

optional choice. A significant amount o GIS teaching is done in these stand-alone, dedicated

modules, and oen lacks wider integration (i.e. the GIS problem is not embedded into a

specific application area). Tis wider integration is something that is crucial to setting the

use o GIS within the wider issue and allowing the student to see how GIS integrates as

part o the wider cycle o problem – evaluation – solution loop. Tis is shown very clearly

in Figure 1, rom Favier (2011).

In this, Favier adapts the model in the US National Geography Standards (National

Education Standards Project, 1994), and splits these stages into six processes: (A) asking

geographic questions, (B) acquiring geographic resources, (C) visualizing geodata, (D)

cognitive processing o knowledge about the world around us, (E) answering geographic

questions and (F) presenting the results o geographic inquiry. Critical spatial thinking

requires the student to think about all o the steps in this process, and ideally their GIS

teaching as well. Te first step is to ask geographic questions, which need to be asked in the

context o the setting o the GIS question, hence the ideal situation o locating the learning

o GIS within an application-specific context. Acquiring geographic resources, exploring

geographic data and analysing geographic inormation are all more GIS ocused and can be

carried out effectively within a GIS stand-alone module. However, the final stages (answer-

ing geographic questions and presenting results) require the contextual inormation o thecase study setting, i.e. what changes are made or what recommendations are put orward

to address the problem at hand. It is these first and last stages that are oen excluded rom

Figure 1. The processes adopted when answering geographic questions (Favier, 2011).Notes: i , internal operations; E , external operations.


10/17

8 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

GIS teaching, and the inclusion o these will address some o the issues around critical

spatial thinking.

Another aspect o this issue is the skills required to make most effective use o represent-

ing data spatially (i.e. mapping). Te ESRC report (ESRC, 2013) discusses extensively the

limited technical knowledge in geography, with the observation that i more geographers

do not start coding, then it will be others creating the tools geographers need to use. Tiscould be problematic i the tools that are available do not do what they need to. Tey also

comment that different methods o representing data need to be combined: “It is important

to change perspectives so that different methods are seen to be complementary, emphasizing

the additive rather than divisive attributes o quantitative methods, qualitative methods and

visualization (mainly GIS and cartography)” (ESRC, 2013, p. 16). Tis need or combina-

tion and integration, both in geography and the wider social sciences, is also echoed by

Hennig (2015) and Hammett, wyman and Graham (2015), who discuss the move away

rom mapping to the written orm by geographers.

An inormal survey was conducted with the academics who attended the INL in

Geography writing retreat. Te survey was conducted afer the writing retreat, allowing the

academics to expand on the comments they provided in the liquid cae session. From these

comments and the survey, a range o teaching approaches to GIS emerged. Tey covered

both the ully integrated and stand-alone GIS modules (see able 1). O the 16 different

teaching experiences discussed, only 5 were integrated GIS modules, where there was a ullcase study approach, and 3 o these were simple map creation and discussion, rather than

any GIS analysis per se. One o the GIS analysis modules was an application o hydrology,

where a flood model was developed and critiqued within a module setting. Te integration

o this was limited, as there were two separate staff involved in the module without sufficient

time to integrate the case study more ully. Additionally, given the limited amount o classtime, the lecturers said the students needed more time dedicated to explaining the process

o GIS and the model (most students having had limited experience o GIS), which limited

the time available or context setting o this practical. Te other integrated module with GIS

analysis was a similar flooding-/hydrology-based module. Te table includes two modules

rom the author’s experiences, which are discussed below.

In a managing rivers and coasts module at the University o the West o England, Bristol

(UWE), students are required to use GIS to carry out hydrological analysis to assess flood

risk on a river catchment in the South West o England. Tis includes learning about types o

spatial data, such as Digital Elevation Models, and the limitations and assumptions that areassociated with using that data or hydrological analysis. Te data are utilized in a series o

prescribed ArcGIS hydrology processes to prepare and use the data in hydrological analysis.

Te outputs o the hydrological analysis are then linked with data collected (e.g. surveys) in

the field by students and combined to create a Flood Risk Management Plan or a section

o river. Tis module links the topic o interest (rivers and coasts) with the geographic data

and skills required to perorm analysis in this area.

A second example o a problem-based learning GIS practical is a site selection GIS

practical taught at University o East Anglia. Tis practical shows students how a series

o criteria can be applied in a GIS (less than 500 m rom a main road, more than 600 m

rom a river, away rom infiltration zones or boreholes, etc.) to find a number o possiblelocations or a new paint actory. Compared to the best practice model o problem-based

learning (Read, 2010), the practical is currently set up in a way where the justification o

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233171218_Teaching_Introductory_Geographic_Information_Systems_through_Problem-based_Learning_and_Public_Scholarship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


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these criteria is not explained particularly well, nor are the next steps, aer perorming the

site selection analysis. Tis practical could be set within a planning or hydrology module

quite effectively, allowing the students to explore and use the GIS to apply either the current

planning requirements or a paint actory (e.g. distance to roads, rivers and inrastructure)

or hydrology (e.g. water infiltration rates). Tereore, allowing or discussion o the reason-

ing behind the chosen criteria, links to relevant planning laws and policies and so on. Teplanning setting would also allow discussion o how to best represent the potential options

to the end user/client, and what happens aer the GIS analysis. I the practical remained in

its current setting within a GIS module, it would be beneficial to include, or at least discuss,

the reasons or the criteria chosen, and the use o the final output.

Tese experiences are a snapshot o views rom a relatively small sample o academics.

Te group are sel-selecting, and the views here are rom those academics interested in

teaching (as they attended the writing retreat on teaching and learning). So while these

results are not representative, they do provide a starting platorm or this discussion. Te

ideal would be to include students’ eedback on the courses they have taken, in terms o

how well they believe the course has prepared them or their uture careers. Tis was not

possible with this survey, but is something important to research in the uture.

Summary of current GIS provision

Te use o GIS is becoming easier with the number o tools and data-sets available much

greater than five years ago. From a learning perspective, it would be ideal i GIS could be

incorporated as a tool within each subject-specific module, as done with interdisciplinary

learning in other subject areas, such as undergraduate health proessionals who have benefit-

ted rom this approach to teaching (Cooper, Carlisle, Gibbs, & Watkins, 2001). Ivanitskaya,Clark, Montgomery and Primeau (2002, p. 95) suggest that through interdisciplinary learn-

ing, learners develop a “more advanced epistemological belies, enhanced critical thinking

ability and metacognitive skills, and an understanding o the relations among perspectives

derived rom different disciplines”. For example, in geography, a hydrology module could

include an element o using GIS to map potential flood risk, or to model river flow in a

certain location. Tis would allow students to see the definition o the problem, see how GIS

can be applied to it, through experiencing the entire research cycle: developing the solution

in GIS and then evaluating and discussing how effective the solution is. Tis is a primary

theme running through the Boyer Report (Boyer Commission, 1998) whose mission it was

to suggest a model o higher education that would undamentally transorm undergraduate

education. More than just ocusing on inquiry, investigation and discovery as part o the

research mission o research universities, it clearly shows that such an approach must be

integrated into the undergraduate experience. Te expected outcome rom such an approach

is a generation o graduates who understand the coherent body o knowledge o their dis-

cipline, and comprehend the interconnectedness o that body o knowledge with others.

Tey should be capable o thinking logically and be able to explain the results o that logical

thinking coherently – skills currently lacking in large proportions o university graduates.

As mentioned earlier, unortunately GIS is ofen taught in a skills-based specific module,

thereore lacking the inormation about the setting, and the interconnectedness discussedabove. Tere are a number o good reasons or why modules are set up like this, including:


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10 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

• echnical difficulty o GIS requiring specific teaching.

• Limited staff time and skills to integrate GIS into their existing modules.

• Students require a certain level o I skills to make most effective use o GIS.

• Application o GIS will need supervised time in a computer lab, which is difficult to

integrate into the timetable (although basic GIS work could be done outside o the

computer lab, in the student’s own time or on their own laptop in a lecture setting,but there can be a much higher risk o technical issues, depending on the soware

involved).

• Making significant changes to an existing module can involve a certain level o insti-

tutional resistance.

• Resistance to change and innovation rom the teaching staff, largely due to their aca-

demic training.

In spite o this, more could be done in this setting to develop problem-based learning

approaches to GIS. Tere could be more ocus on the background o the case study, and how

GIS is applied to it. For example, using the paint actory example rom above, this could bedeveloped to include more justification or and explanation o the planning requirements,

i.e. which laws and regulations state that the paint actory needs to be more than 600 m

rom a river, etc. Depending on the student’s subject, they could be asked to research this

element beore the GIS practical and so provide the criteria or the GIS analysis themselves.

In a number o institutions, GIS is already taught within an integrated module, although

this is oen within a skills-based module rather than a subject-based module. Tere are

a number o subject-based modules, such as Managing Rivers and Coasts and a 3rd year

Physical Geography module at UWE that integrates GIS, but in our experience, these are ew

and ar between. More common are GIS modules, covering a range o different types o GIS

skills and applications, but oen these lack the additional subject setting, and thereore the

“asking geographic questions” and “acting on geographic knowledge” stages which embed

critical spatial thinking in real-world settings.

GIS can be used as a tool to look at spatial relationships and help educate geographers

about why the relationship between many spatial objects is important (Bednarz, 2004). GIS

can achieve this through its emphasis on “… visual expression, collaboration, exploration,

and intuition, and the uniqueness o place …” (Wright, Goodchild, & Proctor, 1997, p. 358).

Geographers are not simply those studying geography; the lessons and techniques can be

applied to any students, and GIS is a valuable tool to be able to use (as is critical spatial

thinking) or any graduate (Dunn et al., 1997; Whyatt et al., 2011). Tere is opportunity todevelop the existing GIS curriculum to include more o the “first” and “last” elements o

the geographic thinking process (i.e. asking geographic questions and acting on geographic

knowledge) by including more context-specific inormation. Te element o discussing

the GIS output would also include the process o evaluating what the GIS “answer” was,

and including the act that the GIS answer is not necessarily correct all the time. Tis will

allow the users (or students in this case) to be critical o the answer the GIS provides, and

not just accept it at ace value. Tis element can be included in a wider teaching element o

critically analysing maps to help students really think about what is represented on a map,

and then apply that same critical approach when creating their own maps, developing key

critical spatial thinking skills (Committee on Geography, 2000).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227612230_GIS_for_development_A_contradiction_in_terms?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227612230_GIS_for_development_A_contradiction_in_terms?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227612230_GIS_for_development_A_contradiction_in_terms?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233357274_Teaching_Geographical_Information_Systems_in_Geography_Degrees_A_Critical_Reassessment_of_Vocationalism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227612230_GIS_for_development_A_contradiction_in_terms?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


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I the students attending a GIS module have also completed some human geography, then

they could discuss how maps are just representations o a particular, subjective reality. It is

also relevant to all students to discuss how spatial data are just one possible representation

o reality, and so developing the students’ understanding o spatial data and data in general

in this direction. Building on this, all students can discuss the concept o uncertainty within

the conceptualization o spatial data, as well as how inormation is stored and representedwithin spatial data, and how uncertainty can propagate through analysis. Trough teaching

and students’ understanding, these concepts increase the likelihood that they will be able

to apply the acquired knowledge to many different scenarios (Bednarz, 2004).

Conclusions

Critical spatial thinking has been discussed extensively in this article, identified as one o

the theoretical aspects o applied GIS, i.e. understanding how objects in the world relate

geographically to one another, how they are represented in the GIS and how a GIS can be

used to analyse their relationships. Tis skill-set is separate rom (but related to) the tech-

nical skills to use different GISs to perorm analysis, and a ull understanding o the ormer

is required to (in our view) be able to implement the latter effectively.

Te current methods o teaching GIS have been considered, and the act that the inclusion

o GIS within specific skills modules oen limits the ability o the material to include the

initial project requirements. Tese initial project requirements are important because they

lead to the decision to use GIS, and subsequently influence the application o the results

rom the GIS analysis to the original project. One approach that addresses this is to embed

GIS within subject-specific modules, or example, looking at population flows within a

migration module. However, this is quite challenging to achieve, with the limited time andresources available in a typical university teaching setting, in addition to the potential o

resistance to change in universities. An alternative approach we discuss is to develop the

problem itsel within a GIS module, or example, in a case study setting. We discussed this

proposal in reerence to a number o our own GIS teaching modules, and explored the

easibility o this suggestion.

Tis skill o critical spatial thinking, that is or students to be able to understand the

spatial relationships that different objects have, and to know how we can analyse these

relationships, is something that is inherent in the interdisciplinary nature o geography. Tis

skill is no doubt known by a variety o names in different areas, and it is something that

is undamental to GIS. Unortunately, it can get displaced in a pressured GIS curriculum,

ultimately leading to a poorer understanding o GIS and a lower level o employability in the

course content. Tis paper has discussed different approaches o coping with this problem,

both rom a GIS skills-based module and an integrated geography subject module.

Tis topic can be developed in two different, but complementary, ways in the uture.

Firstly, the issue can be considered rom a pedagogical point o view, looking at how the

technical side o GIS could be most effectively integrated with the case studies. For example,

a comparative analysis o highly computer literate students vs. less computer literate students

exposed to identical GIS analysis. One major avenue o research involves both cognitive

psychology and neurophysiology. Gersmehl and Gersmehl’s (2007) seminal work regardingspatial thinking in young children deconstructs some o the very critical thinking skills o

which we speak here and that much spatial learning might result rom a continuous process

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226984454_Geographic_Information_Systems_A_Tool_to_Support_Geography_and_Environmental_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-b2a70108-b2f2-420d-ae68-030d4d6202d8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI5NTI1NTY5NztBUzozMzEyNTczODU4OTc5ODRAMTQ1NTk4OTMyMzIxMw==


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12 N. BEARMAN ET AL.

rom early childhood to adulthood. Future research o this nature will not only have to

account or computer skills but also previous exposure to spatial learning. One approach

would be to administer a pretest which would indicate a baseline o spatial skills, prior to

the teaching course and final testing.

Secondly, a research agenda can be constructed, outlining some o the ideas already

discussed and developing them to create a definition o a “spatial citizen”, linking to exist-ing research developing this subject. Tis would particularly link to some o the literature

in the general pedagogical area, as well as specifically in terms o GIS teaching methods

and approaches. Outputs rom this research agenda would be beneficial to both members

o the geography community who teach the skills associated with critical spatial thinking,

as well as those outside geography who are also interested in these skills. Tis would also

support the development o teaching-only staff within geography departments, helping

with their proessional development (Bearman, Dyer, Walkington, & Wyse, 2015). Tis

approach could be achieved by considering GIS to be a generic literacy skill (like literacy,

numeracy and I literacy), and then GIS would need to be integrated into the curriculum

across many different modules.

GIS has reached a new phase in its technological development, and we are now able to

move on rom the purely technical point o view (o being limited by what GIS soware

can do) and continue to develop the critical spatial thinking aspect o geography within the

ramework that GIS provides us with. Tis allows spatial issues to be taught rom a prob-

lem-based learning point o view, rather than a technical GIS point o view, which allows

the consideration o the whole geographic inquiry process. However, there are limitations

with this approach, mainly stemming rom the wide range o technical skills and compe-

tences that undergraduate students have, which oen require intervention to develop their

technical skills beore they can get the most rom their critical spatial thinking skills androm the GIS soware.

Notes

1. ESRI ArcGIS, http://www.esri.com/soware/arcgis .2. QGIS, http://www.qgis.org.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all o the attendees at the International Network or Learning and eachingin Geography (INL) Writing Retreat on 30 and 31 August 2014 or their input into our discussions,and or INL and Journal of Geography in Higher Education ( JGHE) or organizing the writing retreat.We would also like to thank Helen Walkington and Richard reves or very useul eedback on anearly dra.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict o interest was reported by the authors.

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