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The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s notWaves, it’sStrainsTomParker(BardGlobalizationandInternationalAffairsProgram,BardCollege,NewYork,USA)NickSitter(CentralEuropeanUniversityandBINorwegianBusinessSchool)TomParker,wasformerlyPolicyDirectorforTerrorism,Counter‐TerrorismandHumanRightsatAmnestyInternationalUSA,andAdviseronHumanRightsandCounter‐TerrorismtotheUnitedNationsCounter‐TerrorismImplementationTaskForce(CTITF).Heiscurrentlyworkingonabookexamininghumanrights‐compliantcounter‐terrorismstrategies,entitledWhyRightisMight,forImperialCollegePress.NickSitterisProfessorofPublicPolicyandCentralEuropeanUniversity(SchoolofPublicPolicy)andProfessorofPoliticalEconomyatBINorwegianBusinessSchool(DepartmentofLaw).TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethesupportoftheEUFP7large‐scaleintegratedresearchprojectGR:EENGlobalRe‐ordering:EvolutionthroughEuropeanNetworks,EuropeanCommissionProjectNumber:266809ThisisanAcceptedManuscriptversionofanarticlepublishedbyTaylor&FrancisinTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,availableonline:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277
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The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s notWaves, it’sStrains
DavidRapoport’sconceptoffourwavesofterrorism,fromanarchistterrorismin the 1880s, through nationalist andMarxistwaves in the early andmid‐TwentiethCentury,tothepresentreligiouswave,isoneofthemostinfluentialconceptsinterrorismstudies.However,thisarticlearguesthatthinkingaboutdifferenttypesofterrorismasstrainsratherthanwavesbetterreflectsboththeempiricalrealityandtheideathatterroristslearnfromandemulateeachother.Whereas thenotionofwaves suggestsdistinct iterationsof terroristviolencedrivenbysuccessivebroadhistoricaltrends,theconceptofstrainsandcontagionemphasizeshowterroristgroupsdrawonbothcontemporaryandhistoricallessonsinthedevelopmentoftheirtactics,strategies,andgoals.The authors identify four distinct strains in total – socialist, nationalist,religious,andexclusionist‐andcontendthatitispossibletotraceeachstrainbacktoa‘patientzero’activeinthe1850s.
AfterAlQaeda’sattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagononSeptember
11th,2001,DavidRapoportpublishedoneofthemostinfluentialarticleseverwritten
in the field of terrorism studies. 1 The article has since been republished and
referenced in numerous volumes. 2 To this day, it provides the basic conceptual
framework for many academic courses taught around the world on this subject.
Rapoport’spremisewascleanandsimple:muchasSamuelHuntingtonarguedthat
democratizationcameinwaves,3Rapoportidentifiedfourbroadlyconsecutivewaves
of terrorism. The first – which he dubbed the anarchist wave ‐ started with the
Russian populist group Narodnaya Volya (the People’s Will) in the 1880s and
continuedintotheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Itwasfollowedbyananti‐
colonialwavefromthe1920stothe1960s,aNewLeftwavefromthe1960stothe
endoftheTwentiethCentury,andareligiouswavebeginningin1979thatisstillwith
ustoday.4Rapoportusedthiswavetheorytopredictthatthereligiouswave,which
hadgivenbirthtoAlQaedaandtheso‐calledIslamicState,coulddissipateby2025
andthatanewwavemightthenemerge.5
3
InfairnesstoRapoport,henotedthattherewereothergroups,forexampletheKu
KluxKlanbetween1865and1876,whichemployedterroristviolenceandyetdidnot
fit neatly into his template. However, he essentially dismissed such examples as
statistical outliers that had little impact of the development of terrorism as a
phenomenonovertime.6Healsoobservedthatsomegroupswithineachwavehad
non‐dominant characteristics in common with groups in the other waves. For
example, the Provisional IRA of the 1970s and 1980s was both nationalist and
Marxist.ButthedeeperoneexploresRapoport’stheory,themoredifficultitbecomes
toescapethesuspicionthathetooktheanalogyofthewavetoofar.Hedescribeseach
wave as having an international character “driven by a predominant energy that
shapes the participating groups’ characteristics and mutual relationships.” 7 This
resultsin“acycleofactivityinagiventimeperiod…characterizedbyexpansionand
contraction phases.” 8 But is this really what happens? We find particularly
problematic Rapoport’s assertion that “when awave’s energy cannot inspire new
organizations, thewavedisappears”.9Indeed, there is very little evidence that the
activitiesassociatedwithanyofhisfourwaveshaveactuallydisappeared,andthere
isagreatdealofevidencetosuggestthateachtypeofterrorismhasdeeperhistorical
rootsthanhiswavetheorysuggests.
Itisourcontentionthatthestrategicandtacticalchoicesterroristorganizationsmake
play an important role in the evolution of terrorism. Even isolated outbreaks of
terroristviolencecaninfluencethechoicesmadebylaterterroristgroups.Tobesure,
like other political organizations, terrorists learn first and foremost from their
immediaterivalsandotherlikemindedgroups.10However,thereisalsoconsiderable
evidenceofconsistentanddynamicexchangeof ideasbetweenterroristgroupsof
markedly different character that stretches back several decades further than
Rapoportsuggests,tothemiddleoftheNineteenthCentury.WhileRapoport’stheory
providesasimpleandconceptuallycleannarrativetohelpstudentsandresearchers
alike to organize their thoughts, there are simply too many anomalies. More
significantly,someoftheseoutlyingcaseshavebeenveryinfluentialinthesensethat
theyprovidedimportantlessonsorinspirationforlaterterroristgroups(including
4
themaingroupsineachofRapoport’swaves)andthusplayedanintegralroleinthe
evolutionofterrorismoverthepast150years.
Wethereforeproposeanalternativeframeworkforanalysis,basedontheideathat
terrorismcomesinfourdifferentstrainsandthatthereisanimportantelementof
“contagion”bothwithinandbetweentheseseparatestrains.Webelievethatitmay
evenbepossibletoidentifya‘patientzero’foreachstrain–anindividualwhoeither
through advocacy or example first promoted the innovative adoption of terrorist
methodstoadvanceaparticularpoliticalcause.Theconceptoffourstrainsfitsthe
historical record better, and more plausibly explains how terrorism spreads and
evolvesfromoneconflicttothenext.
Thefourstrainswehaveidentifiedalldatefromthesameperiod,andalthoughthey
havemostlydevelopedseparatelysince,theydooccasionallycombineandmutate.
Thesefourstrains–thesefourhorsemenofterrorism–arenationalism,socialism,
religiousextremismandsocialexclusion.UsingBoazGanor’sdefinitionofterrorism‐
“the intentionaluseoforthreattouseviolenceagainstciviliansoragainstcivilian
targets, inorder toattainpoliticalaims” ‐ asourcriteria,wehavecomparedboth
theoriesagainstthehistoricalrecordtodeterminewhichultimatelyoffersthegreater
theoreticalleverageoverrecordedevents.
TerroristGroupsasLearningOrganizations
Thereisarichsociologicalliteratureonhowandunderwhatcontextorganizations
learnfromtheirpeersandrivals,associatedwithscholarssuchasBarbaraLevittand
James G. March.11Non‐state organizations learn both from direct experience and
from the stories they develop to make sense of that experience, as well as from
experiences and stories generated by peers. Organizations that interact regularly
withdirectcompetitors learn fromboth theirownandtheirrivals’ successes.The
fieldsofanthropologyandcommunicationstudieshavegeneratedsimilar theories
5
about the contagiousness of ideas to explain the diffusion of innovative practices
acrosssocieties.12AnalyzinghowWestEuropeanconservativepartieshad learned
fromthesuccessfulpost‐warinitiativesofSocialDemocratstorevitalizetheirown
electoral programs, party organizations and electoral strategy, Maurice Duverger
labeledthis“contagionfromtheleft”.13Afewdecadeslater,itwouldbethecentre‐
leftpartiesthat“modernized”throughaprocessof“contagionfromtheright”.14
TheGermanterrorismexpertPeterWaldmannwasoneofthefirsttoreferencethis
kindof“contagioneffect”forterroristgroups,arguingthattheapparentsuccessof
somegroupsattractedotherstoemulateaspectsoftheirapproach,andperhapsalso
theirideology.15Indeed,severalearlymodernterroristsactuallyexpressedthehope
thattheywouldsetanexampleforotherstoemulate.AstheRussianpopulistNikolai
MorozovobservedinTheTerroristStruggle:“Whenahandfulofpeopleappearsto
representthestruggleofawholenationandistriumphantovermillionsofenemies,
thentheideaofterroristicstrugglewillnotdieonceitisclarifiedforthepeopleand
provenitcanbepractical.”16Propagandabythedeed–theverynotionthatactsof
terrorismwouldbeabetterwaytospreadideasthanmerewrittenpropaganda–was
basedonthehopethatterrorismwouldproveacontagiousidea.17
The main causal mechanism in Rapoport’s work, as in Huntington’s, is historical
context. The first, anarchist,wave emergedwith new technological developments
thatmadetravelandcommunicationeasier,andinturnmadeiteasierforideasand
doctrines to be transmitted across boundaries. In Rapoport’s words: “A wave by
definition isahistoricalevent”, sparkedor shapedby internationalwarsorpeace
agreements. 18 Huntington was more explicit about the causes for waves of
democratization: global economic growth, economic and military failure in
dictatorships,changesinthepoliciesofexternalactors(suchasthesuperpowers),
anda“snowballingeffect”whereearlyeventsprovidedmodelsandinspirationfor
latereventsinthesamewave.19Inbothcasesradicalmovementsandorganizations
learnfromtheircontemporaries,butthespreadofbothideologyandtacticsislimited
to a given time and space. A simple extension of this idea is that each wave of
6
terrorismischaracterizedbyacommonnarrativeabouttheenemy–authoritarian
monarchies, empires, capitalist democracies and secular states – and a common
internationallegalandpoliticalregime–theconcertofEurope,theageofempire,the
ColdWar,andthepost‐coldwar“globalization”era.Indeed,thewavemetaphorcan
evenbeextendedtocounter‐terrorismstrategies.20
Thecentralpointaboutcontagionororganizationallearningisthatitassignsmore
weighttotheactiverolethatterroristsandtheirorganizationsplayintheprocess
whereby ideas and practices “travel” across boundaries: much like Huntington’s
dictators, terrorist groups sometimes cooperatewith each other, andmuchmore
frequently learn from or imitate each other. The sociologists Paul DiMaggio and
WalterPowellexaminedaseriesofwaysorganizationscancometoresembleeach
other (the process of isomorphism), including responding to similar conditions,
learning from and imitating each other, and interacting with each other and
establishing common norms. 21 Although terrorist organizations are usually
autonomousandisolated(evenmoresothandictators),andthereforelesssubjectto
pressurefromsocietyandcompetitorsthanmanyotherorganizations,itisclearthat
learning and copying has been an important factor in shaping similarities across
organizationsbothintermsofstrategyandtactics.
Thereisagreatdealofqualitativeevidenceinthehistoricalrecordofthediffusionor
transferofideasbetweendifferentterroristandinsurgentactors,oftenacrosswide
temporal and geographic distances. For example, the Irish revolutionary Michael
Collins,who isoften seenasoneof thekeyarchitectsofmodernurban terrorism
although he personally eschewed acts of indiscriminative violence, 22 wrote an
appreciativelettertotheBoercommanderChristiaandeWetthankinghimforbeing
his “earliest inspiration”. 23 Collins also spoke of his admiration for the Finnish
nationalist Eugen Schauman who assassinated the Russian Governor General of
Finland, Nicholai Bobrikov, in 1904. 24 We also know from the Irish nationalist
O’DonovanRossa’sprivatecorrespondencethathewaswellawareoftheattemptby
NarodnayaVolyatoassassinateTsarAlexanderIIbybombingtheWinterPalacein
7
February 1880. 25 President McKinley’s assassin, Leon Czolgosz, slept with a
newspapercuttingabouttheassassinationofKingUmbertoofItalyunderhispillow,
and even purchased the same model of Iver Johnson .32 revolver used by the
anarchistGaetanoBrescifortheassassination.26TheMarxistWeatherUnderground
Organization, which operated in the United States from 1969 to 1973, publicly
declaredthedebtitowedtocomradeselsewhere:“Nowweareadaptingtheclassic
guerrillastrategyoftheVietCongandtheurbanguerrillastrategyoftheTupamaros
toourownsituationhereinthemosttechnicallyadvancedcountryintheworld.”27
TheGermanMarxistHorstMahlerchosethenameRoteArmeeFraktioninconscious
homage to the Japanese Red Army (Rengo Sekigun). 28 Dimitris Koufodinas,
OperationsChiefoftheGreekterrorgroupNovember17,taughthimselfSpanishin
hisprisoncellsohecouldtranslatetheprisonmemoirsoftwoTupamarosleaders,
MauricioRosencofandEleuterioFernándezHuidobro.29Cuttingdeeplyacrosstime,
Eldridge Cleaver, one of the leaders of theBlack Panther Party in the late 1960s,
adoptedSergeiNechaev’sNineteenthCenturyCatechismoftheRevolutionaryashis
“revolutionarybible”.30
Terroristshaveemulatedbothgroupstheyadmireandtheirfiercestadversaries.The
IndiannationalistBarinGhose,jailedforhisroleina1909conspiracytoassassinate
amemberoftheBritishgovernmentadministrationinBengal,wrotethathis“cultof
violence”was“learntfromtheIrishSeinfeinners[sic]andRussiansecretsocieties.”31
HocineAïtAhmet,theheadoftheAlgerianMouvementpourleTriomphedesLibertés
Démocratiques (Movement for theTriumphofDemocraticLiberties), analyzed the
Irishstruggleforindependence,aswellasthetriumphofcommunisminChinaand
the tactics of theVietMinh in Indochina.32YasserArafat’s Intelligence chief Salah
Khalaf, better known to posterity by his nom de guerre Abu Iyad, noted in his
memoirs: “Theguerrillawar inAlgeria, launched fiveyearsbefore the creationof
Fatah,hadaprofoundinfluenceonus…[It]symbolizedthesuccesswedreamedof.”33
TheAlQaedaideologueMustafaSetmarianNasar‐perhapsbestknownbyhisalias
AbuMus’abal‐Suri‐employedthenomdeplume‘Castro’.34Althoughhemournedthe
creationof theStateof Israel, theEgyptianMuslimBrotherhood ideologueSayyid
8
Qutburgedhis fellow Islamists to learn fromthesuccess that the Jewish terrorist
groupsLEHIandIrgunZviLeumihadenjoyedinfluencingBritishpolicyinPalestine.35
ArafatcitedtherelationshipbetweentheHaganahandIrgunasamodelforthePLO
– Fatah structure.36The FrenchOrganization of the SecretArmy (OAS) formed in
1961bydisgruntledmilitaryveteransoftheAlgerianconflictwasmodeledonthe
imageofitsmainadversary,theAlgerianNationalLiberationFront(FLN).37
Thiskindofpolicytransfercanalsotakeplacedirectly,intheshapeoftraining,even
betweenwhatmightseematfirstsighttobeill‐matchedgroups,suchastheJapanese
Red Army and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) who
cooperated in the Bekaa Valley in the early 1970s. 38 . Mia Bloom describes a
“demonstrationeffect”,wherebyterroristtacticsspreadfromoneconflicttoanother
because perceived success attracts imitation. Bloom shows how the adoption of
suicidebombingbythePalestinianterroristgroupHamascanbetracedbacktothe
December1992expulsionof415seniorHamasandPalestinian Islamic Jihad(PIJ)
activists from theOccupied Territories, toMarj al Zahour in Southern Lebanon.39
DespiteHamasandPIJbothbeingSunniorganizations,theactivistsweretakeninby
theShiaLebaneseterroristgroupHezbollahandprovidedwithaidandoperational
training (including the use of explosives). Althoughmany of those expelled from
Israeli‐controlled territory had been intellectuals and ideologues rather than
frontline fighters, on their return to the Occupied Territories in September 1993
many took a more active part in hostilities and several were linked to suicide
bombingsbytheIsraeliauthorities‐atacticthathadnotpreviouslybeenusedby
Palestiniangroups.40On19October1994Salehal‐SouwiboardedabusinTelAviv
carryingabombconcealedinabrownbagthathethendetonated,takingtwenty‐two
civilianlivesalongwithhisownandinjuringfiftyothers,makingittheworstbomb
attackinIsraelihistoryupuntilthatpoint.Thefollowingdayapublicannouncement
wasreadoutinmosquesacrosstheGazainwhichHamasboastedthattheattackhad
beencarriedoutusingknowledgeandtechniqueslearneddirectlyfromHezbollah.41
9
Inshort,weknowfrombothterroristsandanalyststhatterroristgroupsactivelyand
deliberatelylearnfromeachother.Notonlyideology,butalsostrategy(elaboration
ofwhatagroup’sgoalshouldbeandhowitisbestpursued)andtactics(howtoturn
strategyintopractice)areoftenshapedbyotherterroristsgroups’experience.While
direct learning, in the shape of training and support, might be limited to
contemporarygroups,itisclearthananumberofterroristshavefoundinspirationin
oldergroupsorevenadoptedmodelsfromrivaloropposingorganizations.Thenext
section proceeds to analyze the origins ofmodern terrorism,which go somewhat
furtherbackthanRapoport’sfirstwave,andargues,asLindsayClutterbuckpointed
outinhisinfluential2004critiqueofRapoport’sarticle,42thatterrorisminthelate
NineteenthCenturyhadasmuchtodowithnationalismaswithanarchism.
TheNineteenthCenturyOriginsofModernTerrorism
Terrorism has its origins in a series of technological developments that occurred
almost simultaneously in the mid‐Nineteenth Century. These have something in
commonwiththecommunicationsrevolutionattheendofthecenturythatRapoport
emphasized,butanumberofimportantdevelopmentsprecededthisbyabouthalfa
century. The first was a revolution in military technology that concentrated the
destructive power previously associated with mass military formations into the
handsof a few individuals.Gunpowderhadbeen theprimaryexplosive inuse for
about1000yearswhenin1847anItalianchemistcalledAscanioSobrenocreated
nitroglycerine–aliquidcompoundthatiseighttimesmorepowerfulbyweightthan
gunpowder.Initsliquidformnitroglycerineprovedimmenselyunstableanddifficult
to transport, but, after his brotherEmilwas killed in an industrial accidentwhile
working with nitroglycerine, Alfred Nobel began to experiment with methods of
stabilizingtheexplosiveandthisledtohisinventionofdynamite,whichhepatented
in1867.Otherkeydevelopmentsinweaponstechnologyweretheintroductionofthe
revolverbySamuelColtin1835,theOrsinibomb(ahand‐throwncontactgrenade)
designed and used by Felice Orsini for an assassination attempt on Emperor
10
NapoleonIIIin1858,therepeatingriflefirstmanufacturedbyChristopherSpencer
in1860,andtheso‐called“horologicaltorpedo”,atimedelaybombfirstdeployedby
theConfederateSecretService inanattackon theHeadquartersofUnionGeneral
UlyssesS.GrantinCityPoint,Virginia,whichkilledmorethanfiftypeopleinAugust
1864.43The sudden availability of powerful, affordable, portable and concealable
weapons‐whichcouldalsobeeasilyacquiredormanufacturedbyprivatecitizens‐
wouldprovetobesignificantforcemultiplierforstatesandnon‐stateactorsalike.
The second development was the development of new mass communication
technologies thatallowedknowledgeof ideasandevents toberapidlydistributed
acrossthousandsofmiles,andenabledindividualstotraveleasilyacrossborders,and
evenacrossoceans, inlargernumbersthaneverbeforeopeningupaneraofmass
migration and commensurate dislocation. The first working telegraph was built
betweenWashingtonDCandBaltimorebySamuelMorse(whoalsodevelopedMorse
codetoaidthetransmissionofmessages)becomingoperationalin1844.Thelaying
ofthefirsttransatlantictelegraphcablewascompletedin185844andtheuseofthe
telegraphbytheprintmediareallytookoffinthe1860swhennewspaperofficeslike
the Scotsman and the London Times began to install telegraph lines in their
newsrooms so that they could receive news rapidly from national capitals and
overseascorrespondents.45Thesteampoweredrotaryprintingpressinventedinthe
UnitedStatesin1843allowedforthereproductionofmillionsofcopiesofpageoftext
in a single day.46On land, theworld’s first commercial railway, the Stockton and
Darlington Railway in England, began operation in 1825, the first railway in
continentalEuropeopenedinBelgiumin1835,andRussiagotitsfirstrailwaylinein
1837,butthegreatexpansionofrailwaynetworksoccurredinthe1850sand1860s
astheindividualnationalrailwaynetworksbegantolinkupofferingpassengersthe
possibilityof travelingacrossEuropeby rail.On sea, the constructionof the iron‐
hulledSSGreatWesternbyIsambardKingdomBrunelin1838inauguratedtheageof
thetrans‐Atlanticpassengersteamer,butittooktheintroductionofscrewpropeller,
iron hulls, and compound and triple expansion engines, which all combined to
increase the size, fuel efficiency and range of commercial vessels, tomake trans‐
11
oceanicshippingeconomicallyviableona largescaleby1870.GermanandItalian
radicals like JohanMost andLuigiGalleani emigrated to theUSA; Irish‐Americans
basedinurbancentreslikeNewYork,ChicagoandBostonwereabletofundterrorist
activityontheBritishMainland.Accordingly,someoftheearliestmodernterrorists
– European anarchists and Irish nationalists – can be said to have posed a
transnationalthreatalmostfromtheirinception.
Thethirdandfinalrevolutiontookplaceintherealmofideas.PriortotheNineteenth
Centurypoliticalactivityhadbeentoallintentsandpurposestheexclusiveprovince
of socialelites.Newtechnologiesbroughtaccess toeducationalopportunities that
hadnotpreviouslyexisted,agriculturallaborersandartisansflockedtourbancenters
attractedbynewemploymentopportunities and creating anew social class – the
industrial proletariat. KarlMarx, Friedrich Engels,Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre‐Joseph
Proudhonandahostofothersdevelopedpoliticaltheoriesthatputthecommonman
at the center of societal progress and created a language of working class
empowerment.TheGermanrevolutionaryKarlHeinzenwasthefirsttoarticulatethe
use of violence, evenmassmurder, by individuals to effect political change in his
influential1853pamphlet,MordundFreiheit,coiningthetermfreiheits‐kämpferor
freedomfighterintheprocess.47TheEuropean‐widepopularunrestof1848andthe
example set by the short‐lived Paris Commune of 1871 held out hope to the
disenfranchisedthatpopulargovernmentbythemasseswasnotbeyondreachand
thatmeaningfulsocialchangewaspossible.ThemutinyoftheParisNationalGuard
inMarch1871andthedecisionbythemutineerstoholdanelection,whichledtothe
creationofasocialistgovernmentthatruledParisforthreemonthsimplementinga
radicalpoliticalagenda,wouldbecomeabeaconofpromiseforsocialrevolutionaries.
ThefactthattheParisCommuneendedinareactionarybloodbaththatclaimedmore
thantwenty‐fivethousand livesas theFrenchgovernmentreassertedcontrolonly
strengthenedtheirresolve,drawingthebattlelinesevenmoreclearly.AstheSwiss
anarchist Paul Brousse observed in an article in the radical journalBulletin de la
FédérationJurassienne:“PriortotheParisCommune,whoinFrancewasconversant
12
withtheprincipleofcommunalautonomy?Noone.”48Afterwardsitwasanideathat
resonatedwiththedispossessedandmarginalizedacrossthewesternworld.
The revolutionary ideals of the late Nineteenth Century were rooted as much in
nationalismasinrevolutionaryradicalism.HeinzendedicatedMordundFreiheitto
theHungariannationalistLibényiJánoswhoattemptedtoassassinatetheAustrian
Emperor Franz Joseph I in February 1853. A few years earlier, in 1848, Mikhail
BakuninhadpennedanAppealtotheSlavstoriseupagainsttheAustro‐Hungarian
empire. In the Balkans the “national sympathies” to which he appealed would
eventually give rise to one of the most active and enduring early terrorist
organizations,theInternalMacedonianRevolutionaryOrganization(IMRO),aswell
asoneofthemostconsequentialterroristattacksofalltime–theassassinationin
Sarajevo of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by the Bosnian Serb Gavrilo
PrincipinJune1914,whichprecipitatedtheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Principwas
explicit about his motivation, declaring at his trial: “I am a Yugoslav nationalist,
aimingfortheunificationofallYugoslavs,andIdonotcarewhatformofstate,butit
must be freed from Austria.” 49 The cause of Italian reunification was also the
motivatingforcebehindFeliceOrsini’sassassinationattemptonNapoleonIII,andthe
pivotal role played by Giuseppi Garibaldi and his 1,000 redshirts in the Italian
Risorgimento was hugely influential on other revolutionary movements, as it
demonstrated that a small group of determined men and women could have a
decisive impactontheaffairsofgreatpowers.The leadingItaliananarchistErrico
Malatesta acknowledged the debt he and his followers owed to the heroes of the
Risorgimento,notingthattheFirstInternationaltaughtitsmembersnothingthathad
not already been learned fromOrsini,Mazzini andGaribaldi.50Thiswas certainly
Orsini’sintention,hepublishedtwovolumesofmemoirsandanumberofpolitical
pamphletsbasedonhiscareerasarevolutionaryduringhislifetime,includingone
withanappendixentitledHowtoConspire.51
InEurope,therevolutionsof1848‐49andtheParisCommuneraisedthehopesofa
rangeofradicalgroupsthatsocialchangemightbeachieved,butsomeindividuals
13
andgroupsconcludedfromtheseevents(togetherwiththefailedeffortsofRussian
populists to educate and mobilize the rural population in the 1870s) that more
dramaticaction–terrorism–wouldberequired.IntheUSAthetensionssurrounding
theCivilWarplayedasimilarrole.InEurope,radicalsthatwereonthelosingsidein
1848‐49and1871turnedtoterrorism;intheUSAitwastheopponentsofslavery
before the outbreak of the CivilWar (John Brown), andmany on the losing side
afterwards(theKuKluxKlan).InEuropethisgaverisetoanarchistandnationalist
terrorism in the secondhalf of theNineteenthCentury; in theUSA it gave rise to
religiousandexclusivistterrorism.
TheNineteenthCenturybroughttogetherthemeans,themotiveandtheopportunity
forsmallbandsofcommittedradicalstotakethefighttotheestablishedorderand
menof all political stripeswerequick to realize the game‐changing tools that the
marchofsciencehadplacedinthehandsoftheirfollowers.Rapoportdateshisfirst
waveofterrorismasbeginninginthe1880sbutasearlyasthe1850sand1860swe
can see nationalists, populists (perhaps a more accurately inclusive label for the
disparate‘oldleft’groupsofRapoport’s“firstwave”thananarchism),exclusionists,
andreligiousextremistsbegintoexplorethepossibilitiesthatthesenewtoolshadto
offer.The‘patientszero’ofthisviralmetaphor,asbestwehavebeenabletoestablish,
aretheItaliannationalistFeliceOrsini,theGermanpopulistKarlHeinzen,theformer
Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest and the American abolitionist John
Brown.
NationalistTerrorism–fromFeliceOrsinitotheTamilTigers
Felice Orsini was an associate of the Italian statesman Giuseppe Mazzini and a
supporterofItalianunification,towhichNapoleonIIIwasperceivedasanobstacle.
Inatransnationalconspiracy,whichsawOrsinibuildandtestacontactbombofhis
own devising in England before traveling to Paris, Orsini and his Italian co‐
conspiratorsplannedtobombtheEmperor’scoachashedrovetotheoperaonthe
14
eveningof14January1858.Three‘Orsini’bombs,employingfulminateofmercury
asanexplosive,detonatedkillingandinjuringanumberofonlookersinthecrowd
butleavingNapoleonandhisentourageessentiallyunharmed.Injuredintheblasts,
Orsiniwasdetainedbeforehecouldmakegoodhisescapeandwasultimatelysentto
theguillotine.52
Intheend,Italy’spathtounificationwouldbedriveninlargepartbytheactionsof
regular and irregular forces, rather than clandestine groups, and the torch of
nationalist terrorismwould be taken up by Irish nationalists based in the United
StateswholaunchedaviolentassaultonthemajorcitiesoftheBritishmainlandin
the1880s.Thecampaignwaseightyearsinthemaking.Intheautumnof1875Patrick
Ford, the editor of the Brooklyn‐based newspaper Irish World, and his brother
Augustine,bothpassionatesupportersofIrishindependence,hadfirstdevelopedthe
idea of dispatching what they termed “skirmishers” from the United States to
undermineBritishruleinIreland.53PatrickexplainedhisplaninthepagesofIrish
World:“TheIrishcauserequiresskirmishers.Itrequiresalittlebandofheroeswho
willinitiateandkeepupwithoutintermissionaguerillawarfare–menwhowillfly
overthelandandsealikeinvisiblebeings–nowstrikingtheenemyinIreland,now
inIndia,nowinEnglanditself,asoccasionmaypresent.”54Theuseofskirmishershad
attractedsignificantattentionduringtheAmericanCivilWarasaresultofaseriesof
influential articleswritten by General JohnWatts de Peyster under the title New
AmericanTactics.Usingtheirnewspaperasaplatform,theFordsjoinedwiththeIrish
nationalist leader JeremiahO’DonovanRossa to establish a “Skirmishing Fund” to
raise money for their plan, and it was the revenue from this fund (renamed the
National Fund in 1878) thatwould be used to fund operations of the Irish secret
societyClanNaGael (FamilyofGaels)operations, aswell asadditional attacksby
“skirmishers” working directly for Rossa. Between 1881 and 1887 the so‐called
“DynamiteCampaign”sawhigh‐profiletargetsinLondonlikeTowerBridge,Scotland
Yard,thePalaceofWestminsterandthenewUndergroundrailsystemcomeunder
attack ‐ one bomb that detonated on the Metropolitan line injured seventy‐two
15
people,mostlythirdclasspassengers.55TherewerefurtherbombingsinManchester,
LiverpoolandGlasgow.
Irish nationalist terrorist groupswould come and go over the next 130 years. As
President of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, Adjutant‐General of the Irish
Volunteers and Director of Information of the shadow nationalist government
MichaelCollinsledanurbanguerrillacampaignthatplayedacrucialroleinsecuring
theindependenceofthesoutherntwenty‐sixcountiesofIrelandin1921.Thesuccess
ofCollinsandhistacticsinspirednationalliberationmovementsaroundtheworld.
As the leader of Jewish terrorist groupLEHI, future Israeli PrimeMinster Yitzhak
Shamiradopted‘Michael’ashisnomdeguerreinexplicithomagetoMichaelCollins.56
Further outbreaks of Irish nationalist violence – focused on securing a British
withdrawalfromtheremainingsixcountiesofNorthernIreland‐wouldoccurduring
theSecondWorldWar,thelate1950sandearly1960s,andforthreedecadesfrom
the1970stothe1990s,featuringsuchgroupsastheIrishRepublicanArmy(IRA),the
ProvisionalIRAandtheIrishNationalLiberationArmy.57Fringenationalistgroups
liketheReal IRAandtheContinuityArmyCouncilcontinuetoreject theNorthern
IrelandPeaceProcess to this day,with themost recent fatal attack at the timeof
writing,themurderofPrisonOfficerDavidBlack,occurringasrecentlyasNovember
2012.
Thenationaliststrainoftheterroristviruscanbetrackedspreadingacrosstheglobe
farbeyondIreland.Ashortlistofotherprominentnationalistterroristgroupswould
includetheIndianBarinGhoseandtheManiktalagroupfightingBritishruleinthe
first decades of the Twentieth Century, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary
Organization(IMRO)activeinthesameperiod,ZionistextremistgroupslikeIrgun
andLEHI fighting theBritishMandateor theirArab counterparts, theBlackHand
foundedbySheikhIzzal‐Dinal‐Qassam,theAlgerianFrontdeLibérationNationale
(FLN)activeagainstFrenchcolonialrulefrom1954to1962,theGreekCypriotgroup
EthnikiOrganosisKyprionAgoniston (EOKA– theNationalOrganizationofCypriot
Struggle)whofoughttheBritishfrom1955to1959,theLiberationTigersofTamil
16
Eelam(LTTE)activeinSriLankafrom1976to2009,andfinallythePalestiniangroup
Fatehfoundedinthelate1950sandstillactivetoday.58Itisimportanttonotethat
manyofthesegroups,ifnotdirectlyresponsibleforsecuringindependencefortheir
people,havebecomeanimportant,ifnotcrucial,partoftheirnations’independence
narratives–inspiringfurtheremulation.Thechainofnationalistterrorismstretches
unbrokenfromthe1880stothepresentday.
SocialistTerrorism–fromKarlHeinzentoETA
WhileKarlHeinzendidnothimself convertwords intodeeds,hehelped inspirea
generationof populists, socialists and anarchists thatwouldput his program into
action.His influencewas such that two days after Leon Czolgosz assassinatedUS
PresidentWilliamMcKinleyinSeptember1901,JohanMostreprintedKarlHeinzen’s
essayDerMord,writtenalmostfiftyyearsearlier,toprovidepoliticalcontexttothe
incident–agesturethatearnedhimaconvictionintheNewYorkcourtsforwillfully
and wrongfully endangering the public peace.59 Marx and Engels were also well
acquaintedwithHeinzen’swork–withEngelsinparticulargoingoutofhiswayto
disparageHeinzenintheBritishpress.60
It was another associate of Marx and Engels, the Russian anarchist philosopher
MikhailBakunin,whoworkingwitharadicalRussianstudentSergeiNechaev,helped
tolaythefoundationforoneofthefirstleftistterrorgroups,Nechaev’sNarodnaya
Rasprava (The People’s Retribution), briefly active in 1869. Narodnaya Rasprava
would partially inspire the creation of a far better organized clandestine populist
group, Narodnaya Volya in 1879. 61 It was Narodnaya Volya that succeeded in
assassinatingTsarAlexanderIIin1881.LeftistterrorismwouldcontinueinRussia
untilthetriumphoftheBolshevikRevolution,anditisworthrecallingthatLenin’s
elder brother, Aleksander, was executed in 1887 because of his association with
NarodnayaVolyaplottokillTsarAlexanderIII.Anarchistterrorismwouldbecomea
worldwidephenomenon.InSeptember1883aringofconspirators,ledbytheself‐
17
describedanarchist‐communistKameradReinsdorf,onlynarrowlyfailedtoblowup
KaiserWilhelmIandthe‘IronChancellor’OttovonBismarck.62AsRapoportnotes,
the1890swouldseetheassassinationoftheKingofItaly,thePrimeMinisterofSpain,
the President of France, and Empress Elizabeth of Austria. Anarchist groups
detonatedbombsacrossWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates,withmajorattacks
taking place as far afield as Paris (1892 and 1894), Barcelona (1893 and 1896),
London(1894),Milwaukee(1917),NewYork(1920)andMilan(1921).As lateas
1928,BhagatSinghoftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),who
washeavilyinfluencedbythethinkingofMikhailBakunin,63gunneddownAssistant
Superintendent JohnSaundersasareprisal for theviolentsuppressionofapublic
demonstrationinLahorebycolonialpolice.IndeliberateemulationoftheNineteenth
CenturyFrenchanarchistAugusteValliant,SinghfollowedtheattackonSaundersby
hurlingtwosmallbombsontotheflooroftheCentralLegislativeAssemblyinNew
Delhiwhilethechamberwasinsession.64
ToallintentsandpurposesRapoport’sthirdwaveof‘newleft’terrorismisreallyjust
theuninterruptedevolutionof the ‘old left’activityhegroups togetherashis first
wave.InRussia,theSocialRevolutionaryPartypickedupthethreadfromNarodnaya
Volyaaftertherepressionofstudentrebellionsattheturnofthecentury,andagain
aftertheabortedrevolutionof1905‐06,65andmanyofthepractitionersofterrorism
ontheleftlenttheirskillstothenewregime’s“redterror”afterthe1917revolution.66
The Communist International (or Comintern) became at the same time the
instrumentand thevictimof Stalin’s terroroutsideRussia.67The lessonsMaoTse
Tung derived from fighting both the invading Imperial Japanese Army and the
ChineseNationalistarmyofChiangKai‐shekinthelate1930sledtotheformulation
ofhisdoctrineofPeople’sWarthatwoulddeeplyinformtheactivitiesofgroupslike
theRedArmyFaction,ShiningPath,andtheRedBrigades,aswellasshapingthework
ofotherkeytheoristsofirregularwarfareandurbanguerrillacombatsuchasRégius
Debray, Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara and Carlos Marighella. The concept of armed
propagandadevelopedbytheTupamaroswasreallyjustarestatementoftheideaof
propagandaofthedeedfirstarticulatedbyBakunin,andpopularizedbyPaulBrousse,
18
inthe1870s.Theheydayofnew‐leftterrorismmayhavebeeninthe1970sand1980s
butsomeofthesamegroupsstillremainactiveandtheirexamplecontinuestoexert
influence to this day.Michael Ryan, author of DecodingAl Qaeda’s Strategy, even
wrylynotes:“AlQaeda’sstrategicwritingsmaybeginandendwithIslamicreferences
andprayersbuttheircoreargumentshavelesstodowithIslamthanwiththetexts
of communist insurgents and idealogues.” 68 People’s War theory also heavily
influencednationalistgroupsliketheProvisionalIRA,theArmenianSecretArmyfor
theLiberationofArmenia(ASALA),thePopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine,
and theBasque separatist groupEuskadiTaAskatasuna (ETA),whichall shareda
Marxistsensibility.69
ReligiousTerrorism–fromJohnBrowntoAlQaeda
InMay1856theAmericanabolitionistJohnBrown,amilitantopponentofslaveryin
thesouthernUnitedStatesrodeintothepro‐slaveryKansassettlementPottawatomie
withhissmallgroupoffollowersandpulledfivemembersoftheproslaveryLawand
OrderPartyfromtheirbedsandbrutallyexecutedthem.Motivatedbyhisprofound
Christianfaith,Brown’savowedintentwasto“makeanexample,andsostriketerror”
inthehopesofstampedingproslaveryciviliansintoleavingtheKansasterritory.70
WhenBrownledhisraidonthefederalarmoryinHarpersFerryinOctober1859he
hoped–likesomanyofthemenandwomenofviolencethatwouldcomeafterhim‐
hissmallbandwouldinspireotherstoriseupbytheirexampleandtakebacktheir
freedomusingtheweaponsfromthearmory.Brownandhismenseizedthearmory
and took thirty‐five local inhabitants hostage. The hoped‐for uprising did not
transpire and a federal force – ironically enough led by the future Confederate
Commander‐in‐ChiefRobertE.Lee–capturedBrown,killedtenofhismen,including
twoofhissons,andfreedtheirhostages.Brownwasswiftlyputontrial,whichhe
usedasplatformtoproclaimhisviews,andthenexecuted.Asbefittedamanwhohad
admonished his followers “to takemore care to end lifewell than to live long”,71
Brown went to scaffold quite cheerfully, embracing martyrdom. Max Boot has
19
describedBrown as “one of themore consequential terrorists in history” quoting
FrederickDouglass’epitaph:“IfJohnBrowndidnotendthewarthatendedslavery,
hedidatleastbeginthewarthatendedslavery.”72HenryDavidThoreausaidofhis
execution: “Someeighteenhundredyears ago,Christwas crucified;Thismorning,
perchance,CaptainBrownwashung....HeisnotOldBrownanylonger;heisanangel
oflight.”73
Thereligiousstrainlaydormantformorethanhalfacenturybeforeemergingonce
more,butintheinterimreligiousbeliefcertainlyimpactedotherstrains.Forexample,
WalterLaqueurtracesmanyoftheimportantideasaboutjustifiabletyrannicidein
anarchistandearlynationalistterrorismtoChristianthought,eventhoughterrorists
likeHeinzenemphasizedthedistinctionbetweenthetwodoctrines.74Religionwas
animportantfactorinIrishnationalism‐withtheEasterUprisingin1916Padraig
Pearseandhisconfederatesexplicitlysetouttoestablishwhathetermed“atheology
ofinsurrection”andthechoiceofEasterMondayfortherisingwasalsodeliberatein
this regard,with its connotationsof sacrificeand resurrection.75Theactionof the
British authorities only served to amplify this effect. As the Provisional IRA
intelligenceofficerEamonCollinswouldwritemorethaneightyyearslater:“Inmy
mind,Pearseand[James]Connollywerealllinkedtogether.Theyweremartyrsfor
ourCatholicfaith,thetruereligion:religionandpoliticsfusedtogetherbytheblood
of themartyrs. I was prepared to bemartyr, to die for this Catholic faith.”76The
AmericanMarxistterrorgrouptheWeatherUndergroundwouldalsolaternameone
ofitspublicationsOsawatomie,afteratowninKansasthatJohnBrownhadtriedto
defendagainstpro‐Slaveryraidersin1856.77
ThefirstmodernIslamistrevivalmovement,theSocietyoftheMuslimBrothersor
MuslimBrotherhood,would reactivate the strain andputting faith at the heart of
politics. Founded in Egypt in March 1928, the central virtues of the Muslim
Brotherhood’s philosophy were militancy (within the context of jihad) and
martyrdom. 78 The group’s semi‐autonomous military wing, known as the Secret
Apparatus (al‐jihaz), carried out terrorist attacks against Egyptian government
20
figures,Britishmilitary targets in theSuezCanalZone,andbusinessesconsidered
emblematicofunwelcomewesterninfluencesuchascinemasandnightclubs.79The
BrotherhoodevensentvolunteerstofightintheArab‐IsraeliWarof1948.Forthe
Society’s founder, a former school teacher calledHasanal‐Banna,martyrdomwas
apogeeofpoliticalstruggle:“Thesuprememartyrdomisonlyconferredonthosewho
slayorareslaininthewayofGod.Asdeathisinevitableandcanhappenonlyonce,
partakinginjihadisprofitableinthisworldandthenext.”80TheSocietyofMuslim
Brothers was forcibly disbanded by the Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud an‐
NukrashiPashainearlyDecember1948.Whenan‐Nukrashiwasassassinatedbya
student member of the Brotherhood just three weeks later, Hasan al‐Banna was
gunneddownonastreetinCairobytheEgyptianSecretPoliceinretaliation.81
Hasanal‐Banna’splacewastakenbyaformerschoolinspectorandpublicintellectual,
SayyidQutb,who joined theMuslimBrotherhood in1953.Qutb’smost successful
work,Milestones,mapsoutanuncompromisingprogramforadvancingtheIslamist
cause:“PreachingaloneisnotenoughtoestablishthedominionofAllahonearth…
ThosewhohaveusurpedtheauthorityofAllahandareoppressingAllah’screatures
arenotgoingtogiveuptheirpowermerelythroughpreaching.”82WhentheEgyptian
government became aware of Qutb’s role in helping to reestablish the Muslim
Brotherhoodonaclandestinebasis,hewasarrested,sentencedtodeathandexecuted
inAugust1966.HisbiographerJohnCalvertcomparesMilestonestoLenin’ssimilarly
influential What is to be Done? 83 Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who led the political
movementHizb‐iIslamiagainsttheSovietoccupationofAfghanistaninthelate1970s
and1980s,andShaykhSalamatHashim,formerleaderoftheMoroIslamicLiberation
Front(MILF)inthePhilippines,publiclycreditedQutbastheirinspiration.84Osama
bin Laden attended public lectures given by Qutb’s brother, Muhammad, at King
Abdul‐AzizUniversityinJeddah,andhissuccessorasleaderofAlQaeda,AymanAl
Zawahiri,wasraisedontalesofQutb’spietyandvisionbyhisuncleMahfouzAzzam,
Qutb’spersonallawyerandtheexecutorofhiswill.85
21
TheMuslimBrotherhoodwouldbecometheinspirationforanumberofmorerecent
Islamistterroristorganizations.AymanAlZawahiripublishedastudyoftheMuslim
Brotherhood in 1991 entitled The Bitter Harvest, which, though critical, also
illustrates the conceptual debt Al Qaeda owes the Brotherhood. 86 The Muslim
Brotherhood’suniquecombinationofmilitancyandsocialserviceprovisionhasalso
been widely copied, including by terrorist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas.
Service provision creates its own dynamic strengthening bonds between armed
groupsandtheirconstituents,butalsocreatesobligations.AstheDeputySecretary‐
GeneralofHezbollah,NaimQassem,explainedinhismemoirs:“Socialworkservesto
enrichsupporters’confidenceintheviabilityoftheParty’scausesandcourse,asit
cooperates, collaborates and joins forces to remain strong and tenacious in its
politicalandresistanceroles.”87
Rapoport dates the beginning of his fourth, religious, wave to the upheavals that
grippedtheMuslimworldin1979–apivotalyearcertainly,whichashenotessaw
theIslamicrevolutioninIran,theSovietinvasionofAfghanistanandthesiegeofthe
GrandMosqueinMeccabyradicalfollowersofMohammedAbdullahal‐Qahtani–but
itisclearthattheseedsoftheIslamicrevivalgobackmuch,muchfurther.Ofcourse
it should be stressed that religious terrorism is not an exclusively Islamic
phenomenon.RapoportnotestheviolenceoftheChristianIdentitymovementinthe
UnitedStatesinthe1990s,JewishterrorismagainsttheIsraeliseculargovernment,
and Sikh terrorism in the 1980s; to which one could also add the rising tide of
BuddhistviolencedirectedattheMuslimpopulationofBurmaandtheroletheJewish
faithplayedinthelegitimizingnarrativesofbothIrgunandLEHIinthe1930sand
1940s.88
SocialExclusionTerrorism–fromNathanForresttoAndersBehringBreivik
TheConfederateStatesofAmericahadbeenoneofthefirstgovernmentstograspthe
potentialthattheNineteenthCenturyrevolutioninmilitarycapabilitiesrepresented.
22
In 1863 Bernard Janin Sage published a pamphlet titled Organization of Private
Warfare promoting the use of irregular bands of “destructionists”, which he
conceived as operating under loose official direction on landmuch as privateers
operatedatsea,insuchawaythattheConfederacycould“dothemostharmwiththe
least expense to ourselves.” 89 The pamphlet influenced the creation of the
ConfederateBureauofSpecialandSecretService,whichwasbehindtheattackon
Grant’s headquarters. Confederate ‘bush‐whackers’ likeWilliamQuantrill engaged
UnionisttroopsalongtheMissouri‐Kansasborderinhighlymobileirregularwarfare
and latermorphed into criminal incarnations suchas the James‐YoungerGang (of
JesseJamesfame).ThereisevidenceofcollusionbetweenveteransofbothQuantrill’s
raidersandtheJames‐Youngergang,andoneofthemostactiveearlyKuKluxKlan
‘dens’inAlamanceCounty,NorthCarolina.Althoughhewasnotafoundingmember
of theKlan– thatdubioushonor fell tosixyoungConfederateveterans inPulaski,
Tennessee‐theConfederatecavalrygeneralNathanBedfordForrestwouldbethe
first leader of theKlan in itsmature political and activist form.90The racism that
underpinned the institutionof slavery, and thus inevitably theConfederate cause,
gaverisetotheKuKluxKlanaroundwhichoppositionandresistancetotheUnionist
reconstructionofthesouthcoalesced.Duringtheelevenyearsofreconstructionfrom
1865‐1876 the Klan killed an estimated 3,000 freed former slaves and brutally
intimidatedblackcommunitiesfromrealizinganysemblanceofequality.Thefailure
ofthefederalgovernmenttointervenetosecurethe1875electioninMississippiwith
predictable consequences for black voters led its Republican Governor, Adelbert
Ames,toproclaimindisgust:“Arevolutionhastakenplace(byforceofarms)anda
racearedisenfranchised–theyaretobereturnedtoaconditionofserfdom.”91The
Ku Klux Klan had snatched no small measure of victory from the jaws of defeat.
Although reconstruction was abandoned in 1876 the Klan’s racially motivated
violence would continue more than a century spawning beatings, lynchings,
bombings and assassinations. This violence attracted little attention outside the
southern United States until the 1960s, and as such it exerted little influence on
politicaldevelopmentsfurtherafield,buttheKlanmightneverthelessbereasonably
describedasthefirstmodernterroristorganization.
23
However,theKlanisfarfromtheonlyexclusionistterroristorganizationtoplyits
tradearoundtheworld.InRussiatheantisemiticundergroundmovementknownas
theBlackHundredsassassinatedtwoJewishmembersoftheRussianDumain1906
andlaunchedaseriesofpogromsagainstJewishcommunitiesintheUkraineinthe
yearsbeforetheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Inthe1920sGermanysawtheemergence
of the Nazi party’s Sturmabteilung (the SA, or Stormtoopers), a paramilitary
organization thatused terrorism insupport thepoliticalparty (which included its
owninternalbodyresponsibleforterrorintheshapeoftheShutzstaffel‐theSS)and
merits its inclusion in books on terrorism.92Walter Laqueur includes theGerman
Freikorps,andHungarianandRomanianfascistsamongrightwingterroristgroups
thatattackedpoliticalleaders:theIronGuardkilledtwoRomanianprimeministers
inthe1930s.93FrenchsettlerviolencewasanimportantfactorintheAlgerianwarof
independence.On10August1956aformerFrenchintelligenceofficerAndréAchiary,
supportedbymembersoftheUnionFrançaiseNord‐Africaine,plantedalargebomb
in Rue de Thèbes, Algiers, which killed 73 local Muslim residents and helped
precipitatetheBattleofAlgiers.ThedisaffectedFrenchmilitarypersonneloftheOAS
evenattemptedamilitarycoup,andtriedtoassassinatePresidentCharlesdeGaulle
onseveraloccasions.94AsMichaelBurleighnotes,theOASwasactuallyresponsible
for more deaths than the entire Northern Ireland conflict.95 The activities of the
ItalianRedBrigades in the1970sweremetbyastrongcounter‐reaction fromthe
ItalianextremerightandgroupslikeBlackOrder,RevolutionaryFascistNuclei,and
NewOrder:6peoplewerekilledwhenabombexplodedin1970ontheFrecciadel
SudexpresstrainconnectingMilanwithPalermo;8werekilledbyabombplantedin
aunionmeetingatthePiazzadellaLoggia inBresciaand12inatrainbombingin
Italicus near Bologna in 1974.96Neo‐fascist terrorism reached a climax in August
1980when84peoplewerekilledand200woundedinabombblastatBolognatrain
station. The right‐wing backlash in Italy was also echoed in Germany with the
bombing of the Munich Oktoberfest in September 1980 by the neo‐Nazi Gundolf
Köhler,inwhich13peoplewerekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.Theright‐
wingbacklashinItalywasalsoechoedinGermanywiththebombingoftheMunich
24
OktoberfestinSeptember1980bytheneo‐NaziGundolfKöhler,inwhich13people
werekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.97
In2011theSouthernPovertyLawCenterpublishedalistofmorethan100“plots,
conspiraciesandracistrampages”thathadoccurredintheUnitedStatessincethe
1995OklahomaCitybombing committedbywhite supremacistTimothyMcVeigh,
whichitselfclaimed168lives.98InDecember2008policeinvestigatingthemurderof
JamesG.CummingsinBelfast,Maine,discoveredthathehadbeenintheprocessof
assemblingahomemadedirtybomb.Cummings,awhitesupremacistandanardent
admirerofAdolfHitler,wasreportedly“veryupset”abouttheelectionofPresident
BarackObama.99AsimilarlydisturbingincidentoccurredinApril2003whenfederal
investigators stumbled across an arms cache assembled by 63‐year‐old white
supremacistWilliamKrar,whichincluded800gramsofsodiumcyanide–enoughto
kill 1000s of people. 100 As recently as June 2015 twenty‐one‐year‐old white
supremacistDylannRoofwalkedintoachurchinCharleston,SouthCarolina,andshot
deadnineAfrican‐Americanworshippers tellingoneof his victims: “You rapeour
womenandyou’retakingoverourcountry.Andyouhavetogo.”101
OthercontemporaryexamplesofthisstrainwouldincludetheBritishneo‐NaziDavid
Copeland,whodetonatedthreenailbombstargetingimmigrantandgaycommunities
inLondonovera thirteen‐dayperiod inApril1999, claiming3 livesandmaiming
dozensmore.ThereisalsoofcoursetheNorwegianracistAndersBehringBreivik,
whoon22July2011detonateda950Kilogramnitratefertilizerbombconcealedina
whiteVolkswagenvanparkedoutsidegovernmentbuildingsinOslo,killing8people
andinjuring9seriously.HethentraveledtoaLabourPartyyouthcampontheisland
ofUtøyawhereheshotdead69campersandwounded33.102Breiviklaterstatedthat
oneofthereasonshehadspecificallychosentheislandasatargetwasthattheformer
Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland had been scheduled to speak
there,butshehadalreadyleftUtøyabythetimehearrived.Heclaimedtobeacting
onbehalfofa fictitious“KnightsTemplar”organizationandpublishedamanifesto
settingouthisanti‐socialistandxenophobicbeliefsonlinebefore theattacks.This
25
was the worst violent incident in Norway since the Second World War and
commentatorsestimatedthat1in4Norwegiansknewsomeonepersonallyaffected
bytheattacks.Overtortacitracismisalsoanimportantaspectofdelegitimizingand
dehumanizingnarrativesinconflictsdrivenbyreligiousornationalistsentiments.
Conclusion–TheFourHorsemenRide
Rapoport’s Four Waves of Modern Terrorism is the field of terrorism studies’
equivalent of Francis Fukuyama’s essay on The End of History. It is thought‐
provokingandconceptuallyuseful.However,whileatfirstglanceitseemstofitthe
facts,therealityismessierandmoreprosaic.Therearenowavesofmodernterrorism
–therearesimplynumeroussituationsaroundtheworldwherethemeans,motive
andopportunitytoseekpoliticalchangethroughviolencehavegivenrisetoterrorist
actorsmotivatedbyoneormoreofthefourstrainsoutlinedabove.
Thetruthisthatwearelivinginanageofterrorism,andhavebeenforacenturyand
ahalf.Modernterrorismisaproductofthedramaticchangesinweaponstechnology
andmasscommunicationsintheNineteenthCenturyandthedevelopmentofradical
ideologies that inspired revolutionary groups to experiment with new forms of
politicalviolence.The fourstrainsofmodernterrorismallhave theirroots in this
confluenceofmeansandmotive.Technologicalandideationaldevelopmentsmade
modernterrorism,technologicalandideologicalchangedrovedevelopmentsinthe
fourstrainsduringtheTwentiethCentury,andtechnologicalandideologicalchange
islikelytoshapetheirfuturetrajectories.
Terroristgroupscomeinmanyshapesandsizes,andtheyevolveandmutate.Jessica
Sterncoinedthephrase‘theProteanenemy’–aftertheshape‐shiftingGreekseagod
featuredinHomer’sOdyssey‐todescribethechallengeposedbyterrorismbecause
oftheconstantlychangingnatureofthegroupsinvolvedandthechangingnatureof
threat itself.103Terrorism isnot, andwillneverbe, a conceptually clean label.As
26
Rapoporthasnoted,terroristsarecomplexactorsthatmaysimultaneouslyinhabit
multiple identities104‐ terrorist and drug trafficker, terrorist and freedom fighter,
terroristandrevolutionary,Marxistandnationalist–butattheircoreallthegroups
featured in this article all have one thing in common: they are prepared to
indiscriminatelyandviolentlytargetciviliansforpoliticalgain.
Thefourstrainsdifferfundamentallyinideology.Someoftheorganizationscitedin
thisarticleusedterrorismasoneofseveraltactics,butformany,terrorismbecame
theircentral,definingcharacteristic:astrategythatdefinedwhattheirgoalswereand
howtheseweretobeachieved.Thereisampleevidencethattheyhavelearnedfrom
eachother.Judgingbywhattheterroriststhemselvesclaim,contagion(orlearning)
seemstohavebeensomewhatstrongerwithineachstrainthanacrossstrains.Butit
mustalsobeacknowledgedthatinmanycasesideasjumpedacrossbothgenerations
andideologies.
All four strains have proven resilient, despite the ideological and technological
revolutionsof theTwentiethandTwenty‐FirstCenturies.Today, insomerespects,
thesocialandpoliticalspaceinwhichtooperateasaterroristactorisshrinking.For
example, emerging technologies like facial recognition, social media, robotics,
predictivealgorithms,artificialintelligence,andgeneticmarkingwillmakeitharder
andharderforindividualsorsmallgroupstooperateoffthegrid.Inotherrespects,
withtheriseoffailedstatesandthe“feralcities”thatcounterinsurgencyexpertDavid
Kilcullen warns of in Out of the Mountains, their space to operate might be
increasing. 105 The question about the future threat of terrorism is not so much
whetherandwhenanewwavemightemerge,ashowchanginggeopolitics,ideology
andtechnologymightaffecteachofthefourstrainsandwhethertheymightmutate
intonewformsofpoliticalviolence.
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1Thearticleappearedinthreeversions:DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourthWave:September11andtheHistoryofTerrorism,”CurrentHistory,100,no.650(2001)419‐424;“TheFourWavesofRebelTerrorandSeptember11”,Anthropoetics8,no.1(2002);“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,inAudreyKurthCroninandJamesLudes(eds.),AttackingTerrorism:ElementsofaGrandStrategy(WashingtonDC:GeorgetownUniversityPress;2004).46‐73.2Seee.g.DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,inJohnHorganandKurtBraddock(eds),TerrorismStudies:AReader(London:Routledge:2012).3SamuelP.Huntington,TheThirdWave:DemocratizationintheLateTwentiethCentury,(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress:1991);“Democracy’sThirdWave”JournalofDemocracy,2,no.2(1991),12‐34.4SeealsoRapoport’searlierworkalongsimilarlines:DavidC.Rapoport,“Introduction”,JournalofStrategicStudies,10,no.4(1987),1‐10;and“SacredTerror:AContemporaryExamplefromIslam”,inWalterReich(ed.),OriginsofTerrorism:Psychologies,Ideologies,Theologies,StateofMind(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990).5Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.6LindsayClutterbuckwasoneofthefirsttorefutethisargumentbyoutliningthecriticalroleplayedbyIrishnationalistgroupslikeClanNaGaelandTheSkirmishersinthedevelopmentofterroristpracticeinthenineteenthcentury.SeeLindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism:RussianRevolutionariesorExtremeIrishRepublicans?”,JournalofTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,16:1(2004),154‐181.7Rapoport,““TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.8Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.9Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),48.10DianeStone,“TransferandTranslationofPolicy”,PolicyStudies,33,no.6(November2012),483‐499.11BarbaraLevittandJames.G.March,“OrganizationalLearning”,AnnualReviewofSociology,14(1988),319‐340;James.G.March,“ExplorationandExploitationinOrganizationalLearning,OrganizationScience,2,no.1(1991),SpecialIssue:OrganizationalLearning:PapersinHonorof(andby)JamesG.March,71‐87.12SeeRobertWinthrop,DictionaryofConceptsinCulturalAnthropology(NewYork:Greenwood,1991)andEverettRogers,DiffusionofInnovations(NewYork:FreePress,2003).13MauriceDuverger,PoliticalParties:TheirOrganizationandActivityintheModernState(London:Methuen,1954).14RichardS.KatzandPeterMair(eds):HowPartiesOrganize:ChangeandAdaptationinPartyOrganizationsinWesternDemocracies,(London:Sage,1995).15SeePeterWaldmann,“Social‐revolutionaryterrorisminLatinAmericaandEurope”,inToreBjørgo(ed.),RootCausesofTerrorism:Myth,realityandwaysforward(London:Routledge,2005).SeealsoManusMidlarsky,MarthaCrenshawandFumihikoYoshida,“WhyViolenceSpreads:TheContagionofInternationalTerrorism”,InternationalStudiesQuarterly,24,no.2(June1980),262‐298.16NikolaiMorozov,TheTerroristStruggle(1880),republishedinWalterLaqueur(ed.),VoicesofTerror:Manifestos,WritingsandManualsofAlQaeda,Hamas,andotherTerroristsfromaroundtheworldandThroughouttheAges(NapervilleIll.:ReedPress,2004),8117MarieFleming,“Propagandabythedeed:Terrorismandanarchisttheoryinlatenineteenth‐centuryEurope”,StudiesinConflict&Terrorism,4,no.1‐4(1980),1‐2318DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),5219Huntington,“Democracy’sThirdWave”(seenote3above),13.20NickSitterandTomParker,“FightingFirewithWater:NGOandCounter‐TerrorismPolicyTools”,GlobalPolicy,5,no.2(2014)159‐168.21PaulJ.DiMaggio&WalterW.Powell,"Theironcagerevisited"institutionalisomorphismandcollectiverationalityinorganizationalfields",AmericanSociologicalReview,48(1983),147‐60.
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22PeterHart,TheI.R.A.atWar1916‐1923(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);LindsayClutterbuck“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above);CharlesTownshend,“TheIrishRepublicanArmyandtheDevelopmentofGuerillaWarfare,1916‐1921”,TheEnglishHistoricalReview,94,no.371(1979),318‐345;CharlesTownshend,TheRepublic:TheFightforIrishIndependence,(AllenLane,2013).23TimPatCoogan,MichaelCollins:ABiography,(London:ArrowBooks,1991)13.24T.RyleDwyer,TheSquadandtheIntelligenceOperationsofMichaelCollins(Dublin:Mercier,2005),6525K.R.M.Short,TheDynamiteWar:Irish‐AmericanBombersinVictorianBritain(Dublin:GillandMacmillan,1979),4726ScottMiller,ThePresidentandtheAssassin:McKinley,Terror,andEmpireattheDawnoftheAmericanCentury(NewYork:RandomHouse,2011),6.27BernardineDohrn,DeclarationofaStateofWar,TheBerkeleyTribe,31July1970athttp://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/pacificaviet/scheertranscript.html(accessed26July2015)28OttoBillig,“TheLawyerTerroristandHisComrades”,PoliticalPsychology,6,no.1(March1985),32.29GeorgeKassimeris,InsideGreekTerrorism(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress;2013),3330PaulAvrich,AnarchistPortraits(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress;1988),1331PeterHeehs,“TerrorisminIndiaduringtheFreedomStruggle”,TheHistorian,55,no.3(Spring1993),469–482,47432ChristopherCradockandM.L.R.Smith,“NoFixedValues:AReinterpretationoftheInfluenceoftheTheoryofGuerreRévolutionnaireandtheBattleofAlgiers1956‐1957”,JournalofColdWarStudies,9,no.4(Fall2007),68‐105,80‐8133AbuIyad,PalestiniensansPatrie:EntretiensavecÉricRouleau,(Paris:Fayolle1978),64.34JarretBrachmanandWilliamMcCants,“StealingAlQaeda'sPlaybook”,StudiesinConflictandTerrorism,29,no.4(June2006),309‐321.35JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress;2010),122.36TonyWalkerandAndewGowers:Arafat:TheBiography(London:VirginBooks,2003),33‐34.37MarthaCrenshaw,“TheEffectivenessofTerrorismintheAlgerianWar”,inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.)TerrorisminContext(UniversityPark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1995),47438AmiPedahzur,TheIsraeliSecretServicesandtheStruggleAgainstTerrorism(NewYork,NY:ColumbiaStudiesinTerrorismandIrregularWarfare,2009),3839MiaBloom,DyingtoKill:TheAllureofSuicideTerror(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005),122.40Ibid,123.41JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom:AHistoryofSuicideBombing(Annapolis,MD:NavalInstitutePress,2012),158.42LindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above).43JohnGrady,TheConfederateTorpedo,Opinionator,TheNewYorkTimes,15August201444Thefirstcableonlyfunctionedforthreeweeksandwasnotsuccessfullyreplaceduntil186645AndrewMarr,MyTrade:AShortHistoryofBritishJournalism(London:PanBooks,2005),1546PhilipMeggs,AHistoryofGraphicDesign(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1998),147.47KarlHeinzen,MurderandFreedom(NewYork:1853)reproducedinDanielBessnerandMichaelStauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,22,no.2(2010),143–176.48PaulBrousse,"Lapropagandeparlefait",BulletindelaFédérationJurassienne,August1877.49Frenchtranslationofthetrialtranscript,AlbertMousset,UnDrameHistorique:L’AttentatdeSarajevo:documentsinéditsettexteintégraledessténogrammesduprocés(Paris:Payoy,1930),115.50 Nunzio Pernicone, “Luigi Galleani and Italian Anarchist Terrorism in the United States”, StudiEmigrazione,30,no.111(September1993),469‐489,47051MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNatureofPoliticalAssassinations:AReinterpretationoftheOrsiniAttentat”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,21,no.4(2009),580‐594,585.52DavidGeorge,“DistinguishingClassicalTyrannicidefromModernTerrorism”,The
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ReviewofPolitics50,no.3(Summer1988),391–396;MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNatureofPoliticalAssassinations”.53NiallWhelehan,TheDynamiters:IrishNationalismandPoliticalViolenceintheWiderWorld1867‐1900(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),77;Clutterbuck“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above),162‐163.54Short,TheDynamiteWar(seenote25above),38.55Ibid,162and229.56YitzhakShamir,SummingUp:AnAutobiography(London:Widenfeld&Nicholson,1994),8..57RichardEnglish,IrishFreedom:TheHistoryofNationalisminIreland(London:Macmillan2006).58BruceHoffmann,AnonymousSoldiers:TheStruggleforIsrael1917–1947(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2015);DavidFrench,FightingEOKA:TheBritishCounter‐InsurgencyCampaignonCyprus,1955‐1959(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2015);YezidSayigh,ArmedStruggleandtheSearchforState:ThePalestinianNationalMovement,1949‐1993(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).59DanielBessnerandMichaelStauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,15260Ibid,150‐151.61DeborahHardy,LandandFreedom:TheOriginsofRussianTerrorsim,1976‐1979,(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1987),chapter5.62RichardBachJensen,TheBattleAgainstAnarchistTerrorism:AnInternationalHistory,1878‐1934,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2014),26.63FromMaytoSeptember1928BhagatSinghpublishedaseriesofarticleshehadwrittenonanarchistthoughtinKirti,thejournaloftheKirtiKisanParty64KuldipNayar,TheMartyr:BhagatSinghExperimentsinRevolution(NewDelhi:Har‐AnandPublications,2000),70‐73.65PhilipPomper,“RussianRevolutionaryTerrorism”inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.),TerrorisminContext,(Universitypark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,1995),89‐99.66AnnaGeifman,RevolutionaryTerrorisminRussia,1894‐1917(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1993),chapter8andtheepilogue.67KevinMcDermott,“StalinistTerrorintheComintern:NewPerspectives”,JournalofContemporaryHistory,30,no.1(1995),111‐130;WilliamJ.Chase,EnemieswithintheGates?TheCominternandtheStalinistRepression,1934–1939(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2001).68MichaelRyan,DecodingAlQaeda’sStrategy:TheDeepBattleAgainstAmerica(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2013),4‐5.69ETA’srevolutionarysocialiststrandcametodominatetheorganization,butitsfounderslookedtobothMarxist(CubaandVietnam)andnationalist(Ireland,Cyprus,thePalestinianMandate)examplesforinspiration.TeresaWhitfield,EndgameforETA:ElusivePeaceintheBasqueCountry(London:Hurst&Co,2014),40‐42.70ReportedbyGeorge.A.Crawford,inalettertoEliThayer,4.August1879,publishedasanappendixinG.W.Brown,ReminiscencesofOldJohnBrown:ThrillingIncidentsofBorderLifeinKansas(Rockford,IL:AbrahamE.Smith,1880).71MaxBoot,InvisibleArmies:AnEpicHistoryofGuerrillaWarfarefromAncientTimestothePresent(NewYorkLiveright,2013),21472Ibid,21773KenChowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”,AmericanHeritage,51,no.1(February/March2000),68‐79.74WalterLaqueur,Terrorism(London:WidenfeldandNicholson,1977),33‐38.75JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom,12576MiaBloomandJohnHorgan,“MissingTheirMark:TheIRA’sProxyBombCampaign”,inMichaelA.InnesandWilliamBanks(eds.),MakingSenseofProxyWars:States,Surrogates&theUseofForce(Dulles,VA:PotomacBooks,2012),3977Chowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”(seenote73above).78RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1969),206‐207.
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79Ibid,58‐6280Hasanal‐Banna,FiveTractsofHasanal‐Banna(1906‐1949):ASelectionfromtheMajmu'atRasa'ilal‐Imamal‐Shahid,(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliformiaPress,1978).81RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers,67and70‐7182SayyidQutb,Milestones(Daral‐lim;2007),47‐48;JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress;2010),22583JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote82above),225.84Ibid,3and265.85N.C.AsthanaandAnjaliNirmal,UrbanTerrorism:MythsAndRealities(Jaipur:PointerPublishers,2009),11786Calvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote83above),223.87NaimQassem,Hizbullah:TheStoryfromWithin(London:Saqi,2007),165.88Rapoport,“SacredTerror”(seenote4above),103‐104;AmiPedahzurandAriePerliger,JewishTerrorisminIsrael(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009).89WilliamA.Tidwell,April’65:ConfederateCovertActionintheAmericanCivilWar(Kent,Ohio:KentStateUniversityPress;1995),206‐212.90SeeAllenTrelease,WhiteTerror:TheKuKluxKlanConspiracyandSouthernReconstruction(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1971),3‐27.91DavidC.Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs:Americanexperienceswithterror”,inJeanRosenfeld(ed.),Terrorism,IdentityandLegitimacy:TheFourWavestheoryandpoliticalviolence(London:Routledge,2011),151.92JamesM.LutzandBrendaJ.Lutz,GlobalTerrorism(London:Routledge,2004),171‐174.93LaqueurTerrorism(seenote74above),95‐96.94MartinEvans,Algeria:France’sUndeclaredWar(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),2012,chapter9.95MichaelBurleigh,SmallWars,FarawayPlaces:TheGenesisoftheModernWorld:1945‐65(London:Macmillan,2013),329.96DonatellaDellaPorta,InstitutionalResponsestoTerrorism:TheItalianCase,inAlexP.SchmidandRonaldD.Crelinsten(eds)WesternResponsestoTerrorism(London:FrankCass,1993).SeealsoAnnaCentoBull,ItalianNeofascism:TheStrategyofTensionandthePoliticsofNonreconciliation(Oxford:BerghahnBooks,2011).97ClaireSterling,TheTerrorNetwork:TheSecretWarofInternationalTerrorism(NewYork,NY:Holt,RinehartandWinston;1981),198HeidiBeirichetal,TerrorFromtheRight(Montgomery,AL:SouthernPovertyLawCenter,2012)99WalterGriffin,“‘Dirtybomb’partsfoundinslainman’shome”,BangorDailyNews,10February2009,http://bangordailynews.com/2009/02/10/politics/report‐dirty‐bomb‐parts‐found‐in‐slain‐mans‐home/accessed26July2015100GeorgeMichael,LoneWolfTerrorandtheRiseofLeaderlessResistance(Nashville,TN:VanderbiltUniversityPress,2012),39‐41,111.101DougStanglinandMelanieEversley,SuspectinCharlestonchurchrampagereturnstoSouthCarolina,USAToday,19June2015.102NOU2012:14,Rapportfra22.juli‐kommisjonen(Oslo:Departementenesservicesenter,2012).103JessicaStern,“TheProteanEnemy”,ForeignAffairs,82,no.4(July/August2003),27‐40.104Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs”(seenote91above).105DavidKilcullen,OutoftheMountains:TheComingAgeoftheUrbanGuerrilla(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013).