ISSN: 1130-0531Didáctica (&oguo Literatura)

~0O0 ¡2: 21-41

AnApproaChto tite Integrationof

SkilIs in EnglishTeaching

Miguel Ángel ALMARZA SÁNCHEZ

UniversidadComplutensede Madrid

Resumen

Con frecuencia,las destrezasde comprensióny expresiónenla clasede lenguaextranjerase han venido practicandocomo compartimentosestanco.Estosenfo-queshanproducidouna separaciónentrela realidaddel aulay la quenosencontra-mosen la vidareal, produciendounaartificialidadnadapropiadela prácticacomu-nicativa. Este artículo pretendehacerhincapiéen las prácticasintegradasde lascuatrodestrezas,paraconvertir las clasesen un escenariomásauténticodesdeelpuntode vistade la enseñanzay el aprendizaje,y más significativo y motivadorparaprofesoresy alumnos.Se tratadeofrecerunabaseparala prácticacontextua-lizadade los contenidoslingílísticos.

PALABRASCIAVE: Integración,destrezas,comprensión,producción.

Abstraet

Receptiveand productiveskills havefrequently been practisedin isolationwithin teaching syllabuses. Such approaeheshave in man>’ ways made anarticificial distinetionbetweenin-classroomand out-of-classroomrealities,whichis not inherent to communicativepraetice. This article will focus on how theintegrationof alí four skills cancontributetowardsa morereal-lifeenvironmentforboth teachersand leamers,as well as more meaningfulandmotivating.Thebasicidea is to offer a commongroundfor linguistie contentto be fully contextualised.

KEY WORDS: Integrauion,skills, receptive,productive.

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MiguelÁngelAlrnarzo Soinchez An Approach te tIte lnlegration oitSkilIs in Englisli Teaclñng

Résumé

Fréquemrnentles habiletésde compréhensionet expressionont étéconsidéréesdanslaclassedelangueétrangéreeommedeseompartimentsétanches.Cespratiquesde classeont produit une séparationentre la réalité de la classeet celle que noustrouvonsdansla vie réelle,produisant,danslepremiercas,uneséparationartificielleinexistantedansla communicationauthentique.Le proposde cetarticleest d’insistersur l’intégrationdesquatrecompétencespourfaire de laclassede langueun endroitplus authentiquedu point de vue dc 1’ enseignement¡ apprentissageet plus

significatif et motivantpourprofesseursetéléveset deprésenterunedémarchepourla pratiquecontextualiséedesélémentsdu systémede la langue.

MOTSCLÉS:Intégrarion, compétences,compréhension,production.

1. Introduetion

Whenweareteachinga secondlanguagewe aretrying to developin thelearnernot just grammatical competencein the Chomskyansense,but communicativecompetence.Thc leamermust, it is true, dcvelop the ability to produce andunderstandgrammaticalutterances,he must be able to distinguishgrammaticalfrom ungrammaticalsequences,but he must also know when to selectthe onewhich is appropriateto the eontext,both linguistic and situational.Therefore,thelanguagedatato which the learneris exposedshouldbepresented«in eontext».

If ELT does not only involve the teachingof the English sound system.grammaticalstructuresor vocabulary,butthepracticeof thecontextsin which theyoccur —that is, understandingand producing language-,teacherswill haveafundamentaltask in providing the studentswith texts, oral passagesandsituationsfor the studentsto communicatebothin the written andthe spokenform. Thesearethe so-calledfour skills of reading,writing, listeningandspeaking.

The work presentedhere intends to show an integrativeapproachto theteaehingandpractice of the languageskills. bearingin mmd that the languageclasswill becomemorepurposefulandmcaningfulfor thelearnerat alí levels ifwe do so. Thc methodologicalprincipies behind this approachare equallyapplicable lo general English. English for specitic purposes,or the PrimaryEnglishclassroom.

Ewen Arnold (1993) points out that many tasks in task-basedcoursesarepurposelessbecausenothing is donewith the students’outputandit doesnot leadanywhere.The ideais to maketheclassroomcontextsandsituationscomecloser

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Migué-lÁngelAhnarza Sánchez An Approoch tú thé- Integrotion of SIdlls in English Teaching

to the real-life ones,no matterhow artificial or simulatedwe ma>’ think that theteachingand learningenvironmentis. It is a matterof linking tasks;by way ofexample,whenwe dealwith an answerphonemessage(listening),we often have

to usethis informationin the spokenor written form (by ealling someonebackorwriting a note).

Our primar>’ eoncernas teachersis to activate strategiesfor learning in the

students.as well asprovidingstudent-centredmaterialswhich focuson theprocessof communication.Let us seein which way the integrationof skills contributetothc task of facilitating secondlanguagelearning.

2. Why shouldwe integrateskills?

lf we ask, «What is the ultimate aim of languageteachingt>most teacherswould probabí>’ agreethatoneansweris that studentsshouldbe ableto understandaud producethe languagethat they need—in other words, we want them todeveloptheir autonomyin languageuse,that is, a kind of freedomin their choiceof languageandmanner.By integratingskills we areprovidinga certaininput thatbecomesa basisfor further output, which in turn will be new input, andso on. Inthis way the students’ contribut¡onsturn out to be pafl of the processin whichlanguageis generated.

Rather than focusing on ways of controlling the languageand ideas that

studentsproduce, we should always be looking for ways to free things up.Similarly, we should move the studentsfrom the role as consumenin theclassroomtowardsihe roleasproducers.By doingthis,we are alsolikely to moveaway from «languagespecific» work and insteadinvolve the studentsin broadereducational processes.Some teachers will actually say that they are onlyresponsible for teaching the language, and not for the general educationaldevelopmentof the students.l-lowever.as notedby Andrew Littlcjohn (1998: lO):

Whctherwc are aware of it or not, studentswill always lcarn more u theirlanguageclassesthao jusí language.Thcy will also lcarntheir role u Ihe classroomaudtío a greateror lesserextentípick up valuesaud attitudesfromIhe texts theyuse.Thcv wil also learn a lot ahouttheniselvesas learners.and aboutwhat languagelearninginvolves.

In ni>’ view. whenwe integrateskills we are thinking beyondlanguagealoneand refiecíon how our teachingdoes.or doesnot, enrichthe lives of the students;and. most importantly, we areusingthe targetlanguageandcultureto do so.

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MiguelÁngelAlroarzaSánchez Att Approach tú tIte Integrationof SkiIIs ht English Teachiu’g

LittlewoodaLo mentionsanutnberof principiesthat~find usefulasastartingpoint to plan a seriesof lessonsor coursebookunits if we are to analysetheteachingof skills from a holistie pointof view:

• Making teachingeoherentmeansto ensurethat taskslink togetherarounda commontopie which lastsa whole lessonor extendsovera seriesof lessons.Inthis way the contentwill sta>’ with the leamerlonger—andwith it, the language.Otherwise,a randomchoiceof topic to exemplify a languageform makesit moredifficult to learnthe language.asthereis nothingcoherentto makeit memorable.

• Another way to enrich our teachingof skills and make languagelearningmorecifective is to useeontentwortb learningabout. We shouldexposethestudentsto bits of language(throughReadingor Listening)thatare significant forthestudentsto producetheir own language(in Writing or Speaking)

• Using the students’ intelligence:If we want to make languageleamingmorechallengingandmotivating,we shouldusewhat Chih-HuaKuo (1993)calísprocess-orientedmaterials. The type of activities involved in the use of thcsematerials are unprcdictablein nature and the learnermust interpretand makeinferencesand decisions,since they are cognitivel>’ demanding.They facilitateinteractionand the developmentof both linguistie knowledgeandcommunicationskills. Theintegrationof skills comesmorenaturalí>’ if weacceptthat thestudents’planning,reviewing andevaluatingof their work is more motivating than a merepatternpractice,matchingor repetition.

• Fosteringautonomy:Oní>’ when the studentsare able to understandorexpressthe languagethat they needor want,can we think that thereis a senseofaehievement,which is essentialin the Iearningprocess.

A group of EOI teachersin Barcelonahaverecently publishedsome work

(1998) on the analysisand exploitationof authenticaudiovisualmaterials.Thcireonclusionspoint to the neccssityto makethe studentsawarethat if thereis a taskto carry out, Iheir outcome should be relevant for them to apply in other in-classroomsituations,as well as outsidetheclassroom.

Obviously the objective for English language leamers must be bettercommunication; better communication with their peers, with sources ofinformation and other leaming resources,suehas literature, songsor Internetmaterials.It is here, in a dynamiclearningenvironmentwherethe integrationofskills, eitherwithin a lessonor within a block of lessons,makcs it easierfor the

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Migad ÁngelA/marzaSánchez An Approachtú tIte Integration of Skills in English Teaching

studentsto work towardsa projector final product,i.e. a certainlanguagetask forwhich the learnersare askedto producesomethingin English—eithera letter, aposter to displa>’ in the classroom. a leaflet, an advertisement,a surve>’, aninterview or a discussionpanel. The important thing is that they are using thelanguagethey neednaturallyand that different skills are involved in thc process.

In sum,apartfrom the aboyementioned,skill-integrationmateslearningmoremeaningfulandpurposeful,becausethestudentscanseethat whattheyarelearningor practisingleadsto someothertask. It also introducesvariety in the elassroomdynamicsand facilitatesunderstandingof languageareasandvocabular>’fields tobe dealt with in an oral or written passageat later stages;for thesereasons,weshouldalso providepre andpostsessionactivities to contextualiseandextendthecontentof receptiveskills.

3. Communicationskills andeommunieationactivities

Languageskills cannot be learnt in isolation. Wbile the classificationof thefi-mr skills has sornevalue it we look at languageactivity from the outside,thedefinition of languageimplied by this division ignores the function of languagealtogether thefour categoriesdescribethingswhichhappen.but oní>’ asexternal,unmotivatedactivities. Thus, we require a different speeificationof objectives ifwewantto enablelearnersto developtheircapacitiesin thewaythcy aredescribedby the language acquisition theory. There are interconnectionsbetween theactivities describedby the tra(litional four skills, and thesewill be dealt with ingreaterdetail below.

It seemsto be reasonableto supposethat many of the difficulties that learnershavehad in the pastderive directly from theteaehingthat hasbeenimposeduponthem. This has tendedto representlanguageas a set of formal elementsto bemanifested and apprehendedby means of linguistie skills outside a realcommunicativecontextandwithout a realcoifimunicativepurpose.Sucha modelof languageis remotefrom the learner’sown experieneeand it is no wonderthattheyhavedifficulties in acquiringit.

The suggestionhereis to link the students’communicativeabilities in theirown languageto a realization of theseabilities in the languagethey are leaming.Wc needto associatethe Iinguistic skills in the mothertonguewith the onesin theforeign language.

Traditionalí>’, it has been takenas read that once the linguistie skills areacquired. the communicativeabilities will follow as a more or less automaticconsequence.Widdowson(1978: 67) expresseda verydiffercntview on thematter:

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MiguelÁngelAltnarzaSánchez AnApprúachtú tIte Inté-gratianúf Skillsin EnglishTé-aching

The acquisitionof linguistie skills doesnot seetntú guaranteethe consequentacquisitionof communicaíiveabiliriesin a language.On thecontrary, it would seemtú be the casethat an overemphasison drilís and exercisesfor Ihe productionand

reception of sentencestends tú inhibil the development of communicativeabilities. (...) Theabilities include theskills: une cannotacquirethe formerwithoutacquiring Ihe lattet The question is: how can rhe skills be taught, not as a self-sufficient achievementbuí asanaspectof communicativecompetence?

Ihere seemto be four major activities in languagework, that is, acts weperform throughlanguage:

1) conversationor diseusston

2) comprehension(eithcrof speechor writing)

3) extendedwriting

4) extendedspeaking.

Brumfit (1984: 70) eonsidersthat the fourth activity shouldbe treatedas anindependentproblem, since it occurs only at advaucedlevels and it is not anaetivity that alí nativespeakersactualí>’ useor require.

The argumentfor reclassifyingthe «four skills» in this way is, first, that thenewelassification integrates eaeh aetivity with eommunication, whereas thelistening/speakingdistinction particularly separatesactivities wbich are often inpracticesimultaneousandinterdependent.Also. it focusesattentionon meaningratherthanon theanalysableformalelements.Brumftt goesbeyondthetraditionalapproaeh:

The traditionalemphasison thefour skills has frequentlyreduced«writinga tú a

concernwith handwriting andtransferor spokcntú written form with little attentiontú discoursestructure,andlisteningtú a concemwith minimal pairsorcomprehension

of isolated sentences.This alíernativeproposalalsocorrespondstú common-senseassessmentsof what Wc do with language,in thaI eachof thefour activities listed isobservablydifferent from theothers,andrequiresresponseto differentconventions’

The sameauthorjustifies the inclusionof the comprehensionof speechanéwriting together, due to the increasingevideneethat the distinction betweenspokenandwritten forms is not asimportantas thechoiceof contentor genreinthe organisationof continuoustext. Ihe processof planninga speechdoes notdiffer greatly from that of drafting an extendedwritten text. Thc planningofextendedspeaking may be treated as a developmentfrom the planning ofextendedwriting.

¡ Brumfit, C. (1984): Cú,nrnunicativetnethodolúgvin tanguageleaching.Cambridge,CUP,pág.70.

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MiguelÁngelA/marzaSánchez Mt Apprúachtú tIte I~iregratiúnúf 5/6/ls in Englis!’ Teaching

Michael Branenbraun(1997)alsoprefersto refertoactivitiesratherthanskills,regardingthem as more pragmaticandrealistie, since languageusershardí>’ everuse language skills isolatedí>’. Therefore, we are engagedin comprehension(whieh includesListening and Reading),composition(presentboth in SpcakingandWriting) andconversation(ListeningandSpeakingcombined).

He finds the splitting of skills idie and counterproductiveand pointsout thattestingmustremainloyal to learning,ratherthanteaching.Testswill thenbe betterandmoreinformativeof thestudents’level if theyhavea directbearingon whatthestudentsdo with the language.

Potential future trends in testing teehniquessuggest,therefore,that integratingskills will bring ustoanexamformatinwhich thereis nomorethananinput, anoutputandacombinedexerciseto evaluatea candidate’slanguageproficiency. However,theareaof testingisnot thecoreof thesereflectionshereandnow, althoughit seemstobeinevitabletomentionit, whenit comesto analysingtheintereonnectionsof skills andhow theyare shownby languageleamers¡ examcandidates.

4. SkiIl gettingand skill nsing; their iniplications for testing

Knowledgeofa languageimplies possessingthe meansto put a numberofdifferent skills into praetice.Eachskill dependson the facility to manipulateamultiplicity of smallelementswhicharecloselyinterrelatedin actuallanguageuse.On theotherhand,controlofa languagemeansbeingableto useit in an integrated,global fashionfor understandingandcommunicating(in eithertheaural-oralor thegraphicmode) in a native-like way —an imitation of it—, respectingthe sanesocial conventionsand cultural values. Such two conceptsequal the so-calledlinguistic andcommunicativecompetence.

If we aceeptthat the aequisitionof a seeondlanguageis a highly complexprocess,we will assumethat it involvesbothskill gettingandskill using.Studentsneedthe knowledgeof man>’ small details anéa certainfaeility in activatingthisknowledge to perform in the languagewith a certain fluency and coherenceindiseourse,if they wishto keeptheir interlocutor’sattention.

Languageteacherscan hardí>’ escapethe routine of evaluatingthe learnersperformaneemoreor less formalí>’ andon a regularbasis.Integratedtestsrequirethe exereiseof several skills in interactionto analysethe total eommunicativeeffect, ratherthan specific discrete-pointsamplesof a panicularcourseof training.That’s why they are sometimesreferredto as overalí languageproficiency tests.Discrete-pointteststestskill getting, while integrativeteststestskill using. Bothkinds of testshavetheir placeandservespecifiepurposesat variouslevels.

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Having madethatpoint, highlightingthe reflection that L2 leaminghasin the

designof tests, it is timeto movea stepforward in orderto unveil somecommonaspectsthat seemto affectthe Iearningprocessitself.

5. Order of learning

Thedivergentattitudestowardsvariousaspeetsof languagelearninghave ledto a verydifferentorderof priorities in theteaehingof thefour skills. Theformalisttendsto placehighvalueon skill in readingandaceuratewriting. Communieativeapproacheslay emphasison the spokenlanguageand considerpraetice in oralcommunicationto be a neeessaryaccompanimentto fluent readingand originalwriting.

Whetherforeign-languageskills shouldbe leamtin theorder in whiehehildren

learn their native languagehas been a matter of controversybetween appliedlinguists. The situation of both types of learnersis dissimilar in man>’ ways:whereaschildrenare forming coneeptsand acquiring languageat the sanietime.surroundedby thespeechof their Thmily group,foreign languagestudentsalreadypossessan effectivemeansof eommunication;to leam another, they must limitthemselvesandembarrassthemselvesby their obviousincapacityto expresstheirreal meaning.Forman>’ of the latter, alí this language-leamingbusinessis merel>’a classroomactivity.

Sincemothertongueacquisitiondiffers markedlyfrom second-languagestudy,the orderof leaming languageskills cannotbejustified, then, merel>’ by analogywith native-languagelearning.As Rivers(1981)suggests,thebasicquestionfor the

teacheris not oneof natureor logie but of the bestorder of presentationfrom thepedagogicalpointof view. Many differentcombinationsof skills seemto havebeensuccessfulin introducingthe studentto the language.It is what is done with thelearnedmaterialto extendit asearlyaspossibleto activeusethat is crucial.

Decisionson orderingof skills will largel>’ depcndon the aims of the course.Wherecommunicationskills arethemainobjective,listeningandspeakingseemtheobvious placeto begin. lf readingis the primar>’ objective, texts ma>’ be tackleddirectí>’ throughdeeipheringtechniques.Fromthe point of view of motivation,theaural-oral skills are a good starting point for an>’ general coursebecausemoststudentscometotheir first languageelasswith thenotion thatlanguageis somethingthat one hearsand speaks.Suchan approachis more likcly to keepthe students’interest,sinceit iendsitseif to more activity andparticipationby fue stuuenrs.rewpeople would arguc against the fundamentalrole played by the subject’s ownpersonalinvolvementin linguistie tasks.

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MiguelÁngelA/marzaSánchez Att Apprúachtú tIte Inté-gratian úf Skil/sin English Teaching

Nevertheless,manyexperiencedteachershaveobjeetedthatsornestudentsfeelvery insecurewhenthey are forcedto dependon the car alone. It may be thoughtthat it is betíerfor the studentsto seethe eorreet,aceeptedversion of the writtenlanguageatancarlierstageandlearnto useit asa help andsupportfor learningand

practice. In my view, though, it seemsa reasonableapproachto presentalí newmaterialfirst in oral form, especialí>’ in the elementar>’ seetionsof the eourse;togive thc studentspracticein working with Ihis materialorallyuntil they canhandleit; thcn to train them with the script. After the studentshavereceivedsomehelp

from theprintedversion,they shouldbe givenopportunitiesto practisethematerialoralí>’ until they candemonstratetbat they haveleamtit thoroughlyandare abletoapply it to their own situations.

The matterof encodinganddecodingmessagesthroughtheuseof theskills in asecondlanguageis connectedwith certain verbal abilities aequiredin the mothertongue:however.the instruetiontn a secondlanguagewiIl needto re-teach,to someextent,what waslearnt in one’sown language.In Pit Corder’swords(1973: 116):

(... ) learningto readand write presupposcs(at ]east, in aH normal people) Iheability to speakand hear;in otherwords, it requiresthe posscssionor some verbal

behaviour.Thus, thelanguageteacheris concernednot with teachingspeakingandhearing,etc, but speoking it’ Erench, ar reading Gercuanúr hearing ltalian.Theteacherdoes ot teachlanguageskills Irom scratchbut rathermodifies or extends

theseskills in someperhapsrelatively superficialfashion.

Wecannow tateanoverviewatsomeof thedifferentpossibilitiesandconneetionsfor aneffectiveteachingof tIte skills to takeplacein our classroomsituations.

6. Writing and other skills

Writing is not a skill which canbe leamedin isolation. In the apprenticestageof writing, what tIte studentmust learn, apart from the peculiar difficulties ofspelling or script, is a counterpartof what has to be learnt for tIte masteryof

listening comprehension,speaking and readiííg —a nucleus of linguisticknowledge.Thc aetivity of writing helps to consolidatethe knowledgefor usein

other areas, since it gives the studentpracticein manipulatingstructuresandselectingandcombininglexical elements.

Written questionsbasedon a readingpassageeneouragethe studentto readIhe text moreattentively and discoverareaswhich were misinterpretedon tItefirst reading.Oní>’ by hearingand readinga greatdeal of thc languageas it isspokenand written by nativespeakerscanlanguagelearnersacquirethat feeling

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MiguelÁngelA/marzaSánchez AnApprúachtú tIte IntegraIiút~ of SkilLv in Eng/ish Teachi~ig

for the appropriateuseof languageforms and combinations,which is basic toexpressivewriting.

Ihe mosteffectivewriting practicewill havea closeconneetionwith whatisbeing practised in relation to otherskills. We shouldbe aware,though, that uoteverybody will reacIt a Itigh standardin composition.Interfereneeof tIte firstlanguageexplains the unaceeptableforms that many producein the written forín,tIte construetion of hybrid phrases without realising that these areíncomprehensiblein thecontextof thc new language.

Attempts should be made to encouragethe learners to use strueturesandexpressionstIte>’ have aIread>’ leamedin oral practice and in reading,creating

interestingandamusingpiecesof expressivewriting. By doingso,tIte>’ will beusingmuch languagematerialwhich otherwisewould escapefrom their activememory.

More effective results will be achievedin writing exercisesif there is acontinual integration of practicein alí tIte skills. When tIte studentsItave read.heardand said to themselvesor otherswhat tIte>’ are expectedto write, they aremore likely to write it correctí>’.

WItendictation proceduresare employedfor reproduetion,two skills arebeingexercisedat once: Iistening and writing. TIte dictation practice will tIten bereinforcing practice in listening comprehension,as weIl as providing practiceinaccuratewriting. As studentsadvancein languageleaming,phrasesdietatedwillgradualí>’ be lengthened,until studentsare eventualí>’ able to retain completesentencesin their immediatememor>’ andwrite them down correctí>’.

Notetaking and tIte writing of reports can be further developmentsfromexereisesin listeningcomprehension.Anythingavailablein the recordedform orlectures themselvescan be tIte basis for written composition.Similarí>’, widereadingand practicein putting someof tIte material read into an uncomplicatedwritten form will consolidatethe students’ familiarity with many languageitems

andmatethesemoreavailablefor selectionin oral expression.E>’ integratingskillswe are also giving the learnersmore opportunitiesto understandand broadencultural concepts,since thesehappentItrougIt a wide variety of ehannels.bothwritten andoral—apartfrom a wide rangeof visualones

In order to ensurethe potential contributionof other skill areas,the teachershould promote active class diseussionof what has been heard or read andencourage the presentation of short oral reports. This will follow thecommunicativeprincipie of task-dependeney,which is essential to make tItelessonsmeaningfulfrom tIte students’pointof view.

A story ma>’ be rewritten in dialogue form, or a dialogue rewritten as anarrative.Wc should,however,rememberthatnot alí studentshavearcad>’flow ofideaswhenaskedto writc. evenin their native language.Thcrefore,composition

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MiguelÁnge/Aln,arzaSánchez AnApprúachtú tIte ./nté-gratiún of 5l6/ls ir English Té-aching

exereisesshouldnot be designedso that tIte>’ becometestsof originality andinvention(althoughimaginativestudcntsshouldnot be discouragedto go beyondwhatis required).TIte writing of anoriginal dialogue,usingthevocabular>’areaofsomerecentwriting, kecpstIte studcntpraetisingin tIte stylcof spokenlanguage.

Composition exercises may profitably be linked with assignmentsforextensivereading.Thiscompositionma>’ consistof a summaryof thecontentswitha personaleommentaryor tIte narration of some aspectof tIte story assigncdpreviouslyby the teacher.The studentswill thenbe encouragcdto selecíthcirownapproaelianddemonstratethc level of exprcssionof whiehtItey arecapable.

‘7. Listeningami other skills

tntegratingtIte listcning luto a longersequenceof work demonstratesto thestudentsthat the effort they have put into understandingis not wastcd.For anumberof reasons,the skill of listeningcouldbe regardedastIte mostdifficult todevelop.whethcrwe look at it from a cognitiveperspectivcor due to tIte addcddifficulties that derive from the acoustics.Helping studentsto improve theirlistcning to spokenEnglish is a vital panof tIte teacher’sjob. TIte betterstudcntsunderstandwItat they hear,thc betterthey will takepanin spokcninteraetions.

Listening comprehensionactivities shouldspring naturalí>’ from, or providematerial for, oral practiceor reading;thcy can also providea stimulusfor writingactivities.TItis ideais alsoexpressedby Rivers (1981:167):

Wben variousskills are integraredjato free-Oowingactivities, in which oneprovides material (br the other, studentslearn to operate confidently within the

language,easilytransferringknowledgeacquiredin oneareamr activeusein another.It is mostirnporranr¡hat iheleacheraol compartamentalizetite learning(...)

Integrationof the variousaspeetsof languageuserequirescarefulpreparationon the pan of tIte teacher,so that opportunitiesfér naturalmovementfrom onelanguagemodality to anotherevolve continually during eaehlesson.Task-based

activities, suchas labelling, form-filling, completinga grid, etc.rcflectmuch moredosel>’ the type of responsethatmight be given to a listcning experieneein real-life. TIte>’ demandindividual responses.Filling in forms, labelling diagramsormaking choicesobligesever>’ leamerto try to makesomethingmeaningfulof what

they are hcaring.TItis is cspeciallyeffcctive if tIte classis askedto work in pairs,síncefosteringcooperativelearningshouldbe oneof our primar>’ objectivcswhenwc designtIte ícachingsyllabus.

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MiguelÁngelAlmarzaSánchez An Approach tú tIte 1ntegratio,~of Skil/si,’ Eng/ishTeo.Iting

Many teacherstend to focus upon the product of listening. when, in fact, itwould be moreillustrativeto pa>’ attentionto theprocess,that is, what is going onin the headsof our learners.Rivers mentions that sinee listening and readinginvolve similarprocesses(speechperception),one would expecttIte developmentof listening strategiesthrough intensive practice to carry over to reading.Furthermore,if thereis a nucleus of linguistie knowledgeof the structureandlexicon of the language,basic to the operationof alí the languageskills, then itshouldnot surpriseus thatpractisingthis basiccorpusin one modalitywill makeitmoreavailablefor usein the other.

Conversely, psycholinguistic research makes clear that listening andspcakingare not deeoding-encodingproeesseswhich are mirror imagesof eachother. In fact, we can seethat the knowledgeof the languagewe require forcomprehensionof oral input may be quite different from that required forexprcssingour meaning in speechand writing. In listening (and reading),expectationsand inferencehelp us createa meaningfrom semanticclues,sothatit is often unnecessaryto recognise or comprehendthe significance ofmorphologicalor syntacticelements.On the otherhand,our own utteranceswill

usualí>’notbe comprehensible,andwill frequentí>’ be unacceptable,if we do notusetheseelementscorrectí>’ ourselves.

It seemsto bewidely acceptedtbat predictionis anextremelyimportantstage.It allows studentsto get interestedin thetopie and predicttIte kind of vocabularythey are Iikely to hear. It means,aboyealí, that tIte>’ are not approachingtIte taskfrom scratch.This ma>’ take the form of discussingthe topie or showingpicturesthat tIte studentsinterpretbeforetIte>’ listen. We could also give them written andspokenversionsof the samestoryandaskthemto notetIte grammaricalandlexicaldifferencesbetweenthem.

There are, however,contrastedviews on Itow to approacIt tIte post-listeningstage.JohnField (1998)mentionsthat it is worthwhile to pick ornan>’functionallanguageanddraw learners’attentionto it It>’ askingthem to remembertIte exactwordsfor aninvitation,apology,suggestionandsoon. Rivers,however,thinks thataskingthe studentsto pay attentionto the surfacestructurewill distractthem fromoveralí mcaning. Generalí>’ speaking, information-gapactivities, in which tItestudentscheck their understandingwith peersby completing a task, seemto beeffective.It is alsodesirableto set somefurtherwork in whichproduetiveoutputiscalledfor. We shouldencourageleamcrsto disagreewitIt eachother—therebyincreasing motivation for a secondlistening and making listening a mueh moreinteractiveaetivity.

The useof tIte studentstirst languagein tIte EFL classhasbeenfrowneduponb>’ man>’ speeialistsfor the last few decadesfor a numberof indisputablereasons.

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Quite a few are inclined to think that therecanbe no betterteachertItan a nativespeakerwho neverusesthe students’mothertonguein the classroom—regardlessof his ¡ her teaehingbackground.However, studieson contrastiveanalysishavefocusedon the importancefor tIte foreign languagelearnerof being awareof tItesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenbothlanguages.Thishasclearimplieationsforthe teaehingandpracticeof listeningskills.

lf wewantourstudentsto getawayfrom literal translationsandmothertongueinterference.an idea to help them undcrstanddiffieult patternsof diseoursefollow~. wecandictatethem a senteneein Lí wItich isanon-literalversionof wItattheyaregoingto listento in thetargetlanguage.WetIten askthemto locate(astheylisten) and transcribetheexaetwords usedto phrasethis ideain L2. Alternativel>’,we ma>’ haveaskedthem beforelisteningto give tIteir own versionasthey imaginethis would be saidin theoral form, and latercomparethcir own versionto the realoiw. By doingso, we would be giving them reasonsfor listeningand,at the sametime, the>’ would be focusingon specific languagepatternsthat might othcrwiseremainunattendedor offer difficulties for understanding.Whateverwedo, ourtrueaim should not be simply to provide practice but to produce betterand moreconfidentlisteners.

8. Readingami otherskills

Reading at advaneedlevels ma>’ be included as a referencetool, to providematerialfor moreinformeddiscussionof aspectsof thetargetculture,but it shouldnot beto the detrimentof thetime devotedto oral communication.It is preferableto use for this purposearticlesfrom magazinesandnewspaperswherereadingisindividual preparatorywork, doneoutof tIte elassroom.

It is useful in teachingreadingto makea distinctionbetweenrecognitionandproductiongrammar.TIte syntactiedetailsthe readerneedsin orderto extraettheimportantelementsof the messageare fewer and ma>’ be different from thosewhich are importantwhenproducingonc’s own messagesin speecItor writing.Rivers (1981: 267) makes a clear distinetion between processesin speecItproductionandspeechpereeption:

Perception of spoken or written tnessages is primarily dependent onapprehensionof semamicmeaning,moving from whatone perceivesin the soundsequenceor in thewrit¡en scriptto theidea,with reenurseto knowledgeof syntaxonlywheo (he meaning is not clear or an ambiguity or misdirected interpretation isdetected(.4 In production the speakeror writer expressesthe intention or ideathroughtheoperationof thesyntacticsystem.

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StudentsshouldnoÉ be expectedor encoaragedto stop whenevertIte>’ meeranew or ratherunfamiliar word to insert a native-languageglossbetweenthelines.This habit mustbe discouragedif they are to leamto think in a secondlanguage.They could increasetheir vocabular>’ by keepingindividual notebooksin whichtIte>’ copy words tItey wish to rememberThesewordsshouldbe copieddown incompletephrasesor sentences,so tItat the studentsareremindedof tIte contextinwIticb tIte>’ would be appropriatelyused, thus providing written practice fromreadinginput.

Extensivereadingfostersvocabular>’ growtIt and the acquisitionof syntax incontext.By reading,one ma>’ developpersonalintuitionsaboutwhat goodwritinglooks like; practisingandapplying thoseintuitions in writing is probabí>’ thc best

way for a studentto becomea good writer in a secondlanguage.In fact, therearecourses, programs and teaching practices whose rationale is based on theassumptionthat tbereis a strongrelationstipbetweenreadingandwriting.

Oneof tIte fundamentalprincipIesin secondlanguageacquisitionis the claimtItat peopleacquirea sccondlanguageoní>’ if they obtain comprehensibleinputwhicIt they allow «in». TIte input hypothesisma>’ also apply to the acquisitionofwriting competence,as KrashenandTerelí (1983)point out whenthey highlightthe factthat readingcanserveasun importantsourceof comprehensibleinputandma>’ makea significantcontributionto thedevelopmentof overalíproficiene>’.

TIte assumption underlying is that writing coínpetence is aequiredsubconciously.without readersbeing awarethat tIte>’ haveacquiredit, wItile tIte>’

arereading.Wecouldevengo furtherto illustratetIte connectionsbetweenreadingand writing. Foong (1988), poinis to tIte fact that studiesItave beenconductedwhich find that those who get pleasurefroín readingat alí ages,especilí>’at highschool,are betterwriters, while none of tIte poor writersseemto report«a lot» ofpleasurereadingat high school. He concludesthat personswith good writingability do ‘flore readingthanpersonswitIt poorwriting ability.

WIten it comes to discussingcompreItensionprocessesthrough receptiveskills, the terms ~<bottom-up»and ~<top-down»pía>’ a fundamentalrole; theydescribe two different paths to comprehension.They are metapItors whichpresupposetItat we view compreItensionin termsof hierarchy,witIt loweror Itigherlevelsof proeessing.Lower levels relate to the soundor print stimulusand areconcernedwith recognising and decoding it: higher levels are involved withcomprehendingandconstructingthe meaningof what is being Iteard or read.

Hottom-up processingsuggeststhat linguistie information is receivedandprocessedbeginningwith the smallestunit andendingwith largerunits of meaning.

Meaning,at any level, is accessedoní>’ onceprocessingat previouslevelshas beencompleted.Top-down theor,es.in contrast.put forward a non-linear view of the

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process.Comprehensionbegins with the reader’sor listener’sown contribution,making hypothesisabout what is eoming next and confirming predictions.Inlistening.tIte quantityof incominginformation matesit impossiblefor tIte humanauditorysystemto processalí of it. AmosParan(1997)mentionsthat tIte processingof informationwhenlisteningmustberegulatedby higherlevel cognitiveprocesses.lncominginformationis sampledandsamplingis doneon thebasisof the listener’sexpect-¿tions,previousknowledge,audwhathasairead>’beenprocessed.

SucIt a statementseemsto suggestthat whenreading,however.theactorof theprocesshas more control over the paceandcanthcrefore var>’ the speedand tItefocus of the activity. going back to previous units of meaning to facilitate

comprehensionor to reinforce ideas.This ínay explain the big difference in theconstructionof meaningbetweentIte skills of readingand listening.TIte differentnatureof Ihe processeswould also aceountfor the various degreesof linguistiechallengeandwould prove that listening ma>’ be more demandingthan reading.Nevertheless.it would be truetosa>’ that the level of difficulty is alsodependentonsuchfaclors as subjectmatter,register,eomplexityof meaningrelationsor lexicalitems.contextandso forth.

9. Speakingandits implications

Ratherthan mecItanicaldrilís and repetitions,the purposeof this section is tofocuson tItose situationswherestudentsuseasmuchlanguageastheycanandwheregetting the messageacrossis just as importantas grammaticalaccuracy. lf noEnglishcourseis completewithoutwriting or grammar,speakingis anotheressentialstrandof the language.Oral speechis the students’output, which can be basedonpreviouswritten or oral input, or it canalso lead to further acúvitiesin which thestudentscontinue to be involved. In botIt caseswe would be approachingtheclassroomreality in arealistieandmotivatingwayby integratingtIte languageskills.

Speakingactivitiesgive learnersa chancefor rehearsal— practisingthe realskill of speakingas a preparationfor using it outside the classroom. It alsoprovidesvaluablefeedbackabouttheir languageknowledge,for both themselvesand their teachers.Moreover.speakingactivities also provokegenuinestudentengagementwItere tIte>’ really get involved witb tIte processof languagelearningin class.

Activities that work well teud to include a task with a clear,achievableendproduct. II they are personalisedandrelevantto the students’lives, they will seetIte link betweenwhat tbeyaredoing and life aroundthem,whieh makesthewholeprocessmore meaningful.The tasks sItould havea purposewhieIt is not purel>’

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linguistie —such as solving a problem or reacbinga decision aud sboníd

maximisetherangeof languagetheywiIl haveto use.Questionnaires,surveysandotherinformation-gapactivities are popular,generategenuinediscoursepraeticesandlend themselvesto anintegrationof the skills and task dependency.They can

helpteachersto overcomewhat VaugItanandSpencer(1997)calI TAB in teenagestudents(TaskAvoidanceBehaviour).We shouldengagethestudentsby makingthem want to takepartin a tangibletask with a clearpurpose.

Discussionsprovide ideal opportunities for speaking. Some of the mostenjoyableclassesare oneswhere unplanneddiscussionssuddenlyariseon issuesthat matter to the students.As the students’ level progresses,we can gradualí>’maketasks more demandingby requiring a higIter level of performanceboth intemisof aecuracyand fiucncy, as well astIte vocabularyrangeusedin class.

Speakingactivities canbe usedat any stage,not just at tIte endof a teaehingsequence.Sometimesit is the students’ performancethat helps the teacherto

decidewhatto teachnext. It is also goodto explain tIte objectivesof tIte activitiessothat thestudentshavevisible, quantifiableprogress;besides,feedbackshouldbegiven afterthe task hasbeencompleted.Monitoring during the activity is tIte best

way to identify problemareas.Pair and groupwork is vital to increasetIte studenttalking time and createa

motivatingcollaborativeatmosphere.As lessonsbecomemoreinteractivebetween

teacherand studentand between studentsthemselves,they can see the realpurposeof communicationin tIte written and spokenmodes.Nowadays,fewerteacIters are reluctant to admit that communicationis the primary purposeofGeneralEnglish languageinstruction.

Oneof te tasksthat ma>’ providemoregenuinecommunieationandpracticeinalí theskills, especialí>’at intermediatelevelsandaboyeis theuseof students’mini-lectures(5-10 minutes).It trains speakingand listeningskills andhelpsthemgainmoreflexibility in Englishusingindirect input. Monika Gedicke(>997)describesways of involving the whole classin studentlectures.She decidedto ask somestudentsto give shorttalkson bookstIte>’ had reador on varioustopiestIte>’ wouldneedas backgroundinformation for furtherwork. TIte studentsItavetIte chanceto

experiencepeer-learningandalsolcam to speakfreel>’ in frontof a group.Thingsto avoidwhenconductingthis type of taskaretIte students’readingout

a text they havepreviously written, or going throughthe texts learntby heartathome.What could alsohappenis that the listenersswitchoff or getboredwhenteaetivity is oní>’ good for the lecturerat theexpenseof valuableclassroomtime forthe restof the studentsin te room.

To sustain te listeners’ interest and provokeactive involvement tIte leeturecannotbe a one-waycomínunication.TIte Iistenersmust ask questions,eitIter as a

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group orasindividuals,determinewhattIteywantto find outabouttIte subjectmatter,restatelecturecontentandoffer comments.Theymustalsoanswerquestionsaskedbythe lecturer who, beforehand,has prepareda handout with the main arguments,

explainedessentialvocabular>’anáoutlinedthesiructureof bis or herlectxire.As a first step to this elassroomaetivity, teachersmay model first, trying out

their own teeturesso that te studentscan get used to their new role as activelisteners and speakers.The Listeners ma>’ do some background reading fronicoursebooktextsandalso take notes,tbis allowing to incorporatewritten Englishto thewhole process.Languageproblemsthatarisecanbe dealtwith in latererrorcorrection,unlessthey standin tIte way of communication.

Wc canalways improve languagetasksif we increasethedemandfor student-generatedideasandlanguage.in te designof a taskwehaveto look attwo elements:

wbat, that is, the content or topic and how (e.g. information-gap in pairs,brainstormingwith thewItole class,etc.).Foreachactivity typewecanseehow much«freedom»or «control»thereis for tIte studentandpa>’ attentiontotIte procedure.Weneedto, progressively.mercasetIte amountof timewe devoteto «free»activities.

The teacher’s selection of activities can oní>’ he determined by ourunderstandingof tIte ultiínategoal and ourjudgementof wItere the learnersstandla relationlo it. Littlewood(1981: 15) makesthis distiactionaccoi-dingtotIte stageof thecoursein which wefind ourselves:

In the ear]y stagesof a coursewe may exposelearners to tIte same basiclinguistiematerialso thattheycan muye graduallytowardstheabitity so participaselon~eaningful interaction. Later, learnerswiIl have achievedgreaterindepeodenceinthcir learninganduseof language.They will thereforebeable to movemoreswiftly

from the initial learning of new languageto the point wheretheyhave insegrateditinto thcir repertoireandcanuseit in moreindependentformsof interaction.

10. Transitionsbetweenskills

Readingandunderstandingapieceof text is anaetivity which tIte readeris ableto perform becausehe or she can follow relationships of thought, understandcohesivefunctions, infer tIte meaning of unknown words, and so on. TItedistinetionbetweenreceptiveandproductiveperformancecomesfrom thefacttbattheparticipanthas to beableto understandmorealternativepossibilitiestItan tbeyItave to produce.

TItere is a general beliefantongstteachersthat tIte recognitionof an item iscasiatban its rerrieval iii production.Curda(1973: 262)blameson tIte difficulty

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MiguelÁngelAlmarza Sánchez Att Apprúachtú tIte lotegrationof Skil/x itt English Teaching

of devising meansof studying receptiveerrors, which has preventedus fromconfirming tItese general impressionsor from establishingthe qualitative orquantitativerelationsbetweentItem:

It eould well be that we overestimatethe pupils receptive abilities simplybecausewe cannot so readily deteer failures in comprehension.In any act ofcomprehensionthereis a majorcomponentsupplied by thesituatit,nandthe hearer.

The designingof syllabusesinvolvesman>’ differenteonsiderations,linguistie,

pedagogic, sociolinguistie, psyehologicaí. The number of variables are toonumerous.Sincewe teachgroupsandnot individuals theremustbe a compromiseto integrate a parallel set of syllabuses: syntaetic, phonological,cultural andfunetional, and,witItin eachof these,a parallel setof learningtasks.

The psycholinguisticprocesseswhich go on wbenwe performreceptivel>’andexpressivelyin the linguistie activitiesdo not occurin isolationbut in somesort ofsequenceof coordination. The efficient learning of reading may aNo involvewriting or speaking.However,wemustnotfalí into a confusionof endsandmeans.If theend is the ability to speak,this doesnot ruleoutreceptiveactivity or exerciseas a meansto thatend.Someexposureto languageis necessaryin orderto discoverits rules,andconsequentí>’someIearningof receptiveskills mustlogicalí>’ precedeproduetiveactivity. We must leamsomethingof readingbeforewe learnto write,

somethingof comprehensionbeforewe Ieamto speat.What we aim for is a balancedmethodin whieh practiceanddevelopmentof a

skill leadsnaturalí>’ to anotherone throughuseful andauthentieeontexts,both forunderstandingandproducinglanguage.Languageinputshouldtbereforebeusedasa springboardfor students’ output. The final product should be seen as aconsolidationof al> that the studentshavelearntby working their way tbrougb aunit andnotjust asanextraactivity.

Oneof the pí-inciples in whieh thetransitionbetweenthe skilís is containedisthaÉ of providing pre, while andpostactivities in order to belp studentsto makesenseof the texts and oral passages,deal with difficult languageor unknownvocabular>’ anddeveloptIteir own strategies.Besides,they are more likely to seetIte point in what tItey are doing when activities are linked togetheras part of alarger task. Writing at elementar>’ levels should be guided, as they cannotbeexpectedto write somethingthey bavenotaIread>’seenin a readingtext.

Oneof tIte bestwaysin which smoothtransitionsbetweensIllIs canbe madeis

by approacbingreachingandlearningbeyondtIte solelinguistiepurpose.We shouldgo beyondthe artificial contentsand modesof information deliver>’ socommon tolanguageclasses,andusetIte students’intereststo engagethemin a personalisation

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process.tt is amatterof usingtheforeign-Ianguageto LEARN aboutlife, to inform,to entertain, to socialise.Bringing Ituman activities into the secondlanguageclassroomwill contribuleto turningit intoa vehicle,a means,andnotanendin itself;just in the sanieway as the student’smothertongueis for them.Therefore.we willereatea real necessityto encodeand decodemessagesin a differcnt language;alanguagewhiehis seenas awhole,not asa setof individual eomponents.

11. A final product

Dependingon Ihe level of the students,topic areas,as well as vocabularyandlanguagepresented.we canset differenttasks,someof whicharepresentedbelow

aud can be exploited botIt receptivelyand productively, apart from involving awide rangeof languagesidUs:

Written Tasks: letters and messages;posters to be displayed; cartooncaptions;advertisemenísand leaflets;reviews;summariesof elassreaders:cssays;descriptions; (auto)biograpIties; survcys and questionnaires;creative writing;narrativeaccounts.

Spoken Tasks: classsurve>’s; interviews; role-pía>’ and simulations;groupcontests; diseussion panels; problem-solving activities; ranking activities;negotiationtasksandconsensus-reaching;information-gapand transfer

Whatevataskswe set, a factorthat proveslo be of paramountimportaneeis

theoneof establisbinga goodclassroomdynamicsanda cooperativeenvironment,since some of the top principiesof effectivelearninghavesomethingto do withgroup coopcration. Wbether we are looking at personal engagement,communicationor motivation, anything we do as teachersof a foreign languagemusthaveteam work as a basis for enjoyableeiasswork. By no meanscan weexpect to Itave interestedindividuals in our classesunlesswe give íItem clearpurposesto use languagein a practical way, b>’ imitating human activities thaIresemblewhat happensoutsidethc classrooín.

12. Conclusions

1 have tried to explore tIte theoretical background and analyse themethodologicalimplications behind the approachof integratingtIte practiceof

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the four skills in the languageclassroom.The ideais to makethe teachingandlearningsituationcomecloser to the way we do things in real life, in order tomakeclassesmore cballenging,motivating and meaningful for the learnersofEnglishas a secondlanguage.

The underlying messageis that foreign languageteachingmust be learner-centredto make studentsbetter receiversand producersof languagein context,bearingin mmd theirneedsand interesísin bothwritten andspokensituations.We,asteachers,mustbeconcernedwith reality: with the reality of communicationas ittatesplaceoutsidetIte classroom.Becauseboth of theserealities—in andout-of-classroom—are so complex, nobod>’ will ever produce a definitive teachingmetbodology.Ourjob will Ibereforebe lo suggest11w besípossiblelasks to heipstudentsincorporatea new linguistie codethat will haveto be usedin differentor the same—stylistic, social andsituationaleontextsas their mothertongue.

AnotIter important thing is to be abíe to extract ideas applicable to everylearningand teacItingenvironmentpossibleand adaptthc approachessuggestedItere to tIte differentagegroups,backgrounds,needs,interestsandabilities,as wellas syllabusesandresourcesthat we mustfollow or makeuseof. Oní>’ in tItis waywill we beableto makein-classroomandout-ofclassroúmeventscomecloserforthe studentsto makethemostof our workand their own effort.

Referencesand other bibliography

ANDERSON, A. & LvNcn, T. (1988):Listening,Oxford, OLPARNOLD, E. (1993): Authenticity Revisited:Húw Real ix Real? in English for Specitic

Purposes,Vol. 12, 237-243.ERANEMBRAWN, M. (1997): Language testing, not readyfor tIte future yet, in Teachers’

Forum,issue69.BRETÓN, M. et al. (1998):Análisisy explútaciondematerial audiovisualauténtico,in ínter

E. 0.1, ni’ 2. Barcelona.OUP, 14-21.BRUMFIT,C. (1984): CúmmunicativeMethodúlogyinLonguageTeaching.Cambridge,CUP.CORDER, SP. (1973): ¡nl roducingAppliedLinguistics,London, Penguin,1993.FIELO, J. (1998): TIte changingfaceof/isíening, in English TeachingProfessional.London, issue6, Pp. 12-14.FooNc,K.R (1988): TIte relationshipbetweenReadingandWriting in fing/ish as asecot,dlanguage.UMI, Ihe University of Texasat Arlington.GEDICKE, M. (1997): Srudentlecturesitt tIte classroom, in EnglishTeachingProfessional.

London, issue4,¡4-16.KRASHEN, 5. & TERna, T. (1983): TIte naíttral apprnach: languageacquisitiún in tIte

c.lassroúm.SanFrancisco,Aleman>’ Press.

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MiguelÁngelAlmarzaSáncItez Att Ap¡’ rúach tú tIte Inté-gratian ofSldl/s itt Eng/ish Teachi;ig

Kuo, CH. (1993): Problematicissuesin ESTtnaterialsdevelopment,in EnglishforSpecificPurposes.Vol. 12, 171-181.LtrrLEItJHN, A. (1997): Makinggoadtaslcsbetter, in EnglishTeachingProfessional.

London,issue3, 28-30.(1998):Languagelearning tasksandeducation,in EnglishTeaching.London, issue6,lo—II

LITTLFWOOD, W. (1984):Communicatíve¡.nnguageTeaching.Cambridge,CIJP, 1987.PARAN. A. (1997): Bottom-upand Top-dúwnprocetssing,inEnglishTeaching.Professional,

London,issue3, p. II.RíveRs. W.M. (1981): Teaching foreigo-languageshlls. Chicago, The University of

ChicagoPress.SPENCER, D. & VAUGHAN, D. (1997): TAB or ‘Whydon’r my teenagersspeakEnglishW, in

English TeachingProfessional.London,issue3,12-13.WíDoowsoN,HG. (1978): TeachingLanguageas Comniunication.Oxford,OUP

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