The following individuals were instrumental in …The following individuals were instrumental in creating this guidebook: Melanie Doyle, M.Ed, Parent of hard-of-hearing child Linda

The following individuals were instrumental in creating this guidebook:

Melanie Doyle, M.Ed, Parent of hard-of-hearing childLinda Dye, M.A., CCC-A, Director of CCHAT Center, San Diego

January 2002

MAINSTREAMING THE STUDENT WHO ISDEAF OR HARD-OF-HEARING

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1-2Purpose of the GuideDeaf or hard-of-Hearing?

THE EAR AND HEARING LOSS .....................................................................................3-6How We HearGeneral Classifications of Hearing Loss

THE IMPACT OF HEARING LOSS ON CHILDREN .......................................................... 7-14Intelligible vs. Audible SpeechAuditory Skills and Incidental LearningSpoken LanguageAcademic PerformanceSelf-Image and Social Adjustment

CLASSROOM TIPS FOR WORKING WITH DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARINGSTUDENTS ........................................................................................................................................ 15-20

Fostering a Positive Mainstream ExperiencePreferential SeatingImproving CommunicationVocabulary, Word Comprehension and ReadingClassroom Support and Accommodations

LISTENING DEVICES AND ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY .................................................. 21-30Hearing AidsCochlear ImplantsFM and Infrared SystemsManaging Auditory DevicesAdditional Assitive Technology

ACOUSTICS ............................................................................................................ 31-36The Need for Good AcousticsClassroom (Background) Noise and ReverberationImproving Classroom Listening

LAWS, REGULATIONS AND GUIDLINES ...................................................................... 37-40Individuals with Disabilities Education ActAmericans with Disabilities ActSection 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973Family Educaitonal Rights and Privacy Act

GLOSSARY OF TERMS .............................................................................................. 41-48

RESOURCES ............................................................................................................ 49-62

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 63-64

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................. 65-67

Introduction

1

INTRODUCTION

Purpose of This Guide

Developing a successful program of supportfor students who have a hearing loss re-quires a team approach. Teachers play an

important role in a deaf and hard-of-hearing(D/HH) child’s life and have a tremendous impacton their learning, self-image and social adjustment.Parents too, play an integral role in their child’s edu-cational process and must beinformed in order to fully partici-pate in all aspects of their child’slearning . . . . from the Individual-ized Education Plan (IEP) to theclassroom.

Seventy-five percent of theD/HH student population is eitherpartially or totally mainstreamed.Regardless of the statistics, mostteachers have had little or no ex-posure to educating children withany degree of hearing loss and mayfeel ill-prepared to meet the needsof a D/HH child.

This guide is intended to provideteachers, professional staff andparents basic information about:1) the critical role that hearing playsin both the developmental and educational pro-cesses; and 2) how the learning environment canbe optimized in order to help the D/HH child de-velop the confidence, skills and ability to besuccessfully mainstreamed into a regular educationsetting and reach his/her fullest potential.

Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing?

No satisfactory definition has been drawn be-tween deaf and hard-of-hearing, otherthan a behavioral one, because hearing loss

exists on a continuum and is influenced by manyother external factors. It is even difficult to sepa-rate “deaf ” from “hard-of-hearing” by degree ofhearing loss. There are many severe-to-profoundly

deaf individuals who have devel-oped excellent speech andspeechreading skills and functionwell orally. They may or may notutilize sign language interpretersand may even consider themselveshard-of-hearing.

A formal definition of functionaldeafness might include any personhaving a hearing loss in the severeto profound range who communi-cates mainly through sign.Functionally hard-of-hearing indi-viduals have a wide range of losseswhich may vary from mild to se-vere/profound, may be unilateral(affecting only one ear), or may behigh frequency, low frequency, ormid-frequency only losses. For the

most part, however, these individuals access infor-mation aurally (through listening) often with the useof assistive listening devices and have intelligiblespeech.

Mainstreaming the Student who is Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing

2

3

The Ear and Hearing Loss

How We Hear

Although most teachers and professionalswho work with children are familiar withhow the ear functions, it may be helpful to

review some of the basics. Each part of the ear hasa special role in the hearing process.

Outer Ear: the pinna (the part of the ear on theoutside of the head) and the ear canal.

Middle Ear: located between the outer ear andinner ear, separated from the ear canal by the ear-drum (tympanic membrane). The middle earcontains three ossicles (tiny bones) called themalleus, incus and stapes or commonly referred toas the hammer, anvil and stirrup.

Inner Ear: the innermost part of the ear which iscomposed of the hearing organ (the cochlea or snail-like organ), the balance mechanism (the semi-circularcanal), and the auditory nerve (acoustic nerve).

Sound waves enter the outer ear and pass downthe ear canal to the ear drum. As sound waves movethe eardrum, the three ossicles vibrate back andforth. These vibrations are amplified and passed onto the inner ear and the cochlea. When the soundwaves move the inner ear fluid they stimulate haircells (cilia) which convert the vibrations to nerve im-pulses that travel along the auditory nerve to thebrain. The brain then makes sense of these electri-cal signals and you “hear.”

THE EAR AND HEARING LOSS

Photo courtesy of Clarke Jacksonville Auditory Oral Center

4

Mainstreaming the Student who is Deaf or Hard of Hearing

General Classifications ofHearing Loss

A hearing loss occurs when there is poor de-velopment, injury, infection or degenera-tion in any part of the hearing system. A

hearing loss can be partial or total, temporary orpermanent, in one ear (unilateral/monaural) or both(bilateral/binaural). A unilateral loss often goesunnoticed but may still have significant educationalramifications.

Types/Causes of Hearing Loss

Regardless of the cause, hearing loss falls into thefollowing categories depending on the part of theear that’s affected:

Conductive Hearing Loss. When the structuresin the outer or middle ear do not work properly, theirability to conduct sound vibrations to the inner earis affected. A build-up of wax in the ear canal, apunctured eardrum, or an ear infection often causesconductive hearing loss. The tiny bones can alsobecome immobilized and lose their ability to vibrate.Conductive hearing loss can often be surgically ormedically corrected.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss. When the inner eardoes not properly process the sound vibrations, mes-sages cannot be passed on normally to the brain. Thisis called sensorineural hearing loss. It can result fromgenetic defects, a severe infection such as mumpsor meningitis, a head injury, certain medicines, anabnormal growth in the ear, aging or even from avery loud noise that damages the cochlea. This type ofhearing loss usually cannot be reversed by medical orsurgical means and is therefore permanent.

Mixed Hearing Loss. When a combination ofconductive and sensorineural hearing losses occur itis called mixed hearing loss.

Central Auditory Processing Disorder. CAPDis not a hearing impairment in terms of reduced hear-ing sensitivity, but is instead a diff icultyunderstanding the meaning of incoming sounds. Achild can “hear” but is not able to efficiently inter-pret sounds or structure his or her auditory world.This can be compared to the “visual” problem of dys-lexia. It is mentioned in this guide because a childwith CAPD can benefit from many of the same in-terventions afforded a D/HH child.

DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN EAROuter Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear

(Conductive Loss) (Conductive Loss) (Sensorineural Loss)

INCUS

MALLEUS

EARDRUM

SEMICIRCULAR CANALS (BALANCE)

STAPES (In oval window)

AUDITOR NERVE (to the brain)

COCHLEA

VESTIBULEEUSTACHIAN TUBE

EAR CANAL

5

The Ear and Hearing Loss

Time of Onset of Hearing Loss

Hearing impairments in children can be classifiedinto congenital and acquired hearing losses, depend-ing on when the impairment first occurs in a child’slife. Congenital refers to being present at birth, or aconditon which develops in the first few days of life.An acquired hearing impairment occurs after speechand language have developed (often defined aspostlingually). The negative effects of an acquiredhearing impairment tend to be less severe than thoseof a congenital loss because the auditory system hasalready been “programmed” for language and spo-ken communication. When a child cannot hear infirst six months of life, s/he is at significant risk forlanguage learning problems.

Degrees of Hearing Loss

In addition to the above classifications, hearing im-pairments also can be categorized by severity ordegree. The following numerical values are basedon the average of the hearing loss at three frequen-cies (500 Hz, 1,000 Hz and 2,000 Hz), althoughnumeric values can vary from author to author. Itis important to note that these tests are conductedin a soundproof audiological test booth, and a childmay not hear equally well in a relatively noisy schoolsetting.

An audiologist is a professional who specializes inevaluating hearing loss and conducting hearing tests.The results from the tests are recorded on an au-diogram which is a graph showing hearing sensitivity(see picture or full-sized example in the appendix).

The degree of hearing loss is determined by mea-suring hearing threshold which is the level in decibels(dB) at which a signal is just barely heard. The loudera sound must be made to be heard, the greater thedegree of hearing loss. Thresholds are measured atseveral frequencies (pitches) and graphed on the au-diogram. Frequency is noted in Hertz (Hz).

See Appendix A for a full-sized Familiar SoundsAudiogram.

Normal Hearing Sensitivity 0 to 15 dBMinimal or Slight Hearing Loss 16 to 25 dBMild Hearing Loss 26 to 40 dBModerate Hearing Loss 41 to 55 dBModerately Severe Hearing Loss 56 to 70 dBSevere Hearing Loss 71 to 90 dBProfound Hearing Loss 91 dB or greater

6


The Impact of hearing Loss on Children

7

THE IMPACT OF HEARING LOSS ONCHILDREN

The importance of hearing is often under-estimated largely because, for the most

part, it is an invisible disability. The lack ofunderstanding of hearing loss is furthercompounded by the tendency to clas-sify the ability to hear into twocategories: hearing and deaf. It is im-portant to note that many D/HHindividuals have at least some residual(remaining) hearing.

Even though deafness and hard-of-hearing are considered “low-incidence”disabilities (less than 1% of the popula-tion), studies have shown that somelevel of hearing loss will affect 14.9 per-cent of school-aged children. Whenmiddle ear infections are included in thisequation, one in three children will havesome type of loss on any given day. Un-fortunately, the average age ofdetection of a severe-to-profoundhearing loss in the United States is

two-and-a-half years. Children with mild-to-mod-erate losses tend to be diagnosed at age four. Thismeans that many children are not identified as hav-

ing a hearing loss until they are well intothe critical period for significant lan-guage acquisition.

A hearing loss of any type and degreeis problematic. A minimal or slight hear-ing loss (15 dB HL) may not be aproblem for an adult who has attendingskills and is able to share meaning withthe speaker, but a minimal hearing im-pairment can seriously affect the overalldevelopment of a child who is in the pro-cess of learning language, developingcommunication skills and acquiringknowledge. This chapter describes pos-sible effects of long-term hearing loss.The more significant the loss, thegreater the likelihood that a child will dis-play the difficulties discussed.

8


Intelligible Versus AudibleSpeech

The ability to discriminate speech sounds isdefined as intelligibility. The ability todetect the presence of speech is defined as

audibility. Speech might be audible to a child with ahearing impairment, but the words may not be in-telligible without technological intervention,especially in less than ideal acoustic environments(like noisy classrooms).

When a child is asked if s/he can hear, the child’slikely response will be “yes,” however, understand-ing what was said is a different story! For instance“walk”, “walked”, “walking” and “walks” may allsound the same, and wordslike “vacation” and “invita-tion” may be confused. Soa child may behave as ifs/he heard and understoodwhat was said, but s/hewould not know if criticalsounds were missed.

High-frequency sounds(“s,” “th,” “f,” “sh”) arevery important for under-standing speech becausethey involve consonantproduction and carry themeaning in many words.In fact, higher frequencyspeech sounds use only10% of the energy ofspeech, but carry 90% ofthe meaning. Since a highfrequency loss is the mostcommon type of hearing Loss, this difficulty is per-vasive among D/HH children. This is whyrecognizing verb tense (“bounces” vs. “bounced”),pluralization (“book” vs. “books”), possession(“yours,” “John’s”), and contractions (“it’s,” “he’s,”“what’s”) is a difficult task for D/HH children .

Auditory Skills and IncidentalLearning

Normally-hearing children learn to listennaturally, however D/HH children whoutilize the auditory-oral approach have to

be taught to listen and discern important soundsfrom inference. This task is even more difficult forstudents who wear hearing aids which tend to am-plify background noise. Although technology hasmade great strides in this area, a hearing aid doesnot make an ear function as “normal.”

Children with normal hearing often seem to pas-sively absorb information from the environment andconstantly pick up tidbits of information. This is re-

ferred to as incidentallearning. A child with ahearing loss cannot casu-ally overhear what peoplesay and since a greatamount of informationthat a child learns is not di-rected at him/her, itstands to reason that s/hemisses out on essentialdaily information. Asmuch as 90% percent ofwhat a normally hearingindividual learns is fromoverhearing conversa-tions, with only tenpercent from direct in-struction. Because ofthis, D/HH children missout on practical knowl-edge needed to make

progress in both the school environment and thecommunity. Children who have a hearing loss willneed to be taught directly many of the skills thatother children learn incidentally. Please keep in mindthat informal class discussions will often not by heardby D/HH children.

The Impact of hearing Loss on Children

9

Spoken Language

Aprimary and obvious effect that hearingloss has on a child is its impact on spokencommunication. As mentioned previously,

many hearing losses are not identified until age twoor older, and for auditory/oral children these monthsof missed listening must be recouped. The greaterthe impairment the greater the difficulties with de-layed language, syntax, speech intelligibility andvoice quality. It is not uncommon for D/HH indi-viduals to speak with a nasal or atonal quality. Anexperienced speech language therapist is needed toprovide intensive therapy to address these deficiencies.

Academic Performance

Another consequence of a hearing loss is itsnegative impact on vocabulary development, reading, and writing. Inadequate

knowledge of vocabulary can result in D/HH stu-dents understanding only one meaning ofmulti-meaning words or can prevent them from de-ciphering subtle inferences or deductions. Whenlanguage skills are deficient and vocabulary is lim-ited, reading skills also are likely to be poor. Oftenthese students are not even aware that they havelimited comprehension. Given the complex natureof reading and writing, it is not surprising that theseskills are a constant struggle for D/HH studentswhose performance may be below that of their hear-ing peers. Mainstreamed D/HH students haverelatively grade-level reading abilities, however,when a child does have a reading problem academicsuccess can be limited.

Photos courtesy ofClarke Jacksonville Auditory Oral Center

10


Self-image and SocialAdjustment

Hearing loss can have a major effect on aD/HH child’s behavior and self-esteem.Students may perceive themselves as dif-

ferent if they have hearing problems or difficultycommunicating with others, especially if they wearcochlear implants/hearing aids and/or utilize an FMsystem (wireless communication). A reduced abil-ity to communicate may interfere with developmentof age appropriate so-cial skills (they mayappear “out of it,” besocially immature,and miss importantsocial cues). Thisnegative self-imagecan further be com-pounded if anuninformed teacherfaults a D/HH childfor “daydreaming,”or “hearing when s/hewants to,” or “nottrying.”

In addition to theimpacts mentionedabove, many childrenwho have a hearing loss may be less attentive, easilyfrustrated and appear less confident in the classroomthan their normal-hearing peers. Often these

children are more fatigued than their hearing peersdue to the level of effort needed to listen during theday. Increased fatigue levels put these students atrisk for irritable behavior in the classroom. Thesefactors can have a further impact on their academicperformance.

With appropriate information, teachers and pro-fessionals can play an active and supportive role in

the life of a D/HHchild. The section on“Classroom Tips forWorking with Deafand Hard-of-HearingStudents” providespractical ideas thatwill enable theteacher to proactivelyaddress some of thedifficulties that D/HHchildren frequentlyface.

The handout titled,“Relationship of theDegree of LongtermHearing Loss to Psy-chosocial Impact and

Educational Needs” summarizes many of the aboveissues in an easy to read matrix.

RELATIONSHIP OF DEGREE OF LONGTERM HEARING LOSS TOPSYCHOSOCIAL IMPACT AND EDUCATIONAL NEEDS

Degree ofHearing

Loss

Possible Effect on the Understandingof Language & Speech

Possible Psychosocial Impact Potential Educational Accommodationsand Services

Minimal16 - 25 dB

Child may have difficulty hearing faint or distantspeech. At 16 dB student can miss up to 10% ofspeech signal when teacher is at a distance of greaterthan 3 feet. A 20 dB or greater hearing loss in thebetter ear can result in absent, inconsistent or distortedparts of speech, especially word endings (s, ed) andunemphasized sounds. Percent of speech signalmissed will be greater whenever there is backgroundnoise in the classroom, especially in the elementarygrades where instruction is primarily verbal.

May be unaware of subtle conversation-al cues which could cause child to beviewed as inappropriate or awkward. May miss portions of fast-paced peerinteractions which could begin to havean impact on socialization and self-concept. May have immature behavior.May be more fatigued due to extra effortneeded for understanding speech.

Due to noise in typical classroom environments whichimpede child from having clear access to teacherinstruction, will benefit from improved acoustictreatment of classroom and sound-field amplification.Favorable seating necessary. May need attention tovocabulary or speech, especially when there has beena history of ear problems. Depending on lossconfiguration, may benefit from low power hearing aidwith personal FM system. Inservice on impact of socalled "minimal� hearing loss" on language development,listening in noise and learning, required for teacher.

Mild26 - 40 dB

Child can "hear" but misses fragments leading tomisunderstanding. Degree of difficulty experienced inschool will depend upon noise level in the classroom,distance from the teacher, and configuration of thehearing loss. At 30 dB can miss 25% - 40% of thespeech signal; at 35-40 dB may miss 50% or more ofclass discussions, especially when voices are faint orspeaker is not in line of vision. Will miss brief orunemphasized words and consonants, especially whenhigh frequency hearing loss is present. Oftenexperiences difficulty learning early reading skills suchas letter/sound associations.

Barriers build with negative impact onself-esteem as child is accused of"hearing when he/she wants to,""daydreaming," or "not paying attentionMay believe he/she is less capable dueto understanding difficulties in class.Child begins to lose ability for selectivelistening, and has increasing difficultysuppressing background noise causingthe learning environment to be morestressful. Child more fatigued due toeffort needed to listen.

Noise in typical class will impede child from clearaccess to teacher instruction. Will benefit from hearingaids(s) and use of a personal FM or sound-field FMsystem in the classroom. Needs favorable acoustics,seating and lighting. Refer to special education forlanguage development, auditory skills, articulation,speechreading and/or support in reading and self-esteem. Inservice teacher on impact of so called �mild�hearing loss on listening and learning.

Moderate41 - 55 dB

Even with hearing aids, child can "hear" but typicallymisses fragments of what is said. The amount ofspeech signal missed can be 50+% with 40 dB loss and80+% with 50 dB loss. Child is likely to have delayedor disordered syntax, limited vocabulary, imperfectspeech production and flat voice quality. Earlyconsistent use of amplification and languageintervention increases the probability that the child'sspeech, language and learning will develop morenormally. Child will not have clear access to verbalinstruction due to typical noise in class. A personal FMsystem to overcome noise in the classroom anddistance from the teacher is usually necessary.

Barriers build with negative impact onself-esteem as child is accused of"hearing when he/she wants to,""daydreaming," or "not paying attention"Often with this degree of hearing loss,communication can be significantlyaffected, and socialization with peerscan be difficult, especially in noisysettings such as lunch or recess. Maybe more fatigued than classmates due toeffort needed to listen.

Consistent use of amplification (hearing aids/FM) isessential. Needs favorable classroom acoustics,seating and lighting. Program supervision by hearingimpairment specialist to coordinate services isessential. Special academic support may benecessary, especially for elementary grades; attentionto growth of oral communication, reading, writtenlanguage skills, auditory skill development, speechtherapy, self-esteem likely. Teacher inservice requiredwith attention to peer acceptance.

Moderate toSevere56 - 70 dB

With hearing aids, child can usually "hear" peopletalking around him/her, but will miss fragments of whatis said resulting in difficulty in situations requiringverbal communication in both one-to-one and groups. A 55 dB loss can cause a child to miss up to 100% ofspeech information without working amplification. Delayed spoken language, syntax, reduced speechintelligibility and flat voice quality likely. Use of apersonal FM system will reduce noise and distance andto allow increased auditory access to verbal instruction.

Often with this degree of hearing loss,communication is significantly affected,and socialization with peers can bedifficult, especially in noisy settingssuch as lunch or recess. Tendency ofpoorer self-concept and social immaturitywill contribute to a sense of rejection;peer inservice helpful.

Full time, consistent use of amplification (hearingaids/FM system) is essential. Depending upon lossconfiguration, frequency transposition aid may be ofbenefit. Program supervision by specialist in hearingimpairment necessary. May require intense support inlanguage skills, speech, aural habilitation, reading andwriting. Note-taking, captioned films and visual aidsare needed accommodations. Teacher inservicerequired.

Severe71 - 90 dB

Without amplification, may hear loud noises about onefoot distant from ear. When amplified optimally, child-ren with hearing ability of 90 dB or better should be ableto detect many sounds of speech if presented fromclose distance or via FM. Individual ability and earlyintensive intervention will determine the degree thatsounds detected will be discriminated and processedinto meaningful input. Often unable to perceive higherpitch speech sounds sufficiently loud enough todiscriminate them, especially without the use of FM. Ifloss is present at birth, oral speech and language willlikely be severely delayed or not develop spontaneous-ly. The younger the child wears amplification consis-tently and intensive language intervention is provided,the greater the probability that speech, language andlearning will develop at a more normal rate.

Communication is significantly affected,and socialization with hearing peers isoften difficult. Child often more comfor-table interacting with deaf or hard ofhearing peers due to ease of commun-ication. Relationships with peers andadults who have hearing loss can makepositive contributions toward the devel-opment of healthy self-concept and asense of cultural identity. Poorer self-concept and greater social immaturity istypical unless child is in a deaf school orwith a peer group. Child in mainstreamclassroom may have greater depend-ence on adults due to difficulties com-prehending oral communication.

Whether a visual communication approach orauditory/oral approach is used, early and extensivelanguage intervention, full-time consistent amplificationuse and constant integration of the communicationpractices into the family will highly increase theprobability that the child will become a successfullearner. Specialized supervision, support services andcontinual appraisal of access to communication isrequired. Depending on hearing loss, a frequencytransposition aid or cochlear implant may be remotelypossible options. Oral or sign interpreter likelynecessary in mainstream settings, especially asinstruction becomes more linguistically complex. Note-taking, captioned films, and visual aids necessary;training in communication repairs strategies helpful. Inservice of mainstream teachers is essential.

Profound91 dB ormore

Detection of speech sounds is dependent upon thehearing loss configuration and the optimal use ofamplification. Degree and configuration of hearing loss,use and appropriateness of amplification, quality ofearly intervention and individual ability, all combine toinfluence the degree to which a profoundly deaf childcan detect, discriminate, process and understand thesounds of spoken language. If loss is present at birth,speech and language will not develop spontaneously. If loss is recent onset, speech and language is likelyto deteriorate rapidly.

Child often more comfortable interactingwith deaf or hard of hearing peers due toease of communication. Often in themainstream, child will have greaterdependence on adults due to difficultiesunderstanding oral communication. Inservice to hearing peers and teachersis essential to foster acceptance.

If an auditory/oral approach is used, full time, consis-tent use of amplification (hearing aids/FM) is essentialif hearing is to be maximized. Frequency transpositionaid or cochlear implant may be an option. If culturallydeaf emphasis is used, exposure to deaf, ASL users isvital. Self-contained educational placement with otherdeaf and hard of hearing students often a lessrestrictive option. Inclusion into regular classes asmuch as is beneficial to student (with oral or signinterpreter). Note-taking, captioned films and visualaids are necessary accommodations. Training incommunication repair strategies helpful. Inservice ofmainstream teachers is essential.

Unilateral(One normalear and oneear withpermanentloss).

Child can "hear"� but will have difficulty understanding incertain situations, such as hearing faint or distantspeech, especially if poor hearing ear is closest to theperson speaking. Will usually have difficulty localizingsounds and voices using hearing alone. The unilaterallistener will have greater difficulty understanding whenenvironment is noisy and/or reverberant, especially withnormal ear towards the overhead projector or othersound source and poor hearing ear towards theteacher. Exhibits difficulty detecting or understandingsoft speech from the side of the poor hearing ear,especially in a group discussion.

Child may be accused of selectivehearing due to discrepancies in speechunderstanding in quiet versus noise. Social problems may arise as childexperiences difficulty understanding innoisy cooperative learning, lunch orrecess situations. May misconstruepeer conversations and feel rejected orridiculed. Child may be more fatigued inclassroom setting due to greater effortneeded to listen, especially if class isactive or has relatively poor acoustics.May appear inattentive, distractable orfrustrated, with behavior or socialproblems sometimes evident.

Allow child to change seat locations to direct the betterear toward the most effective listening position. Student is at risk for educational difficulties as half ofstudents with unilateral hearing loss experiencesignificant learning problems. Often have difficultylearning sound/letter associations in typically noisyKindergarten and grade 1 settings. Educationalmonitoring is warranted. Teacher inservice isbeneficial. May benefit from a hearing aid on thepoorer hearing ear if there is residual hearing oroccasionally a CROS aid can be successful. Willbenefit from a sound-field FM system in the classroom,especially in lower grades, or a personal FM systemwith low gain/power.

Note: All children with hearing loss require periodic audiologic evaluation, rigorous amplification checks, regular monitoring of their access to instruction andthe effectiveness of their communication skills. Children with hearing loss (especially conductive) need appropriate medical attention along with educationalaccommodations and services.

Teacher Inservice: All children require access to verbal instruction if they are to succeed in school. A child without effective access to teacher instructionwill not receive an appropriate education. Distance, noise in classroom and fragmentation caused by hearing loss prevent access. Use of visuals, FMclassroom amplifications, visual communication systems, notetakers, communication partners, etc. provide access to instruction. Components of goodclassroom management for a child with hearing loss include: 1) keep in close proximity to the child during instruction, 2) call on students by name duringdiscussions and summarize important points, 3) reduce noise sources, 4) check student comprehension following directions, 5) adapt/modify curriculum forstudent to experience success, 6) utilize classroom amplification daily for all large group instruction, 7) be aware of potential changes in hearing ability andreport if suspected, 8) facilitate socialization between the child and peers, 9) keep lighting from windows on teacher�s face.

Developed by Karen L. Anderson, EdS & Noel D. Matkin, PhD 1998. Used by permission of author.

Classroom Tips for Working with the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students

15

CLASSROOM TIPS FOR WORKINGWITH DEAF AND HARD-OF-HEARINGSTUDENTS

Every child is an individual with his/her ownstrengths and limitations. This means it’s im-portant to not have a preconceived notion

of a D/HH child’s ability to function based on thedegree of his/her hearing loss. Regardless of the typeor severity of the hearing loss, a teacher can greatlyimprove a D/HH child’s ability to function in theclassroom by making minor changes in his/her teach-ing style.

This section is devoted to providing insights as wellas discussing strategies for managing the classroomfor mainstreamed students who have a hearing loss.Not every consideration highlighted below willapply to all D/HH students.

Fostering a Positive MainstreamExperience

It was discussed previously how many D/HH chil-dren perceive themselves as different becausethey wear hearing aids, cochlear implants and/or

an FM system and may have difficulty communi-cating with others. Ultimately this impacts theirself-esteem. Listed below are ways the teacher canaddress this issue and help foster a supportive class-room environment:

• Reinforce positive coping strategies (e.g. how torespond to teasing on the playground, what tosay to an individual when they ask why the childwears hearing aids, etc.).

• Promote self-advocacy and activities that fos-ter inclusion. A mainstreamed pupil may needmore formal instruction on how to interact so-cially with his/her normally hearing peers.

• Support daily use of personal hearing aids,cochlear implants and other assistive listening de-vices prescribed for the student.

• Help the pupil understand his/her own hearingloss and provide an opportunity for the studentto share information with the class about hear-ing loss, and how his/her hearing aids, cochlearimplant and/or FM system works.

• Provide opportunities to meet other D/HH stu-dents on a regular basis (pen pals, internet, familyfield trips).

• Make sure to review safety and emergency pro-cedures directly with the D/HH student. In theevent of a fire or emergency situation, check allrestrooms since many D/HH children may notbe able to hear the alarms.

The D/HH itinerant teacher can provide addi-tional information or assist the mainstream teacherwith many of these activities.

16


Preferential Seating

Both noise and lighting impact a D/HHstudent’s ability to hear and receive informa-tion visually. Please consider the following

when assigning student seating:

• Seat the student with his/her back towards thelight source (typically a window or open door)since it is difficult to speechread or see othervisual clues when looking into the light.

• If a child has a “better” ear seat him/her withhis/her better ear towards the teacher.

• During group activities, encourage the studentto watch the faces of the other children whenthey speak. Semi-circle seating is especially help-ful to a D/HH student.

• Try not to seat D/HH students near air condi-tioners, heaters, open doors or windows,computers, overhead projectors, or near otherhigh noise areas of the room.

• Seat the student near the front of the classroomwith good visual access to the teacher. Sittingoff to one side also allows greater access to themajority of students in the room during class dis-cussions.

• Seat the child near a peer “buddy” to assist inkeeping the student on track. By watchinghis/her buddy, the D/HH student will also gainclues to missed information.


17

Improving Communication

Many D/HH students rely onspeechreading to obtain informationfrom a speaker’s facial expressions to

supplement their auditory input. Here are someideas for a number of common-sense accommoda-tions the teacher can do to improve both auditoryand visual communication:

• Speak naturally at normal volume. Exaggera-tion and over emphasis of speech will hinder thestudent’s ability to speechread and auditorily pro-cess language.

• Get the attention of the student before address-ing him/her (call the child’s name or tap his/hershoulder).

• Make sure the speaker’s face is visible to the stu-dent . . trim large mustaches, avoid covering themouth or chewing on pencils, etc.

• Do not talk while walking around the room orturn towards the white board while giving in-structions. (An overhead projector can beeffective teaching tool if the fan noise doesn’toverwhelm the D/HH student).

• Since D/HH students have difficulty followingconversations that move around the room, iden-tify who is speaking and repeat peer commentsduring class discussions.

• Repeat any announcements given over the PAsystem.

• Restate rather than simply repeat informationwhen the student is having difficulty understand-ing after one repetition.

• On the white board, write instructions and in-formation such as new vocabulary words,assignments, announcements, simple outlines forthe lesson, and key words or phrases as the les-son progresses.

• Check for understanding. Ask the student ques-tions that require him/her to repeat contentrather than respond with yes or no answers.

• Provide the student with a written copy of thedaily bulletin.

• When homework is corrected within the class-room, give the student the answer sheet tocorrect his/her work.

• When doing a Read Aloud activity, have the stu-dent read first, or have them read the passagesilently.

• During video tape presentations, try to use a cap-tioned version (the itinerant teacher may have acatalog . . . ask in advance!). If one is not avail-able, give the student a script of the video orassign an alternate activity.

• Reduce visual distractions by reducing excessiveartwork, limiting the number of mobiles hangingfrom the ceiling and removing general clutter.However, providing additional visual supportsuch as pictures, charts, diagrams, and objects,to reinforce concepts being taught is helpful.

• Transitioning into new content is difficult forD/HH students. Using phrases such as, “Doesanyone have any more questions?,” “To summa-rize what’s been discussed . . . ,” and “Let’s moveon” will help the student follow changes in ac-tivities.

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Vocabulary, WordComprehension & Reading

Deaf and hard-of-hearing students havelimited exposure to a given word and as aresult they tend to have literal or inflexible

understanding of a word’s meaning. Use some ofthese strategies to help D/HH students increasetheir reading comprehension and stay on par withtheir hearing peers:

• Explain the meaning of new words introducedin class.

• Provide them with opportunities to read a vari-ety of materials on the subject and encouragethem to check out similar-subject informationfrom the library.

• Send home books the student has read in classso parents can review them with their child.

• Role play and act out the story.

• Conduct hands-on activities involving objectsdepicted in the story.

• Engage students in a discussion about vocabu-lary and concepts contained in a story prior tothe reading experience (the itinerant teachercan assist with this).

• Teach them cognitive or language strategies thatwill help them understand the text (prediction,compare and contrast, recall, sequencing,inferencing, etc.).

• Create an outline of the major points of thestory with the class.

Classroom Support andAccommodations

Team Approach

It was mentioned previously that it takes a teamto successfully mainstream a D/HH child. Mem-bers of the team may include the parents, classroomteacher, itinerant resource teacher, speech/languagetherapist, educational audiologist and the principal.The two most common problem areas in team man-agement occur when the role of each team memberis not clearly defined and when there is poor coor-dination and communication between the members.

Coordinating the exchange of information be-tween the classroom, support personnel and thehome can be challenging. This may be accomplishedthrough a combination of a diary system (often anotebook that travels back and forth), frequent “5-minute” meetings, or longer debriefing meetings.Developing a clear delineation of staff responsibili-ties, communicating among team members, andcontinually monitoring progress is essential for de-termining the individual needs of each pupil and todevelop an appropriate individualized education plan.

Resource and Itinerant Teachers

In addition to previously mentioned suggestions,the resource teacher and/or the D/HH itinerantteacher can help with vocabulary and language de-velopment, auditory training, practicing appropriatesocial skills and pre-/post-testing. Pre-teaching ac-tivities will help D/HH students establish theknowledge base needed to understand new infor-mation as well as expose them to new terms andconcepts (e.g. advanced copies of vocabularywords). Post-teaching can be used to review keyconcepts, clarify misconceptions, organize informa-tion and expand the D/HH child’s knowledge ofcontent or skills emphasized in the lesson.


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Assistive Technology and Personnel

• Transcribers may be assigned to the classroom(especially at the middle or high school level).They will provide the student with a backupcopy of class notes to compare with their own.

• Peer notetakers that have been trained in propernotetaking techniques may be assigned to a stu-dent in middle or high school to make sure thatthe D/HH student has complete notes.

• Sign language interpreters may be assigned to aD/HH student if s/he needs more than aural in-put to fully access the curriculum.

• FM systems are usually provided for hard-of-hearing students and should be used for allclassroom activities, including music and physi-cal education. In addition, these systems shouldbe used for assemblies and field trips to provideequal access to information.

Standardized Assessments (SAT-9)

The IEP team determines what, if any, accom-modations or modifications are needed for a childwith a disability to participate in an assessment.These can include flexible scheduling, flexible seat-ing, large-print or braille, out-of-level testing, revisedtest format, aids and/or aides (e.g. using FM sys-tems, having directions read or signed). Whenselecting individual accommodations and modifica-tions, parents, students, and other IEP teammembers must understand how their decisions willaffect the use of the scores (some modifications mayaffect the student’s chances for such things as mov-ing to the next grade or graduating with a regulardiploma). If this has not been addressed, contactthe student’s advocate teacher or D/HH Itinerantteacher. A sample list of instruction and test ac-commodations is included in Appendix B.

Closing Thoughts

A number of strategies have been suggested tohelp improve the D/HH student’s success in theclassroom. In general, academic expectationsshould not be lowered for D/HH students and ex-pecting less work or achievement from them willonly result in a “dummying down” effect. Deaf andhard-of-hearing students need to be held to thesame standards as their peers and should not usetheir hearing loss an “easy out” excuse (e.g. incom-plete homework).

By far, the most important factor that contrib-utes to the success of a mainstreamed D/HH childis a teacher who is aware of the child’s challenges,shows a sensitivity to their special communicationneeds, and is willing to be flexible by continuallyadapting and modifying teaching strategies. Theteacher’s reward is knowing that s/he has been thekey link in contributing to the D/HH child’s successand ability to reach his/her fullest potential.

Photo courtesy of Clarke Jacksonville Auditory Oral Center

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Listening Devices and Assistive Technology

21

Assistive technology and devices for soundaccess are providing more hearing optionsto choose from. As mentioned earlier, in-

telligibility of speech (the ability to hear word-sounddistinctions clearly) is compromised in noisysitutaions even though the sounds might still be au-dible. Distance from aspeaker, background noise,room reverberation, and at-tention all influence howaudible and intelligiblespeech is for a child with ahearing loss.

The focus of all hearingtechnology is to enhance thereception of a clear acous-tic (mostly speech) signaland for this to occur, consis-tent use with appropriateforms of amplification are amust. Hearing aids andassistive listening deviceshelp a child access his/herresidual (remaining) hearing.

This section of the guideprovides the teacher, profes-sional and parent with ageneral understanding of the amplification devicesthat are currently available. When the teacher playsa role in trouble shooting problems, an in-servicetraining is needed so the individual fully understandsthe technology being used specific to the child inhis/her classroom.

Hearing Aids

Hearing aids are not used in the same man-ner as glasses are to correct vision. Hear-ing aids do not distinguish between speech

and noise as a normal ear does, and cannot “tuneout” much of what a childdoes not want to hear. Al-though hearing aids are goodin one-on-one and smallgroup situations, they alsoamplify all sounds, includingbackground noise.

Amplification cannot cor-rect damage to the inner ear.Even the most advancedhearing instruments of todaycannot return a person’shearing to normal. Rather,hearing aids amplify andshape incoming sounds tomake them audible to an earthat could not otherwise de-tect them. There have beenmajor improvements in theflexibility and sound qualityof modern hearing instru-

ments, such as the digital hearing aid, but this has noeffect on a damaged hearing nerve’s ability to inter-pret what it hears.

LISTENING DEVICES AND ASSISTIVETECHNOLOGY


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How a Hearing Aid Works

All parts of the hearing aid work together to am-plify sound. Regardless of the style, all hearing aidshave the following components:

Microphone: receives the acoustic signal (soundsfrom the environment) and changes the sounds intoan electric signal. Some hearing aids have multipleand/or directional microphones to assist in control-ling sound input.

Amplifying Circuit: shapes the sound, now in theform of electric current, and makes it louder. Theamount of amplification provided by a hearing aid iscalled “gain.”

Receiver: changes the amplified and shaped elec-trical signal back into an acoustic signal (sound) thatcan be heard. A receiver is a microphone in reverse.

Earmold: custom made ear pieces that direct thesound from the hearing aid into the ear and keepthe hearing aid in place.

Hearing aids are powered by batteries and feature:

• Internal controls which are set by an audiolo-gist. These controls determine whichfrequencies are amplified (frequency response)and the loudest sound the hearing aid can make(saturation response).

• External controls which are set by the hearingaid user. They may include a switch that can beset on M (microphone), M-T (microphone +telecoil), T (telecoil), or O (off).

• A Telecoil switch which allows the hearing aidto be used with a telephone and some assistivelistening devices. Not all hearing aids contain atelecoil.

• A volume control wheel which can be adjustedto increase or decrease the loudness of sound.On some hearing aids the volume control ad-justs automatically and there is no control wheel,while others may use a remote control to changethe settings.

Behind-The-Ear (BTE) Hearing Aid

A BTE hearing aid is the most common type ofaid used with children. It is the most flexible (suit-able for any degree of hearing loss) and can attachto assistive listening devices such as an FM system.As the name suggests, this type of hearing aid fitsbehind the ear and is connected to a soft plasticearmold which fits inside the ear. As shown, thesound hook or ear hook curves around the top ofthe ear and attaches to a small piece of plastic tub-ing extending from the earmold.

Sound is routed through the earmold into the ear.The microphone is located at the top of the hearingaid near the ear hook. The battery, amplifier andreceiver are all inside the case that fits behind the ear.

Many teachers wonder why they can hear“squealing” from an aid. A hearing aid is like a minipublic address system, so due to the closeness ofthe microphone to the receiver there is acousticfeedback when the earmold is loose and feedback“escapes.” If there is frequent squealing, it may bea sign that the earmold needs to be replaced.

Microphone opening

Volumecontrol

Cover forFitting controls

FunctionSwitch Battery compartment

Ear mold

Plastic sound tube

Sound hook


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Other Hearing Aid Styles

The body-style hearing aid (worn on a harnesson the chest) was once a common style of aid forchildren. Since the microphone is not at ear level itdoes not provide natural sound reception at the ear.Advancements in hearing technology have enabledmore powerful aids to be worn BTE, eliminating theneed for body-style aids.

In-the-ear (ITE) and in-the-canal (ITC) hearingaids are popular with adults due to their cosmeticappeal. These aids are seldom recommended forchildren due to the fact that children’s ears are stillgrowing, there are safety concerns, and they havelimited ability to utilize assistive listening devices.

Finally, some children who have difficulty wear-ing a hearing aid (due to malformation of the externalear or persistent middle ear problems) may utilize abone-conduction aid. The bone conduction receiveris fastened to a headband which holds it to the head.


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Cochlear Implants

The cochlear implant is an exciting piece oftechnology that offers severe-to-pro-foundly deaf children the opportunity

to access sound which otherwise would not beavailable to them with traditional hearing aids. Co-chlear implants are not like a hearing aid. In fact,the implant bypasses the damaged parts of theinner ear and stimulates the nerve to send informa-tion to the brain.

Components of the Implant

A cochlear implant consists of three parts: re-ceiver, headpiece, and speech processor.

Receiver. The receiver is the part that is implanted.It looks like a magnetic disk about the size of a quar-ter. It is placed under the skin behind one ear, and awire that leads from the receiver to an electrode isplaced in the fluid of the cochlea in the inner ear.

Transmitter/Headpiece. A small headpiece is wornjust behind the ear and contains the microphone thatpicks up sound in the environment and the trans-mitter that sends sound through the system. Themicrophone and the transmitter, placed on the headbehind the ear, are held in place over the implantedreceiver by small magnets in both the transmitterand the implanted receiver.

Speech processor. The speech processor, whichshapes and amplifies the sounds picked up by themicrophone, is worn on the body, either behind theear or on a belt. It is attached to the transmitter by aspecial cord.

How the Cochlear Implant Works

Sound waves enter the microphone located in theheadpiece. Sound is sent through the transmitter andalong a wire to the speech processor. The speechprocessor converts the sound into a special signalthat is sent to the implanted receiver. The receiversends the signal to the brain, where it is interpretedas sound.

Above: Electrodes, receiver and behind-the-ear implant speechprocessor and magnet.

Left: Speech processor, headpiece containing microphone,transmitter, and magnet.

Photos courtesy ofCochlear Corporation.


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FM and Infrared Systems

Hearing aids and cochlear implants are notdesigned to deal with all listening needs.Their biggest limitation is their inability to

enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (defined below) insituations where the listener cannot be physicallyclose to the speaker.

Assistive listening devices (ALDs) encompass arange of products designed to solve the problems ofnoise, distance from the speaker, and room rever-berations. The mostcommon type of ALD utilized in theeducational setting are FM orinfrared system (others used morecommonly in the home includetelephone and alarm devices whichwill not be described here). Thereare both personal and sound-fieldsystems.

Distance Hearing andSpeech-to-Noise Ratio

In order to understand how an FM(frequency-modulated) system helpsa D/HH child, the concepts of dis-tance hearing and speech-to-noiseratio (S/N) must be explained. Achild with a hearing impairment ofany degree, even when wearing hearing aids, can-not hear well over distances. Distance hearing is aproblem because the speech signal (usually theteacher’s voice) loses both intensity and criticalspeech elements as the signal travels away from thesound source. The greater the hearing impairment,the greater the reduction in earshot or distancehearing.

The S/N ratio (also called signal-to-noise ratio)is the relationship between the loudness of the mes-sage (signal) and the background sound (noise) itmust overcome to be heard and understood. Back-ground noise is anything that interferes with thesignal: air conditioning, traffic, pencil sharpeners,etc. The more favorable the S/N ratio (the louderthe desired auditory signal relative to backgroundsounds), the more intelligible speech is for the child.

Individuals with normal hearing typically requirea S/N ratio of +6 dB for the recep-tion of intelligible speech. This meansthat the teacher’s voice needs to be 6dB louder than the background noise.Children who are D/HH require a+15 to +20 dB S/N ratio. Due tonoise and changes in teacher position,the average classroom S/N ratio isonly +4 or +5 dB, which is less thanideal for even normal hearing stu-dents.

Many teachers feel that if they raisetheir voice, this will be sufficient for achild to hear what they are saying.However, yelling from across theroom only promotes audibility (hear-ing the presence of speech) notintelligibility (hearing differences

among speech sounds). If the D/HH child is notreceiving a complete speech signal, s/he is being de-nied access to spoken communication. Yelling is alsofrequently equated with anger which may cause thestudent to have increased stress.

The ideal distance for a child to hear speechsounds is 6 inches from his ear. Since it is not prac-tical for a teacher to sit next to one child in aclassroom situation, the FM system is a great solu-tion to address both of these problems.


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Personal FM System

An FM unit is an assistive listening device thatimproves the speech-to-noise ratio by use of a re-mote microphone that can be placed close to thesound source (usually the teacher’s mouth, but it canalso be a tape recorder, TV monitor, etc.). A per-sonal FM unit is like having a tiny private radio stationthat transmits and receives on a single frequency.There are no wires connecting the speaker and lis-tener which allows the teacher to freely move aboutthe classroom.

The teacher’s microphone is usually clipped totheir clothing and worn about six inches below themouth. The pupil can sit anywhere in the classroomand hear the teacher’s voice as if it were only sixinches away. The FM system improves the S/N ra-tio by reducing the distance the teacher’s voice hasto travel and the effects of background noise. TheFM receiver is worn by the child and must be set tothe same radio frequency as the microphone/trans-mitter for the child to receive the desired radio signal.

There are a number of ways that the FM signalcan be transmitted to the hearing aid: Walkman-typehead phones, button-type earmolds, wire or loopworn around a child’s neck, or direct audio input.Some systems do not involve the use of hearing aids,while others require the students to have special fea-tures on their hearing aids. Because there are varioussettings and numerous options, all teachers shouldreceive an in-service training from the audiologiston how the system works along with trouble-shoot-ing techniques.

Sound-field or Classroom Systems

Sound-field technology is a tool that allows con-trol of the acoustic environment in a classroom,thereby facilitating speech accessibility of theteacher to all the children in the room. Sound-fieldsystems are like high fidelity, wireless public addresssystems and transmit via radio waves (FM) orinfrared light.

As with the personal FM system, the speakerwears a microphone transmitter and the signal is sentto a reciever/amplifier that is connected to loud-speakers. The sound-field increases the loudness ofspeech relative to background noise.

The major difference between a sound-field unitand a personal FM system is that the personal FMcan provide the most favorable S/N ratio: +20 to+30 dB. Sound-field FM systems typically improvethe classroom S/N ratio by about +10 to +20 dB.Therefore, children with more severe hearing lossestypically require personal FM units. In some cases,a sound-field unit may be the only amplification neededfor children who have a mild hearing loss.

Photos courtesy of Phonic Ear®


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Benefits of Sound-Field Systems

There have been numerous studies documentingthe benefits of sound-field technology. Based oncurrent information, the following children appearto benefit the most from sound-field amplification(due to the increased speech-to-noise ratio):

• Those with conductive hearing loss (includingthose with histories of middle ear infections)

• Children with minimal degree of sensorineuralhearing loss (unilateral and bilateral)

• Children with central auditory processing disor-ders (CAPD)

• Students with attention disorders (ADD,ADHD) and developmental delays

• Preschoolers, kindergartners, and first graders withnormal hearing sensitivity who are in the crucialstages of developing academic competencies

• Those with articulation and language disorders

• English as a second language students

• Students with dyslexia

These studies have further concluded that class-rooms with amplified systems have students whotend to listen longer, have better on-task behaviorsand improved test scores. Additionally, studentswho have a hearing loss are not singled out when asound-field system is used (as opposed to a personalFM system). Older D/HH students, who may notconsistently wear their hearing aids due to cosmeticreasons, will also benefit from a sound-field amplifi-cation system. Teachers who use sound-fieldtechnology report they need to use less energy pro-jecting their voices and are less tired at the end ofthe day. FM systems also increase teacher efficiencyby requiring fewer repetitions which allows for moreactual teaching time. Overall, classrooms are quieterand both children and teachers are less fatigued.

A great deal of this guide has been dedicated toexplaining FM systems, however, in order for themto be effective they must be used appropriately.This includes:

• Making sure a lapel microphone is not clippedto the side of a garment (it must be in the middleso speech doesn’t fade in and out). It is prefer-able for teahcers to wear a headset microphone.

• Keeping jewelry or other items such as booksand paper from rubbing against the microphone.

• Being sensitive to minimizing noises such ascrumpling paper, tapping pencils or chewing.

• Turning the system off while assisting other stu-dents individually or talking with other adults.

• Repeating comments or questions made by peersso the D/HH student can hear them.


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Limitations of FM Systems

FM systems require the speaker to use a micro-phone which 1) may not be used properly, and 2)may not always be feasible in every situation. Inputfrom other speakers — aides, peers, or audio equip-ment, for instance — will generally not be amplifiedand these remarks may be missed by the D/HH stu-dent.

Instructional methods also need to be taken intoconsideration. As interactive, small-group, andcomputer-assisted learning increases, the utilizationof amplification technologies becomes more prob-lematic. At times it may become a burden for theteacher to ensure that D/HH students clearly heartheir peers during discussions and cooperative learn-ing activities.

Amplification technologies also cannot com-pletely compensate for (or overcome) a pooracoustical environment. In fact, amplified back-ground noise can be painful and disruptive forchildren with a variety of auditory disabilities. Par-ents and education professionals need to understandthat FM systems should not be used as the solutionfor correcting classrooms with inappropriate acous-tics. Please refer to the next chapter on Acousticsand the Classroom Environment for more informa-tion on this subject.


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Managing Auditory Devices

Aide or Teacher’s Role

Sadly, over 50% of amplification devices are notworking on any given day. A dead hearing aid isworse than nothing at all because the earmold thenacts like an earplug. The only way to know if thehearing aid is working is to listen to it at least oncea day at the beginning of each school day.

This is also true for personal FM systems whichmust also be tested in the environment in which it isbeing used. The FM system may be free from in-terference in one room, but pick up noise fromlighting ballasts, radio frequency sources, HVACcontrols, and other electrical, electronic, microwaveand even infrared sources in another part of theschool. These interferences compromise the effec-tiveness of assistive technologies and often youngchildren who have a hearing loss are not be able toidentify and call attention to malfunctioning devices.

The teacher or aide will need a hearing aid stetho-scope (called a stethoset) to listen to a hearing aidand an FM unit which utilizes an earmold. A quickand simple test, called the Ling 6 sounds, can be per-formed to determine if a system is functioningproperly. The Ling 6 sounds are ah, ee, oo, sh, sand m; these sounds were selected because theycontain speech energy that is representative of allEnglish speech sounds. The school district audiolo-gist can provide the stethoset and demonstrate thesound test at the in-service training.

If any type of malfunction occurs with the FMsystem the teacher should contact the audiologistand request a back-up system while the current oneis being repaired. If the student is experiencing prob-lems with his hearing aid call the parent or send homea note describing the problem.

Student’s Role

The level of responsibility for managing auditorydevices is determined by the child’s age and ability.Some primary goals for a kindergarten-age childmight be able to insert and remove the hearing aid,test and change batteries, and notify the teacher thatthe hearing aid or FM system is malfunctioning. Asthe child gets older, s/he should be taught basic main-tenance and trouble-shooting techniques. Theaudiologist should work with the teacher to designa program that enables the child to take control andresponsibility to the fullest extent possible.

Please remember that amplification that is notfunctioning properly, even for part of the day, cansignificantly impact a child’s learning and self-esteem.


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Additional Assistive Technology

Captioning

Closed captioning is a process where the dialogueportion of a program (TV, film, video) is translatedto captions (subtitles) and viewed on the monitor.D/HH students are unlikely to be able to speechreador fully hear during a film or video presentation, sothe use of captioning will help them understand thecontent of the film. Since notetaking while viewinga film is difficult at best, study guides (which oftencome with the video) should be distributed to theD/HH student prior to watching the film. Studentsshould not be held accountable for the material cov-ered in a film if it was not captioned or a study guidewas not provided in advance.

In addition to captioning, placing the microphoneof the FM system in front of the speaker, or using anattachment that allows the FM to be directly pluggedinto the audio output of the projector or TV moni-tor, will greatly help the D/HH student. This allowsthe student to receive the message directly ratherthan hearing external noise which may mask themessage.

Overhead Projectors

The overhead projector is an ideal tool for teach-ers because it allows them to face the class whilewriting down information. The D/HH studentshould not be seated too close to the projector sinceit is also a source of background noise.

Educational Transcription Systems

Educational Transcription Services, Computer-Assisted Notetaking or Captioning Services all referto a system for translating speech into print within afew seconds of the spoken word. Through the useof computer equipment (laptop, word-processingprogram and in some cases a stenotype machine)and a notetaker/typist, the student can read notes

as the class progresses. As the notetaker types textit is displayed on a monitor (TV monitor in the roomor laptop in front of the student). A hard copy ofthe lecture can be given to the student after class.

There are verbatim programs and summary orabbreviated programs. CART (known as Communi-cation Access Realtime Translation, CommunicationAccess Realtime Technology, Computer-AidedRealtime Translation, Computer-AssistedRealTime, or Computer-Assisted Realtime Trans-lation) and C-Print are verbatim options. TypeWelltrained typists us an abbreviation-based typing sys-tem. The use of remote captioners (notetakers whoare located off-site but still provide typed text in“real time”) is an option that is developing. Thissupport service is typically used for middle andhighschool students.

Automatic Speech Recognition

The technology for Automatic Speech Recogni-tion (ASR) programs is developing rapidly. Forvoice input, the teacher wears a headset micro-phone that is connected to a computer. As theteacher speaks to the class, the ASR program “rec-ognizes” his/her voice and translates the spokenmessage into text that is displayed on a monitor.Some programs require a considerable amount oftime to “train” the speaker’s voice so the programcan accurately read it. Examples include DragonNaturally Speaking (by L&H Dragon System’s, Inc.)and IBM’s Via Voice. There is a program on themarket called the iCommunicator by InteractiveSolutions, which converts speech to text, speechto sign language, speech to computer-generatedvoice, or text to computer-generated voice. Referto the Resources chapter for further information onthese products.

Acoustics

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The Need for Good Acoustics

Acoustics refers to the total effect of sound,especially when produced in an enclosedspace. The need for good acoustics in class-

rooms is simple. . . students must be able to hear inorder to understand the teacher and each other.Most individuals don’t realize that poor acoustics af-fect not only the transfer ofinformation, but the learn-ing process itself. It has beenwell documented that inap-propriate acoustics in aclassroom can compromisespeech perception, on-taskbehavior, reading and spell-ing ability, behavior,attention, concentrationand academic achievementin children with a hearingloss.

Because children are inef-ficient listeners (due tobeing neurologically imma-ture and lacking theexperience necessary topredict from context), they require better acousti-cal environments than adults. The ability to focuson speech while there is competing noise present isa developmental skill that is not mastered until ap-proximately 13-15 years of age. The younger thechild, the greater their difficulty in comprehendingand attending to speech when noise is present. Stu-

dents may not be aware that poor acoustics are con-tributing to their learning difficulties and even if theyare, most don’t want to bring attention to theirdisability by stating that they’re having problemshearing.

Modifications to learning environments which in-clude classrooms, speechtherapy rooms, multi-pur-pose rooms and cafeteriasare essential so D/HHstudents can have totalaccess to learning.Appropriate acousticmodifications can providea D/HH child the oppor-tunity to fully participatein class and can mean thedifference between a suc-cessful and unsuccessfulmainstream placement.

Three factors influencehow well students are ableto hear in the classroom:distance, reverberation

and background noise. The issue of distance (howfar the listener is from the speaker) is discussed inthe section on FM systems in the Assistive Technol-ogy chapter. FM technology is a must, but so areimproved classroom acoustics. To be effective, am-plification requires control of reverberation andbackground noise.

ACOUSTICS AND THE CLASSROOMENVIRONMENT


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Classroom (Background) Noiseand Reverberation

Internal and External Noise

The term background noise refers to any audi-tory disturbance that interferes with what a listenerwants to hear. Classrooms are noisy . . . the aver-age primary grade classroom noise level is 51 dBunoccupied and 69 dB occupied.

Noise generated within the classroom (internalnoise) contributes to background noise levels.Sources of internal noise include:

• Heating, ventilating and air conditioning system(HVAC)

• Students talking

• Desks and chairs sliding on hard surfaced floors

• Shuffling books and papers

• Pencil sharpeners

• Audio-visual equipment (overhead projectors,etc.)

• Computers

• Aquarium pumps

• Lighting (ballasts in flourescent lights)

• Soft background music

• Fans

Research has shown that internal sources of noisepresent in the typical classroom are the most detri-mental to children because this form of noise is alsosimilar in loudness and frequency to the teacher’svoice.

External noise is exactly that, noise from outsidethe classroom. This can include:

• Interference from adjacent classrooms (especially in “loft” or open classroom schools)

• Corridor and hallway traffic

• Sounds emanating from cafeterias, playgroundsand gymnasiums

• Aircraft

• Highway traffic

• Construction equipment

• Lawn mowers, blowers and other landscapemaintenance noise

Whether internally or externally generated, thepresence of high noise levels leads to relatively poorsignal-to-noise ratios (which was discussed in theprevious chapter).

Acoustics

33

Reverberation

Reverberation is sound, including both the spokenmessage and background noise, reflecting off the sur-face within the environment and persisting in thespace. In other words reverberation is the remain-der of the sound that exists in a room after the sourcehas stopped (often referred to as an echo). Thisechoing effect occurs in classrooms that do not haveenough sound-absorbing surfaces. The amount ofreverberation is determined by the size of the roomand how much acoustically absorbent material suchas carpeting, draperies, and treated ceiling tile, cov-ers the surfaces. The lower the reverberation timethe better (between .4 and .6 seconds is desirable).

This echoing effect also contributes to backgroundnoise levels which in turn covers up or “masks” thespoken word (typically from the teacher). The neteffect is a reduction in the student’s ability to under-stand speech. Recall the discussion on how “walk,”walked,” “walking,” and “walks” may all sound thesame to a hearing-D/HH child (see the chapter onthe Impact of Hearing Loss). Word-final consonantssuch “ed,” “s,” and “ing” are particularly vulnerableto being masked by background noise.


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Improving Classroom Listening

Many schools were designed before therewas scientific knowledge connectingbackground noise and reverberation to

children’s speech perception and it’s link to learningdifficulties. There is no doubt however, that acous-tics is playing a greater role in a child’s learningenvironment. To date there are recommendationsbut no laws or national standards which addressclassroom noise and reverberation. Even in the ab-sence of standards (which are expected to beestablished in 2002), the IEP team should consideracoustic modifications in a D/HH child’s Individual-ized Education Plan. The IEP process is designedto address the individual needs of each child whichdo not require standards to be in place.

Reducing Internal and Reverberant Noise

The first step in making changes to the acousticalenvironment of the classroom is for the teacher tobecome aware of the many internal sources of noise.Fortunately internal noise and reverberation are rela-tively easy to control by adding absorbent materialsto certain room surfaces.

Sound absorbing surfaces include such items as:

• Acoustically treated low ceilings. This is by farthe best sound absorbing material.

• Wall panels. Panels should cover at least half ofthe wall surfaces and must be Class A fire ratedand sufficiently porous and dense to absorbsound.

• Carpeting. Although not the best sound absorb-ing alternative, it is effective in reducing chairnoise and feet scuffling. Recent advances in car-pet technology have led to the availability ofbacteria-resistant floor coverings. Where car-peting is not feasible or practical, putting “tips”(or tennis balls) on chair legs is an easy solutionwhich significantly reduces noise.

• Thick curtains or draperies.

Teachers can play an important role by evaluatingand monitoring internal classroom noises on an on-going basis. It is important to have equipment(HVAC, computers, projectors, light fixtures) ser-viced regularly to eliminate noise created bymalfunction.

Acoustics

35

Reducing External Noise

Exterior noise, which is frequently intermittent,may be more difficult to control than internal noise.Some strategies for reducing external noise include:

• Seating children with hearing loss away from suchnoise sources.

• Insulating vents and other openings.

• Closing windows and doors during instruction.

• Utilizing landscaping, such as the placement oftrees, shrubs, and earthen banks as a barrier.

• Utilizing rooms that are away from busy hallwaysand other large group areas.

• Installing multi-pane glass (louvered windows,which are found in many schools, offer little pro-tection from outside noise).

• Ensuring doors are well sealed.

• Ensuring that landscape services be provided dur-ing non-instructional time.

Many of the above suggestions for reducing noisemay appear to be out of the parent’s or teacher’s abil-ity to implement, but parents and professional staffare key members of the IEP team and can act as anadvocate for change. If the learning environmentdoes not allow instruction to be heard clearly, anyteaching, testing or intervention that uses speech asthe vehicle for interaction is likely to fall far short ofits projected goals. Keep in mind that it is often thesum of many simple solutions that, when combined,create the biggest impact in reducing noise.

Additional information on this subject can be foundin both the Laws and Resources chapters of thisguide.


36

Laws, Regulations and Guidlines

37

This section contains information on laws,regulations and guidelines as they relate tothe needs of deaf and hard-of-hearing students.

Individuals With DisabilitiesEducation Act or IDEA

20 United States Code Secs. 1400 and following34 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 300(1997 Amendments)

IDEA is the principal law which determines thespecial educational services children will receive froma school system. This federal law requires schooldistricts to provide each student who has a disabil-ity with a free appropriate public education (FAPE).FAPE authorizes special education and related ser-vices, which are provided at public expense andwithout charge to student’s families, meet appro-priate standards and conform with an IEP. Assistivetechnology is specifically mentioned in IDEA as aservice which school districts may have to providein order for a student with disabilities to benefit fromspecial education. The U.S. Department of Educa-tion has created regulations under the authority ofthe IDEA.

How the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (IDEA) Applies to Deaf andHard of Hearing Students.

http://clerccenter2.gallaudet.edu/KidsWorldDeafNet/e-docs/index.html (located in the virtual li-brary/e-documents section of the Kids World DeafNet Website). This resource contains a vast amountof information regarding the law, its implementingregulations, and its particular implications for fami-lies with children who are deaf or hard of hearing.Highly recommended!

IDEA related websites:

www.ideapractices.org/idearegsmain.htm

www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/IDEA/index.html

www.ideapractices.org/regs/AppendxA.htm

www.ideapractices.org/docs/ideadepot/ userguide.htm

California Education Code, Secs. 56000 andfollowingCalifornia Code of Regulations, Secs. 3000 andfollowing

These are state statutes and regulations whichparallel the IDEA. The State Department ofEducation established the enabling regulations.

www.leginfo.ca.gov/ (click on California Law, thenEducation Code and search)

www.calregs.com/

LAWS, REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES


38

Americans With Disabilities Act

42 United States Code Chapter 12628 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 35

This wide-ranging legislation passed in 1990 in-tending to make society more accessible to peoplewith disabilities. It is divided into five titles: Title I(Employment), Title II (Public Services), Title III(Accommodations), Title IV (Telecommunications),and Title V (Miscellaneous). The Departments ofJustice (DOJ) and Transportation (DOT) are respon-sible for issuing and enforcing regulations toimplement Titles II and III of the ADA. The Depart-ment of Justice is responsible for Title II, which appliesto activities of public entities such as school systems(28 C.F.R. Part 35), however, the U.S. Departmentof Education is designated by the DOJ to resolvecomplaints alleging noncompliance with this partagainst public elementary and secondary educationsystems and institutions.

Acoustics

Achieving appropriate classroom acoustics is par-ticularly important considering the emphasis of theADA on removing barriers and improving accessi-bility of educational facilities. Under Title III all newconstruction and modifications must be accessibleto individuals with disabilities. For existing facili-ties, barriers to services must be removed if readilyachievable (poor acoustics is an architectural bar-rier to many people with a variety ofcommunication disabilities). The Architectural andTransportation Barriers Compliance Board (AccessBoard) is an independent Federal agency that is re-sponsible for developing/updating the ADAAccessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) to includeacoustic accessibility. It is anticipated that a stan-dard will be adopted in 2002. Acousticperformance criteria for maximum backgroundnoise levels in unoccupied learning spaces are ex-pected to be 35db. A-weighted and maximumreverberation time 0.6 seconds.

Auxiliary Aids and Services

The Department of Justice oversees the portionsof Title II of the ADA implementing regulations thatspecifically addresses the obligation of a schoolboard or other public entity to remove communi-cation barriers for deaf individuals. This includesfurnishing, at no cost, auxiliary aids and serviceswhere necessary to afford an individual with a dis-ability an equal opportunity to participate in aservice or program conducted by a public entity.This can include interpreters, notetakers, transcrip-tion services, assistive listening devices and othermethods of making aurally delivered materials avail-able to persons with hearing impairments.

ADA related websites:

www.usdoj.gov./crt/ada/adahom1.htm(US Dept. of Justice, ADA Home Page)

www.ed.gov/ocr/regs/28cfr35.html(28 C.F.R. Part 35)

www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/qandaeng.htm(ADA Questions & Answers)

www.access-board.gov/(Access Board)

www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.ht(ADA Accessibility Guidelines)

Laws, Regulations and Guidlines

39

Section 504 of the RehabilitationAct of 1973

29 United State Code Sec. 79434 Code of Federal Regulations Sections 104 andfollowing

Section 504 is another important piece of legisla-tion, especially if a child does not have anIndividualized Education Plan. Subpart D applies topreschool, elementary and secondary education andguarantees that students with disabilities may notbe discriminated against because of their disability.This is a federal anti-discrimination law designed toreasonably accommodate a student’s condition sothat his/her needs are met as adequately as the needsof students without disabilities. Section 504 defines“handicapped person” as any person who has aphysical or mental impairment which substantiallylimits one or more major life activities, who has arecord of such an impairment or who is regarded ashaving such an impairment. “Major life activities”include functions such as hearing. The U.S. Depart-ment of Education Office, Office for Civil Rights isresponsible for regulatory oversight.

In terms of the child with hearing loss, this lawcan be interpreted to mean that related aids and ser-vices, such as FM equipment and educationalaudiology related services, be provided to allow thechild to listen as adequately in the classroom as his/her nonhandicapped peers. Section 504 also requiresprograms which receive federal financial assistanceto provide interpreters or other auxiliary aids to in-dividuals with disabilities when necessary to givethem equal access to the program. Acoustic modi-fications to all learning environments (the classroom,auditorium, therapy rooms, etc.) could also be cov-ered under Section 504. In other words, the listeningneeds caused by the hearing impairment need to beaccommodated within the classroom.

540 Related Websites:

www.ed.gov/ocr/regs/34cfr104.html

www.dol.gov/dol/oasam/public/regs/statues/ sec504.htm

www.os.dhhs.gov/ocr/504.html

home.webmonster.net/sped.oh/article3.htm


40

Family Educational Rights andPrivacy Act (FERPA)

20 United States Code Section 1232 (g) - (i)34 Code of Federal Regulation, Part 99

FERPA provides parents with the right to inspectand review any and all education records directlyrelated to their children. Education records are de-fined as “those records, files, documents, and othermaterials which contain information directly relatedto a student; and are maintained by an educationalagency or institution or by a person acting for suchagency or institution.” This law also defines wheninformation can be released from a child’s educa-tional records. It is sometimes referred to as the“Buckley Amendment.”

FERPA Related Websites:

www.ed.gov/offices/OM/fpco/ferpa1.html

www.tourettesyndrome.net/documentLibrary/ ferpareg.htm

Programs for Deaf and Hard ofHearing Students

Guidelines for Quality StandardsCalifornia Department of Education, 2000

This document contains recommended guide-lines for parents, teachers, administrators,governing boards, support personnel, other inter-agency personnel and interested representativesto use in identifying, assessing, planning, and pro-viding appropriate educational services to allchildren who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. It is alsointended to assist in monitoring programs for thesestudents. The guidelines reference legal mandateswhere available. Chapters include: Identificationand Referral, Assessment of Unique Needs, Or-ganization for Student Learning, Curriculum andInstruction, and Support for Student Learning.Call 1-800-995-4099 for ordering information(nominal cost) or refer to the order sheet inAppendix C. This 200 page document can alsobe downloaded from: www.cde.ca.gov/deafhh/(Click on laws and regulations)

Other Legal Websites:

Comparison of Section 504 and IDEA:www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/legal_legislative/ edlaw504.html

www.edlaw.net/frames.html(Type 504 Statute in the search function)

Comparison of IDEA, ADA and Section 504:at-advocacy.phillynews.com/misc/cohen2.html

Regulations Enforced by the Office For Civil Rights(Includes Section 504)www.ed.gov/ocr/regs/

United States Code:www.access.gpo.gov/congress/cong013.html

Code of Federal Regulations:www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html

Glossary of Terms

41

ACOUSTICS: Pertaining to sound, the sense ofhearing, or the science of sound. As used in thisguide the term refers to the qualities of an audi-torium, classroom, or other space that determinehow well sounds can be heard. (American Heri-tage Dictionary)

ACOUSTIC ROOM TREATMENT: The use ofsound-absorbing materials (such as carpets andacoustical tile) to reduce room noise and increasethe signal-to-noise ratio, thus enhancing the use-fulness of hearing aids and other listening devices.

ACQUIRED HEARING LOSS: Hearing loss whichis not present at birth. Sometimes referred toas adventitious loss.

ADA: Americans with Disabilities Act. Federal leg-islation which impacts accessibility for disabledpersons in education, the workplace, and publicplaces.

AIR CONDUCTION: Sound from the air is deliv-ered through the ear canal, the eardrum, andmiddle ear to the inner ear.

AMBIENT NOISE: Background noise which com-petes with the main speech signal.

AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE (ASL): A visual/gestural language used by deaf people in theUnited States and Canada, with semantic, syn-tactic, morphological, and phonological ruleswhich are distinct from English.

AMPLIFICATION: The use of hearing aids andother electronic devices to increase the loudnessof sound so that it may be more easily receivedand understood.

ASSISTIVE LISTENING DEVICES: Any and alltypes of electronic hearing aids including personalaids, FM systems, infrared, special inputs fortelephone or television, and amplified alarms andsignals.

AUDIOGRAM: A graph on which a person’s abilityto hear different pitches (frequencies) at differ-ent volumes (intensities) of sound is recorded.

AUDIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT: A hearing test,comprised of identifying pure-tone thresholds,impedance testing, speech recognition, andspeech discrimination measurements, whichshows the type and degree of hearing loss.

AUDIOLOGIST: A person who holds a degree inaudiology and is a specialist in testing hearing andproviding rehabilitation services to persons withhearing loss. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association is the only orga-nization which certifies audiologists.

AUDITORY/ORAL EDUCATION: The habilita-tion of listening skills, spoken language, andspeechreading skills through early and consistenttraining, with emphasis on the use of high-qual-ity amplification.

AUDITORY TRAINER: See FM system.

AUDITORY TRAINING: The process of training aperson’s residual hearing in the recognition, iden-tification, and interpretation of sound.

AUDITORY/VERBAL EDUCATION: The devel-opment of speech and language through themaximized use of residual hearing.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

42


AURAL HABILITATION: Training designed tohelp a person with hearing loss to make pro-ductive use of residual hearing. Sometimesincludes training in speechreading.

BICULTURAL: Membership in two cultures, suchas deaf culture and hearing culture.

BILATERAL: Affecting two sides, such as a mildto profound loss of hearing in both ears.

BILINGUAL: Being fluent in two languages. Forsome deaf children this will include the use ofASL and English.

BILINGUAL-BICULTURAL: Being fluent in twolanguages (ASL and English) and having mem-bership in both deaf and hearing cultures.

BINAURAL HEARING AIDS: Hearing aids wornin both ears.

BONE CONDUCTION: Sound received throughthe bones of the skull.

COCHLEAR IMPLANT: An electronic devicesurgically implanted to stimulate nerve endingsin the inner ear (cochlea) in order to receiveand process sound and speech.

COMPUTER ASSISTED NOTETAKING(CAN) or COMMUNICATION ACCESSREALTIME TECHNOLOGY (CART): SeeEducational Transcription Systems.

CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS: Impairmentof hearing due to the failure of sound waves toreach the inner ear through the normal air con-duction channels of the outer and middle ear.In children, conductive loss is typically medi-cally correctable.

CONGENITAL HEARING LOSS: Hearing losspresent at birth or associated with the birthprocess, or which develops in the first few daysof life.

CUED SPEECH: A visual representation of thephonemes of spoken language, which uses eighthandshapes in four different locations in combi-nation with the natural mouth movements ofspeech to make all the sounds of spoken languagelook different.

DEAF: A hearing impairment which is so severe thatthe child is impaired in processing linguistic in-formation through hearing, with or withoutamplification, which adversely affects educa-tional performance (34 CFR 300.5). Aprelingual, primarily sensorineural, bilateral hear-ing loss of 91dB or more (Quigley andKretschmer 1982). A person’s communicationdevelopment and current primary communica-tion mode are visually based (either sign languageor speechreading). Residual hearing (if any) is asecondary and supplemental sensory avenue;vision is the major channel for receiving infor-mation (Ross 1990).

DEAF-BLIND: Educationally significant loss of vi-sion and hearing.

DEAF COMMUNITY: The community of peoplewhose primary mode of communication is signedlanguage and who share a common identity, acommon culture, and a common way of inter-acting with each other and the hearingcommunity.

DECIBEL (dB): The unit of measurement for theloudness of sound.The higher the dB, the louderthe sound.

DECODER: An electronic device or computer chipthat can display closed captions enclosed in tele-vision programs, cable television programs, andvideocassettes. Also called a telecaption adapter.

EAR MOLD: A custom made plastic or vinyl piecewhich fits into the outer ear to interface with ahearing aid.

Glossary of Terms

43

EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETER: A person whois able to perform conventional interpreting to-gether with special skills for working in theeducation setting (National Task Force on Edu-cation Interpreting 1989).

EDUCATIONAL TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEMS:A system which translates speech into print in“real time” through the use of computer equip-ment and a notetaker/typist. There are a numberof programs which translate speech either ver-batim or in summary format.

ENGLISH SIGN SYSTEM: Sign systems designedfor educational purposes, which use manual signsin English word order; sometimes with addedaffixes which are not present in American SignLanguage. Some of the signs are borrowed fromAmerican Sign Language and others have beeninvented to represent elements of English visu-ally. Signing Exact English and Seeing EssentialEnglish are two examples of invented systems.

FINGER SPELLING: Representation of the alpha-bet by finger positions in order to spell out wordsor longer strings of language.

FM SYSTEM: An assistive listening device thattransmits the speaker’s voice to an electronic re-ceiver in which the sound is amplified andtransmitted to the student’s ears via small ear-phones or the student’s personal hearing aids.The device reduces the problem of backgroundnoise interference and the problem of distancefrom the speaker.

FREQUENCY: The number of vibrations per sec-ond of a sound. Frequency, expressed in Hertz(Hz), determines the pitch of sound.

HARD-of-HEARING: A hearing impairment,whether permanent or fluctuating, which ad-versely affects a child’s educational performance,but which is not included under the definition of“deaf ” in this section (34 CFR 300.5). Theperson’s linguistic development is primarilyauditorily based, with vision serving as a second-ary and supplemental channel (Ross 1990).

HEARING AID: An electronic device that conductsand amplifies sound to the ear.

HEARING-IMPAIRED: Refers to persons with anydegree of hearing loss, from mild to profound,including deaf and hard-of-hearing persons. Thisterm is losing acceptance by deaf persons be-cause of the implication of the term “impaired.”

HL: Hearing level.

HEARING LOSS: Hearing loss was originally de-fined in medical terms before the developmentof modern audiology. Today, professionals tendto use the consistent, research-based terminol-ogy of audiology as well as the less-definededucational and cultural descriptions:

Audiometric: The following numerical valuesare based on the average of the hearing loss atthree frequencies (500 Hz, 1,00 Hz, and 2,00Hz) in the better ear without amplification.The numerical values for the seven categoriesvary from author to author.

Normal hearing (-10 dB to 15 dB)Slight loss (16d dB to 25 dB)Mild loss (26 dB to 30 dB)Moderate loss (31 dB to 50 dB)Moderate/severe loss (51 dB to 70 dB)Severe loss (71 dB to 90 dB)Profound loss (91 dB or more)

Educational: Any degree of hearing loss maylimit full communicative access to educa-tional opportunities in most schools withoutappropriate support.

HEARING SCREENING: Audiometric testing ofthe ability to hear selected frequencies at inten-sities above the threshold of normal hearing. Thepurpose is to identify individuals with hearingloss, with minimal time expenditure, and to re-fer them for further testing.

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HERTZ: This is the generally used term for mea-suring pitch, expressing the vibrations or cyclesper second. Most speech sounds fall within theso-called “speech range” of about 300 to 3000Hz.

IDEA: Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act- PL94-142 revised. A federal law requiringschool districts to provide each student who hasa disability with a free appropriate public educa-tion (FAPE).

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM(IEP): A team-developed and written programwhich identifies therapeutic and educationalgoals and objectives needed to appropriatelyaddress the educational needs of a student witha disability. An IEP for a hard-of-hearing childshould take into consideration such factors as:1. Communication needs and the child’s and

family’s preferred mode of communication2. Linguistic needs3. Severity of hearing loss and potential for us-

ing residual hearing4. Academic level5. Social, emotional needs, including opportu-

nities for peer interactions and communication.

INDIVIDUAL FAMILY SERVICES PLAN (IFSP):A team-developed, written plan for infants andtoddlers which address:1. Assessment of strengths and needs and iden-

tification of services to meet such needs2. Assessment of family resources and priori-

ties and the identification of supports andservices necessary to enhance the capacityof the family to meet the developmentalneeds of the infant or toddler with adisability

3. A written, individualized family service plandeveloped by a multi-disciplinary team, in-cluding the parent or guardian (IDEA)

INFLECTION: A change in the pitch of the speak-ing voice to add meaning or emphasis to a wordor phrase.

INTENSITY: The loudness of a sound, measuredin decibels (dB).

INTERPRETER OR TRANSLITERATOR FORTHE DEAF: A person who facilitates commu-nication between hearing and deaf orhard-of-hearing persons through interpretationinto a signed language or American Sign Lan-guage, or transliteration of a language into visual/phonemic code by an oral interpreter or CuedSpeech Interpreter. The educational interpreterspecializes in classroom interpreting.

INTONATION: The aspect of speech made up ofchanges in pitch and stress in the voice. Thevoice may go higher or lower during speech toemphasize certain words or parts of words thanothers.

INVENTED ENGLISH SIGN SYSTEMS: Signsystems developed for educational purposes,which use manual signs in English word orderwith added prefixes and suffixes not present intraditional sign language. Some of the signs areborrowed from American Sign Language andothers have been invented to represent elementsof English visually. Signed English and SigningExact English (SEE) are two examples of in-vented systems.

ITINERANT: deaf and hard-of-hearing teacher whotravels to the attending school or home of theD/HH student who is not enrolled in a specialday class. Provides a wide-range of services fromconsultation to direct instruction.

LEAST RESTRICTED ENVIRONMENT: A ba-sic principle of IDEA which requires publicagencies to establish procedures to ensure thatto the maximum extent appropriate, childrenwith disabilities, including children in public orprivate institution or other care facilities, are edu-cated with children who are not disabled and thatspecial classes, separate schooling, or other re-moval of children with disabilities from theregular educational environment occurs onlywhen the nature or severity of the disability issuch that education in regular classes with theuse of supplementary aids and services cannotbe achieved satisfactorily.

Glossary of Terms

45

MAINSTREAM: The concept that students withdisabilities should be integrated with their non-disabled peers to the maximum extent possible,when appropriate to the needs of the studentwith a disability. Mainstreaming is one point onthe continuum of educational options.

MANUALLY CODED ENGLISH: A term appliedto a variety of systems that use signs, finger spell-ing, or gestures separately or in combination torepresent English manually.

MIXED HEARING LOSS: A hearing loss with com-bined sensorineural and conductive elements.

MONAURAL. Involving only one ear (e.g. mon-aural amplification is the use of one hearing aid).

MORPHEME: A linguistic unit of relatively stablemeaning that cannot be divided into smallermeaningful parts (American Heritage Dictionary1976).

NATIVE/NATURAL LANGUAGE: Language ac-quired primarily through the least impairedsensory channel.

ORAL EDUCATION: A philosophy of teachingdeaf and hard-of-hearing individuals to make ef-ficient use of residual hearing through early useof amplification, to develop speech, and to usespeechreading skills.

ORAL INTERPRETER: Communicates the wordsof a speaker or group of speakers to an individualwho is deaf by inaudibly mouthing what is saidso that it can be read on the lips.

OTITIS MEDIA: Infection of the middle ear. Chil-dren with hearing loss have a higher incidenceof otitis media than the rest of the population.Children with recurrent attacks may have fluc-tuating hearing loss and be somewhat at risk foracquiring permanent hearing loss.

OTOLOGIST: A physician who specializes in medi-cal problems of the ear.

PARENT-INFANT PROGRAM: A program of par-ent education and infant intervention whichstresses early exposure to language and atten-tion to developmental processes which enhancethe learning of language. Some programs includeearly exposure to amplification and the use ofhearing aids to stimulate the auditory channel.

PIDGIN SIGN ENGLISH (PSE): A variety of signlanguage which combines some features ofAmerican Sign Language and English. It is some-times called Contact Signing.

POSTLINGUAL DEAFNESS: Hearing loss ac-quired after first learning a language.

PRAGMATICS: The appropriateness of languageuse to the situation, the speaker, and the audi-ence in regard to logic and validity.

PRELINGUAL DEAFNESS: Refers to hearing losswhich is present at birth or shortly thereafter andoccurs prior to the acquisition of language.

REAL-TIME CAPTIONING: On-line captioningfor television screens and monitors displaying theprinted speech of live speakers.

RESIDUAL HEARING: The amount of usablehearing which a deaf or hard-of-hearing personhas.

RESOURCE SPECIALIST (RSP): A teacher whoworks with small groups of children at a schoolsite who have learning deficits.

REVERBERATION: Prolongation of a sound afterthe sound-source has ceased. The amount ofreverberant energy in a room depends on the ab-sorption coefficient of the surface of the walls,floor and ceiling.

ROCHESTER METHOD: A mode of communi-cation in which spoken English is supplementedwith simultaneous finger spelling of each spokenword.

46


SECTION 504: The Vocational Rehabilitation Actof 1973 guarantees that students with disabili-ties cannot be discriminated against because oftheir disability.

SEE-1: Seeing Essential English was designed touse ASL signs plus signs invented to representboth root words and the inflectional system ofEnglish.

SEMANTICS: The use in language of meaningfulreferents in both word and sentence structures.

SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS: A perma-nent hearing loss caused by failure or damageof auditory fibers in the inner ear (cochlea) and/or damage to the neural system.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE-RATIO: The difference inthe intensities of the speech signal (such as theteacher’s voice) and the ambient (background)noise.

SIGNED ENGLISH: The Signed English systemwas devised as a semantic representation ofEnglish for children between that ages of 1 and6 years. ASL signs are used in English wordorder, with 14 sign markers being added to rep-resent a portion of the inflectional system ofEnglish. See Invented English Sign Systems.

SIGNING EXACT ENGLISH: See Invented En-glish Sign Systems.

SPECIAL DAY CLASS: A class designed to meetthe needs of children requiring more intensiveeducational services, typically for more than50% of the day.

SPEECHREADING. The interpretation of lip andmouth movements, facial expressions, gestures,prosodic and melodic aspects of speech, struc-tural characteristics of language, and topical andcontextual clues. Sometimes referred to as lip-reading.

SPEECH PERCEPTION. The ability to recognizespeech stimuli presented at suprathresholdlevels (levels loud enough to be heard).

SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY: The ability to be un-derstood when using speech.

SPEECH AND LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT: Oneor more of the following communication impair-ments which adversely affects educationalperformance: articulation impairment, in-cluding omissions, substitutions or distortions ofsound, persisting beyond the age at which matu-ration alone might be expected to correct thedeviation; voice impairment, including abnor-mal rate of speaking, speech interruptions, andrepetition of sounds, words, phrases, or sen-tences, which interferes with effectivecommunication; one or more language impair-ments (phonological, morphological syntactic,semantic, or pragmatic use of aural/oral languageas evidenced by both a spontaneous languagesample demonstrating inadequate language func-tioning, and test results, on not less than twostandardized assessment instruments or twosubtests designed to determine language func-tioning, which indicate Inappropriate languagefunctioning for the child’s age).

SPEECH LANGUAGE SPECIALIST: A profes-sional who works with individuals who havespecific needs in the area of speech and language.Sometimes referred to as a speech and languagepathologist.

SYNTAX: Defines the word classes of language(nouns, verbs, etc.) and the rules for their com-bination (which words can be combined, and inwhat order to convey meaning).

TELECOMMUNICATION DEVICES FORDEAF PEOPLE (TDDs): Originally and oftenstill called TTYs. These electronic devices al-low deaf and hard-of-hearing people tocommunicate by telephone. Also referred to asTTs, text telephones; this term appears in ADAlegislation and regulations.

Glossary of Terms

47

TOTAL COMMUNICATION: A philosophy ofcommunication that employs a combination ofcomponents of oral and manual teaching modesusing sign, lipreading, finger spelling, use of re-sidual hearing, speech, and sometimes CuedSpeech.

TRANSLITERATING: The process of facilitatingcommunication between persons who are hear-ing and persons who are deaf or hard-of-hearing.In this form of interpretation, the language baseremains the same; e.g. the transliteration of spo-ken English to a signed English system or to aform which can be read on the lips.

TRANSCRIPTIONIST: A person trained in com-puter assisted notetaking.

UNILATERAL HEARING LOSS: A mild to pro-found loss of hearing in one ear. Unilateral lossis now thought to adversely affect the educa-tional process in a significant percentage ofstudents who have it.

Definitions are from the Oral Deaf Education Website(Oberkotter Foundation) and California Department ofEducation’s Programs for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students,Guidelines for Quality Standards, 2000.


48

Resources

49

ORGANIZATIONS

Alexander Graham BellAssociation for the Deaf andHard-of-Hearing

3417 Volta Place, N.W.Washington, DC 20007(202) 337-5220 (voice/TTY)www.agbell.org

The Alexander Graham Bell Association for theDeaf and Hard-of-Hearing (AG Bell) is an interna-tional membership organization comprised ofparents of children who are deaf and hard of hear-ing, adults with hearing loss, and professionals whoserve children with hearing loss. AG Bell is the larg-est organization in the US focused on the needs ofhearing impaired children who use auditory ap-proaches to communicate. AG Bell offers a widevariety of member-oriented programs, publications,and financial aid programs. AG Bell also sponsors alarge convention every other year.

AG Bell, California Chapter

4340 Stevens Creek Blvd, Suite 107,San Jose, CA 95129E-mail: [email protected]/~califagbell

The local chapter meets in LA and sponsors ayearly conference and picnic. They also have anewsletter titled California Waves. A membershipapplication can be printed out from their website.

RESOURCES

American Society for DeafChildren

P.O. Box 1510Olney, MD 20830(800-942-ASDC (voice/TTY)www.deafchildren.org

A nonprofit parent-helping-parent organizationpromoting a positive attitude toward sign languageand Deaf culture. Provides information, encour-agement, and support to families with Deaf andHard-of-Hearing children.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

10801 Rockville PikeRockville, Maryland 20852(310) 897-0457 (voice)www.asha.org

The mission of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association is to promote the interests of,and provide the highest quality services for, profes-sionals in audiology, speech-language pathology,and speech and hearing science, and to advocatefor people with communication disabilities.


50

Auditory-Verbal International,Inc.

2121 Eisenhower Ave., Suite 401Alexandria, VA 22314(703) 739-1049 (voice)(703) 739-0874 (TTY)www.auditory-verbal.org

Dedicated to helping children who have hearinglosses learn to listen and speak. Promotes the audi-tory-verbal therapy approach, which is based on thebelief that the overwhelming majority of these chil-dren can hear and talk by using their residual hearing,hearing aids, and cochlear implants.

Beginnings for Parents ofChildren who are Deaf orHard-of-Hearing, Inc.

3900 Barrett Dr.Raleigh, NC 27609800-541-HEARwww.beginningssvcs.com

A non-profit agency providing an objective ap-proach to meeting the diverse needs of families withchildren who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing and theprofessionals who serve them.

Deaf Community Services,San Diego

7851 Mission Center Ct., Suite 310San Diego, CA 92108(619) 682-5001(voice)(619) 682-5000 (TTY)www.dcsofsd.org

A resource center providing social services toempower and encourage independence for any Deafor Hard-of-Hearing individual, as well as educatetheir families and employers, and promote unity be-tween the Hearing, Deaf and Hard-of-Hearingcommunities.

IMPACT (Independently MergingParent Association of California)

14181 Chagall AveIrvine, CA 92606John Allmann, President (949) 653-5770(voice/TDD)www.deafkids.org

IMPACT is a California statewide all-volunteer,non-profit organization of parents, teachers and pro-fessionals serving Deaf and Hard-of-Hearingchildren. IMPACT publishes a newsletter threetimes per year (Fall, Winter, Spring), and holds aCal-Ed/IMPACT conference annually.

John Tracy Clinic

806 West Adams BoulevardLos Angeles, CA 90007800-522-4582 (voice)(213) 747-2942 (TTY)www.johntracyclinic.org

John Tracy Clinic provides, worldwide and with-out charge, parent-centered services to youngchildren with a hearing loss offering families hope,guidance and encouragement to help the childrenlearn to communicate. The Clinic also offers ser-vices to aid the professional community inunderstanding how to work with deaf children.Out-of-town parents may be particularly interestedin the correspondence course/parent distance edu-cation and/or the pre-school family summerprogram (contact Maura Martindale).

Resources

51

League for the Hard of Hearing

71 West 23rd StreetNew York, NY 10010(917) 305-7700 (voice)(917) 305-7999 (TTY)www.lhh.org

The League offers people who are Hard-of-Hear-ing or Deaf access to diagnostic, rehabilitation,counseling, and education programs. Their servicesrange from audiological testing to advocacy for chil-dren and adults who are Hard-of-Hearing or deaf.The League also provides support services for main-stream education.

National Association of the Deaf

814 Thayer Ave.Silver Spring, MD 20910(301) 587-1788 (voice)(301) 587-1789 (TTY)www.nad.org

The oldest and one of the largest consumer orga-nizations advocating equal access by people who areDeaf or Hard-of-Hearing in the areas of employ-ment, education, telecommunications, andrehabilitation. Also maintains the NAD PublicationsDepartment, Deaf awareness programs, a legal de-fense fund, a public information center, youthprograms, and certification programs for interpret-ers and for sign language instructors.

National Cued Speech Association (NCSA)

23970 Hermitage RoadShaker Heights, OH 44122800-459-3529 (voice/TTY)www.cuedspeech.org

The NCSA provides awareness and education,through instructional programs, publications, exhib-its and conferences, regarding the use of cuedspeech.

National Information Center for Childrenand Youth with Disabilities

P.O. Box 1492Washington, DC 20013800-695-0285 (voice)www.nichcy.org

NICHCY is the national information and referralcenter that provides information on disabilities anddisability-related issues for families, educators, andother professionals. They have a number of publi-cations worth checking out.

Project NEEDS

www.abilitiesnetworks.org/Pages/dhabil.html

The San Diego Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing (D/HH) ABILITIES Web Site is a state-of-the-art tech-nical resource specializing in local community issues,needs, and current events, with links to state andnational Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing resources.

Self Help For Hard of Hearing People(SHHH)

7910 Woodmont Ave, Suite 1200Bethesda, MD 20814(301) 657-2248 (voice)www.shhh.org

SHHH’s mission is to “open the world of com-munication to people with hearing loss by providinginformation, education, support and advocacy.”


52

Gallaudet University

800 Florida Avenue, NEWashington, DC 20002(202) 651-5000 (voice/TTY)www2.gallaudet.edu/The world’s only four-year liberal arts college for

students who are Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing.

National Technical Institute forthe Deaf (NTID)

Rochester Institute of TechnologyOne Lomb Memorial DriveP.O. Box 9887Rochester, NY 14623(716) 475-600 (voice/TTY)www.rit.edu

Provides technological postsecondary educationfor Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing students. Dissemi-nates informational materials and instructionalvideotapes on issues related to Deaf people and Deafculture.

Oral Deaf Education

http://www.oralDeafed.org

This website includes information for parents whoare interested in the oral approach for their childrenwho are Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing. Includes linksto oral Deaf education schools.

EDUCATION RESOURCESAND INSTITUTIONS

California Department ofEducation: Deaf andHard-of-Hearing Unit

State Special Schools515 L St., Suite 270Sacramento, CA 95814(916) 327-3850 (voice)(916) 445-4556 (TTY)www.cde.ca.gov/deafhh/Nancy Grosz Sager (916) 327-3868(voice/TTY) [email protected]

Provides guidance and technical assistance to pro-grams and service providers for Deaf andHard-of-Hearing students in California.

California State University,Northridge

8111 Nordhoff StreetNorthridge, California 91330(818) 677-1200www.csun.edu/Department of Deaf Studieswww.csun.edu/~sch_educ/dfst/dfst.htmlOffers Bachelor of Arts degree in Deaf Studies.

Resources

53

US Department of Education:Office of Special EducationProgram (OSEP)

330 C Street, S.W.Mary E. SwitzerBuildingWashington, DC 20202(202) 205-5507 (voice) Office of the Directorwww.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP

The Office of Special Education Programs(OSEP) is a component of the Office of SpecialEducation and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS),which is one of the principal components of the U.S.Department of Education (ED). OSEP’s mission andorganization focus on the free appropriate publiceducation of children and youth with disabilities frombirth through age 21.


54

National Institute on Deafnessand Other Communication Disor-ders (NIDCD)

National Institutes of Health31 Center Drive, MSC 2320Bethesda, MD USA 20892-2320(301) 496-7243 (voice)(301) 402-0252 (TTY)www.nidcd.nih.gov

The National Institute on Deafness and OtherCommunication Disorders (NIDCD) is one of theInstitutes that comprise the National Institutes ofHealth (NIH). NIDCD is mandated to conduct andsupport biomedical and behavioral research and re-search training in the normal and disorderedprocesses of hearing, balance, smell, taste, voice,speech, and language. There is a special websitedesignated for parents of hearing impaired children.

House Ear Institute (HEI)

2100 West Third Street, Fifth FloorLos Angeles, CA 90057(213) 483-4431 (voice)(213) 484-2642 (TTY)www.hei.org

Through research and education, the HEI aimsto improve the quality of life of those with an eardisease or hearing or balance disorder. TheChildren’s Auditory Research and Evaluation(CARE) Center offers a full range of pediatric hear-ing tests, otologic and audiologic evaluation andtreatment, hearing aid dispensing, and cochlear im-plant services.

MEDICAL & RESEARCH

Better Hearing Institute

5021-B Backlick Rd.Annandale, VA 22003(703) 642-0580 (voice/TTY)www.betterhearing.org

Nonprofit educational organization that imple-ments national public information programs onhearing loss and available medical, surgical, hearingaid, and rehabilitation assistance for millions withuncorrected hearing problems.

Girls and Boys Town NationalResearch Hospital

555 North 30th St.Omaha, NE 68131(402) 498-6511 (voice)(402) 498-6543 (TTY)www.girlsandboystown.org

A hospital whose mission is to help and healAmerica’s children and operate the nation’s leadingclinical and research center for childhood hearing lossand related disorders.

Resources

55

Protection and Advocacy, Inc.

3580 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 902Los Angeles, CA 90010800-776-5746 (voice)www.pai-ca.orgPAI works in partnership with persons with dis-

abilities to protect, advocate for, and advance theirhuman, legal, and service rights. There is a news-letter and a number of great publications (includingIDEA documents) available through this site.

SpecialEdLaw.net Website

specialedlaw.net/index.mv?ads=main

This site is a multidisciplinary internet resourcefor parents of special needs children, as well as at-torneys, special education administrators, teachers,psychologists, and others with a need for informa-tion relating to Special Education law. Includesinformation on IDEA, ADA, Section 504 andFERPA.

Wrightslaw

www.wrightslaw.com

Pete Wright, J.D. This site contains hundreds ofarticles, cases, newsletters, and other informationabout special education law and advocacy. Parents,advocates, educators, and attorneys useWrightslaw for accurate, up-to-date informationabout advocacy for children with disabilities. On-line newsletter is available.

LEGAL

California Center for the Lawand the Deaf (CACLAD)

14895 E. 14th St., Suite 220San Leandro, CA 94578(510) 483-0941 (voice/TTY)www.deaflaw.org

The mission of the California Center for Law andthe Deaf is to protect and advance the legal rightsof Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing people to enable themto live independent, productive lives, with full ac-cess to the rights, privileges, entitlements, services,educational and employment opportunities availableto others.

The Council of Parent Attorneysand Advocates, Inc. (COPAA)

P.O. Box 81-7327Hollywood, FL 33081-0327(954) 966-4489 (voice)www.copaa.net

An independent, nonprofit, tax-exempt organi-zation of attorneys, advocates and parentsestablished to improve the quality and quantity oflegal assistance for parents of children with disabili-ties. A listserve is available where parents,advocates and attorneys post legal information andrequests for help.

The EDLAW Center

www.edlaw.net

Jim Rosenfeld, J.D. On-line counseling servicesand resources.


56

HiP MAGAZINE for Deaf &Hard-of-Hearing kids and theirpals

P.O. Box 519Berkeley, CA 94701(510) 848-9650 (voice)www.hipmag.org/

This magazine, published 5 times per year, is anaward-winning non-profit publication for today’sDeaf and Hard-of-Hearing kids (grades K-4, 5-8,9-12).

SHHH (See contact informationunder Organizations)

SHHH publishes a journal titled Hearing Loss. Itis a great publication that features current informa-tion regarding legislation, medical information, anddevelopments in hearing technology.

Sign Media, Inc.

4020 Blackburn LaneBurtonsville, MD 20866-1167800-475-4756www.signmedia.com

This catalog features information on ASL, DeafCulture, Education and Interpretation.

CATALOGS & PUBLICATIONS

AG Bell

AG Bell has a number of publications that par-ents can use as resources:

• Publications Catalog (lists books available foradvocacy, audiological management, cochlearimplants, children’s books, communicationapproaches, education, language and speechdevelopment, etc.)

• Volta Voices Magazine (recommend subscribingto this)

• Volta Review (a more technical, research-oriented publication)

Dawn Sign Press

6130 Nancy Ridge Dr.San Diego, CA 92121(619) 625-0600 (voice/TTY)www.dawnsign.com

Offers books, videos and workshops for DeafCulture (includes children, educational fingerspelling,instructional and Deaf Studies).

Harris Communications

15159 Technology Drive,Eden Prairie MN 55344800-825-6758 (voice)800-825-9187 (TTY)www.harriscomm.com/

Harris Communications, Inc. is a mail order cata-log company which features products for Deaf andHard-of-Hearing individuals. Products includeTTYs, books, videos, telephone, hearing aid acces-sories, assistive listening devices, warning detectorsand novelties. Call for free brochure

(See contact information under Organizations)

Resources

57

Soundbytes

11 East 44th Street, 2nd FloorNew York, NY 10017800-667-1777 (voice/TTY)www.soundbytes.com

This “hearing enhancement resource catalog” pro-vides communication devices, educational products,amplification devices, books & videos, hearing aidaccessories and an assortment of home conveniencedevices.

The Special Edge

Resources in Special Education429 J StreetSacramento, CA 95814800-869-4337 (voice)E-mail: [email protected]

A free newsletter published bi-monthly throughthe California Department of Education.


58

Phonak

4520 Weaver ParkwayWarrenville, IL 60555800-777-7333www.phonak-us.com

Siemens Hearing InstrumentsInc.

13043 East 166th StreetCerritos, CA 90701800-98-9787 (voice)www.siemens-hearing.com

Widex Hearing Aid Company

3553 24th StreetLong Island City, NY 11106800-221-0188 (voice)www.widexusa.com

HEARING AIDS & SUPPLIES

Dry & Store

800-327-8547www.eartech.com

Dry and store is an “hearing aid conditioning sys-tem” which reduces moisture and sanitizes hearingaids. New models work with Cochlear implants.

GN Resound Corporation

220 Saginaw Dr.Seaport CentreRedwood City, California, 94063,(650) 780-7800 (voice)800-248-4327 Customer Service (voice)www.gnresound.com

Oticon, Inc.

29 Schoolhouse Rd., P.O. Box 6724Somerset, NJ 08875800-526-3921 (voice)www.oticonus.com/

Resources

59

Los Angeles Funshine CIC

Diane Rott 41 East Rowland #29, Covina, CA 91732 (626) 331-7547

Orange County CIC

Jack Belt353 Park Shadow CourtBaldwin Park, CA [email protected]

MED-EL USA Corporation(MED-EL Implant)

2222 East NC Hwy 54,Suite B-180 Durham, North Carolina 27713(919) 572-2222 (voice)www.medel.com

COCHLEAR IMPLANTS

Advanced Bionics Corporation(Clarion Implant)

12740 San Fernando RoadSylmar, CA 91342800-678-2575 (voice)800-678-3575 (TTY)www.cochlearimplant.com

Cochlear Corporation (NucleusImplant)

61 Inverness Dr. East, Suite 200Englewood, CO 80112800-523-2798 (voice/TTY)www.cochlear.com

Cochlear Implant Association,Inc. (formerly Cochlear ImplantClub, International)

5335 Wisconsin Ave. NW, Suite 440Washington, D.C. 20015-2003(202)895-2781www.cici.org


60

Phonic Ear’s Personal HearingSystems and Sound FieldSystems

Personal and Sound Field Systems(FM nd Infrared)

3880 Cypress Drive,Petaluma, CA 94954800-227-0735 (voice)www.phonicear.com

The popular Solaris System used by many schooldistricts can be found at this site:

Teach Logic

Personal and Sound Field Systems(FM nd Infrared)

FM system.22981 Triton Way, Suite CLaguna Hills, CA 92653800-588-0018 (voice)www.teachlogic.com

TypeWell

Educational Transcription System.(805) 682-2387 (voice/TTY)www.typewell.com

PERSONAL & SOUND FIELDSYSTEMS AND

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

Communication Access RealtimeTranslation (CART)

Educational Transcription System.http://cart.ncraonline.org/

Dragon Naturally Speaking

320 Nevada StreetNewton, MA 02460, USA(617) 965-5200 (voice)www.dragonsys.comEARING RE

A speech recognition software by L & HDragon Systems, Inc.SOURCES

A website specializing in assistive listening devices, in-cluding FM systems, can be found at:www.earlink.com/

iCommunicator

6448 Parkland DriveSarasota FL 34243888-463-0474 (voice)800-362-4584 (TTY)www.teachthedeaf.com

Speech recognition software by Interactive Solu-tions, which converts speech to text, speech to signlanguage, speech to computer-generated voice, ortext to computer-generated voice.

Phonak’s MicroLink

4520 Weaver ParkwayWarrenville, IL 60555888-777-7316 FM division (voice)www.phonak.com/microlink/start_e.htm

MicroLink is the new wireless personal FMsystem (a free 30 day trial is available).

Resources

61

OTHER VALUABLEWEBSITES

Classroom Acoustics Home Page

classroomacoustics.com/

This site is a resource for those who want addi-tional information regarding the standards forclassroom acoustics.

The Classroom AcousticsCoalition

www.nonoise.org/quietnet/qc/index.htm

The Classroom Acoustics Coalition provides im-portant background on the nature and scope of theproblems caused by bad acoustics in classrooms, andoffers practical planning strategies and methods toavoid or correct bad acoustics in existing or plannededucational facilities.

Handspeak

www.handspeak.comA sign language dictionary on-line.

Have you ever wondered about . . . THE EARAND HEARING (Series 1 & 2)

http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/infotogo/567/567.html

http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/infotogo/535/535-1.html

Good for teaching young children about hearingand how the ear works.

Hearing Exchange

www.hearingexchange.com/

An on-line community for the exchange of ideasand information on hearing loss regardless of thecommunication methodology.

Kids World Deaf Net

http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu(type kids world in search function)

A national communication network for parentsand professionals involved in the education of deafand hard of hearing children.

Listen-Up Website

www.listen-up.org/This site was created by a parent of a child with a

hearing impairment and contains a tremendousamount of resources and information. There is alsoa list serve that is designed to help parents advocatefor the rights of their children.


62

Parents of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children in San Diego

A listserve for parents of children with hearing loss.Email [email protected] and requestinstructions for becoming a member [email protected] in the local San Diego area.

Standards, Assessments andIEPs: Planning for Success in theGeneral Education Curriculum

University of Vermontwww.uvm.edu/~mhock/standards/main.html

A great resource for IEPs. Includes informationon designing standards and IEP goals.

Universal Hearing Health

www.uhhweb.com

UHH is a non-profit, international website de-signed to link consumers with hearing loss to allcategories of service providers and to assist them indeveloping a mutually beneficial relationship. It pro-vides information concerning hearing issues, accessto updated provider listings and manufacturers, anational resource directory, training opportunities,and online support in the form of chat rooms, e-mailconsultation, and support groups.

Whatcom Hearing ImpairedChildren’s Help (W.H.I.C.H.)

www.ibwebs.com

This website was created by a parent for otherparents to address the lack of information providedto parents on how hearing loss affects the child,family, education, social issues and communicationoptions.

Windmill Works

www.windmillworks.com

This website has several software programs fo-cusing on language development for the Deaf orHard-of-Hearing.

For additional information on resources or thematerial presented in this manual contact:

Melanie Doyle(858) [email protected]

Bibliography

63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Acoustical Society of America. “America’s Needfor Standards and Guidelines to Ensure Satisfac-tory Classroom Acoustics.” Paper presented byDavid Lubman at the 133rd Meeting of the ASA,State College, PA, June 1997.www.acoustics.org/133rd/2paaa1.html

Acoustical Society of America. “Tuning Up OurClassrooms.” Paper presented by Robin M.Towne at the May 1996 ASA Meeting.

American Academy of Audiology website. Edu-cational Audiology Perspectives Vol. 2 #2 1998;“Helping Parents Advocate For Children’s Hear-ing Needs in School.” www.audiology.com/edaud/specmast.htm.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association(ASHA). “Acoustics in Educational Settings,Position Statement and Guidelines for Acousticsin Education Settings.” ASHA, March, 1995 (14),15-19.

Anderson, K. “The Impacts of Hearing Loss onEducation.” Word of Mouth, September 1997.

Anderson, K. “The Sound of Learning.” The Ameri-can School Board Journal, October, 1997.

Anderson, K. “When it Comes to ClassroomAcoustics, What’s Appropriate?” Volta Voices,1999, (6) 5, 16-18.

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compli-ance Board (Access Board). Response toPetition for Rulemaking, November 1999.

www.access-board.gov/publications/acoustic.htm

California Department of Education. Programs forDeaf and Hard of Hearing Students: Guidelinesfor Quality Standards, 2000.www.cde.ca.gov/deafhh

Carlsbad Unified School District/Magnolia Commu-nication Center. Handouts on “Speechreading”and “How to Assist DHH Children in the Main-stream Environment.”

Cherow, E. “Have You Ever Wondered About TheEar and Hearing?” National Information Centeron Deafness (NICD) and American Speech-Lan-guage-Hearing Association (ASHA), Rockville,Maryland. Gallaudet College, 1986.http://clercenter.gallaudet.edu/

Cochlear Implant Association, Inc. (CICI) website.“What is a Cochlear Implant?” and, “Educatinga Child Who Has a Cochlear Implant.”www.cici.org

Crandell, C. “Classroom Acoustics: A FailingGrade.” Hearing Health, September/October1998, 11-15.

Crandell, C., Smaldino, J. and Flexer, C. Sound-Field Amplification, Singular Publishing Group,San Diego, CA, 1995.

Flexer, C. Facilitating Hearing and Listening in YoungChildren. Singular Publishing Group, Inc., SanDiego, CA, 1994.

Flexer, C. “Sound-Field FM Systems: QuestionsMost Often Asked about Classroom Amplifica-tion,” Journal of the Ohio Speech & HearingAssociation, 1997 (11) 2, 5-14.

Girls and Boystown Website. “Understanding Hear-ing Loss: Diagnosis and Evaluation,” and,“Hearing Aids and How They Work.”www.boystown.org

Gordon-Langbein, A. “Screening newborns forhearing loss - their time is hear!” Volta Voices,1999, (6) 4, 7-10.


64

Herbert, K. “Poor Marks for Classroom Acoustics.”Building Operating Management, 1999.www.facilitiesnet.com

Mangiardi, A. A Child with a Hearing Loss in YourClassroom? Don’t Panic!! A Guide for Teachers.Washington, DC: A.G. Bell Association for theDeaf, 1993.

Oral Deaf Education Website. Glossary.www.oraldeafed.org/

Oticon WebsiteBooklets: Teachers’ Guide, All about FM, Teacher’sResource Packwww.oticon.com/OtiKids/

Ross, M. (Ed.). Hearing-Impaired Children in theMainstream. Parkton, Maryland: York Press,1990.

San Diego City Schools. Flyer from the Deaf andHard of Hearing Program. “How Teachers CanHelp.” 1993.

Self Help for Hard of Hearing People, Inc. (SHHH).Teaching Hard of Hearing Students - Some Help-ful Hints. Information series #161. Bethesda, MD.(310) 657-2249.

Self Help for Hard of Hearing People, Inc. (SHHH).Position Statement on Educating Hard of Hear-ing Children in Regular Education.www.shhh.org/position/educate.htm

Talbot, P. “Managing the Mainstream: Monitoringthe Environment, the Child, the Team.” The Lis-ten-Up Website.www.listen-up.org/

Youdelman, K. “Computer-Assisted Notetaking inthe Mainstream Classroom.” Volta Voices, 2001(8) 1, 9-11.

Appendix

65

Appendix A


66

Appendix B

Appendix

67

Appendix C

Documents

The following individuals were instrumental in …The following individuals were instrumental in creating this guidebook: Melanie Doyle, M.Ed, Parent of hard-of-hearing child Linda