The First Global Civilization:

The Rise and Spread of IslamThe Umayyads to the Abbasids

Introduction

Islam (literally means “submission, the self-surrender of the believer to the will of the one, true God, Allah”)

No single civilization had bound together large portions of the ancient world before

Arabia had been a nomadic backwater in the Middle East but within decades the Muslims had conquered a huge empire.

Islamic civilization was spread by merchants, wandering mystics, and warriors - provided key links and channels for the exchange among the older classical civilizations

Clan Identity, Clan Rivalries, and the Cycle of Vengeance

Bedouin herders lived in kin-related clan groups and clans were clustered into larger tribal groupings. Shaykhs are the leaders of the tribes or clans.

Clan cohesion reinforced by fierce interclan rivalries and struggles to control vital pasturelands and watering places.

Battles often ensued, which resulted in weak power status in relation to neighboring peoples and empires.

Towns and Long-Distance Trade

Farmers and town dwellers carved out small communities in the western and southern parts of the peninsula during the classical era. Some cities arose as links in the transcontinental trading system.

Mecca was founded by the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh bedouin tribe. Its status enhanced because it was the site of the Ka’ba, one of the most revered religious shrines in pre-Islamic Arabia.Yathrib (later called Medina)- established in an Oasis and part of the trading system. However, it was not dominated by one clan like Mecca but by two Bedouin and three Jewish clans.

The Life of Muhammad and the Genesis of Islam

Born around 570 CE into prominent clan of the Quraysh tribe, the Banu HashimFather died and was raised by father’s relatives. Went with uncle Abu Talib made first caravan journey to Syria, where he met Christians and Jews (this influenced his teachings)Became a merchant in Mecca. In his travels trading became aware of clan rivalries and the discrepancy between the rich and the poor. Dissatisfied of a life of material gain. Spread of monotheistic faiths at the time. Many prophets in Arabia.Goes to meditate and in ca. 610 he received the first of many revelations (his followers believe that the angel Gabriel transmitted them to him). The revelations were later written in the Qur’an. At first Muhammed had a small following but slowly as his following grew, the Umayyad notables who dominated Meccan life saw him as a threat to their own wealth and power. New faith threatened to supplant the gods of the Ka’ba

Muhammed Returns to Mecca

622 goes to Medina, where there is civil strife and Muhammed is called in to help mediate, where he was successful and gained new followersUmayyad’s angrier at Muhammed’s success because Medina begins to rival MeccaThis leads to battles, which end with a treaty in 628, whereby the Muslims could visit the shrine at Ka’ba in Mecca during the season of truce629 goes home with about 10,000 followers and gradually wins over the Umayyads

Arabs and Islam

Islam initially only adopted by Arab town dwellers and BedouinsIslam offered the possibility of an end to the vendettas and feuds that had divided the people of ArabiaUmma- community of the faithfulIslam offered an ethical system that helped heal the social rifts in Arabian societyo      Stressed the dignity of all peopleo      Soon incorporated into a body of lawUniversal elements including monotheism, highly developed legal codes, egalitarianism, and strong sense of community5 pillars provided basis for religious unity: faith, prayer, fasting, zakat, hajj

Arab Empire of the Umayyads

632 Muhammad died suddenly and left no designated successor By 633 Muslim military leaders began to mount expeditions beyond the peninsulaCombination of their skill, neighbor’s weaknesses, and religious mission led to conquering successArab world not Islamic yetIncreasing tension over who would be the Caliph- the political and religious successor to Muhammado  Ali- cousin and son-in-law of Muhammado  Abu Bakr (632-634) early followers and closest friend of Muhammad Ridda wars- brought the return of Arabian tribes to Islamic folds

Motives for Arab Conquest

Islam provided unity to Arab warriorsBedouin warriors drawn to campaigns of expansion by a promise of a share in the bootyNo interest in conversion of conquered people

Weaknesses of Adversary Empires

Sasanian Empire of Persia vulnerable and Muslim victories led to rapid collapse of the empireByzantines harder to defeat but two reasons they could:o Defection of Arabs on their own frontierso Support of Muslim invaders from Christian sects in Syria and Egypt who didn’t like Byzantine ruleBy mid- 640s desert Bedouins putting together fleets that could challenge the Byzantine command of the Mediterranean

Sunni-Shi’a split

By 656 growing tensions within the community create open violence Ali ready to defeat Umayyad forces in 657 but accepted a mediation, which would prove fatal Umayyads regroup and added Egypt back in660 Mu’awiya (new leader for the Umayyads) proclaimed the caliph directly challenging Ali’s position1 year later Ali is assassinatedSunnis- backed the Umayyads, Shi’a- Ali’s supportersWhen Ali’s 2nd son, Husayn, was killed in Karbala in 680 Shi’a resistance mountedOver time there are differences in belief, ritual and law

Umayyad Imperium

Last ½ of the 7th century renewed conquestsBy early 700s ruled an empire that extended from Spain to Central AsiaPolitical center shifted to Damascus, Syria because that was the place of Uthman’s murderBuilt solid bureaucracy Arab conquest state by natureKept Muslim warrior elite in garrison town separated from local population

Converts

Attempts to separate the Muslims and non-Muslims couldn’t succeedMawali- Muslim converts but not Arab, so they were not afforded any good government positionsNumber of conversions low because there was no social/economic benefit to convertingMost people were dhimmi- people of the book

Decline and Fall

Early 8th century- Umayyads had alienated those who were Muslim in their territoryBy mid-8th century more than 50,000 warriors had married local women and came to resent leadership from DamascusBy 747 a group of warriors, backed by the Abbasid party (lead by Abu al-Abbas) challenged Umayyads750 Persia and Iraq fellBattle on River Zab- opened the way for conquest of Syria and the capture of Umayyad capital

From Arab to Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era

Abbasids slowly eliminate all enemies, become more righteous about their defense of Sunni Islam, and less tolerant of Shi’a sects. This leads to the building of a centralized, absolutist imperial order.Moved the capital to Baghdad Huge and expanded bureaucracy- Symbol of bureaucratization of empire in wazir- chief administrator and head of the caliph’s inner councils

Islamic Conversion and Mawali Acceptance

Full integration of new converts, both Arab and non-ArabMass conversions encouragedAppeal of Islamic beliefsMuslims exempt from paying head taxMore opportunities for schooling and careersPersians came to dominate

Losing Control of the DynastyBy mid-9th century CE Abbasid dynasty had begun to lose control over empire with rebellious governors and new dynasties to challenge themIronically this was a time of creativity and expansionFrom 10th-14th century Muslim warriors, traders, and wandering mystics spread Islam, which would play a huge role in the extension and transformation of the Afro-Asian worldBecame conduits for exchange of ideas, medicine, inventions, etc.

The Islamic Heartlands in the Middle and Late Abbasid Eras

3rd Abbasid caliph- al-Mahdi (775-785) already signs of division, Shi’a revolts common, had a life of luxury, failed to fix the problem of successionEldest son was poisoned after al-Mahdi’s deathHarun al-Rashid (786 – 809) – most famous of the Abbasid caliphs (only 23 when he ascended the throne)Luxurious living- evident in Baghdad’s mosques, palaces- immortalized in The Thousand and One NightsBecause of his youth very dependent on Persian advisors, which had consequences later in that the royal court became more important than the caliphProblem of succession after his death- leads to civil warSons of al Ma’mun (813-833) (he won the first civil war) armed themselves in anticipation of their fight for successor . The son who won had 4,000 slaves from CAR, which he increased to 70,000. This would be a mistake since they would revolt and kill him and the next 4 caliphs

Imperial Breakdown and Agrarian Disorder

Resources drained with constant civil disobedience and the building of extravagant palaces and mosquesThis leads to abandonment of many farming peasant villages and agricultural production in the Tigris-Euphrates basin fell into disrepairIncreased Shi’a instigation of uprisings

Nomadic Incursions and the Eclipse of Caliphal power

Caliphs too preoccupied with struggles in the capital to control loss of territory on the outskirts of the empireIn 945 armies of regional splinter dynasties- Buyids of Persia- invaded the heartlands and captured BaghdadBuyids took the title of SultanControlled the caliph and the court but couldn’t prevent the disintegration of the empire1055 Seljuk Turks (who had provided military assistance earlier in the empire) took over the BuyidsStaunch Sunnis- purged remaining Shi’a officialsGot rid of Byzantine threat

Outside Pressure

Crusaders determined to capture portions of the Islamic world that made up the Holy Land of biblical times1096-1099 crusader’s assault most deadly- captured holy land and divided it into Christian kingdoms - Jerusalem taken in June 1099Europeans mounted eight Crusades and for two centuries had a hold on the Mediterranean Salah-ud-Din in last decades of 12th century- strong leader- recaptured most crusader outposts 1291- end of crusader influenceMongols (Chinggis Khan) first raided in the 1220s1258 (Hulegu- Khan’s grandson) takes Baghdad