Upload
arich
View
18
Download
2
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
The Evolution of Job Quality. Francis Green Presentation to the IIPPE Political Economy of Work Conference, University of Leeds, 5 May. Context. Background: affluence, but differentiation age of the computer increasing international competition recession - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Citation preview
The Evolution of Job Quality
Francis GreenPresentation to the IIPPE Political Economy of Work
Conference, University of Leeds, 5 May
2
Context
• Background:– affluence, but differentiation – age of the computer– increasing international competition– recession– the “Lisbon strategy” – “more and better jobs”– increased perceived importance of intrinsic
aspects of job quality
3
Outline
• Concept and theory• Indicators• Stories about job quality:
– increased skill requirements, – polarisation, – intensification, – control, – (in)security.
• Some implications for worker well-being consider along the way
4
Concepts of job quality
• Subjective “Utility” (Economics)• Job that delivers complexity and autonomy (sociology)• Needs-based: job that delivers, first, external need
satisfaction; and second, internal need satisfaction – e.g. in marxian terms, self-validating labour.
• Competing models in practice: – “more and better jobs” (OECD and others) – usually meaning
“better-paid”– EC: from “quality in work” to “quality of employment” and
“flexicurity”– “decent labour” (ILO);
5
Grand narratives
• e.g. – Neoclassical/technicist
• Growth delivers rises in standards of living; job quality is a “luxury good” which we demand more of as we become richer
– De-skilling and upskilling; Fordism and post-Fordism– Declining worker power and ubiquitous lean
production systems– Precarious work
• Inevitable combination of intensification of global competitiveness with the feminisation of the workforce?
• Contingent, non-secular, development shaped by national legal frameworks?
6
Core Indicators of job quality
• Wages – Including fairness of wages
• Job skills– Including skill matching
• Effort and hours• Autonomy/discretion• Security
– employment security (financial and psychological)– physical
7
Story 1: SBTC
• A prima facie good-news story for job quality• Evidence:
– Direct measures of rising skills use– Persistence or increase in education premia, in face
of rising quantities of more-educated workers– Increased skills use and deployment of educated
labour is: • in similar industries across countries• associated with new technologies
8
Figure 4.1b Trends in Broad Skills: Required Highest Qualification, 1986-2006
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1986 1992 1997 2001 2006
Level 4+
No qualification
Figure 4.1d Trends in Broad Skills: Learning Time,
1986-2006
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1986 1992 1997 2001 2006
> 2 years
< 1 month
Broad skill requirements rising, but recent change muted
9
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6P
hysi
cal
Pro
blem
-sol
ving
Ext
erna
lC
omm
unic
atio
n
Influ
ence
Ch
ang
e in
Ski
lls
Ind
ices
, 19
92-1
997
Same Job
Different Job
Total
Changes in the Use of Generic Skills, 1992-1997.
Source: Skills Survey series
10
Changes in the Use of Generic Skills, 1997-2006.
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25P
hysi
cal
Pro
blem
-sol
ving
Che
ckin
g
Ext
erna
lC
omm
unic
atio
n
Num
erac
y
Sel
f-Pla
nnin
g
Lite
racy
Influ
ence
Cha
nge
in S
kills
Indi
ces,
199
7-20
06
Source: Skills Survey series
11
Year 0.00598
[0.00614]
Emp. Involvement 0.812*
[0.458]
Task Discretion 0.158
[0.281]
Low Computing 0.599*
[0.309]
High Computing 1.212**
[0.451]
Observations 83
R-squared 0.960
Explaining Literacy Skills: Within-Industry Analysis
12
1992 1997 2001 2006Women % % % %Overqualified 23.8 25.2 23.4 32.1
Overskilled 1 12.2 - 12.0 12.7
Men % % % %
Overqualified 21.7 23 27 33.2
Overskilled 15.4 - 12.8 15.4
Education and Skill Mismatches in Britain
13
Quantile Regression and OLS Estimates of Returns to Graduate Education for Men.3-year moving window.
.25
.3.3
5.4
.45
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005yr3mw
10th Percentilee 50th Percentilee90th Percentilee OLS
14
Story 2: POLARISATION OF THE LABOUR FORCE?
15
Explanations
• Technical change and polarisation: a nuanced version of SBTC
• Demographics and inequality
• Structural choice: the “low road”?
16
Figure 4.1: Net employment creation by job quality quintiles (different time periods)
Growth in middlePolarization Hybrid polariz/upgrading Upgrading Hybrid upgrading/mid
AT
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
1995-2003
1995-2000
BE
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
1995-2006
1995-2000FR
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1995-2006
1995-2000
IE
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1998-2006
1998-2000
DE
-800-600-400-200
0200400600800
100012001400
1995-2006
1995-2000
DK
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
1995-2006
1995-2000
IT
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1995-2003
1995-2000
LU
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
1995-2006
1995-2000 SE
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1997-2006
1997-2000
UK
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1995-2006
1995-2000
ES
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
1995-2006
1995-2000
GR
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
1995-2006
1995-2000
CY
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1999-2006
1999-2000
CZ
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
1998-2006
1998-2000
EE
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
1997-2006
1997-2000
HU
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
1997-2006
1997-2000
FI
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1997-2006
1997-2001NL
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
1996-2006
1996-2000
PT
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
1998-2006
1998-2000
LT
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
1998-2006
1998-2000
LV
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
1998-2006
1998-2000
SL
-30-20-10
01020304050607080
1996-2006
1996-2000
SK
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
1998-2006
1998-2000
EU15
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1995-2006
1995-2000NMS
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
2000-2006
17
Story 3 Intensification
• Technology and organisation– EBTC– more effective monitoring technology
• Changing balance of power, linked to intensified global competition
• Insecurity??• Consumerism: the work/spend treadmill?
• Evidence: typically based on comparison of required effort questions across time or in-depth case study
18
Proportion in EU12 with high effort more than half the time
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1991 1995 2000 2005
Tight deadlines
High speed
Source: EWCS
19
Evolution of Work Intensity, EU15, 1991 - 2005
1991 for EU12 only
201991 for EU12 only
21
Source: Skills Survey series
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1992 1997 2001 2006
disagree or stronglydisagree
agree
strongly agree
“Job requires hard work”
Private Sector
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1992 1997 2001 2006
disagree or stronglydisagree
agree
strongly agree
Public Sector
22
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1992 1997 2001 2006
disagree or stronglydisagree
agree
strongly agree
Men Women
“Job requires hard work”
Source: Skills Survey series
Related facts: over 2001-6: work intensification notable among school teachers; and in Hotels and Restaurants
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1992 1997 2001 2006
disagree or stronglydisagree
agree
strongly agree
23
High Work Effort
05
101520253035
Men Women
19982004
% who strongly agree that “My job requires that I work very hard”
Source: WERS; establishments with at least 10 workers.
24
Story 4 Autonomy
• Central to marxian conception of job quality;
• Also to psycho-social models of workplace well-being
• On contested terrain, and with contrasting predictions: – Post-Taylorism/fordism: rising autonomy– Neo-Taylorism: renewed assault on autonomy
25
Source: UK Skills Surveys
2.05
2.1
2.15
2.2
2.25
2.3
2.35
2.4
2.45
2.5
1992 1997 2001 2006
Men
Women
All
Task Discretion in Britain, 1992-2006
2
2.05
2.1
2.15
2.2
2.25
2.3
2.35
2.4
2.45
2.5
1992 1997 2001 2006
Private
Public
All
26
Control over pace of work, 1989-2001, Sweden
% responding that they can decide their work pace themselves all the time. 1989-2001.
Source: ‘The Work Environment survey’
27
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Order
of t
asks
Worki
ng m
etho
ds
Conten
ts of
task
s
Pace o
f wor
k
Divisio
n of ta
sks b
etwee
n em
ploye
es
Choice of
wor
king
partn
er
1984
1990
1997
2003
Task discretion in Finland, 1984-2003
Source: Quality of Life Surveys, Statistics Finland.
28
Decision latitude, 1996–2006, Norway
(% of workers citing high levels)
Source: SSB, Level of Living Surveys
29
30
0102030405060708090
100
1992 2001 2006
No Team
Non-Self-Directing Team
Self-DirectingTeam
The Paradox of Teamwork in Britain
See Gallie et al. ‘Teamwork, Productive Potential and Employee Welfare’ Source: UK Skills Surveys
31
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1992 1997 2001 2006
%
Males Females
Proportion of High-Strain Jobs”
‘See Green (2008) Work Effort and Worker Well-Being in the Age of Affluence’
Source: Skills Survey series
Implications of Combined Story 3 and Story 4
32
Men and women constantly thinking about work and having limited control over their work,1989-2001, Sweden.
% of women and men who cannot stop thinking about work on their time off, combined with limited control over their work.
Source: ‘The Work Environment survey’
33
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9S
train
Anxie
ty-
Conte
ntm
ent
Depre
ssio
n-
Enth
usia
sm
Str
ain
Anxie
ty-
Conte
ntm
ent
Depre
ssio
n-
Enth
usia
sm
Men Women
1992
2001
2006
Changing Well-Being
Full-time employees
Source: Skills Survey/ EIB series
34
Story 5 Security
• Employment insecurity has several dimensions: including risk of job loss, length of unemployment, loss of wages.
• Influence of external context on perceptions:– Perceived risk of job loss rises with unemployment– Perceived difficulty of re-employment rises with
unemployment and rate of change of unemployment– So: must be very poor now
• However, the movement of perceived insecurity, on average, is cyclical not secular, despite the rise in use of temporary labour contracts in many countries
35
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1986 1997 2001 2006
Men
Women
Source: UK Skills Surveys
Perceived Risk of Job Loss
% reporting at least an evens chance of job loss and unemployment
36
Job Insecurity
0
5
10
15
20
25
Men Women
19982004
% who disagree or strongly disagree with “I feel my job is secure in this workplace”
37
C
T
L
L
T
O
C
N
NT
T
TL
L
C
O
O
O
N
O
O
O
T
LL
TL
N
N
T
T
T
T
L L
D
O
O
O
TO
O
N
C
C
N
1020
3040
Hig
h In
secu
rity
Rat
e (%
)
0 5 10 15 20Unemployment Rate (%)
Perceived insecurity by unemployment rate across nations
Classification: L: Liberal mkt econ; T: transitional; N: Nordic; C: Corporatist; O: Other industrialised; D: developing
Source: ISSP, pooled 1997 and 2005
38
Perception that health and safety is at risk because of work
39
Conclusions 1
4 unpleasant tales:• Upskilling but polarisation• Persistence of low-autonomy jobs• Persistence of high-effort jobs• Still increasing high-strain jobs• The movement of perceived insecurity is
cyclical, and widely varying, but not secular• Emerging gender differences in these trends
40
Conclusions 2
• Impact of recession:• Massive increases in perceived insecurity• High u, and rate of change of u; ubiquitous
presence of crisis• Impact on work effort??
– Labour hoarding– Fear effect??– Radical work re-organisation
• Impact on autonomy ?• Wages
– Likely to be reduced