The Enjoyment of Music 11th Complete Edition · 2018-05-24 · PART I Materials of Music . The...
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The Enjoyment of Music 11th Complete Edition The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
The Enjoyment of Music 11th Complete Edition · 2018-05-24 · PART I Materials of Music . The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition . Your enjoyment of music can be brought about
Your enjoyment of music can be brought about in two ways: ―The first is through the sensory appeal of the music itself. Simply put, you like the sounds you hear and perhaps you are also drawn to the underlying emotion of the performance. ―The second way is by examining the musical work of art more closely. This section will introduce the six basic elements of music, common voice types, Western musical instruments and ensembles.
Prelude 1: Listening to Music Today
Typical places and ways of listening to music
Understanding music requires active listening
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Suggested picture of guy with mp3 player
and laptop (in Shorter edition, p. 4, Full p. 5
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Music is often enjoyed as a background to another activity. This would be considered casual listening and might occur during study, commuting, or relaxing. Another type of listening is active. Active listening occurs when you are engaged and concentrated on the music and performance. It is through this type of listening that a greater understanding and knowledge of music can be gained.
Some Practical Suggestions Practice listening to music
Knowledge of musical notation is not necessary
Use Listening Guides, Resource CD, and Glossary
Attend live music performances!
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With practice, you can become skilled at listening for the different elements of music. A knowledge of musical notation is not necessary for the enjoyment of music, because the performer usually interprets the musical notation for the listener. The ultimate musical experience is to be able to hear music in a live performance. By being a member of the audience, you are supporting the continuation of music as an art form.
Attending Concerts
Recordings vs. live concerts
Art music vs. popular music
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Pianist Lang Lang
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Recorded music provides for the portability of music, contributes to the financial stability and popularity of a musical artist, and serves to preserve their artistry for the fulfillment of future generations. Attendance at a live music concert is a unique experience, which can also be quite exciting and meaningful. For a concert of art music, the response of the audience is primarily governed by tradition. In order to enjoy the experience more fully (or at least not stand out too much), it is important to become familiar with conventions such as the mode of dress, when to arrive at concert, how to follow the concert program, and when to applaud. In popular music concerts the response is more spontaneous.
To Find a Concert, Check Listings
For on-campus concerts (Music Department)
In the “weekend section” of local newspapers
College newspaper
On websites of local concert venues and musical groups
Be sure to ask for student discounts!
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Many concerts and musical events occur on college campuses, and are often cheap or free with a Student ID. Most local newspapers have a “weekend” section that comes out on Thursday or Friday and contains a listing of major upcoming musical events―both popular and “classical.” You might also check the websites of the various concert venues and musical groups in your area. A number of art music concerts offer substantial discounts to students. The ticket office of the venue or musical group would have the most accurate information about discounts and availability!
The Concert Program
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Here is an example of a program for an art music concert: For each piece to be performed, you will find the title of the work with the composer’s name and (usually) dates listed to the right of it In many cases, a work is comprised of a number of smaller works called movements. The movements to be performed will be listed under the title of the work and will vary in pace and character. You can follow along as you sense breaks in the music followed by sudden changes in tempo which correspond to the order on the program. In order to preserve the continuity of the presentation, it is customary to withhold all applause until all movements listed have been performed.
“It is the melody which is the charm of music, and it is that which is most difficult to produce. The invention of a fine melody is a work of genius.” ―Haydn
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Joseph Haydn
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A melody is a succession of single tones or pitches. In the same way a sentence is perceived as a flowing idea and not just a random list of words, a melody may portray a unified idea. Melodies “speak” to the listener.
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Melody: A succession of single pitches or tones perceived as a meaningful unity.
Defining Melody
Newton: “Amazing Grace”
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There are a variety of approaches used for organizing pitches into meaningful melodies: modes, scales, and tone rows to name a few. Melodies in contrasting styles can be described by such characteristics as contour, range, and motion. Often melodies are organized into phrases that are marked by punctuations called “cadences.”
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Characteristics of Melody: Contour
Strauss: Don Juan
Tchaikovsky: The Nutcracker
Mozart: Piano Concerto
Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite
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The contour of a melody contributes largely to the emotional effect. Ascending melodies can portray soaring, uplifting feelings, while melodies with a wave-like contour may be contemplative or relaxing. The arch is a frequent contour where the melody gradually ascends to a climactic high note and then descends, often symmetrically, to the end of the phrase, creating a very satisfying balance. Descending melodies produce the effect of decreasing energy and may be used for a smooth landing. Here are some examples of melodic contour [links to excerpts].
The range of a melody is the span between lowest and highest note. It is an important determining factor in mood as well as performance considerations. Melodies with a narrow range may be more serene or smooth and are certainly easier to perform for amateur musicians. Often folk melodies and songs that are intended for untrained singers are designed within a narrow range. Religious and civic tunes (such as “America”) are good examples where a narrow range would work well. [link to excerpt] Melodies that are medium in range offer more variety with their increased palette of pitches and often outline chords, increasing the energy level and sophistication. [link to excerpt] Melodies with a wide range can be exciting, impressive, and may require virtuosic performance ability for instrumentalists and singers. [link to excerpt]
Conjunct Movement: A smooth, connected melody that moves principally by small intervals.
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Conjunct movement describes melodies that move in steps, from pitch to nearby pitch. An example of conjunct movement is heard in Beethoven’s String Quartet No. 1. [link to excerpt] This does not necessarily mean that the melody has a small range, for there may be many steps or small intervals combined to make a dramatic range, for example in the clarinet introduction in George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue. Still, conjunct movement does create overall, a smooth effect.
Disjunct movement: A disjointed or disconnected melody with many leaps.
Brahms: Violin Concerto in D, Op. 77, III
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Disjunct movement is melodic motion by large disjointed intervals, or leaps, and may be very dramatic and exciting as a result of the energy it generates. Brahms’s Violin Concerto in D is a good example of disjunct melody. [link to excerpt] Much of the very spectacular, and innovative music of the twentieth century employs disjunct movement, for example, Arnold Schoenberg’s song cycle Pierrot lunaire, no. 18.
Phrase: A unit of meaning within a larger structure, like a musical sentence.
Cadence: A resting place in a musical phrase.
Mozart: Symphony No. 40, I
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Melodies are typically meaningful: they speak from the composer or performer to the listener. A crucial organizing force in melody is the phrase, which functions much like a sentence in verbal communication. A phrase has a beginning, middle, and end marked by punctuation called a cadence. There are many ways in which composers design phrases and cadences, from simple to complex, some plainly recognized, some mysterious or sophisticated: all contributing strongly to the mood and style of the music. Mozart’s Symphony No. 40 presents many clear examples of phrases and cadences. [link to excerpt]
Rhyme scheme: Poetic phrases and musical phrases generally align.
Billings: “Chester”
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When lyrics are present, there is a natural alignment of melodic phrase and rhyme scheme. For example, in Amazing Grace by John Newton (1725–1807), the rhyme scheme is: a Amazing grace, how sweet the sound b That saved a wretch like me! a I once was lost, but now am found b Was blind but now I see. This is simply an A-B-A-B rhyme scheme as identified by the last syllable in each line. This pattern of organization suggests rich musical possibilities. William Billings’s Chester, a patriotic anthem from his 1770 songbook The New England Psalm Singer follows a similar rhyme scheme for a clearly structured musical result. [link to excerpt]
Countermelody: An added melody sounding against another melody.
Prokofiev: Violin Concerto
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While melodies have many characteristics giving each line a unique personality, there is another compositional technique that can increase the expression of the composer further: the use of countermelody. Countermelody is an added melody that can be secondary in importance to main melody, as in Prokofiev’s Violin Concerto, or it can an be of equal importance to another melody. [link to excerpt] The technique of adding countermelody in a composition increases the variety that can be achieved by an inventive composer. Equally impressive usage of two melodies sounding one against another can be found in improvisations by great jazz musicians, where two melodies are created and intertwined spontaneously, live before an audience. When this works well, as in much of the work between Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie, for example, the results can be magical.
Rhythm is a fascinating aspect of music. Rhythm is the movement of music in time and propels music forward―still, it may do so in varying degrees, ranging from subtle flow to swirling torrent, as in Beethoven’s “Turkish March” from The Ruins of Athens. [link to excerpt] Basic components of rhythm include: length of individual notes, beats, and accents; also meters and syncopations.
Metrical Patterns: Simple recurring patterns, typically 2, 3, or 4 beats grouped in a measure.
Downbeats
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Metrical patterns are established by regularly recurring patterns of beats. The downbeat is the first accented beat in each pattern. Here is an example of a musical time with three beats per measure; notice the downbeat indicated by the arrow. To show these units of organization on paper or computer screen we use measure lines―vertical lines that mark off measures. .
2. Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time Simple Meter
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Duple Meter
Triple Meter
Quadruple Meter (Common Time)
Measure Bar Line
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Musical compositions that present regularly recurring patterns of beats can be classified as duple, triple, or quadruple meter. As the labels imply, duple meter consists of two beats per measure; triple meter, three beats per measure; and quadruple meter, four beats per measure. �Naturally, there exist other possibilities for rhythmic organization, but these categories provide a good starting place for learning how to listen deeply to the temporal―or “time” aspect of music. Simple meter is a category of rhythm that has beats divisible into two even units. This contrasts with compound meter, whose beat divides instead into three even units.
2. Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time
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Duple Meter
Triple Meter
Quadruple Meter (Common Time)
Sousa: “Stars and Stripes Forever”
Purcell: Rondeau from Abdelazar
Vivaldi: The Four Seasons, Autumn
Mahler: Symphony No. 1, III
Brahms: Symphony No. 1, IV Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite
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We speak of duple, triple, and quadruple meter when describing specific rhythms. Meters can be defined as organized groups of beats. �Listen to some excerpts of music and pay close attention to determine whether you can indentify duple, triple, and quadruple meter. [link to excerpt] Which aspects of sound help you identify meter? {accents, rests, phrases, cadences, instrumentation, etc}
Compound meter is the rhythm category that contrasts with simple meter. It is in the division of the beat where simple and compound differ: simple meters have two divisions per beat, compound meter has three divisions per beat. A frequently occurring compound meter is 6/8 time, known as a sextuple meter―presenting a Strong-weak-weak, Strong-weak-weak beat pattern.
Musical Time: Compound Meter
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6/8
9/8 Bach: Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring
Corelli: Violin Sonata, Gigue
Fauré: Pelléas et Mélisande, “Sicilienne” 12/8
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Listen to examples of music in compound meters and pay close attention to hear the feel established by these patterns. [link to excerpt]
Syncopation: Deliberate disruption of pattern; accent shifted to a weak beat or offbeat.
Borodin: Prince Igor, “Polovetsian Dances”
Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, “Dance of the Youths…”
Tchaikovsky: Piano Concerto No. 1
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Syncopation is a deliberate disruption of regular patterns where the accent is shifted to a weak beat or to a place in between beats―known as an offbeat. This technique was prominent, for example, in African-American dance rhythms, which contributed to the development of jazz. Some excerpts that demonstrate syncopation are Borodin’s “Polovetsian Dances” and the innovative early twentieth-century “Dance of the Youths. . .” from Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring. [link to excerpt]
Polyrhythm: Simultaneous use of different rhythmic patterns.
Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, “Sacrificial Dance…”
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Listen deeply to “Sacrificial Dance. . . “ from Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring and hear a famous example of polyrhythm―a technique where contrasting rhythmic patterns occur simultaneously. [link to excerpt] What descriptive words would you use to explain this sound to someone else?
Additive Meter: Irregular grouping of beats in a larger pattern.
Ravi Shankar: Bhimpalasi
Anoushka Shankar
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Interesting rhythms can be built by adding up irregular beat groupings to create a larger pattern, for example, a ten-beat rhythm can be constructed from two beats plus three beats added to three beats plus two beats: one-two, one-two-three, one-two-three, one-two. The total is ten. Another example, from the music of India, is a 14-beat pattern built from smaller groups: 2 + 4 + 4 + 4, or 3 + 4 + 3 + 4. These are examples of additive meter.
Nonmetric: Music without a strong sense of beat or meter.
Gregorian chant: “Alleluia, emitte spiritum”
Gregorian chant: “Venite, exsultemus domino”
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Nonmetric music, that without a strong sense of beat or meter, is demonstrated by excerpts from the Middle Ages―in the form of plainchant or Gregorian Chant. Modern examples of nonmetric music include choral works by Arvo Pärt and electronic ambient works by Harold Budd and Brian Eno.
3. Harmony: Musical Space Vertical aspect of music
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Chord
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Harmony is considered musical space in the sense that it has depth or dimension created by multiple tones sounding simultaneously. On a staff written chords are notated as pitches stacked vertically, so harmony is often referred to as the “vertical aspect of music” or a “vertical relationship.” (This contrasts with melody, which is notated horizontally.) The word “interval” refers to the distance between two notes; those notes can be sounded as the first one followed by the second―a melodic interval―, or the notes can be sounded at the same time―a harmonic interval. Three or more notes sounded together create a chord.
3. Harmony: Musical Space
Scale: A collection of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order.
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Do ti la sol fa mi re do
Octave (descending)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Scales are pitch collections arranged in ascending or descending order and often sung in music classes using the solfège system―do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do―or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The interval spanning 1 to 8 is called an octave and is symbolized by use of the same letter name, for example, C up to the next C or C down to the next C, as in this example. The octave is an important building block in music due to its consonant sound and mathematical relationship. In many cases, harmonies are created by combining notes from the scale into a “vertical sonority.”
The Function of Harmony
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Triad: Three-note chord, do-mi-sol or 1-3-5
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Triads are specific chords built from three notes, typically every other note of a scale, for example, 1-3-5, or 2-4-6, and so on. While triads are relatively simple, they are extremely useful across many styles of music. Triads are one of the most common harmonic structures in Western music. When harmony is created by the motion of one chord to another, we call this movement a progression or chord progression.
The Organization of Harmony
Tonic or keynote:
First note of scale (do) is “home base”
Tonality
Major tonality
Minor tonality
Diatonic harmony
Chromatic harmony
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The organization of harmony is a complete field of study unto itself, however, some basic principles of harmony can help listeners develop deeper perception. Also, the terminology associated with harmony is extremely useful in discussing music critically. Among the important concepts related to harmony are those of tonic, or keynote, and tonality. The tonic note is the first note of a scale, for example, “C” is the tonic of the C scale―and this note serves as a home base for all the other notes of the scale. Tonality is the resulting phenomenon when music is organized around a tonic note; this can be major tonality or minor tonality depending on the source scale. Most listeners agree that major tonality presents a brighter sound, while minor tonality is perceived as darker or more emotional. Music perception, however, is very subjective and driven by many factors including the cultural background and listening experience of the audience. Harmony can also be described as diatonic harmony, with melodies or harmonies that are made up only from a major or minor scale, and chromatic harmony, whose melodies or harmonies are made up from all possible notes of the 12-note chromatic scale.
The Organization of Harmony: Tonality
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Major Tonality
Minor Tonality
Haydn: Symphony No. 94, III
Mendelssohn: Symphony No. 4, I
Chopin: Mazurka
Quiz Chopin: Prelude
Vivaldi: Concerto for Piccolo Haydn: Symphony No. 45, I
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First listen to an example of major tonality in Haydn’s Symphony No. 94, Third Movement; next, the minor tonality in one of Chopin’s mazurkas. (A mazurka is a Polish folk dance in triple meter.) [link to excerpt] Now test your ability to distinguish major and minor tonality by listening to four more excerpts and state which one you perceive: major or minor. [link to excerpt] (Answers: Chopin―minor; Mendelssohn―major; Vivaldi-―major; Haydn―minor)
Listen to an example of diatonic harmony, that is, harmony consisting mostly of notes from the home scale, in Bach’s The Well-Tempered Clavier, I. Next, contrast that with the chromatic harmony in an excerpt from Bach’s Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue. [link to excerpt] Now use your ear to determine which of the three excerpts are diatonic and which are chromatic. [link to excerpt] {Answers: “Joy to the World” – diatonic; Wagner “Tristan und Isolde” – chromatic; Haydn Trumpet Concerto - diatonic} It is valuable to note that music can be chiefly diatonic with a touch of chromaticism, or it can be mostly chromatic with some diatonicism. These are aspects of sound that are not mutually exclusive and can appear in lesser or greater degrees.
Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring, “Dance of the Youths…”
Shankar: Bhimpalasi
Mendelssohn: Midsummer Night’s Dream, Nocturne
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Music can be described as being either consonant or dissonant. Dissonance is defined as discordant combinations of tones, creating unstable sounds that need resolution. Consonance is defined as having concordant, agreeable combinations of tones. Consonant music typically is associated with resolution, relaxation, and fulfillment of expected tonal goals. Drones are found frequently in Asian cultures, European folk music, and modern electronic music. A drone is a single sustained note that serves as a simple underpinning of sound, which can be accompanied by rhythm and melody. Listen to the drone in Shankar’s Bhimpalasi. [link to excerpt]
Sounds “If only the world could feel the power of harmony.”
—W. A. Mozart
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Musical Systems
Melody and harmony function together to make a musical system.
An octave is an important interval.
Western octave: 12 equal semitones (half steps)
Major/minor scales: Seven pitches drawn from the 12
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An octave is an important interval that spans eight notes of a major or minor scale, for example, C up to the next C. It is interesting to note the mathematical relationship between two pitches that are an octave apart: a ratio of 2:1. For example, if a pitch is vibrating at 440 Hz, or cycles per second, the pitch one octave higher vibrates at 880 Hz. In Western music the octave is divided into 12 equal semitones, or half steps. Two notes that are an octave apart blend very smoothly, sounding as “the same note”― except one is higher or lower than the other. Major and minor scales are constructed from specific arrangements of seven notes drawn from the 12 half steps that divide the octave.
The Formation of Major and Minor Scales
12 semitones make up the chromatic scale White keys on a keyboard Black keys on a keyboard Two half steps = whole step
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Octave
# # # #
#
half steps
whole step
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In order to understand the formula for major and minor scales we must look at the octave, divided. The 12 semitones of the octave constitute the chromatic scale. On a keyboard the scale is made of the white and black keys in the octave. Two half steps make one whole step.
White Keys: C D E F G A B C Black keys are in between the white keys
Up a scale sharp ( # ) Down a scale flat ( b ) Black key above C is C#, D is D#, etc. Black key below D is Db, E is Eb, etc.
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On the keyboard, white keys are pitches C D E F G A B C. The black keys are in between the white keys. Going up a scale, black keys are called sharp (#); going down a scale, black keys are called flat (b).
The Major Scale Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do
No black keys between E and F (mi–fa) or B and C (ti–do)
E–F and B–C are half steps
Other white keys are a whole step apart
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Do re mi fa sol la ti do
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A major scale can be sung using the syllables do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do. The white keys on a piano, when played from C up to the next C, create this sound naturally, because there are no black keys between E and F (mi–fa) or B and C (ti–do) The distance between E and F and between B and C is a half step. The remaining white keys are a whole step apart.
Major Scales Pattern
Major mode: w w h w w w h
Tonic (do)
Dominant (sol)
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All major scales follow the same pattern of whole and half steps: w w h, w w w h This collection of pitches creates a sense of gravity toward do. The fifth pitch, sol, is called the dominant and sounds like it wants to return to the tonic for resolution.
The Minor Scale
Minor mode: w h w w h w w
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The minor scale differs from the major mode in mood, coloring, and mode
Chromaticism Tones foreign to a key weaken the tonic relationship
Diatonic tones Chromatic tones
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The seven pitches contained in a major or minor scale are called diatonic tones―meaning they are part of the key. For example, in C major, C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are diatonic―they are part of the C major key. But these are only seven of the twelve possible notes. The remaining five notes are called chromatic tones―in this example they are C#, D#, F#, G# and A#. The introduction of tones foreign to a key weakens the tonic relationship; this phenomenon is called chromaticism. Diatonic tones belong to a major or minor scale of the piece. Chromatic tones do not belong to the key. Chromaticism can be present in a composition in degrees; in other words, a piece of music can be completely diatonic, it can have some chromaticism, or it can be highly chromatic. The amount of chromaticism in a composition has a strong influence on the character of the piece.
Other types of scales include pentatonic, tritonic, heptatonic, and microtonal scales. Pentatonic―or five-note scales―appear in a number of patterns and are used in some African, Asian, and Native American musics, as well as in rock and jazz. Tritonic scales are three-note patterns found in some African music. Intervals that are smaller than the semitones of the chromatic scale are produced naturally on some instruments and can be easily created on electronic instruments. These smaller divisions of the octave are called microtones and are used to build microtonal scales.
Aspects of the Major-Minor System
Tonic triad
Dominant triad
Subdominant triad
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(1)
tonic dominant subdominant
&
Active and rest chords
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Music created from the major-minor system is called diatonic music and can have some important general characteristics One aspect is the creation of active and rest chords. The tonic triad―built on the first note of the scale―represents a point of rest. The dominant triad―built on the fifth scale step―is the most active triad, and seeks to resolve to the tonic. The subdominant triad―built on the fourth scale step―is a bit less active triad and often seeks to resolve to the tonic. These active/rest relationships are built into the diatonic system and present an interesting phenomenon in that most listeners agree with these sonic tendencies―even though music listening can be a highly subjective experience.
The Key as a Form-Building Element Using a new key or temporarily shifting the tonal center
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b
Original melody
Transposed melody (up a 4th)
Modulation (relative minor)
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&
&
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Often composers build form by setting a work in a new key, or by temporarily shifting the tonal center. Transposition is the process of shifting all the tones of a musical composition to a new pitch level, while the pattern of whole and half steps does not change. Modulation is the process of passing from one key to another, for example, for the key of C major to the key of A minor. Modulations can be frequent or few, subtle or abrupt.
The Key as a Form-Building Element
Key provides musical unity
Movement from key to key creates tension
Home key provides unity
Foreign key provides variety and contrast
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The key is often used as a form-building element, for example, highlighting aspects of a key provides musical unity. Movement from the home key to a contrasting key and back creates tension and release. A home key provides unity through use of the familiar tonic, subdominant, dominant relationships. Movement to a foreign key provides variety and contrast.
Monophony: Single-line texture, or melody without accompaniment.
Gregorian chant: Psalm 94, “Venite, exsultemus domino”
Gregorian chant: Whitsunday Mass, “Alleluia, emitte…”
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Texture refers to the way melodic lines are combined with harmony in music. The simplest texture is monophony, which is a single melodic line without accompaniment. Until about a thousand years ago, all known Western music sources were monophonic. [link to excerpt]
Heterophony: Texture in which two or more voices (or parts) elaborate the same melody
simultaneously, often the result of improvisation.
African traditional, Gabon: “Porter’s Song”
African traditional: “Herding Song”
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Heterophony is a texture often found in folk music, jazz, gospel, and music outside of the Western culture, when improvisation occurs in the performance. [link to excerpt] In heterophony, two or more melodic lines (or voices) that occur simultaneously are an elaboration of the same melody.
Polyphony: Two or more melodic lines combined into a multivoiced texture.
• Non-imitative polyphony (simultaneous melodies)
• Imitative polyphony
Rimsky-Korsakov: “Capriccio espagnol, Fandano asturiano” Bach: Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring
Marenzio: “La bella ninfa mia” Handel: Concerto Grosso in G Bach: Concerto for Violin and Oboe, II
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Polyphony literally means “many-voiced” texture. In polyphony, two or more melodic lines of equal interest are combined. Two types of polyphony are: non-imitative and imitative: Non-imitative polyphony is the combination of two or more distinctly different melodic lines simultaneously. [link to excerpt] In imitative polyphony, a melodic idea is presented in one voice then restated in the others in succession. During the restatement, the original voice continues with new material. [link to excerpt]
Homophony: Texture with principal melody and accompanying harmony.
Dvořák: Symphony No. 9, II
Grieg: Peer Gynt Suite
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Homphony is a texture that is commonly found in both the traditional and popular styles of music. Homophony has a single melodic line that naturally draws your attention. All of the other parts provide accompaniment or simply a background of harmony. [link to excerpt] Sometimes the texture changes from one type to another within a single work. For instance, a piece might start off with a monophonic texture and change to a homophonic one.
Can you name the textures found in these musical examples? [link to excerpt] (Answers: America: homophonic Mahler: imitative polyphony Mozart: homophonic Bach: imitative polyphony Billings: starts monophonic but changes to homophonic)
When the imitation is strict and lasts for an entire work, this is called a canon. One common type of canon is a round. In a round, each voice enters in succession with the same melody, which may then be repeated endlessly. Well-known examples of rounds are Row, Row, Row Your Boat and Frere Jacques (Are You Sleeping?).
Form refers to the structure or shape of a musical work. Musical form may be determined by taking notice of the instances of repeating or contrasting sections within a movement. [link to excerpt]
Variation is another principle of form (in addition to repetition and contrast) where some aspects of the music are altered but the original is still recognizable. [link to excerpt] In improvisation, pieces are created spontaneously in performance. The performers rely on the three main principles of form (repetition, contrast, and variation) in order to create a cohesive structure. During the 1600s, improvisation at the keyboard was very common. Handel’s Keyboard Suite No. 5 is a piece that contains many opportunities for improvisation. [link to excerpt] Shankar’s Bhimpalasi demonstrates improvisation on the sitar. [link to excerpt]
Two-part and three-part forms are important structural patterns found in music. Two-part form, known as binary form, is based on a statement and then a contrasting departure from that statement. This can be indicated in letters with the first section being A and the following contrasting section as B, or A-B. [link to excerpt] Three-part form, known as ternary form, is based upon a statement, a contrasting departure, and then a return to the original statement, labeled A-B-A. [link to excerpt]
A theme is a melodic idea that is used in the construction of a larger musical work. Thematic development is the expansion of a theme by varying its rhythm, outline, or harmony. This device is used in larger musical works. [link to excerpt] Thematic transformation occurs when these same aspects of a theme are altered in such a way that although the theme is recognizable, the character is completely different. One example of this is Berlioz’s Symphony fantastique, where the theme of his beloved is gradually changed from a noble and reserved character in the first movement to one that is vulgar and grotesque in nature by the last. [link to excerpt]
6. Musical Form: The Building Blocks of Form: Theme
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Sequence
Motive
Handel: Concerto Grosso, II
Purcell: Rondeau from Abdelazar
Mozart: Symphony No. 40, I
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Presentation Notes
When a musical idea is restated at a higher or lower pitch level, the restatement is called a sequence. [link to excerpt] A motive is the smallest fragment of a theme that forms a melodic unit. [link to excerpt] Motives may be repeated in sequence (i.e., at higher or lower pitch levels after their original statement)
One common form in music is call-and esponse, which is based on the principle of repetition. It is also known as responsorial music. In this style of performance a song leader is imitated by a chorus of followers. [link to excerpt] Ostinato is another widely used structural procedure. It is a short musical pattern―either melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic―that is repeated throughout a work, or at least a large section of the composition. [link to excerpt] In general, the structure of a musical composition may be described as follows: Notes are bound together into a phrase; phrases form a section; sections form movements. A movement is a complete and relatively independent entity that is part of a larger musical work.
7. Musical Expression: Tempo and Dynamics, The Pace of Music
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Bach, C. P. E., Trio Sonata, I
Handel: Sampson, “Let the Bright Seraphim”
Mozart: Abduction from the Seraglio, Overture
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Presentation Notes
Tempo is the rate of speed or pace of music. The tempo of a piece conveys its character: liveliness and agitation are best expressed by a fast tempo or pace; serenity, sorrow, and despair by a slow one. Tempo markings are traditionally given in Italian, as Italian music was dominant at the time when these indications were first used: [link to excerpt] Allegro means fast or cheerful; moderato is a moderate tempo―not too quickly, not too slowly; adagio is very slow. (Other common tempo markings are listed in text book.) The Russian composer Igor Stravinsky said, “ A piece of mine can survive almost anything but a wrong or uncertain tempo.”
7. Musical Expression: Tempo and Dynamics, The Pace of Music
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Glière: “Russian Sailor’s Dance”
Smetana: The Moldau
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Presentation Notes
Some tempo markings are modifiers, such as molto, which means “very,” as in molto allegro (very lively), and meno, which means less as in meno mosso (less motion). Italian terms that indicate a gradual change in tempo are accelerando (beats get faster and faster), which generates excitement; and ritardando (getting slower), which often leads to a pause in the action. [link to excerpt]
7. Musical Expression: Loudness and Softness, Dynamics
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Strauss: Don Juan
Fauré: Pelléas et Mélisande, “Sicilienne”
Mahler: Symphony No. 1, III
Prokofiev: Classical Symphony, III
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Presentation Notes
Dynamics refer to the volume of a sound or a note in music. They are effective in shaping the character of music, because the degree of volume has a direct effect on our emotional response to a piece of music. Dynamic markings are usually notated in Italian, and range from soft (piano) to loud (forte). Modifiers may be used to create an even greater range of expression, such as mezzo as in mezzo forte (moderately loud) or mezzo piano (moderately soft). [link to excerpt]
7. Musical Expression: Moving from One Dynamic to Another
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Smetana: The Moldau
Liszt: Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2
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Presentation Notes
Gradual changes in dynamics may be indicated by words or signs such as crescendo (growing louder). A crescendo is indicated by a symbol placed directly under the musical staff that resembles the shape of the sound. The musician will begin that section at a softer volume and increase to a louder one. [link to excerpt] The opposite of a crescendo is a decrescendo or diminuendo (growing softer) that shows a graph of the sound going from large to small. The musician will begin at a louder volume and gradually decrease to a softer volume. [link to excerpt]
7. Musical Expression: Shaping the Expressive Content of
Music
Metronome
Interpretation
The Enjoyment of Music 11th, Complete Edition
Chopin: Fantasie Impromptu (rubato)
Presenter
Presentation Notes
In general, the use of tempo and dynamics is effective in shaping the expressive content of music. A metronome is a device to measure exact number of beats per minute. It helps a performer maintain a steady beat and is usually used during rehearsal rather than performance. It is the performer’s responsibility to interpret a musical work in this regard. They can either follow the indications of the composer or decide what they feel will be the most effective way to express a musical idea. Rubato―literally “robbed time”―is an expressive technique performers use to speed up and slow down, enhancing the emotional impact of the performance. [link to excerpt]
