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1 Assistant Professor, English Department, Faculty of Arts, Dhurakij Pundit University.

ผลของวธการเรยนรภาษาองกฤษแบบนำาตนเองทมงเนนการอานเอาเรองตอความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเองของนกศกษาปรญญาโทสาขาบรหารธรกจThe Effect of Self-Directed English Learning on Learner Autonomy

Development of MBA Students

Rosukhon Swatevacharkul 1

บทคดยอ ความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเองถอวาเปนเปาหมายส�าคญสงสดของการศกษาเนองจากน�าไปสการเรยนรอยางมประสทธภาพและการเรยนรตลอดชวต ผเรยนจงควรตองไดรบการฝกฝนใหพฒนาคณลกษณะดงกลาวและการเรยนรแบบ น�าตนเอง (SDL) คอวธการหนงในหลายๆวธการเรยนทตอบสนองเปาหมายการศกษาขอนได วตถประสงคการวจยนคอ เพอตรวจสอบผลของวธการเรยนรภาษาองกฤษแบบน�าตนเองทมงเนนการอานเอาเรอง ตอความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเองและขนาดอทธพลพลวจยคอ นกศกษาปรญญาโทสาขาบรหารธรกจ (MBA) จ�านวน 29 คนทมหาวทยาลยธรกจบณฑตยกรงเทพมหานคร ใชวธการวจยเชงผสมผสานแบบแผนรองรบภายในโดยใชแบบสอบถามและแบบสมภาษณแบบกงโครงสรางในการเกบขอมลแบบสอบถามเปนมาตราสวนประมาณคา5อนดบและม53ขอประกอบดวย7ดานคอ“ทศนคตตอความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเอง”“ความเตมใจในการเรยน”“ความมนใจในการเรยน”“แรงจงใจในการเรยนภาษาองกฤษ”“ศกยภาพในการเรยนรดวยตนเอง”“กลยทธการอานแบบปรชาน”และ“กลยทธการอานแบบอภปรชาน”ผลการวเคราะหขอมลดวยt-testแบบdependentsamplesแสดงใหเหนวาโดยเฉลยความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเองของพลวจยกอนSDL(คาเฉลย3.56คาสวนเบยงเบนมาตรฐาน0.30)และหลงSDL(คาเฉลย3.70คาสวนเบยงเบนมาตราฐาน0.39)ไมแตกตางกนอยางมนยส�าคญ(p>0.05)จงไมมคาขนาดอทธพลจากการตรวจสอบรายดานพบวาคาเฉลยของทกดานอยในระดบสงยกเวนดาน“ความมนใจในการเรยน”และ“กลยทธการอานแบบปรชาน”ซงอยในระดบปานกลางบทความอภปรายถงนยของขอคนพบและการน�าผลวจยไปใชรวมทงขอเสนอแนะส�าหรบงานวจยตอไป

คำาสำาคญ : ภาษาองกฤษความสามารถในการเรยนรดวยตนเองนกศกษาปรญญาโทบรหารธรกจการอานเอาเรองการเรยนร แบบน�าตนเอง

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Abstract Learnerautonomyisunanimouslyregardedastheutmostcrucialpedagogicalgoalforeducationsinceitleadstoeffectiveandlife-longlearning.Learners,thus,shouldbetrainedtodeveloptheirautonomy,andself-directed learning (SDL) isoneof themanyapproaches to fulfil thiseducationalpurpose.Theobjectivesofthisstudyweretoinvestigatetheeffectofself-directedEnglishlearningfocusingonreadingcomprehensiononadevelopmentoflearnerautonomyofMBAstudentsanditseffectsize.Thesubjectswere29MBAstudentsofDhurakijPunditUniversity,Bangkok.Thestudytooktheformofanembeddedmixedmethodsdesignusingaquestionnairetocollectquantitativedata,andsemi-structureinterviewtogatherqualitativedata.Having7domains,the535-pointLikertscalestatementsquestionnairecomposesof“attitudestowardslearnerautonomy”,“willingnesstolearn”,“self-confidencetolearn”,“Englishlearningmotivation”,“capacitytolearnautonomously”,“cognitivereadingstrategy”,and“metacognitivereadingstrategy”.Basedonthedependentsamplest-test,thefindingsrevealedthat,onaverage,learnerautonomyofthesubjectstudentsbeforetheSDL(M=3.56,SD=0.30)andthataftertheSDL(M=3.70,SD=0.39)isnotsignificantlydifferent(p>0.05).Consequently,thereisnoeffectsize.Investigatingeachlearnerautonomydomain,itwasfoundthateverydomainisatahighlevel,except“self-confidence”and“cognitivereadingstrategies”whichareatamoderatelevel.Implicationsandapplicationsarediscussed,andrecommendationswereprovidedforfurtherresearch.

Keywords:English,learnerautonomy,MBAstudents,readingcomprehension,self-directedlearning

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1. Introduction Language learning outside the classroomprovides learnerswithmoreexposuretoEnglish,and it requires individual learners to take control over theirown learningwithout apresenceof ateacher.However,withoutthisindependentlearningquality and effective self-regulatory strategies,studentswouldnotbeabletobenefitfromoutsideclass opportunities (Kormos & Csizer, 2014). It isargued that the development of such learning capacity is beneficial to language learning. Thiscapacitycanbedevelopedbyproviding learnerswithopportunitiestoengageinmodesoflearningthat aim at fostering learner autonomy through practices(Benson,2001). Besidesanactiveroleoflearnersinalearningprocess, learner autonomy development entails a crucialroleofteacherswhohaveanattemptandeffort to foster learner autonomy. However, aspointedoutbyBenson,fosteringautonomydoesnot imply any particular approach to practice or a particularwayoforganizingtheprocessofteachingand learning, but any practice that aims toencourageorenablelearnerstotakegreatercontrolofanyaspectoftheirlearningcanbeconsideredameans of promoting autonomy. Therefore, thisstudyemployed self-directed learning (SDL) as ameans to develop learner autonomy.

2. Objectives of the Study 2.1 To investigate theeffectof SDLonadevelopmentoflearnerautonomyofMBAstudents. 2.2Tostudyitseffectsize.

3. Research Questions 3.1 WhatistheeffectofSDLonadevelopment oflearnerautonomyofMBAstudents? 3.2 Ifso,howlargeisitseffectsize?

4. Hypothesis AdevelopmentoflearnerautonomyofMBAstudentswillsignificantlyincreaseaftertheSDL.

5. Review of Related Literature 5.1 Learner Autonomy The term “learner autonomy” has beendifferentlydefined.Holec(1981:3)definesitas‘totakechargeofone’slearning’as‘tohave,andtohold, the responsibility for all the decisionsconcerning all aspects of this learning’, that is, ‘determiningtheobjectives;definingthecontentsand the progressions; selectingmethods andtechniquestobeused;monitoringtheprocedureofacquisitionproperly(rhythm,time,place,etc.);andevaluatingwhathasbeenacquired’.Holec’sdefinition relates tometacognitive aspects butappearstobeexclusiveofcognitivedimensions.Asautonomyinvolvesmanyaspects;therefore,Benson(1997: 25) states that three basic definitions oflanguagelearningautonomyaredescribed,i.e.:1.autonomyastheactoflearningonone’sownandthetechnicalabilitytodoso;2.autonomyastheinternalpsychologicalcapacitytoself-directone’sown learning; 3. autonomy as control over thecontentandprocessesofone’sownlearning. Benson elaborates that the first twodefinitions implysometypeofchangewhilethethird one relates to a political sense. Learnerautonomyisanattributeofalearner’sapproachtothelearningprocess,anditcannotbetaughtbutfostered, and there are several learning approaches topromotelearnerautonomy(Benson,2011).TheviewofBensononautonomyisinrelationtotheviewofLittle(1990)whodemonstratesthatlearnerautonomy isbasicallyapsychological relationofthe learner to the content and learning process. This can be recognized from varying learningbehaviors. These behaviors are considered as acapacitytodetach,performcriticalreflection,makedecision, and act independently. 5.2 Components of Learner Autonomy It has been seen that autonomy involveslearners’“responsibility”totakechargeoftheirownlearning (Holec, 1981) and “ability” to do so

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(Benson, 1997). Littlewood (1996) supports that suchabilitydependsonknowledgeaboutchoicesthathavetobemadefromthealternatives,andnecessary skills for exercising appropriate choices. Healsoarguesfortheimportanceof“willingness”.Learners cannotbeautonomous relyingonlyontheirindependentability.Rather,theyneedtobewillingtotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearning.Willingness to take responsibility for the choicesrequiredcanbeurgedbymotivationandconfidence.Learnersneedtobemotivatedandfeelconfidenttoexecutetheirlearningontheautonomousbasis.The notions of ‘ability’, ‘willingness’, and‘motivation’ are central as the components ofautonomy(Holec,1981). Theideasof“right”and“freedom”tolearnalso emerge and are considered crucial elements of learner autonomy. According to Lynch (2001:390-391),rightwellreflectsfreedomtolearn.Lynchpoints out that autonomy “…isoftendescribedintermsoflearners’degreeoffreedomtoselect,practiceandactwithintheconfinesofthelanguageteachinginstruction,rather than their capacity to continue to learn Englishintheirdailyinteractionwiththeacademicdiscoursecommunity”. Supported by Little (1990), althoughautonomy entails freedom, the difference lies in terms of degrees of freedom. Freedom of autonomouslearnersmustbealwaysconstrainedbydependenceofthelearnersonsupportandco-operationwith other people (Little, 1997). Thisdemonstrates a social dimension of learner autonomy. LittleandDam(1998)assertthatfreedomhasastrongimplicationonlearningsinceitcanbefreedom from the teacher’s control, from the curriculum’sconstraints,or frombeing forced tolearn.However,intheirviewitisthefreedomfromthe learner’s self. Learners are capableof beingmoreeffectivelearnersnomatterwhattheirinnate

capacity is. It is crucial that each learner isempoweredtodevelophisorherlearnerautonomy. Itisnoticeablethattheterm‘autonomy’isdealtwithvariousdefinitions;therefore,autonomyissemanticallyvariousandcomplex(Little&Dam,1998).AccordingtoBenson(2011),autonomyreferstoanattributeofalearner,anditcanbedevelopedinvariousmodesoflearningwhichmoreorlessareself-directed(Benson,2001:110).Nonetheless,anassumption is that autonomycanbedevelopedthrough participation in self-directedmodes oflearning. Inthisstudy,learnerautonomyreferstoacapacitytotakecontrolofastudent’sownlearningofEnglishbydetermininglearninggoals,selectinglearning contents and reading materials, monitoring a learning procedure, and evaluating learning progress. Learner autonomy is fostered by SDLoutsidetheclassroom.SDLwillbereviewedinthenext section. 5.3 Self-Directed Learning (SDL) The learner-centeredness perspectives whichemphasizeSDLgrowlargelyfromtheideasaddressed by the scholars in the area fromhumanistic psychology (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1993). Carl Rogers advocates that all human beings have a tendency to move towards completionorfulfillmentofpotential(actualizingtendency). Individuals have the creative powerwithin themselves to solve problems, change their self-concepts, and become increasingly self-directed. The individuals have the source of psychological growth and maturity withinthemselves. Knowles (1975: 18)definesSDLas: “In itsbroadestmeaning,‘self-directedlearning’describesaprocessbywhichindividualstaketheinitiative,with or without the assistance of others, indiagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate

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learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes”. According to Guglielmino (1977: 73),characteristics of a highly self-directed learner are as follows:“… is onewho exhibits initiative,independence, and persistence in learning; one who accepts responsibility for his or her ownlearning and views problems as challenges, notobstacles; onewho is capable of self-discipline andhasahighdegreeofcuriosity;onewhohasastrongdesiretolearnorchangeandisself-confident;onewhoisabletousebasicstudyskills,organizehis or her time, set an appropriate pace for learning, andtodevelopaplanforcompletingwork;onewho enjoys learning and has a tendency to be goal-oriented”. Likewise, Nunan and Lamb (1996) defineself-directedlearnersasthosewhoareabletomakeinformedchoicesaboutwhattolearnandhowtolearn.Makinginformedchoicesrequiresknowledgeandskill.AcquiringSDLskills isoneofthemajoreducationalpurposes,whichwillleadtolife-longlearning. Educators, therefore, need to help learners to develop attitudes that learning is a lifelong process(Knowles,1976citedinWilliams&Burden,1997).Helpinglanguagelearnerslearnhowtolearninvolves teaching learning strategies. As Oxford (1990) points out, language learning strategiespromotegreateroverallself-directionforlearnerswho know how and when to use strategies.Arguably,learningstrategiesneedtobeexplicitlytaught or trained. Inthisstudy,SDListhelearningapproachutilizedtofosterlearnerautonomy.Operationally,SDLreferstoapracticeofanindependentlearningof English outside the classroom of individual students. SDL requires them to practice readingEnglishonaweeklybasisfortheirbetterreadingcomprehensionability.Todoso,theyhavetoplanforaweeklyshort-termreadinggoal,readEnglishmaterialsoftheirownselection,summarizewhat

theyread,reflectontheirlearning,andsetafutureplan. Itshouldbenotedthatthispaperisapartof the research project that also aimed to investigate theeffectsofSDLonEnglishreadingcomprehensionabilityoftheMBAstudents.Elsewhere,itwasfoundthat, on average, English reading comprehension abilityofthesubjectstudentsbeforetheSDL(M=12.30(outof20),SD=2.76),andthataftertheSDL(M=13.33,SD=3.30)issignificantlydifferent(p=0.02).Thismeansthat,onaverage,Englishreadingcomprehensionabilityofthestudentsinthepost-testsignificantlyincreasesfromthepre-test.

6. Research Methodology 6.1 Subject 29MBAstudentsatDhurakijPunditUniversity(DPU)werethesubject.Amongthem,26wereThai,and 3were Chinese. Femaleswere triplemalestudents,andtheyhadmixedEnglishproficiency.Theiragesrangedfrom23to42years. 6.2 The Setting of the Study The study took place at DPU located inBangkok,ThailandwhichprovidesanMBA(MasterofBusinessAdministration)programwithtwomajors,thatis,BusinessAdministrationandASEANBusiness.Thecurriculumrequires studentswhocouldnotpassthestandardizedtest,namelyTOEFL, IELTS,TOEIC,orDPU-GET(thein-housetest),atthelevelrequiredbytheprogramtotakeafoundationEnglishfor academic purposes coursewhich focuses onEnglishreadingcomprehensionskills.The3-creditcourse,basedonasatisfactory/unsatisfactorybasis,aims to improve readingandwriting skillsof thestudents.Thefirsthalfofthecoursetrainsstudentson reading strategies and techniques, namely using an English dictionary, using context clues to guess unknownwordmeanings, pronoun referencing,skimming, and scanning. Prior to these lessons, English sentencestructuresare reviewed.AfteradevelopmentofEnglishreadingability,writingskills

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are then focalizedduring thesecondhalfof thecourse. Theclasswasruninthesummersemesterfor8consecutiveweeksfromJunetoJuly,2014.Studentswererequiredtoattenda3hourclassonSaturdayandSundayfrom13.00-16.00. Sincethestudents’Englishproficiencywasdiverseandrangedfrombasictopre-intermediatelevels, the teacher/researcher attempted toimprovetheirEnglishreadingcomprehensionabilitybyexploitingout-of-classlearning.Todoso,learnerautonomywas fosteredthroughSDLoutsidethe

classroom. A provision of opportunities to practice SDL outside the classroomby taking control ofstudents’ownlearningshouldenhancetheirlearnerautonomythatwillenablethemtobecomemoreautonomous,whichinturn,improvetheirlanguagelearning.ToequipstudentswithlearningtoolsfortheirSDL,alearnertrainingschemeinclusiveoftheconceptoflearnerautonomyandSDL(psychologicalaspect) and reading strategies including cognitiveandmetacognitive strategies (methodologicalaspect)wereorganizedattheoutsetofthecourse.Figure1displaystheconceptualframework.

LEARNER TRAINING(PSYCHOLIGICAL ANDMETHODOLOGICAL

ASPECTS)

SDL OUTSIDE THECLASSROOM

DEVELOPMENTOF LEARNERAUTONOMY

PROCESS PRODUCT

Figure 1 Theconceptualframework

6.3 Research Design and Procedure This research project took a form of anembeddedmixedmethodsdesignwithavariantoftheembeddedexperimentalmodel.Thismodelisdefinedbyhavingqualitativedataembeddedwithinanexperimentaldesign(suchasatrueexperimentorquasi-experiment).Thepriorityofthismodelisestablished by the quantitative, experimentalmethodology, and the qualitative dataset is subservientwithin thatmethodology (Creswell,2007:69).Asfortheprimarypurpose,thismixedmethods study aimed to investigate the effect of SDLonlearnerautonomyusingOne-GroupPretest-

PosttestDesign(O1XO2)underapre-experimentalresearchdesign.Dataweregatheredquantitativelyusing a questionnaire to investigate learner autonomy of the MBA students, which werehypothesized to be significantly increased afterperformingSDLoutsidetheclassroom.Asecondarypurposewas to gatherqualitative interviewdatathatwouldexplorehowSDLhelpsMBAstudentsdeveloplearnerautonomy.Thesecondarydatabasewas to gain insights andprovide support for theprimary purpose. The embedded experimentalmodelofthisstudyisdisplayedinFigure2.

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6.4 Instruments Thetwoimportantresearchtoolstocollectthedataareaquestionnaireandasemi-structuredinterview.TheywereinaThailanguage. 6.4.1 Questionnaire The5-pointLikertscalequestionnairewithtwopartsoftotally53statements(Swatevacharkul,2006)wasusedtocollectdata.Thequestionnaire,designed to measure attitudes, characteristics, and skills related to learner autonomy and strategic Englishreading,findsitscontentvalidityof0.80,andits0.84reliabilitywasreported.Partonedealswithlearnerautonomyconsistingof“attitudestowardslearnerautonomy”(8statements),“willingnesstolearn”(6statements),“self-confidencetolearn”(5statements),and“Englishlearningmotivation”(6statements).This part is in relation to thepsychologicalpreparation,whichaimsatinvestigatingstudents’developmentoflearnerautonomy.Thesecond part includes “capacity to learnautonomously”(7statements),“cognitivereadingstrategy” (10 statements), and “metacognitivereading strategy” (11 statements), whichcorresponded to the methodological preparation. Thispart,therefore,aimsatobtaininginformationonstudents’behaviorsregardingtheirSDLoutside

a classroom in relation to the use of learning strategies in general and reading strategies. Theevaluation criteria of the questionnairewere asfollows: 0.00 - 1.50means learner autonomy is ‘verylow’,1.51-2.50‘low’,2.51–3.50‘moderate’,3.51-4.50‘high’,and4.51-5.00‘veryhigh’. 6.4.2 Semi-StructuredInterviewSchedule Asemi-structuredinterviewwasconductedwith5Thaistudents:3femaleand2malestudents.Theywerepurposivelyselectedforsemi-structuredinterviews.Somequestionswere: What does learning a foreign language (English) mean to you, at the moment andpreviously?;Whoorwhat involve in the learningprocess?;Whatdoyouthinkabouthowyoushouldlearninordertobesuccessfulinlanguagelearning?;DoyouthinkyouhavedonewelloraresuccessfulinlearningEnglish?Why? 6.4.3 PedagogicalInstruments A record of work and reading strategychecklistarethetwopedagogicalinstruments.TheformerconsistingofMylearninggoal,WhatIhavedone,WhatIhavelearned,Reflectionsonusefulnessandproblems,andFutureplans(Benson,2011:71)requiredeachstudenttoreflectonhisorherSDLon a weekly basis, while the reading strategy

Interpretationbase on

QUAN andQual results

Qual afterintervention

(semi-structuredinterview)

QUANPost-measure

(post-questionnaire)

Qual duringintervention(Teacher's reflections)

Intervention(01 X 02)

(SDL)

QUANPre-measure

(pre-questionnaire)

Figure 2 TheEmbeddedExperimentalModel

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checklist is a 3-point Likert scale of 20 readingstrategy statements consisting of both cognitive andmetacognitive strategies (Swatevacharkul, 2006). Students rated on each statement afterfinishingtheirSDLofeachweek.Checkingrecordsof work and reading strategy use, the teacher wroteherreflectionsonaweeklybasisregardingthe students’ SDL. Taken and adapted from Benson(2011:71),aRecordofWorkiscomposedoftheseitems: Mylearninggoal(Tellyourgoalofreadingcomprehension practice); What I have done(Describeactivitiesandwritedownthetitleofanymaterial you have used);What I have learned(Summarizewhatyouthinkyouhavelearnedinafewwordsandwriteyourownsentencesfromtheselected 5words appearing in the reading text);Reflections(Commentonhowusefulandenjoyableyouractivitieswere.Anyproblems?);Futureplans(Notedownnextactivityandwhenyouwilldoit.Also,noteanychangestoyourgoalorplan);andTeacher’sfeedback(aspacefortheteachertowriteherfeedback). 6.5 Data Collection Procedure Week1:StudentsreceivedlearnertrainingwhichreferstoapreparationprogramforstudentstoperformSDLoutsideofclass.Itaimedtopreparestudentspsychologicallyandmethodologically.Thepsychological preparation introduced the concept oflearnerautonomyandSDLwithafocalaimtocreatefavorableattitudestowardslearnerautonomyfosteredbySDL.Positiveattitudes,willingness,self-confidence,andmotivationtolearnautonomouslyoutsideaclassroommustbeappreciatedbythestudents.Themethodologicalpreparationexplicitlytaught reading strategies inclusive of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The psychologicalpreparationwas carried out in the first session.However, the reading strategy training had been

continuedfor4consecutiveweeksfromweeks1to4.Itmustbenotedthatstudentscompletedthequestionnaire after the learner training during week1. Weeks 1-7: Each student performed SDLoutsideaclassroomfor7consecutiveweeks.Eachweektheydecidedonwhattoread,andselectedareadingmaterialoftheirowninterest.Theyhadfreedomtochooseatype,alevelofdifficulty,andalengthofareadingtextasSDLwascarriedoutundertheirowndirection(Benson,2011).Then,theydidreadingandcompletedaRecordofWorkandrated on a 3-scale Reading Strategy Checklist. InclassoneverySaturday,theysubmittedtheSDLtaskwhichcomprisedaRecordofWork,ReadingStrategy Checklist, and a readingmaterial in aportfolio.Theyreceivedtheirportfoliobackandafeedbackfromateacher/researchernextSaturday.Inweek8,theysubmittedtheportfoliohavingallofthe7piecesofSDLtasks.Ascoreof20%wasallottedfortheSDLproject.Eachweektheteacherprovidedwrittenfeedbackregardinganyaspectsofthestudent’sSDLonaspace forFeedbackofaRecordofWork. In class, the teacher personallytalkedinformallytoeachstudentonhisorherSDL.Verbal advice on any aspects of their SDLwasprovided if needed. Week 8: The students completed thequestionnaireandwererequestedtoexpresstheiropinionsona Learning Summary andEvaluationSheet.TheywrotetheiropinionsinThaiinordertoprevent any language barrier on their opinion,thought, and ideas.

7. Data Analysis and Results Thedependentsamplest-testwascalculatedtotestthehypothesis,andthefindingsareshowninTable1.

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Table1showsthat0.05t28>1.98,andthehypothesis was rejected. Therefore, on average,learnerautonomyofthesubjectstudentsbeforetheSDL(M=3.56,SD=0.30)andthataftertheSDLproject(M=3.70,SD=0.39)wasnotsignificantlydifferent(α=0.05).Thismeansthat,onaverage,

learnerautonomyofMBAstudentswasatahighlevelandnotsignificantlyincreasedfromthepre-questionnaire.Therefore,therewasnoeffectsize.Further analysis of each domain of learner autonomywascarriedout,andthefindingswereasfollows(Table2).

Table 1 TheEffectofSDLonaDevelopmentofLearnerAutonomy

Questionnaire Mean SD df t Sig.(2-tailed)

Pre-questionnaire 3.56 0.3028 1.98 0.06

Post-questionnaire 3.70 0.39

P>0.05

Table 2ComparisonofeachDomainofLearnerAutonomy

LearnerAutonomy Pre-Questionnaire Post-Questionnairedf t Sig.

/Domain Mean SD Meaning Mean SD Meaning (2-tailed)

Attitudestowards4.01 0.39 high 3.96 0.52 high 28 -0.68 0.50

learner autonomy

Willingnesstolearn 3.78 0.34 high 3.82 0.36 high 28 0.53 0.60

Self-confidencetolearn 3.10 0.40 moderate 3.19 0.68 moderate 28 0.76 0.46

Learningmotivation 3.63 0.60 high 3.97 0.10 high 28 4.17 0.00*

Capacitytolearn 3.70 0.49 high 3.93 0.55 high 28 2.11 0.04**

autonomously

Cognitivestrategies 3.23 0.33 moderate 3.33 0.39 moderate 28 1.10 0.28

Metacognitivestrategies 3.51 0.57 high 3.73 0.72 high 28 1.59 0.12

*P<0.01/**p<0.05

AscanbeseenfromTable2,SDLhasmoreor less the sameeffectson thefivedomainsoflearner autonomy, which will be the focus ofdiscussionof thispaper.Thereare twodomains,that is, motivation to learn English and capacity to learnautonomously,showingasignificantdifferenceaftertheSDLproject.However,thisisnotreportedhere due to a space limitation.

8. Discussion ItwasfoundthatlearnerautonomyisnotsignificantlydifferentaftertheSDLproject.LearnerautonomyoftheMBAsubjectswashighbeforethetreatmentusingSDL.ThefindingssupportBenson’s(2001)argumentthatanassumptioncanbemadethat autonomy can be developed throughparticipationinself-directedmodesoflearning,butit cannot be assumed that autonomy is aconsequenceofperformingSDL.Theexplanationsmightbeasfollows.

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8.1 The Nature of Adult Learners Adult learners are autonomous, independent, andself-reliant,whoareself-directedtowardsgoals(Cercone,2008).Thesubjectswereseenattheverybeginningofthecoursetobehighlyautonomous,whoarereadytotakecontroloftheirownlearning.Theevidencefromtheinterviewsclearlysupportsthe quantitative findings. The subject studentsconceived that in the language learning process the students themselves are the most important, although they agreed that several things involve in the learning process, namely learning media, interestingactivities,andteachers.Someexcerptsareasfollows. “Ithinkteachersmustprovideguidance ifstudents’ foundation is not strong enough. Peers arehelpfulinincreasingmyknowledge.Socialmediaare important as learning tools, such as Google and theInternet.It’sbeneficialfortranslation.However,everythingdependsonus(students).Wemustbeattentiveandtrytounderstandwhatwelearn.Ifwe’renotattentivetolearn,we’llforgetit.Also,we can do self-study. Imust pay attention andpracticeonaregularbasis”.(Female,no.1) “It’sme,asthemostimportant.Imustbeattentive, determined, and able to find time tolearn.Nextisateacher,followedbyforeignfriendssothatwecantalkEnglish”.(Female,no.2). Theexcerptsabovesuggestthatinordertobesuccessfulinlanguagelearning,studentsneedto practice and try to use the language beinglearning,andthisclearlyreflectstheirperceptiontowards successful foreign language learning.Practice and use is the key to success. Use of the language being learning is a characteristic ofautonomous learner (Little, 1990; Pemberton &Cooker,2012:214).Autonomyisameanstousethe target language for communication, and the subjectstudentsstronglyrealizethisfact.Therefore,itcanbeinterpretedthatthesubjectstudents,asbeinggraduateworkingstudents,areawareoftheir

own learning responsibility and highly ready toexercise their autonomy to use the target language. Thiscallsforanemphasisonuseofthelanguagein any courses. In addition, the nature of the businessadministrationfieldemphasizescriticalthinkingandanalytical skills, as empirically revealed by theinterview excerpt. These qualities are pivotal forbeing autonomous learners. Some interviewexcerptsareasfollows: “ImustgivemoretimetolearnEnglishandread.I’vestudiedbusinessadministration.Thisfieldofstudyfocusesonthinkingandplanning.SDLgivesmeanewperspective. IwastheonewhorarelyreadEnglish,butnowIreadit.Andfinally,IcanseewhatappearontheEnglishlessonsfrommyreadingtexts.Thecourselessonsareforpractice,buttherealthingisthereadingtextsforSDL.I’mabletoread faster with better understanding.When Iencounter new words, I try to interpret theirmeaningswithoutconsultingadictionary”.(Male:no.1) Thefindingsclearlyshowtherelationshipsbetweenadultmaturityandlearnerautonomy.Thesubjectstudentsareautonomous,whoviewthatthey are the key agents in the language learning process, and practice is the key to language learning success.Asadultlearnersinthebusinessfiled,theyhavebeentrainedforcriticalthinkingskillswhichisalso a characteristic of autonomous learners. With their autonomy, they may develop highly positive attitudes towards learner autonomy and highwillingnesstodirecttheirownlearning. 8.2 Learner Training Inthisstudy,basedonthejustificationthatlearner training is the promising prerequisite for the SDL to train students to become autonomouslearnerswhotakemoreresponsibilityfortheirownlanguage learning and becomemore effectiveEnglishlearnerswhounderstandmoreoflearningandacquireskillsandknowledgethatarenecessary

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toperformtheirSDLaspertheirlearninggoal(Ellis&Sinclair,1989;Tudor,1996),studentsweregivenbothpsychologicalandmethodologicalpreparations.Therefore, learner training is believed to play asignificant role on the subject students’ highautonomy at the outset of the experiment. Furthermore, the questionnaire measurement ofautonomywasconductedafterthepsychologicalpreparationduring the firstweek. ThismayhelpstudentsexplicitlyunderstandtheconceptsofSDLand learner autonomy, and perceive the value of both things at the outset of the course. TheempiricalevidenceshowsthatallstudentsvalueSDLsinceitcontributestotheirimprovedreadingskills and abilities. Moreover, learner trainingpossiblywithdraws all the false perceptions oflearning experiences of the students and their role in languagelearning.AsHolec (1981)mentioned,thisprocessdealswiththepsychologicalaspectoflearners since it aims at changing their attitudes towardslearningandtheirroleaswellasconfidenceto make self-assessment of their learningperformance. Theimplicationisonthebenefitsoflearnertraining and a necessity to get students fully preparedfortheirownlearning.InanySDLorself-studyprogram,learnertrainingconsistingofbothpsychological and methodological preparations mustbeincorporatedattheverybeginningofthecourse. 8.3 Time Factor Relatedtothesecondpointofdiscussionabove,thetimefactormightbeonemorereasonwhySDLdoesnotsignificantlyincreasealevelofautonomyofthesubjectstudents.Asamatteroffact, these students are seen to be highlyautonomoussincethefirstweekofthecourse.Only7-8weeksofexperiencesofSDLoutsideaclassroommaynotbesufficienttoincreaseadramaticlevelof autonomy, in particular for reading abilities.Development of autonomy is a gradual process.

Likewise,themethodologicalaspecttotakelearningresponsibilityisalsoagradualprocessofacquisition, that is, acquisitionof knowledgeandknowledge students need for such purpose.Students should learn to use tools, such asdictionaries and grammar books (Holec, 1981).Students need to practice and use learningstrategiesbeing taught forayears-longperiodoftime to investigate the effects of learning strategy instruction (Chamot,Barnhardt, et. al., 1993; andChamot, Robbins et al., 1993). Thismay be thereasonwhy thecognitive reading strategieswereseen asmoderately employed by the subjectstudents.Cognitivestrategiesmakelearnersabletounderstandandproduceanewlanguagebymanyvariousways, rangingfromrepeatingtoanalyzingexpressions to summarizing (Oxford, 1990).Comparedtometacognitiveskills,thesecognitiveskillsaremoredifficulttodevelopsincetheyrequiremental processing of the language. As the current findings show, metacognitive strategies wereemployed more frequently than the cognitive strategies. Therewasevidencerelatedtotheuseofcognitive reading strategies from the teacher’s reflections based on a record of work of eachstudent.Uptoweek3,studentsstillmainlyreliedon consulting a dictionary for unknownwordsmeanings.Also,inweek3,somestudentsmentionedthattheywouldstudysentencestructuressoastoanalyze sentencesmore effectively. This can beinterpreted that their cognitive knowledge onEnglish grammar has not yet mastered. As research shows, cognitive strategies had the strongestinfluence on learning achievement, and higherproficiency EFL students use learning strategiesmore often than the lower ones, especially cognitivestrategies (Wu,2008).Thissuggeststhatstudents,particularlylowachievers,needtolearnand practice intensively on cognitive reading strategies.

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8.4 Self-ConfidenceandRoleofTeacher Overall, although these adult learners are seentobehighlyautonomous,theirself-confidenceto learn English is found to bemoderate. ThisdomainmainlyasksabouttheextentthatstudentswanttorelyontheteacherandtheirconfidencetomanagetimeforeffectiveSDL.Timeisacrucialfactorforadultlearnerswhoworkandstudy.Thesubjectsadmitted thatbusyworkingdayshindertheirSDL,andthismayexplaintheirmoderateself-confidencetomanagetimeforeffectiveSDL. Regardingtheself-confidencetolearnEnglishbythemselves,theinterviewsontheconceptionof self as a language learner revealed that individual studentsthoughttheirEnglishwasnotsatisfactoryalthough they felt that their reading abilitywasslightly improved. Onemale student said “I’msuccessfulonlyforthefirststep.Icanreadandwritesentences,butjustfairly.Iunderstandgrammar,buttherestillaremanythingsthatIdon’tunderstand”. Self-confidencetolearnappearstohavearelationshipwith English ability or proficiency oflearners. Existing research shows that high Thaiachievers aremore autonomous than the lowachievers (Swatevacharkul, 2016). The Englishproficiency ofmost students participating in thiscurrentstudyisbelowthepre-intermediatelevel.Thismaybetheexplanationoftheirmoderateself-confidence.Also,thequestionnairefindingsonthisdomainshowedthatstudentshighlyliketheteachertobetheirlearningsupporterallthetimetoincreasetheirself-confidence(Mean=3.66).Corroboratedwiththequalitativefindings,studentsliketoreceivefeedback from the teacher since it clarifies theirmisunderstanding of language usage and give direction on what to improve. This obviouslyreinforcestheimportanceofqualityfeedbackduringtheSDLprocess. “The teachers’ suggestion is like thereminder ofwhat I have to improve on and toreview”.(Male:no.2).

“… themost important thing is feedbackbecausetheteachercorrectsmywritingmistakes.Oncewe knowourmistakes,we’ll improve ourwritingofnexttime”.(Female:no.3) “The teacher’s feedback is useful. Sometimes, we don’t know some grammaticalpoints;theteacherwillexplainandgiveussometechniques to learn. We can use them for the next learning and even apply them for a daily use”.(Female:no.1). Thefindingsappeartoreflectarelationshipbetweenadegreeofself-confidenceandcognitivestrategy use. Self-confidence to readmay beincreasedifstudentsareabletomasterlyusemorecognitivestrategies.Theimplicationis,thus,onasignificantroleofateacherinSDLofThaistudents,as a counsellor or cognitive and affective supporter of the students. A teacher can create a task value by providing cognitive and morale support.Therefore, SDL is not self-study without anyinvolvement of a teacher. Even adult students, particularlytheoneswhoseEnglishisnotstrong,stillwantguidanceandsupportfromtheirteacherin order to improve their English abilities andstrengthentheirself-confidenceinlearningEnglish.AsLittle (1997)argues,supportandco-operationwith other people are necessary for autonomydevelopment.

9. Recommendations For further research, time of the experiment should cover a longer period of time, at least a normal term of 4months or a year so as toinvestigate a factor of time spent on SDL ondevelopment of learner autonomy. Additionally, this study should be replicated with subjectsstudying different fields of study in order tostrengthen the reliability of the current findings.Investigating the relationship between learnerautonomyandreadingabilityisalsosuggested.

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10. ReferencesBenson,P.(1997).Thephilosophyandpoliticsof learnerautonomy.InP.Benson&P.Voller (Eds.), Autonomy & Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman, 18-34.Benson, P. (2001).Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning.Harlow: Longman.Benson, P. (2011).Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning.2nd ed. Harlow:Longman.Brockett,R.,&Hiemstra,R.(1993).Self-Direction in AdultLearning:PerspectivesonTheory, Research,andPractice.LondonRoutledge.Cercone,K.(2008).Characteristicsofadultlearners withimplicationsforonlinelearningdesign. AACEJournal,16(2),137-159.Chamot,A.U.,Barnhardt,S.,El-Dinary,P.B.,Carbonaro,

D.C., & Robbins, J. (1993).Methods for Teaching Learning Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom and Assessment of Language Skills for Instruction: FinalReport. Washington,DC:ERICClearinghouseonLanguagesandLinguistics.

Chamot,A.U.,Robbins,J.,&El-Dinary,P.B.(1993).Learning Strategies in Japanese Foreign Language Instruction: Final Report.Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse onLanguagesandLinguistics.

Creswell, J. (2007).Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research.California:SagePublications,Inc.

Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to Learn English: a Course in Learner Training.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Guglielmino,L.(1977).Development of the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia.

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Knowles,M.S.(1975).Self-Directed Learning.NewYork:AssociationPress.

Kormos, J.,&Csizer,K. (2014).The interactionofmotivation, self-regulatory strategies, andautonomous learningbehavior indifferentlearner groups. TESOLQuarterly,48,275-299.

Little,D.(1990).Autonomyinlanguagelearning.InI.Gathercole(Ed.),Autonomy in Language Learning.London:CILT,7-15.

Little, D. (1997). Responding authentically toauthentic texts: a problem for self-accesslanguagelearning?InP.Benson&P.Voller(Eds.), Autonomy & Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman, 225-236.

Little, D., & Lam, L. (1998). Learner Autonomy:What and Why? RetrievedApril 15, 2004from http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/nov/littledam.htm.

Littlewood,W. (1996). “Autonomy”: an anatomyandaframework.System,24(4),427-435.

Lynch,T.(2001).Promoting EAP Learner Autonomy in a Second Language University Context. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

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Pemberton, R., & Cooker, L. (2012). Self-directedlearning: concepts, practice, and a novelresearchmethodology.InS.Mercer,S.RyanandM.Williams (Eds.), Psychology for LanguageLearning.Hampshire:PalgraveMacmillan,203-219.

Swatevacharkul,R.(2006).The Effects of Degrees of Support for Learner Independence through Web-Based Instruction and Levels ofGeneralEnglishProficiencyonEnglish

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Reading Comprehension Ability of Second Year Undergraduate Learners. Unpublisheddoctoralthesis.Bangkok:GraduateSchool,ChulalongkornUniversity.

Swatevacharkul,R.(2016).ReadinessforautonomousEnglish learning and learning achievement of EP students. Journal of Education NaresuanUniversity,18(1).

Tudor,I.(1996).Learner-Centredness as Language Education. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Williams,M.,&Burden,R.L.(1997).Psychology for LanguageTeachers:aSocialConstructivistApproach.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Wu,Ya-Ling(2008).Languagelearningstrategiesusedbystudentsatdifferentproficiencylevels.AsianEFLJournal,10(4).RetrievedOctober19,2011fromhttp://www.asian-efl-journal.com.