The Ecumenical Councils

“Christianity’s Roman Holiday,

Or,How We Stopped

Worrying about Being Jewish

& Learned to Love the Pagans”

The Ecumenical CouncilsNicaea (325) to Chalcedon (451)

A “Council” is a gathering of all bishops to discuss important question of church teaching and practice.

The Councils are the culmination of a move toward unanimity rather than multiplicity of interpretation

The early Councils focus on the “being” of Jesus as Christ rather than on his actions (teachings, ministry, or death)

They are part and parcel of the changing status of Christianity in the Roman Empire: from illegal to indispensable and from “Jewish” to “Greek”

Their language and concepts must be addressed by all Christian theologies that follow

They draw on Greco-Roman philosophical ideas that contradict some and support other key aspects of Jewish thought

They establish the fundamental doctrines of: Jesus Christ as fully divine

(Nicaea 325) Jesus Christ as fully human

(Constantinople 381)

TIME LINECanonical Gospels written Ecumenical

Councils(“redacted”) 300's - 400's CE

70-100 CE (1st century) (4th & 5th Centuries)

70+ 80’s 90’s 314 318 324 325 381 [431] 451

_|__|___|___|150-300ish|___|__|_ |_ |____|_____|____|___

Mark Matthew John [Pre-Nicene | Arius’ | NICAEA CONSTAN- [EPH- CHALCEDON Luke Controversies] | pamphlet | TINOPLE E SUS]

| |

| | EDICT CONSTANTINE’S of MILAN Defeats Licinius

REMINDER: (Small but Growing) Communities of the

Gospels

Political Aspects of the 4th Century Councils: Part I

CHRISTIANITY & EMPIRE

Setting the Stage: Time and Place

The Roman Empire – 1st century CE

Question: How did a tiny Jewish sect move from being first, ignored, then persecuted, to become the official religion of Rome, brutal ruler of the most powerful empire on earth?

A. Political Backdrop (broad background)

1. Internal political instability (So, you want to be emperor????)

2. External threat of foreign invasion (Hordes of Huns)

Answer: “It’s complicated.“Harry Potter to Griphook; Griphook to Harry Potter“Harry Potter & the Deathly Hallows,” film version

REPERCUSSIONS For the Empire:

The desire for stability Unity grounds stability

For Christianity: Use as a point of shared unity Push for “uniformity” Constantine: One God, One

Emperor, One Church.

B. Theological & Philosophical Background

1. Church traditions already in place:

a. Baptizing in the name of F, S & HS

b. Praying to Jesus c. Jesus as "Logos" in

Gospel of JohnImage source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orans

Fresco from catacombs showing Noah in the traditional “orans” or “orante” prayer posture.

2. Monotheism Brought forward into Christianity

from its origins in Judaism The SHEMA: "Hear O Israel, the Lord Our God

is One."

Image sources: http://worldreligionsslocomb.wikispaces.com/file/view/judaism.jpg/202060486/judaism.jpg ‘ ;ttp://api.ning.com/files/va8JWydWri1p6V3eH4CDTj*7MZeouoVT5Xwurbs7OGn1ltceLCAG5P8nXwwwnkk3jWMfhR1JxFZgGoVeZU0VcUC4EpdjTuZ3/TheShema.JPG

3. Greek Ideas of Divinity and Humanity

a. Greek idea of "being“ = essence

The “Platonic Tradition” – a theory of knowledge (aka, an

epistemology) ousia (GK)

Contrast with: hypostasis (GK), persona (LT)

Wow! We’re

all horses!Hmm..How do

we know that?

Greek Ideas of Divinity and Humanity (cont.)

a. Hierarchy of being

Some “essences” are better than others!

SpiritMind

ImmortalityRationalitymale

BodyDeath

IrrationalityEmotionfemale

Greek Ideas of Divinity and Humanity (cont.)

Idea of God: Negative AttributionHuman characteristics Divine

characteristics(known) (inferred)

Mortal _____________ Weak _____________ Limited in knowledge _____________ Located, in only 1 place _____________ Multiple , divisible _____________

Greek Ideas of Divinity and Humanity (cont.)

Logos: a shared word; different meanings

1) Greek: Divine Mind (Mind of God); Reason2) Jewish: Pre-existent Wisdom3) Near Eastern: Heavenly Person

Image Source: http://www.colindye.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Logos-is-the-greek-word-for-reason-or-for-word.jpg

The word “logos,” written in Greek

4. Pre-Nicene Controversies

a. Justin Martyr (2nd century) Christ , the Logos, is a bridge between

God and humanity (a demiurge)b. Monarchians (3rd century)

1) Modalist Monarchians (e.g., Sabellius) (See following slides)

2) Dynamic Monarchians, aka, Adoptionists (e.g., Paul of Samosata) (See following slides)

Modalist Monarchianism Version I: God(the)father’s Pizza Pie

Modalist Heresy #1:The Trinity is like a pizza with 3 equal slices! The 1 God is represented by the 3 members of the Trinity – Each is 1/3 of God. No conflict with monotheism!

The Church REJECTS Modalism #1 because: • God cannot be divided. God is one.• Each member of the Trinity is God-entire,

not just a “part” of God.• Each member of the Trinity is a

separately-existing entity, not part of a larger whole.

• The logical problem with monotheism remains.

God the Father

God the God theSon Holy Spirit

Modalist Heresy #2 :The Trinity is like God with three different Halloween masks. God appears in different masks or modes at different times and places. That is, God has 3 aspects or “faces.” But, God can only wear one mask at a time or be in one mode at a time. No conflict with monotheism.

Modalist Monarchianism: aka, Patripassianism or Sabellianism

Version II: God Visits the Halloween Adventure Store

God the Father? God the Spirit? God the Son?

The Church REJECTS Modalism #2 because: • All 3 members of the Trinity co-exist at

the same time and eternally.• Each member of the Trinity makes God

fully present to creation, not just one aspect or mode of God.

• Suggests that God suffers when Christ suffers on the cross. God cannot suffer.

• The logical problem with monotheism remains.

Dynamic Monarchianism, aka AdoptionismGod the Adoptive Father

Image Source: http://www.globalserve.net/~yuku/pics/bapt.jpg

Types of Adoptionism

Version 1: God adopts Jesus

as his “son” at his baptism

because of his exemplary life

Version 2: God adopts Jesus

as his “son” at his birth

In both versions, “sonship does not equal “being divine”. “Logos” is an honorary title.

The Council of Nicaea: Prelude

Constantine the Great, c . 274-337

Immediate Political Context & Events

The Road to Nicaea:Constantine and Christianity

• Credits the “God of Christ” with his military victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge (312)

• With Licinius, issues the Edict of Milan (Edit of Toleration (313)

• Defeats Licinius (324)• Looks to Christianity as the “glue” to unite his Eastern & Western empire

• Calls the Council of Nicaea in 325 to stop inter-church fighting and force a decision on the status (“essence”) of Jesus Christ in relation to God the Father

Supplementary: Constantine’s “Conversion”Eusebius: The Conversion of Constantine

[Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century) was a Christian bishop and author of the Ecclesiastical History, from

which this is an excerpt.]

BEING convinced, however, that he needed some more powerful aid than his military forces could afford him, on account of the wicked and magical enchantments which were so diligently practiced by the tyrant, he sought Divine assistance. . . . He considered, therefore, on what God he might rely for protection and assistance.

ACCORDINGLY he called on him with earnest prayer and supplications that he would reveal to him who he was, and stretch forth his right hand to help him in his present difficulties. And while he was thus praying with fervent entreaty, a most marvelous sign appeared to him from heaven,

HE said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS.

Arch of Constantine, c. 315built in honor of his victory

Supplementary

Supplementary: The Edict of Milan (313 CE)

When I, Constantine Augustus, as well as I, Licinius Augustus fortunately met near Mediolanurn (Milan), and were considering everything that pertained to the public welfare and security, we thought, among other things which we saw would be for the good of many, those regulations pertaining to the reverence of the Divinity ought certainly to be made first, so that we might grant to the Christians and others full authority to observe that religion which each preferred; whence any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens may be propitious and kindly disposed to us and all who are placed under our rule And thus by this wholesome counsel and most upright provision we thought to arrange that no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion, of that religion which he should think best for himself, so that the Supreme Deity, to whose worship we freely yield our hearts) may show in all things His usual favor and benevolence…. we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times…. In all these circumstances you ought to tender your most efficacious intervention to the community of the Christians, that our command may be carried into effect as quickly as possible, whereby, moreover, through our clemency, public order may be secured. Let this be done so that, as we have said above, Divine favor towards us, which, under the most important circumstances we have already experienced, may, for all time, preserve and prosper our successes together with the good of the state.

The Church

Declares the

Divinityof Jesus

The Council of Nicaea – 325 CE

The Council of Nicaea

A Short Timeline …

…and Locations

Map inset

If we want to know who Jesus, the Christ, is….

If we want to know what it means to says that he is the Logos, the Word of God, the Son of God is….

We have to know his “essence”! Therefore, the theological question of

the Council of Nicaea is: “What is the essence of Jesus Christ,

the Logos, Son of God?” Does he have A DIVINE essence? Does he have A HUMAN essence? Is he SOMETHING IN-BETWEEN?

The Road to Nicaea: The BIG Theological Question

The Council of Nicaea (325): Key Players And Their Points

ARIUS (the loser)Starting point: monotheism

"There was when he was not."

• There is only one God: God, the Father• Thus, the Son (the Logos) cannot be God• The Son (the Logos) is created perfect,

but not divine.• Son does not have same essence as the Father.

• Not homo (Grk: same) + ousios (essence)• How Jesus saves us:

he teaches us the path to God.

Christ is NOT Homo-ousios

with God the Father(Not same essence;NOT Fully Divine)

SUPPLEMENTARYThe Council of Nicaea (325): Key Players And

Their Points: ARIUSConcern: RATIONAL monotheism:

•God cannot be divided. •This God = God theFather.•Thus, Son = Logos = a creature (perfect).

•Created from nothing before time by the Father: •"There was when he was not."

•Subject to physical and moral change.•Draws on Scriptures such as Prov. 8:22, Acts

2:36, Romans 8:29, and Colossians 1:15.•Son does not have same ousia (essence) as

Father. •Titles given to Jesus are courtesy titles. •NOT homoousios.

•How Jesus saves us: teaches us the way to get to God.

ATHANASIUS, Alexander & Friends (winners)Starting Point: human salvation

If Jesus is not God, then we are not saved.

•Athanasian syllogism (if “a” and “b,” then “c”): • a. Only God can save us• b. Christ (the Logos) is the Savior• c. Therefore, Christ , the Logos, is divine

• Son and Father are of the same essence • Homo (Grk: same) + ousios (essence)•How Jesus saves us:

he reconnects humanity to God

The Council of Nicaea (325):

Key Players And Their Points

Christ ISHomo-ousios

with God the Father(Same essence= Fully Divine)

Concern: REDEMPTIVE monotheism • If Jesus is not God, then we are not saved.•Christianity is a monotheistic faith:

•Accuses Arius of polytheism: Jesus the Logos a demiurge (demigod)

•Says Arius undermining the Christian doctrine of God by saying Father, Son and Holy Spirit aren't eternal

•Says Arius undermining Christian liturgical custom: baptism and prayer in Jesus' name.

•Son and Father ARE of the same ousia (essense)--ARE homoousios

•How Jesus saves us: by reconnecting us to God, Godself.

SUPPLEMENTARYThe Council of Nicaea (325): Key Players And Their Points:

ATHANASIUS

Supplementary: The Creed of the Council of Nicaea

RESULTS Arius condemned.

Language of homoousios adopted.

The Nicene Creed begins its development, based on an earlier creed, and adding anti-Arian language.

From Nicaea to ConstantinopleReview: At Nicaea (325 CE):

Jesus Christ, the Logos, is declared to be fully divine (homoousios with God the Father)

Roman emperor is now Theodosius I (who makes Christianity the “official” religion of the empire)

After Nicaea, 2 new questions for the bishops: Is the divine Christ also fully human? How can a being have

two identities? Review: Is the Holy Spirit also fully divine?

(See Doctrine of God slides)

Emperor Theodosius I(378-395)

The Council of Constantinople (381)

The Humanity of Christ(also featuring, The Doctrine of the Trinity!)

Detail from “The Supper at Emmaus” by Rembrandt van Rijn (1648)

STARTING POINT OF AGREEMENT: All participants in the Council of Constantinople agree that the decision

made about Christ’s fully divinity is CORRECT!

The Council of Constantinople (381)Part I: The Trinity

• Declaration on the Holy Spirit:• The Holy Spirit is also of the

same essence as God the Father and Christ the Son: fully divine

THE TRINITARIAN FORMULA God is ONE ESSENCE

in THREE BEINGS:Father, Son, & Holy SpiritCo-equal and Co-existing

Q: But what about MONOTHEISM? Doesn’t Christianity have 3 Gods now, instead of 1 ? A: No, see the Council of Nicaea!

The Council of Constantinople (381) PART II AGREEMENT ENDS

•Apollinarus: Jesus’ body is human; but the “divine Logos” (the Word of God) takes the place of his human mind. Thus, he is one person with only one essence (one nature) – a fully divine one.

•Gregory of Nazianzus (representing the Cappadocian Fathers): “What is not assumed (taken on) is not redeemed.” In order for us to be fully saved, Jesus as Christ must assume (take on) our whole humanity, not just part of it. By doing so, all of our humanness (body, mind and soul)– which has been separated from the divine – is reunited with God in one

person with two essences (two natures): fully human and fully divine.

Gregory of Nazianzus at

Constantinople

Nicaea + Constantinople =The Christological Formula:

“Jesus Christ is one person with two natures

(2 essences, 2 ousia, 2 natures): full divinity & full humanity.”

Christological Results of Constantinople:1. Nicaea re-affirmed: Christ is fully divine.2. New affirmation: Christ is ALSO fully

human.

(GO FIGURE!!)

Jesus Christ’s full humanity is affirmed.

Supplementary: The Creed of the Council of Constantinople

What does the Christological Formula do?

• Names the status of the Christ in relationship to God and to human beings

• Identifies Jesus as the definition both of what God is like and what human beings can become like (Karl Rahner, SJ)

• Claims that God experiences human joys and sufferings with us

• Affirms that the path to the divine is through our own humanity and the human relationships around us

Constantinian Church at Trier

The First Four Ecumenical Councils:The Limits of Appropriate Speech

God is a Trinity:• One God (monotheism) = one divine

essence, undivided, in Three distinct Beings: Father, Son, Holy Spirit (Constantinople 381)

Jesus Christ is fully divine• Homoousios (of one essence) with God

the Father (Nicaea 325)

Jesus Christ is fully human • In all things like us (but without sin)

(Constantinople 381)

The Final Formulae: from Greek to Latin• Jesus Christ is two natures in one person.• God is one nature in three persons.(Chalcedon 451)

Mary is the Mother of God:• Theotokos -- God-bearer (Ephesus

431)

The Language of Christology in the West: From Greek to Latin

Greek Terms• ousia

• hypostasis, prosopon

• homoousios

• homoiousios- rejected)

• Theotokos

Latin Terms• natura, substantia

• persona

English• essence,

nature

• entity, person, being

• same substance

• like substance

• Mother of God (God

bearer)

The Language of Mystery

The Council of Chalcedon (451):Mystery is that which we cannot understand, but accept on faith.

Karl Rahner, S.J. (20th-c.):Mystery is not that which we cannot

understand, but that which we cannot exhaust.

ALL SLIDES FROM THIS POINT ARE SUPPLEMENTARY

• The declaration of the doctrine of the Trinity (God is 3 in 1, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, 3 co-equal persons with the same (divine) nature) is the other major Christological issues that emerges from the Council of Constantinople.

• The slides that follow are from my THE 154 class’ study of the Trinity. You may find them interesting and useful.

God as Trinity:A Singular Christian Claim

Father = Son = Holy SpiritCreator = Redeemer = Sanctifying Spirit

A Wee Bit of History

Canonical Gospels written Ecumenical Councils 70-100 CE 300's - 400's CE (1st century) (4th & 5th Centuries)

70+ 80’s 90’s 150-300ish 324 325 381 451

_|__|___|__|_________|________|___________|_____________|___Mark Matthew John [Pre-Nicene Constantine Council of Council of Council of

Luke Controversies] NICAEA CONSTANTINOPLE CHALCEDON | | Divinity Doctrine of the of Jesus X TRINITY declared formulated

• Jewish traditions of the Spirit, Wind, Breath of God: Ruach, • The NT witness to the experience of Jesus’ early followers

• Early church experience – Jesus as revelation of God• Baptism in the name of the Father, Son & Holy Spirit• Jesus promise of the Paraclete (the Comforter)• The presence of Christ after his ascension• God’s spirit alive and always new in the world

• The Council of Nicaea (325)• Jesus is “divine,” of the same “divine” essence as God the Father

• The Holy Spirit• The next logical question: what is the relation of the Holy Spirit to

God the Father and Jesus the Christ?

Some Historical Background

The Church’s Theo-Logical Claim• The doctrine of the Trinity (God is 1 essence in 3 persons):

– is not arithmetically logical (1 + 1+ 1 = 3), but…– is logical in a different kind of way:

• It is theo-logical. That is, in order for early orthodox Christians to express their experience of Jesus and his importance for their lives, they find it necessary to understand him as God-truly-with-them in the world. The same goes for the Holy Spirit as the presence of God within and around them in all times and places.

• Its monotheism is:– not about there being 3 members of the Trinity…– but about each member of the Trinity: (Creator, Redeemer,

Spirit) fully expressing the one essence of God’s infinite love multiplied throughout creation (1 x 1 x 1 = 1)

Two Aspects of Trinitarian Relationship

• The Economic Trinity – the members of the Trinity in relationship to the world

• The Immanent Trinity – the members of the Trinity in relationship to one another

God and Christ as male and femaleJulian of Norwich (1342-1423)

English Benedictine mystic

God as Mother and Father The nature of God is goodness Jesus as our Brother and Savior Jesus as our true Mother We as children of God and Jesus

The Trinity as moving beyond only male imagesto embrace new images of God

Implications for Justice I

The Trinity as moving beyond only male imagesto embrace new images of God

• God as Creator, Teacher, Mother, Artist, Friend

• God as Redeemer, Child, Teacher, Guide, Model

• God as Spirit, Comforter, Sanctifier, Presence, Newness

Contemporary Feminist Philosophers & Theologians:Mary Daly, Rosemary Radford Ruether,

Elizabeth Johnson, CSJ

Meinrad Craighead, “God, the Mother”

Implications for Justice I (cont.)

Implications for Justice IICatherine Mowry LaCugna:

The Trinity as a model of hospitality and openness

• Abraham and Sarah visited by Yahweh and two angels in disguise. (Gen. 18:1-15)

• Rublev’s icon of the Trinity based onthe Abraham and Sarah story

• God may be among us as a stranger

• God is among us in community

• God is revealed “in the breaking ofbread” with others. (Luke 24:13-35)

Icon: Andrei Rublev, early 15c, Russia. Three angels at Eucharistic table,

inspired by Genesis 18:1-15.

Implications for Justice IIILeonardo Boff:

The Trinity as a model of equality and inclusivity for human relations

•All persons should be treated as of equal value: the poor & oppressed have the right to life’s basic needs:

food, shelter, safety, meaningful work

•All persons should have the power of participation: the voices of the poor and the oppressed must be listened to and heard

Source Notes for Trinity Slides• Background image for all Trinity slides:

http://metrobibleblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/cathedra-holyspirit1.jpg• The mathematical formula: 1 x 1 x 1 = 1 as an analogy for the Trinity was suggested to me by

one of my former students.• Slide “Implications for Justice I “(cont): Image,

http://greencanticle.com/2008/08/11/meinrad-craighead-god-the-mother/• Slide “Implications for Justice III”: http://www.aangirfan.blogspot.com